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iMnUHNG
USE ONLT
HOBACE a RACKHAM
EBUCATIONAL MEMORIAL
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The Catholic Encyclopedia
VOLUME ELEVEN
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WINDOW IN THE CATHEDRAL 01
ST. ETIENJ
JE. BOURQES
THE CATHOLIC
ENCYCLOPEDIA
AN INTERNATIONAL WORK OF REFERENCE
ON THE CONSTITUTION, DOCTRINE,
DISCIPLINE, AND HISTORY OF THE
CATHOLIC CHURCH
EDITED BY
CHARLES G. HERBERMANN, Ph.D., U-D.
EDWARD A. PACE, Ph.D., D.D. CONDfe B. PALLEN, Ph.D., LL.D.
THOMAS J. SHAHAN, D.D. JOHN J. WYNNE, S.J.
ASSISTED BY NUMEROUS COLLABORATORS
FIFTEEN VOLUMES AND INDEX
VOLUME XI
SPECIAL EDITION
ITNDER THE AUSPICBS OF
; KNIGHTS OF COLUUSUS CATHOLIC TRUTH COMUITTEE
tlcw JDocli
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA PRESS, INC
3\
Niha Obstat, Februoary 1, 1911
REMY LAFORT, S.T.D.
camoB
Imprimatur
+JOHN CARDINAL FARLEY
ABCHBIBHOP OF NSW TOBS
Copyright, 1911
By Robert Appleton Compant
Copyright, 191S
By the encyclopedia PRESS, INC.
The articles in this work have been written specially for The Catholio
Encycbpedia and are protected by copyright. All ricchts, includ-
ing the right of translation and reproduetiont are reserved.
•
H^S^ZI
Contributors to the Eleventh Volume
AHAUS, HUBERT, S.T.D., Ph.D.. St. Joseph's
CoLLBQE, Mill Hill, London: Ordere, Holy.
AHERNE, CORNELIUS, Rector, Professor of
New Testament Exegesis, St. Joseph's Col-
lege, Mill Hill, London: Pasch or Passover.
AHERNE, JAMES, South Omaha, Nebraska:
Omaha, Diocese of.
ALDASY, ANTAL, Ph.D., Archivist of the Li-
brary OF the National Museum, Budapest:
OUh, Nicolaus.
ALLARIA, ANTHONY, C.R.L., S.T.D., Abbot of
S. Tbodoro, Lector of Philosophy and Theol-
ogy, Genoa: Peter de Honestis; Peter Fourier,
Saint; Peter Nolasco, Saint; Peter of Arbues,
Saint; Peter of Verona, Saint.
ALMOND, JOSEPH CUTHBERT, O.S.B., Supe-
rior OF Parker's Hall, Oxford: Oates's Plot;
Oblati; Otivetans.
AMADO, RAMON RUIZ, S.J., LL.D., Ph.L., Coi/-
LBOB OF St. Ignatius, Sarria, Barcelona:
Orense, Diocese of; Orihuela, Diocese of ; Osma,
Diocese of; Oviedo, Diocese of; Palencia, LHocese
and University of; Pamplona, Diocese of.
ANGLIN, HON. FRANCIS ALEXANDER, K.C.,
Puisne Judge, Supreme Court of Canada,
Ottawa: Ontario.
ARENDZEN, J. P., Ph.D., S.T.D., M.A. (Cantab.},
Professor of Sacred Scripture, St. Edmund's
College, Ware, England: Occult Art, Occult-
ism.
ATTERIDGE, ANDREW HILLIARD, London:
Periodical Literature, Catholic, England.
AUGUSTINE, FATHER, O.S.F.C, Franciscan
Capuchin Monastery, Dublin: Nugent, Fran-
cis.
AUSTIN, SISTER MARY STANISLAUS, &r.
Catharine's Convent of Mercy, New York:
O'Reilly, Hugh.
AVELING, FRANCIS, S.T.D., London: Phenom-
enalism.
BACCHUS. FRANCIS JOSEPH, B.A., The Ora-
tory, Birmingham, England: Pachomius, Saint;
Pammachius, Saint; Pamphilius of Ciesarea.
Saint; Pantsanus; Paul the Hermit, Saint; Paul
the Simple, Saint; Peter of Alexandria, Saint;
PhilastnuSy Saint.
BANDELIER, AD. F., Hispanic Society of Amer-
ica, New York: Pedro de Cordova.
BANGHA, ADALBERT V., S.J., Member of the
Cathouc Philosophical Society of Thomas
Aqthnas (Budapest), Innsbruck, Austria:
Pton&ny, Peter.
BARNES, Mgr. ARTHUR STAPYLTON, M.A.
(OxoN. AND Cantab.), Cambridge, England:
Passion of Jesus Christ in the Four Gospels.
BARRETT, MICHAEL, O.S.B., Buckie, Scotland:
Ogilvie, John, Venerable.
BARRY, WILLIAM CANON, S.T.D., Leamington,
England: Oxford Movement; Parables.
BAUMBERGER, GEORG, Knight of the Order
OF St. Sylvester, Editor-in-Chief, "Neub
ZttRiCHER Nachrichten", ZuRit^H: Periodical
Literature, Catholic, Switzerland.
BAUMGARTEN, Mgr. PAUL MARIA, J.U.D.,
S.T.D., Rome : Old Catholics.
BECHTEL, FLORENTINE, S.J., Professor of
Hebrew and Sacred Scripture, St. Loins
University, St. Louis: Noe; Paralipomenon,
The Books of; Pharao.
BENIGNI, Mgr. UMBERTO, Prothonotary
Apostolic Partecipante, Professor of
.Ecclesiastical History, Pontificia Accademia
DEI NoBiLi Ecclesiastici, Rome: Nicastro;
Nicosia; Nicoteraand Tropea, Diocese of; Nocera,
Diocese of; Nocera dei Pagani, Diocese of; Nola,
Diocese of; Non Expedit; Norcia, Diocese of;
Noto, Diocese of; Novara, Diocese of; Nusco,
Diocese of; O^iastra, Diocese of; Oppido Mamer-
tina, Diocese of; Oria, Diocese of; Oristano, Dio-
cese of; Orvieto, Diocese of; Osimo, Diocese of;
Ostia and Velletri, Diocese of; Otranto, Arch-
diocese of; Pacca, Bartolommeo; Padua, Diocese
and University of; Pagano, Mario; Falermo,
Archdiocese and University of; Palestrina, Dio-
cese of; Parma, Diocese of: Paruta, Paolo;
Passaglia, Carlo; Passionei, I>omenicO; Patti,
Diocese of; Pavia, Diocese and University of;
Penne and Atri, Diocese of; Periodical Literature,
Catholic, Italy; Peru^a, Archdiocese of; Pesaro,
Diocese of; Pescia, Diocese of.
BERTRIN, GEORGES, Litt.D., Fellow of the
University, Professor of French Litera-
ture, Institut Catholique, Paris: Olivier de
la Marche; Ozanam, Antoine-Frid^ric.
BEWERUNGE, H., Professor of Church Music,
Maynooth College, Dxtblin: Organ.
BIHL, MICHAEL, O.F.M., Lector of Ecclesiasti-
cal History, Collegio San Bonaventura,
QuARAccHi, Florence: Orbellis, Nicolas d';
Pacificus of Ceredano; Pacificus of San Severino,
Saint.
BLANC, JOSEPH, S.M., Nukualofa, Tonga
Islands: Oceama, Vicariate ApostoUc of.
BLANCHIN, F., O.M.L, S.T.D., Oblate Scholas-
tic ate, Ottawa, Canada: Oblates of Mary
Immaculate.
BLENK, JAMES H., S.M., S.T.D., Archbishop of
New Orleans, LomsiANA: Pefialver y Cardenas,
Louis.
BOUDINHON, AUGUSTE-M ARIE, S.T.D., D.C.L.,
Director, "Canoniste Contemporain", Pro-
fessor OF Canon Law, Institut Catholique,
Paris: Nomination; Nomocanon; Notaries;
Notorietv, Notorious; Ordinariate; Ordinary;
Parish; rarochial Mass; Penitential Canons.
BOWDEN, HENRY SEBASTIAN, The Oratory,
London: Oratory of St. Philip Neri, The.
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME
BRAUN, JOSEPH, S.J., St. Ignatius College, CHISHOLM, JOSEPH ANDREW, K.C^ M.A.,
Valkenburq, Holland: Pallium; Pectorale. LL.B., Halifax, Nova Scotia: Nova Scotila.
BRAUNSBERGER, OTTO, S.J., St. Ignatius Col- CLUGNET, JOSEPH-LfiON-TIBURCE, Litt.L.,
LEGE, Valkenburg, HOLLAND : Peter Canisius, Bouro-la-Reine, Seine, France: Ouen, Saint;
Blessed. Perpetuus, Saint.
BRfiHIER, LOUIS-RENfi. Professor of Ancient CONWAY. KATHERINE ELEANOR, Boston:
AND Medieval History, University of O'Reilly, John Boyle.
Clermont-Ferrand, Puy-de-D6me, France:
Nogaret, Guillaume de; Palaography; Pastou- COSSIO, ALUIGL S.T.D., S.S.D., J.U.D., Bacca-
reaux. Crusade of the; Peter de Blois; Peter the laurbus and Licentiatus of the University
*' " OF Padua, Rome: Paulinus II, Sidnt, Patriarch
Hermit.
BRENNAN. M. H., Devil's Lake, North Dakota:
North Dakota.
BRIDGE, JAMES, S.J., M.A. (Oxon.), Liverpool,
England: Norris, Sylvester; Persecution.
BROWN, CHARLES FRANCIS WEM YSS, Loch-
TON Castle, Perthshire, Scotland: Perugia,
University of.
BRUCKER, JOSEPH, S.J., Editor of "Etudes",
Paris: Parrenin, Dominique.
BRUNAULT, J. S. HERMANN, S.T.D., Bishop of
Nicolet, Province of Quebec, Canada:
Nicolet, Diocese of.
BRUNET, FRANCIS XAVIER, Vicb^Jhancellor,
Archdiocese of Ottawa, Canada: Ottawa,
Archdiocese of.
BURTON, EDWIN, S.T.D., F.R.Hist.Soc, Vice-
President, St. Edmund's College, Ware,
England: Nicholson, Francis; Noble, Daniel;
Northcote. James Spencer; Norwich, Ancient
Diocese oi ; Odo, Saint, Archbishop of Canter-
bury: Off a. King of Mercia; Old Hall (St. Ed-
mund's College); Oldham, Hugh; Palmer, Wil-
liam; Pandulph; Panzani, Gregorio; Paulinus,
Saint. Archbishop of York; Pecock, Reginald;
Penal Laws, I. In England, II. In Scotland;
Pendleton, Henry; Peyto, William.
BYRNE, JEROME FRANCIS, Superior General,
Brothers of St. Patrick, Jullow, Ireland:
Patrician Brothers.
CABROL, FERN AND, O.S.B., Abbot of St.
Michael's, Farnborough, England: Noctums;
None; Occurrence; Octavarium Romanum; Oc-
tave; Office, Divine; Office of the Dead; Pax in
the Liturgy.
CAL^S, JEAN, S.J,, Professor of Old Testament
Exegesis, Enghien, Belgium: Osee.
CALLAN, CHARLES J., O.P., S.T.L., Professor
OF Philosophy, Dominican House of Stud-
ies, Washington: Orthodoxy.
CAMERLYNCK, ACHILLE, S.T.D., Member of
the''Soci£T£ Belge de Sociologie", Professor
OF Sacred Scripture and Sociology, Episco-
pal Seminary, Bruges, Belgium: Philemon.
CARROLL, JAMES J., S.T.D., Bishop of Nueva
Segovia, Phiuppine Islands: Nueva Segovia,
Diocese of.
CASTETS, J., S.J., Professor of Philosophy and
Political Science, St. Joseph's College,
Trichinopoly, India: Nobili, Robert de'.
CHAPMAN, JOHN, O.S.B., B.A. (Oxon.), Prior,
St. Thomas's Abbey, Erdington, Birmingham,
England: Novatian and Novatianism; Optatus,
Saint; Papias, Saint; Patrology; Paul of Samo-
sata; Per^rinus.
of Aquileia.
CRAM, RALPH ADAMS, F.R.G.S., F.Am.Inst.
Architects, President, Boston Society of
Architects, Boston: Niche; Pailadio, Andrea.
CRATIN, SISTER M. MAGDALEN, Baltimore,
Maryland: Oblate Sisters of Providence.
CRIVELLI, CAMILLUS, S.J., Professor of Gen-
eral History, Instituto CiENTfeioo, City of
Mexico: Periodical Literature, Catholic, Mexico.
CROFT, Mgr. WILLIAM PROVOST, P.A., V.G.,
Diocese of Nottingham, Lincoln, England:
Nottingham, Diocese of.
CROFTON, K., New York: Parahyba, Diocese of.
CRONIN, Mgr. CHARLES JOHN, S.T.D., Vicb-
Rector, English Colle.oe, Rome: Petitions
to the Holy See.
CROW, FREDERICK AIDAN CANON, O.S.B.,
Llanishen, Cardiff, Wales: Newport, Diocese
of.
CUTHBERT, FATHER, O.S.F.C, Crawley, Sus-
sex, England: Persico, Ignatius.
D* ALTON, E. A., LL.D., M.R.I.A^ Athbnry, Ire-
land: G'Connell, Daniel; O'Fihely, Maurice;
O'Hanlon, John; O'Neill, Hugh; O'Neill, Owen
Roe; O'Reilly, Edmund; Omory, Diocese of;
O'Sullivan Beare, Philip; Penal Laws, III. In
Ireland.
DALY, JOSEPH J., S.J., Professor of English
Literature, Ateneo de Manila, Philippine
Islands: Nueva Cdceres, Diocese of.
DEASY, JOHN A., M.A., LL.B., Cincinnati,
Ohio: Ohio.
DEDIEU, JOSEPH, Litt.D., Instttut Catholiqub,
Toulouse, France: Peter of Auvergne; Peters-
sen, Gerlac.
DEGERT, ANTOINE, Lrrr.D., Editor, "La
Revue de la Gascoigne", Professor of Latin
Literature, Institut Catholique, France:
Nicolas, Auguste; Noailles. Louis-Antoine de;
Nonnotte, Claude-Adrien; Ossat, Amaud d'.
DELAMARRE, LOUIS N., Ph.D., Instructor in
French, College of the City of New York:
Nic^ron, Jean-Pierre; Paris, Alexis-Paulin; Paris,
Gaston-Bruno-PauUn; Perrault, Charles.
DELANY, JOSEPH, S.T.D.^ New York : Obedience;
Occasions of Sin; Omission; Parents; Perjury.
DEVINE, ARTHUR, C.P., St. Paul's Retreat,
Mount Argus, Dublin: Passionists; Passionist
Nuns; Passions; Paul of the Cross, Saint; Per-
fection, Christian and ReUgious.
DE WULF, MAURICE, Member of the Belgian
Academy, Professor of Logic and iEsTHETics,
University of Louvain: Nominalism, Realism,
Conceptualism.
▼1
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME
DOUGLAS, ROBERT MARTIN, M.A., LL.D.,
Gbeensboro, North Carolina: North Carolina.
DRISCOLL, JAMES F., S.T.D.j Nbw Rochellb,
New York: Nicodemus; Ointment in Scrip*
ture; Onias; Oriental Study and Research;
Osias; Patriarch; Pectoral; Pharisees.
DRISCOLL, JOHN THOMAS, M.A., S.T.L..
Fonda, New Yo]^k: O'Callaghan, Edmund
Baily.
DRUM, WALTER, S.J., Professor op Hebrew
AND Sacred Scripture, Woodstock College,
Maryland: Pu^allelismj Patrizi, Francis Xavier;
Paul of Burgos; Pereira, Benedict; Perrone,
Giovanni; Pewdi, Tilmann.
D'SOUZA, ANTHONY XAVIER, Bombay, India:
Passos (Santos Paasos).
DUBRAY, C. A., S.M.. S.T.B^ Ph.D., Professor
OF Philosophy, Marist College, Washing-
ton: Nourrisson, Jean-Felix.
DUHEM, PIERRE, Professor of Theoretical
Physics, University of Bordeaux: Oresme,
Nicole.
DUNN, JOSEPH, Ph.D., Professor of Celtic
Languages and Literature, Catholic Uni-
versity OF America, Washington: O'Braein,
Tl^ernach; O'Growney, Eugene; O'Hussey,
Maelbright.
EGAN, ANDREW, O.F.M., Professor of Theol-
ogy. The Friary, Forest Gate, London:
Pecnam, John.
ENGELHARDT, ZEPHYRIN, O.F.M., Santa
Barbara, California: Padilla, Juan de: Palou,
Francisco; Pareja, Francisco; Payeras, Mariano;
Peres, Juan.
ESPINOSA, AURELIO MACEDONIO, M.A.,
Ph.D., Professor of the Spanishuaengao L,
Lelano Stanford University, San Francisco,
Caufornia: New Mexico; Penitentes, Los
Hermanos.
EWING, JOHN GILLESPIE, M.A., New York:
Newton, John.
FANNING, WILLIAM H. W., S.J., Professor of
Church History and Canon Law, St. Louis
University, St. Louis: Obreption; Oratory;
Pi^Mil Elections; Parish, In English Speaking
Countries; Pension, Ecclesiastic^.
FENLON, JOHN F., S.S^ S.T.D., President, St.
Austin's College, Washington: Professor
OF Sacred Scripture, St. Mary's Seminary,
Baltimore: Olier, Jean-Jacques.
FERET^ P. CANON, Saint-Maurice, France:
Pans, University of.
FISCHER, JOSEPH, S.J., Professor of Geogra-
PHY AND History, Stella Matutina College,
Feldkirch. Austria: Nicolaus Germanus; Orte-
lius (Oertel), Abraham.
FLAHERTY, MATTHEW J., M.A. (Harvard),
Concord, Massachusetts: O'Meara, Kathleen.
FLOOD, J^MES, New Norcia, Australia: New
Norcia.
FORD, JEREMIAH D. M., M.A., Ph.D., Profbs-
bor of the french and spanish languages,
Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachu*
9wrm: Ojeda, Alonso de; Parini, Giuseppe;
Pellico, Silvio; Petrarch, Francesco.
FORGET, JACQUES, Professor of Ddgmatig
Theology and the Syriac and Arabic Lan-
guages, University of Louvain: Nicole,
Pierre.
FORTESCUE, ADRIAN, Ph.D^ S.T.D., Letch-
worth, Hertfordshire^ England: Nikon,
Patriarch of Moscow; Nilus, Saint; Nilus the
Younger; Nonnus; (EcUmenius; Offertory; Orate
Fratres; Oremus; Orientius; Orsisius; Orthodox
Church; Orthodoxy, Feast of; Palladius; Patri-
arch and Patriarchate; Paulicians; Peter Mon-
gus.
FOX, WILLIAM, B.Sc., M.E., Associate Profe».
BOR OF Physics, College of the City of New
York: Nollet, Jean-Antoine; Palmieri, Luigi;
Peuerbach, Georg von.
FREELAND, JOHN, Bedford, England: North-
ampton, Diocese of.
FRERI, Mgr. JOSEPH, D.C.L., Director General
IN THE United States of the Society for
THE Propagation of the Faith, New York:
Peter-Louis-Marie Chanel, Blessed.
FUENTES, VENTURA, B.A.. M.D., Instructor,
College of the City of New York: Pdrez de
Hita, Ginds.
GABRIELS, HENRY, S.T.D. (Louvain). Bishop
OF Ogdensburg, New York: Ogaensburg,
Diocese of.
GARESCHfi, EDWARD FRANCIS, S.J., St.
Louis University^ St. Louis: Nicholas of
Tolentino, Saint; Nicolas, Armella.
GEDDES, LEONARD WILLIAM, S.J., St. Beu-
No's College, St. Asaph, Wales: Person;
Personality.
GERARD, JOHN, S.J., F.L.S., London: Perry,
Stephen Joseph.
GEUDENS, FRANCIS MARTIN, C.R.P., Abbot
Titular of Barlings, Corpus Christi Priory,
Manchester, England: Norbert, Saint; Park,
Abbey of the.
GHELLINCK, JOSEPH DE, Professor of Pa-
trology and Medieval Theological Liter-
ature, Louvain: P^tau, Denis: Peter Cantor;
Peter Comestor; Peter Lombara.
GIETMANN, GERARD, S.J., Teacher of Classi-
cal Languages and ^Bsthetics, St. Ignatius
College, Valkenburg, Holland: Niessen-
berger, Hans; Nimbus: Oppenordt, Giles-Marie;
Orme, Philibert de 1'; rerrault, Claude; Peruzzi,
Baldassare.
GILLET, LOUIS, Paris: Painting, Religious; Peru-
gino.
GILLOW, EULOGIO GREGORIO, S.T.D., Arch-
bishop OF Oaxaca, Mexico: Oaxaca, Arch-
diocese of.
GLOUDEN, ATHANASE, Ph.D., Litt.D., Profes-
sor OF Literature, CoLiisoE St-Michel.
Editor, ''Le Patriote", Brussels: Periodical
Literature, Catholic, Belgium.
GOYAU, GEORGES, Associate Editor. " Revue
DEs Deux Mondes'', Paris: Nice, Diocese of:
Ntmes, Diocese of; Normandy: Odo, Bishop ot
Ba^eux; 0116-Laprune, L^n; Oran, Diocese of;
Onflamme; Orleans, Councils of; Orl^ns, Diocese
of; Pamiers, Diocese of; Paris, Archdiocese of;
P^rigueux, Diocese of; Periodical Literature,
Catholic, France; Perpignan, Diocese and Uni-
versity of.
▼u
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME
GRATTAN-FLOOD, W. H., M.R.LA., Mus.D.,
RoBBMOUNT, ENNiBOORTflT, Ibbland: O'Hagaii,
Thomas; OOiOghlen, Michael; O'Reilly. Mylee
William Patrick; Periodical literaturei Catholic,
Ireland.
GREY, FRANCIS W., LL.D., Ottawa, Canada:
Ottawa, University of.
HAGEN, JOHN G., S.J., Vatican Observatory,
Rome: Nicholas of Cusa; Paul of Middelburg.
HANDLEY, MARIE LOUISE, New York: Niccola
Pisano; Nola, Giovanni Marliano da.
HANNA, EDWARD J., S.T.D., Professor op Dog-
matic Thsoiogt anp Patrologt, St. Ber-
nard's Seminary, Rochester, N. Y.: Penance.
HANSEN, NIELS, M.A., Copenhagen, Denmark:
Olaf Haraldson, Saint.
HARENT, STfiPHANE, S.J., Propessor of Dog-
matic Theology, Ore Place, Hastings, Eng-
land: Original Sin.
HARTIG, OTTO, Assistant Librarian of the
Royal Library, Munich: Nubia.
HASSETT, Mgr. MAURICE M., S.T.D., Harris-
burg, Pennsylvania: Orans; Orientation of
Churches; Palm in Christian Symbolism; Paph-
nutius.
HEALY, PATRICK J., S.T.D^ Assistant Profes-
sor OF Church History, Catholic University
OF .^fERiCA, Washington: Nicolaites; Para-
bolani.
HECKMANN, FERDINAND, O.F.M., Lector op
Church History, Franciscan Monastery,
Washington: Nicholas Pieck, Saint; Peter
Baptist and Twenty-five Companions, Saints;
Peter de Regalado, Saint.
HENRY, H. T., Litt.D., Rector of Roman Cath-
olic High School for Boys, Professor of
English Litbrature and of Gregorian
Chant, St. Charles Seminary, Overbrook,
Pennsylvania: Nunc Dimittis; O Antiphons;
O Deus Ego Amo Te; O Filii et Fili»; O Salu-
taris Hostia; Pange Lmgua Gloriod.
HERBERT, JOHN ALEXANDER, Assistant in
THE Department of MSS., British Museum,
London: Odo of Cheriton.
HIGHLEY, MONT F^^ Assistant Attorney Gen-
eral, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma: Oklahoma.
HILGERS, JOSEPH, S.J., Rome: Novena.
HOEBER, KARL, Ph.D., Editor, " Volkszeitung"
AND ''Akademische MonatsblItter" Co-
logne: Otho, Marcus Salvius; Pertinax, PubUus
Helvius; Pescennius Niger.
HOFMANN, MICHAEL, S.J., Professor of
Canon Law, University of Innsbruck, Aus-
tria: Nilles, Nikolaus.
HOLWECK. FREDERICK G^ St. Louis, Mis-
souri: Our Lady, Help of Christians, Feast of;
Paschal Tide; Passion of Christ, Commemora-
tion of the.
HUDLESTON, GILBERT ROGER, O.S.B., Down-
side Abbey, Bath. England: Ninian, Saint;
Obedientiaries; Ooo of Cambrai, Blessed;
Peterborough Abbey.
HUGHES, JAMES, LfYBRPOOL, England: Nugent,
James.
HULL, ERNEST R., S. J., Editor. "The Exami-
ner", Bombay, India: Parsis (Parsees).
HUNTER-BLAIR, SIR D. O., Bart., O.S.B., M.A.,
Fort Augustus Abbey, Scotland: Oxford;
Oxford, University of; Periodical Literature,
Cathohc, Scotland.
HYDE, DOUGLAS, LL.D., Litt.D., M.R.I.A.,
Frenchpark, Co. Roscommon, Ireland: O'Car-
olan, Torlog^; O'Conor, Charles; O'Curry,
Eugene; O'Daly, Donogh Mor; O'Dugan, John.
HYVERNAT, HENRY, S.T.D., Professor op
Semitic Languages and Biblical Archjbology,
Cathouc University of America, Washing-
ton: Persecutions, Coptic. »
INGOLD, A. M. P., Director, "Revue d' Alsace ",
CoLBCAR, Germany: Oratory, French Congre-
gation of the.
ISENRING, JOHN JAMES, O.S.F.S., Childs,
Maryland: Oblates of St. Francis de Sales;
Orange River, Vicariate Apostolic of.
JARRETT, BEDE, O.P., B.A., (Oxon.); S.T.L.,
St. Dominic's Priory, London: Papal Arbitra-
tion.
JIMENEZ, ENRIQUE, S.J., Lic.Sc., Professor of
Mathematics, Instituto de Artes t Indus-
TRiAS, Madrid: Periodical Literature, Catholic,
Spain.
JONES, ARTHUR EDWARD, S.J., Correspond-
ing Member of the MinnesotAvOntario, and
Chicago Historical Societies; noN. Member
OF THE Missouri Historical Society; Member
OP THE International Congress of Ameri-
canists; Archivist of St. Mary's College,
Montreal: Petun Nation.
JOYCE, GEORGE HAYWARD, S.J., M.A.
(Oxon.), St. Beuno's College, St. Asaph,
Wales: Papacy.
JUNGUITO, F. X., Bishop of Panama: Panama,
Republic and Diocese of.
KAMPERS, FRANZ, Ph.D., Professor of Medie-
val AND Modern History, University of
Breslau: Notker Physicus; Notker, n^hew of
Notker Physicus; Notker, Provost of St, Gall;
Otto I; Otto II; Otto III; Otto IV; Pepin the
Short; Peter de Vinea.
KAUFMANN, CARL MARIA, Edftor "For-
SCHUNGEN ZUR MONUMENT. Th. UND VERGLEICH-
ENDEN Rel.-Wiss.", Frankforton-the-Main:
Ostraka, Christian; Overbeck, Friedrich.
KEILY, JARVIS, M.A., Grantwood, New Jersey:
Penal Laws in the English Colonies in America.
KELLY, BLANCHE M., New York: Norton,
Christopher; Notre Dame de Sion, Congregation
of.
KELLY, JOSEPH IGNATIUS, Ph.D., LL.D., Late
Professor op Law and Dean of the Law
School, Louisiana State University, Chicago,
Illinois: Pandects.
KENNEDY, DANIEL J., O.P., S.T.M., Professor
OF Sacramental Theology, Catholic Uni-
versity of America, Washington: Ory,
Matthieu; Paludanus, Peter; Pelargus, Ambrose;
Peter of Bergamo.
•••
Ylll
CX)NTRIBUTORS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME
KENNEDY, THOMAS, B.A. (National Univer-
siTT op Ireland), London: New Pomerania,
Vicariate Apostolic of; Osaka, Diocese of.
KIRSCH, Mgr. JOHANN P., S.T.D., Professor
OF Patroloqt and Christian Arcbubologt,
University of Fribourg: Nicephorus, Saint;
Nicetas, Bishop of Remesiana; Nicetius, Saint,
Bishop of Trier; Nicholas I, Saint, Pope; Nicome-
des, Saint; Notitia Dignitatuin; Notitia Pro-
vincianim et Civitatum Africs: Nuncio; Nuncia-
LOFFLER, KLEMENS, Ph.D., Librarian, Uni-
VERsiTY OF Mt^NBTER: NotkcT, Balbulus: Not-
ker, Labeo; Odilio, Saint; Odo, Saint, Abbot of
Cliinv; Ostrogoths; Otto, Saint; Overberg,
Bemnard Heinrich; Pannartz, Arnold; Panta-
leon, Saint; Paschasius, Saint; Paulinus, Saint,
Bishop of Nola; Peasants, War of the; Periodi-
cal Literature, Catholic, Germany; Pes, Bern-
hard and Hieronymus; Pforta.
_^ ^ _^ ♦LOUGHLIN, Mgr. JAMES F., S.T.D., Philadel-
tu^rR^pSrt^;"0dih^, S^ntj ofdoinCAJi^thlo; phia: Paschal II Pope; Paid III; Paul IV, Paul
Olympias, Swnt; Ordeals; Orosius, Paulus; Orsi, V, Popes; Philadelphia, Archdiocese of.
Giuseppe Agostino; Orsini; Palatini; Pallavicino,
Pietro Sforza; Paschal I, Pope; Paul I, Pope;
Pelagia; Peter, Saint; Peter of Sebaste, Saint;
Peter Urseolus, Saint; Petronilla, Saint; Petron-
ius, Saint; Petrus Bemardinus; Petrus de Natali-
bus; Philip, Saint, Apostle.
KRUITWAGEN. BONAVENTURE, O.F.M., Pro-
fessor OF Ecclesiastical History, Convent
OF the Friars Minor, Woerden, Holland:
Periodical Literature, Catholic, Holland.
LAPPIN, HENRY P. A., O.C.C., Carmelite Col-
lege, Trenure, Ireland: Paoli, Angelo, Vener-
able.
LATASTE, JOSEPH, Litt.D., Superior of the
Seminary. Airehsttr-Adottr, Landes, France:
Pasc^, Blaise; Pellissier, Guillaume; Perraud,
Adolphe; Peter of Poitiers.
LAUCHERT, FRIEDRICH, Ph.D., Aachen: Nihus,
Barthold; Nikolaus von Dinkelsbuhl; GScolam-
padius, Johann; Ohler, Aloys Karl; Pfefferkom,
Johannes; Pfister, Adolf; Philanthropinism.
LECLERCQ, HENRI, O.S.B., London: Nic»a,
Councils of.
LEUAY, PAUL, Fellow of the University of
France, Professor, Institut Cathouque,
Paris: Paulinus of Pella.
LEROY, ALEXANDER A., C.SS.P., Bishop of
Alinda, Superior General of the Congre-
gation OF the Holy Ghost, Paris: Nigeria,
Upper and Lower.
LETANG, H. E., B.C.L., B.D., Pembroke, Prov-
ince OF Ontario, Canada: Pembroke, Diocese
of.
LETELLIER, A., S.S.S., Superior, Fathers of the
Blessed Sacrament, New York: Perpetual
Adoration, Reli^ous of the: Perpetu^ Adoration.
Sisters of the; Perpetual Adorers of the Blessed
Sacrament.
LINDSAY, LIONEL ST. GEORGE, B.Sc, Ph.D.,
Editor-in-Chief, "La Nouvelle France".
Quebec: Peltrie, Madeleine de la; Periodical
literature. Catholic, Canada.
LINEHAN, PAUL H., B.A., Instructor, College
OF THE City of New York: Nunez, Pedro;
Ozanam, Jacques; Pacioli (Paciuolo), Lucas.
LINS, JOSEPH, Freiburg, Germany: Nuremberg;
OsnabrQck, Diocese, of; Paderbom, Diocese of;
Palatinate, Rhenish; Passau, Diocese of.
LOEHR, AUGUST OCTAV RITTER VON, Ph.D.,
Assistant Director, Imperial Collection
OF Coins and Medals, Vienna: Numis-
matics.
MAAS, A. J., S.J., Rector, Woodstock College,
Maryland: Pentateuch.
MacERLEAN, ANDREW A., New York: Northern
Territory, Prefecture Apostolic of the; Nyassa,
Vicariate Apostolic of; Olinda, Diocese of;
Pasto, Diocese of; Pelotas, Diocese of; Perth,
Diocese of.
MacERLEAN, JOHN, S.J., Professor of Hebrew
AND Ecclesiastical History, Jesuit Scho-
LASTicATE, MiLLTOWN Park, Dubun: O'Brua-
dair, David.
McGAHAN, FLORENCE RUDGE, M.A.. Youngs-
town, Ohio: Paulists; Penitential Orders;
Penitents, Confraternities of.
McGUIRE, EDWARD J., M.A., LL.B., New York:
New York, State of.
McHUGH, JOHN AMBROSE, O.P., S.T.D., Lector
OF Philosophy, Dominican House of Studies^
Washington: Omnipotence.
McKENNA, CHARLES F., Ph.D. (Columbla),
Vice-President. Catholic Home Bureau,
New York: Orpnans and Oiphanages.
McNeill, CHARLES, Dublin: O'Brien, Terence
Albert; O'Cullenan, Gelasius; O'Devany, Cor-
nelius; O'Donnell, Edmund; O'Hely, Patrick;
O'Herlahy, Thomas; O'Hurley, Dermod;
O'Queely, Malachias.
MACPHERSON. EWAN, New York: Nicaragua,
Republic ana Diocese of.
MacSHERRY, HUGH, Titular Bishop of Jusma-
ANOPOLis, Vicar Apostolic op Eastern Dis-
trict OF the Cape of Good Hope: Orange
Free State.
MacSWEENEY, PATRICK. M.A. (N.U.I.), Lec-
turer IN English, Matnooth College;
pROFBSSbR OF MoDERN LiTBRATURB, HoLT
Cross College, Clonuffe, Dublin: O'Dono-
van, John.
MAGNIER JOHN, C.SS.R., London: Passerat,
John, Venerable; Perpetual Succour, Our Lady
of. .
MANN, HORACE K., Headmaster, St. Cuth-
bert's Grammar School, Newcastlb-on-Ttne,
England: Pelagius I, Pope; Pelagius II.
MARIQUE, PIERRE JOSEPH, Instructor in
French. College op the City of New York:
Nothomb, Jean-Baptiste.
MARSH, ERNEST, S.C., New York: Patagonia.
MARTIN, CAROLINE L., Rel. of the Perpet-
ual Ador., Washington: Perpetual Adoration,
Religious of the.
iz
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME
MARTINDALE, CYRIL C, S.J., B.A. (Oxon.),
Ore Place, Hastings, England: Oracle;
Paganism.
MARY JOSEPHINE, SISTER, Notre Dame Con-
vent, Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Notre Dame,
School Sisters of.
MEEHAN, ANDREW B., S.T.D., J.U.D., Pro-
fessor OF Canon Law and LrruRGT, St. Ber-
nard's Seminary, Rochester, New York:
Pall; Pax.
MEEHAN, THOMAS F., New York: Oertel, John
James Maximilian; O'Hara, Theodore : O'Hig-
S'ns, Ambrose Bernard; O'Reilty, Bernard;
'Rorke, Patrick Henry; Farmentier, Antoine-
Augustin; Periodical Literature, Catholic, Uni-
ted States; Peter, Sarah.
MERSHMAN, FRANCIS, O.S.B., S.T.D., Profes-
sor OF Moral Theology, Canon Law and
Liturgy, St. John's College, Colleoeville,
Minnesota: Othlo; Otto of Passau; Palm Sun-
day; Passion Offices; Passion Sunday; Passion-
tide; Patronage of Our Lady, Feast of the; Peter
Gomsales, Saint; Pflug, Julius von.
MEYNELL, ALICE, London: Patmore, Coventry.
MIDDLETON, THOMAS COOKE, O.S.A» S.T.M.,
Lector in Philosophy, Villanova College,
Pennsylvania: Our Lady of Good Counsel,
Feast of.
MOLONEY, WILLIAM A.. C.S.C, Notre Dame,
Indiana: Notre Dame au Lac, University of.
MOONEY, JAMES, United States Ethnologist,
Bxtreau of American Ethnology, Washing-
ton: Pakaw& Indians; Pano Indians; Pipago
Indians ; Peba Indians ; Penelakut Indians j
Penobscot Indians ; Peoria Indians ; Pericm
Indians.
MOONEY. JOSEPH F., LL.D., Ph.D., Prothono-
TARY Apostolic, Vicar-General of the Arch-
diocese of New York: New York, Archdiocese
of.
MOORE, THOMAS V., C.S.P., St. Thomas Col-
lege, Washington: Occasionalism; Optimism;
Panpsychism.
MORAN, PATRICK FRANCIS CARDINAL,
Archbishop of Sydney, Primate of Austra-
lia: Palladius, Saint; Patrick, Saint.
MORENO-LACALLE, JULIAN, B.A., Editor,
"Pan-American Union", Washington: Para-
guay; Peru.
MULLALY, CHARLES, S.J., Tortosa, Spain:
Oriol, Joseph, Saint.
O'BOYLE, FRANCIS JOSEPH, S.J., St. Louis
University, St. Louis: Omer, Saint.
OBRECHT, EDMOND M., O.C.R., Abbot of
Gethsemani, Kentucky: Obazine, Monastery
of.
O'CONNOR, JOHN B., O.P., St. Louis Bbrtrand's
Convent, Louisville, Kentucky: Nicholas of
Gorran.
O'CONNOR, RICHARD ALPHONSUS, S.T.D.,
Bishop of Peterborough, Province of
Ontario, Canada: Peterborough, Diocese of.
O'HAGAN, THOMAS, M.A., Ph.D., Chicago,
Illinois: Pardons of Brittany.
O'HARA, EDWIN V., Portland, Oregon: Oregon;
Oregon City, Archdiocese of.
OJETTI, BENEDETTO, S.J., Consultor, S.C.P.F.,
CoNsuLTOR, S.C.C., Consultor of the Com-
mission on the Codification of Canon Law,
Gregorian University, Rome: Palmieri, Dom-
enico.
O'LEARY, EDWARD, M.R.I.A., Portarlington,
Ireland: O'Leary, Arthur.
OLIGER, LIVARIUS, O.F.M., Lector of Eccle-
siastical History, Collegio S. Antonio,
Rome: Nicholas of Osimo; Obregonians; Olivi,
Herre Jean; Pacificusj Panigarola, Francesco;
Papini, Nicholas; Parkinson, Anthony; Paulinus
a St. Bartholomfleo; Peter of Aquila.
OTT, MICHAEL, O.S.B., Ph.D., Professor of
THE History of Philosophy, St. John's Col-
lege, Colleoeville, Minnesota: Nicholas
Justinani, Blessed; Nicholas of Fltie, Blessed;
Nicholas of Myra, Saint; Nirschl, Joseph; No-
nontola; Notbur^a, Saint; Odo of Glanfeuil; Oet-
tingen; Oil of Saints; 01esnicki,Zbigniew; Oliva;
Or&ndini, Niccold; Orval; Othmar, Saint; Ot-
tobeuren ; Qur Lady of the Snow, Feast of;
Pagi, Antoine; Palafox y Mendoza, Juan de;
Panvinio. Onofrio; Peter Cellensis; Peter FuUo;
Petit-Dioier, Matthieu.
OTTEN, JOSEPH, Pittsburg, Pennsylvania:
Okeghem, Jean d'; Oratorio; Palestrina, Gio-
vanni Pierlui^p da; Passion Music; Pei^olesi,
Giovanni Battista; Petrucci, Ottavio dei.
OUSSANI, GABRIEL, Ph.D., Professor, Eccle-
siastical History, Early Christian Litera-
ture, AND Biblical Archeology, St. Joseph's
Seminary, Dunwoodie, New York: Persia.
PACE, EDWARD A., Ph.D., S.T.D., Professor of
Philosophy, Catholic University of Amer-
ica, Washington: Pantheism.
PALMIERI, AURELIO, O.S.A., S.T.D., Rome:
Nihilism; Periodical Literature, Catholic, Poland.
PAPI, HECTOR, S.J., Ph.D., B.C.L., S.T.D.,
Professor of Canon Law, Woodstock Col-
lege, Maryland: Pastor.
PARKER, E. STANISLAUS ANSELM, O.S.B.,
M.A., Master of Parker's Hall, Oxford:
Norfolk, Catholic Dukes of: Odo of Canterbury;
Osbald; Osbem; Osmund, Saint; Oswald, Saint,
Archbishop of York; Oswald, Saint, King;
Oswin, Saint; Owen, Nicholas.
PARKINSON, HENRY, S.T.D., Ph.D., Rector,
OscoTT College, Birmingham, England:
Oscott (St. Mary's College); Patron Saints.
PARSONS, J. WILFRID, S.J., Boston: Oostacker,
Shrine of.
PfiREZ GOYENA, ANTONIO, S.J., Editor,
"Raz6n y Fb", Madrid: Nieremberg y Otin,
Juan Eusebio.
♦PfeTRIDfeS, SOPHRONE, A.A., Professor,
Greek Catholic Seminary of Kadi-Keui,
Constantinople: Nyssa; Obba; Olba; Olympus;
Orcistus; Pacandus; Paleopolis; Panemotichus;
ParsBtonium; Parlais; Parnassus; Parcecopohs;
Patara; Pednelissus; Perge; Pessinus; Petinessus;
Phaselis; Philadelphia.
*Deceafle(#
CONTRIBUTORS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME
PFEIL, NICHOLAS, B.A., Cleveland, Ohio:
Notre Dame, Sisters of (Cleveland).
PHILLIMORE, JOHN SWINNERTON, M.A.
(OxoN.)» Professor of Humanities, Univer-
sity OF Glasgow: Paley, Frederick Apthoip.
PHILLIPS, EDWARD C, S.J., Ph.D., Woodstock
College, Maryland: Odington, Walter; Oriani,
Bamaba; Pardies, Ignace-Gaston.
PILCZ, ALEXANDER, Member of thb French
Academy, Extraordinary Professor, Uni-
versity of Vienna: Pathology, Mental.
PLASSMAN, THOMAS, O.F.M., Ph.D» S.T.D.,
St. Bonaventure's Seminary, St. Bonaven-
TURB, New York: Nicholas of Lyra.
POHLE, JOSEPH, S.T.D., Ph.D., J.C.L., Profes-
sor OF Dogmatic Theology, University of
Breslau: Paschasius Radbertus, Saint; Pelagius
and Pelagianism.
POINTS, MARIE LOUISE, Editor, "The Morninq
Star'', New Orleans, Louisiana: New Orleans,
Archdiocese of.
POLLEN, JOHN H., S.J.. London: Oaths, English
Post-Kef ormation: Oaescalchi, Carlo; Oldcome,
Edward, Venerable; Percy, John; Persons,
Robert; Petre Family.
POYET, CLAUDIO, ParanX, Argentinb Repub-
lic: Parang Diocese of.
PRAT, FERDINAND, S.J., Member of the Bibli-
cal Commission, CoLiJbGE St. Michel, Brus-
SEUs: Origen and Origenism; Paul, Saint.
PRESTAGE, EDGAR, B.A. (Oxon.), Commbnda-
DOR, Portuguese Order of S. Thiago; Corre-
sponding Member of the Lisbon Royal
Academy of Sciences and the Lisbon
Geographical Society, Bowdon, England:
Oporto, Diocese of; Periodical Literature,
Catholic, Portugal.
RANDOLPH, BARTHOLOMEW, CM., M.A.,
Teacher of Philosophy and Church History,
St. John's College, Brooklyn, New York:
Odin, John Mary.
REAGAN, P. NICHOLAS, O.F.M., Collbgio S.
Antonio, Rome: Peter of Alc^tara, Saint.
REILLY, THOMAS X KEMPIS, O.P., S.T.L.,
S.S.L., Professor of Sacred Scripture,
Dominican House of Studies, Washington:
Nicholas of Strasburg; Pagnino, Santes.
REMY, ARTHUR F. J., M.A., Ph.D., Adjunctv
Professor of Germanic Philology, Columbia
University, New York: Otfried of Weissen-
burg; Peutinger, Conrad.
ROMPEL, JOSEF HEINRICH, S.J., Ph.D.. Stella
Matutina College, Feldkirch, Austria:
Parlatore, Filippo.
m
RUSSELL, MATTHEW, S.J., Dublin; O'Hagan,
John; O'Reilly, Edmund.
SACHER, HERMANN, Ph.D., Editor, "Konver-
bationslexikon''. Assistant Editor, "Staat&-
lexikon" of the GQrresgesellbchaft, f^i-
BUBG, Germany: Oldenburg.
SXGmIJlLER, JOHANNES BAPTIST, Professor
of Theology, University of TtteiNGSN:
Patron and Patronage.
ST. EUPHROSINE, SISTER, Montreal: Notre
Dame de Montreal, Congregation of.
ST. IGNACE DE LOYOLA. SISTER, St. Damien,
Province of Quebec, Canada: Perpetual Help,
Sisters of Our Lady of.
SALTET, LOUIS, S.T.D., Lrrr.Lic, Professor of
Church History, Insttfut Catholiqxte, Tou-
louse, France: Paula, Saint.
SALZER, ANSELM, O.S.B., Seitbnstetten, Aus-
tria: Passion Plays.
SAUVAGE, G. M., CS.C^ S.T.D., Ph.D., Profes-
sor OF Dogmatic Theology, Holy Cross
Colleger, Washington: Ontologism; Pelisson-
Fontanier, Paul; Perreyve, Henri.
SCANNELL, THOMAS B. CANON, S.T.D., Wey-
bridge, England: Nicholas V, Pope.
SCHEID, N., S.J., Stella Matutina College,
Feldkirch, Austria: Pauli, Johannes.
SCHEUER, PIERRE, S.J^ Professor of Phi-
U)soPHY, College of St. John Berchmans,
Louvain: Para du Phanjas, Franyois.
SCHLAGER, HEINRICH PATRICIUS, O.F.M.,
St. Ludwig'b College, Dalhed^, Germany:
Nithard; Nuyens, Wilhelmus; Ostiensis; Otto
of Freising; Otto of St. Blaise; Paulus Diaconus.
SCHROEDER, JOSEPH, O.P., St. Dominic's
Priory, BEmciA, Caufornia: Nicolal, Jean;
Niger, Peter George.
SCHWICKERATH, ROBERT, S.J., Holy Cross
College, Worcester, MASSAC^us£TT8: Pach-
tler, Georg Michael; Pestalozci and Pestaloazian-
ism.
SCOTT, JOHN ASKEW, M.A., LL.B., EnnoR,
"New Zealand Tablet", Dunedin, New
Zealand: New Zealand.
SENFELDER, LEOPOLD, M.D., Teacher of the
History of Medicine, University of Vienna:
Paracelsus, Theophrastus; Per6, Ambroise.
SHANNON, JAMES, Peoria, Illinois: Peoria,
Diocese of.
SHARPE, ALFRED BOWYER, M.A. (Oxon.),
London: Pessimism.
SIEGFRIED, FRANCIS PATRICK, Professor
OF Philosophy, St. Charles Seminary, Over-
brook, Pennsylvania.: Ontology.
SLATER, T., S.J., St. Beuno's College, St.
Asaph, Wales: Obligation.
SLOANE, CHARLES WILLIAM, New York:
O'Conor, Charles; Partnership.
SLOANE, THOMAS O^CONNOR, M.A., E.M.,
Ph.D., New York: Pelletier, Pierre-Joseph;
Pelouse, Thtophil&-Jules.
SMITH, IGNATIUS, O.P., Dominican House of
Studies, Washington: Nider, John; Peter
Chrysologus, Saint.
SMITH, SYDNEY F., S.J., London: Nonconfor-
mists; Non-Jurors.
SMITH, WALTER GEORGE, M.A., LL.B. (U. of
P.), Philadelphia: Peace Congresses; Penn-
sylvania.
SOLLIER, JOSEPH FRANCIS, S.M., S.T.D., San
Francisco: Paraclete; Pavilion, Nicolas; Per-
severance, Final.
CX)NTRIBUTOIlS TO THE ELEVENTH VOLUME
SORTAIS, GASTON, S.J., Assistant Editor,
"Etudes", Paris: Orcagna (Andrea ^ Clone);
Palma Vecchio; Parmigiano, U.
SOUVAY, CHARLES L., CM., S.T.D., Ph.D.,
Professor OF Sacred Scripture, Hebrew, and
Liturgy, Kenrick Seminary, St. Louis: Offer-
ings (Oblations); Olivet, Mount; Opldr; Para-
sceve; Patmos; Pentapolis; Pentecost (of the
Jews), Feast of; Phasga.
STANISFORTH, OSWALD, O.M.Cap., Lector of
Dogmatic Theology and Sacred Scripture,
Capuchin Monastery, Olton, England: Pascal
Baylon, Saint.
SUAU, PIERRE, S.J., Castres, France: Olivaint,
Pierre; Peter Claver, Saint; Peter Faber, Blessed.
TACCHI VENTURI, LUIGI, LL.D., Commenda-
tore of the Order op the Crown of Italy,
Rome: Oliva, Gian Paolo.
VERMEERSCH, ARTHUR, S.J., LL.D., Doctor
OF Social and Political Sciences, Professor
OP Moral Theology and Canon Law, College
OF St. John Bbrchmans, Louvain: Novice;
Nuns; Obedience, Religious.
VOGEL, JOHN, Vicar Provincial of the Pious
Society of Missions, Brooklyn, New York:
Pollotti, Vincent Mary, Venerable.
WAAGEN, LUKAS, Assistant State Geologist,
Vienna: Palaeontology.
WAINEWRIGHT, JOHN BANNERMAN, B.A.
(OxoN.), London: Nichols, George, Venerable;
Nutter, Robert, Venerable; Osbaldeston, Ed-
ward, Venerable; Page, Anthony, Venerable;
Palasor, Thomas, Venerable; Patenson, William,
Venerable.
WALKER, LESLIE J^, S.J., M.A. (Lond.), St.
Beuno's College, St. Asaph, Wales: Parallel-
ism, Psycho-Physical.
THURSTON, HERBERT, S.J., London: Numbers,
Use of, in the Church; Ordines Romani* Osten-
sorium; Paris, Matthew; Paschal Candle; Pas- WALSH, JAMES J., M.D., Ph.D., LL.D., Dean
sion of Jesus Christ, Devotion to the; Paten;
Pet^rspence.
TIERNEY, JOHN J., M.A., S.T.D., Professor of
Sacred Scripture and Semitic Studies, Mt.
St. Mary's College, Emmitsburg, Maryland:
New Year's Day.
TOKE, LESLIE ALEXANDER ST. LAWRENCE,
B.A., Stratton-on-the-Fosse, Bath, England:
Peter Damian, Saint.
TOURSCHER, FRANCIS E., O.8.A., Regent, St.
Thomas's College, Villanova, Pennsylvania:
Noris, Henry; Paulus Venetus.
TRABERT. WILHELM, Ph.D., Director op the
Imperial Royal Central Institute of Mete-
orology AND Geodynamics, Vibnna: Pemter,
Joseph Maria.
URIBE, ANTONIO JOSfi, BogotX, Colombia:
Nueva Pamplona, Diocese of.
URQUHART F. F., Fellow and Lecturer in
Modern History, Balliol College, Oxford:
Northmen; Ordericus Vitalis.
VAILHfi, SIMfiON, A.A., Member of the Russian
archibological institute of constantinople,
Professor of Sacred Scripture and History,
Greek Cathouc Seminary of Kadi-Keui,
Constantinople: Nicsea; Nicomedia; Nicopo-
lis (Armenia); Nicopolis, Diocese of; Nicopo-
THE Medical School, Fordham University,
New York: Nussbaum, Johann Nepomuk von;
O'Dwyer, Joseph; Pasteur, Louis.
WALSH, REGINALD, O.P., S.T.D., Professor
of theology, S. Clembnte, Rome: O'Daly,
Daniel.
WARD, Mgr. BERNARD, Canon of Westmin-
ster, F.R.HisT.Soc, President, St. Edmund's
College, Ware, England: Oakeley, Frederick;
Old Chapter, TTie; Oliver, George; Oxenham,
Henry Nutcombe.
WARREN, KATE MARY, Lecturer in English
UNDER University of London at Westfibld
College, Hampstead, London : Occleve,
Thomas; Oxenford, John.
WEBER, N. A., S.M., S.T.D., Professor of Funda-
mental Theology and Church History,
Marist College^ Washington: Nicholas II,
Nicholas III, Nicholas IV, Popes; Orange,
Councils of; Paul II, Pope; Permaneder, Franz
Michael ; Peter Igneus, Blessed; Petrobrusians;
Petrus, Diaconus; Petrus Alfonsus.
WEIMAR, ANTON, Vienna: Periodical Literature,
Catholic, Austria.
WELCH, SIDNEY READ, S.T.D., Ph.D., J.P.,
Edftor. " The Cathouc Magazine for South
Africa", Cape Town: Pfanner, Franz.
lis (Epirus); Nicosia, Titular Archdiocese of;
Nilopolis; Nisibis; Notitiae Episcopatuum; Ole- WILHELM. JOSEPH, S.T.D., Ph.D., Battle, Eng-
land: Nicene and Niceno-Constantinopblitan
Creed.
nus; Ombus: Oropus; Orthosia; Ostracina; Oxy-
rynchus; Palmyra: Paltus; Panopolis^ Paphos;
Paralus; Parium; Patras; Pella; Pelusmm; Pen-
tacomia; Pergamus; Petra; Phacusa; Pharbsetus;
Pharsalus.
VAN DER ESSEN, LfiON, Lrrr.D., Ph.D., Pro-
fessor OF History, University of Louvain:
Pumelius.
VAN DER HEEREN, ACHILLE, S.T.L. (Lou-
vain), Professor of Moral Theology and
Librarian, Grande S^minaire, Bruges, Bel-
gium: Oaths; Peter, Epistles of Saint.
VAN HOVE, A., D.C.L., Professor of Church
History and Canon Law, University of
Louvain: Nicold de' Tudeschi; (Economus,
Episcopal; Option, Right of; Paleotti, Gabriel;
Papiensis, Bemardus; Pefia, Francisco; Person,
Ecclesiastical.
WILLIAMSON, GEORGE CHARLES, Litt.D.,
London: Oggione, Marco D'; Orley, Barent van;
Ortolano Ferrarese; Passignano, Domenico.
WITTMANN, PIUS, Counsellor for the Ar-
chives and Archivist for Prince Ysenburg-
Bt^DiNGEN, Royal Bavarian Counsellor for
THE Archives, BtJDiNOEi^j Germany: Norway,
Orkneys.
WOLFSGRUBER, COELESTINE, O.S.B., Vienna:
Olmiitz, Archdiocese of; Parenzo-Pola, Diocese
of.
ZELLE, JOSEPH, S.J., Paray-le-Monial, France:
Paray-le-Monial.
ZEVELY, J., New York: Petropolis, Diocese of.
zu
Tables of Abbreviations
The following tables and notes are intended to guide readers of The Catholic Enctclopedia ia
interpreting those abbreviations, signs, or technical phrases wliich, for economy of space, will be most fre<
quently used in the woric. For more general information see the article Abbreviations, Ecclesiabtigal.
I. — General Abbreviations.
a article.
ad an at the year (Lat. ad annum),
an., ann the year, the years (Lat. annua,
anm).
ap in (Lat. apud).
art article.
Assyr Assyrian.
A. S. • Anglo-Saxon.
A. V Authorized Version (i.e. tr. of the
Bible authorized for use in the
Anglican Church — the so-called
"King James", or "Protestant
Bible").
b bom.
Bk Book.
BL Blessed.
C, c about (Lat. circa); canon; chap-
ter; compagnie.
can. canon.
cap chapter (Lat. caput — used only
in Latin context).
of. compare (Lat. confer).
cod codex.
col column.
concl conclusion.
const., constit. . . .Lat. conatUuHo,
cuiA by the industry of.
d died.
diet dictionary (Fr. dictumnaire),
disp Lat. diaputaiio.
diss. Lat. diaaertatio,
dist Lat. disHnctio.
D. V Douay Version.
ed., edit edited, edition, editor.
£p., Epp letter, letters (Lat. epistola),
Fr. French.
gen. . genus.
Gr. Greek.
H. E., Hist. Ecd. .Ecclesiastical History.
Heb., Hebr. Hebrew.
ib., ibid in the same place (Lat. ibidem).
IcL.i the same person, or author (Lat.
idem).
inf. below (Lat. infra).
It Italian.
1. c, loc. cit at the place quoted (Lat. loco
cUaito).
Lat Latin.
lat latitude.
lib book (Lat. liber).
long — longitude.
Mon Lat. Monumerda.
MS., MSS manuscript, manusoripta.
n., no number.
N. T New Testament.
Nat National.
Old Fr., O. Fr. . . .Old French.
op. cit in the work quoted (Lat. opert
citato).
Ord Order.
O.T Old Testament.
p., pp page, pages, or (in Latin ref*
erences) pare (part).
par paragraph.
passim in various places.
pt part.
Q Quarterly (a periodical), e.g.
"Church Quarterly".
Q-> QQ-> qu£est. . . .question, questions (Lat. quoBsHo).
q. V which [title] see (Lat. quod vide).
Rev Review (a periodical).
R. S Rolls Series.
R. V Revised Version.
S., SS Lat. Sanctue, Sancti, "Saint",
"Saints" — ^used in this Ency-
clopedia only in Latin context.
Sept Septuagint.
Sees Session.
Skt Sanskrit.
Sp Spanish.
sq., sqq following page, or pages (Lat.
eequena).
St., Sts Saint, Saints.
sup. Above (Lat. eupra).
s. V Under the corresponding title
(Lat. aub voce).
tom volume (Lat. tomua).
xlii
{
TABLES OF ABBREVIATIONS.
tr. tranalatioii or translated. By it-
self it means "English tnuiala-
tion", or "translated into Eng-
lish by'\ Where a translation
is into any other language, the
language is stated.
tr., tract tractate.
V see (Lat. vide).
Ven , . . . .Venerable.
Vd Volume.
II. — ^Abbreviations of Titles.
Acta SS AdUk Sandonan (BoUandists).
Ann. pont. cath Battandier,Anniiatre pontifical
catholique.
Bibl. Diet. Eng. Gath.Gillow, Bibliographical Diction-
ary of the English Catholics.
Diet. Christ. Antiq... Smith and Cheetham (ed.).
Dictionary of Christian An-
tiquities.
Diet. Christ. Biog. . . Smith and Wace (ed.), Diction-
ary of Christian Biography.
Diet, d'arch. chr6t.. .Cabrol (ed.), DicHannain d'ar-
chiologie chriHenne et de tiha^
gie.
Diet, de th^l. cath. .Vacant and Mangenot (ed.),
Dictionnaire de ihiologie
cathoHque,
Diet Nat. Biog. Stejdien and Lee (ed.), Diction-
aiy of National Biography..
Hast., Diet, of the
Bible Hastings (ed.), A Dictionary of
the Bible.
Kirchenlez. Wetwr and Welte, Kirchenlexi-'
con,
P. G Migne (ed.), PcUres GrmcL
P. L. Migne (ed.), Patres LaUni,
Vig., Diet, de la Bible. Vigouroux (ed.), DieUonnair^ de
la Bible.
NoTB I. — ^Laive Roman numerab atanding alone indicate volumes. Small Roman numerals standing alone indicate
ehaptera. Arabic numerals standing alone indicate pages. In otlier oases the divisions are explicitly stated. Hius ** Rashdall,
Universities of Europe, I. iz" refers the reader to the ninth ehi4>ter of the first volume of that work; **I, p. ix" would indicate the
ninth page of the preface of the same volimie.
NoTB II. — ^Where St. Hiomas (Aquinas) is cited without the name of any particular work the reference is always to
**Summa Theologioa" (not to *'Summa PhilosophiiD"). The divisions of the "Summa Theol." are indicated by a system which
may best be understood by the following example: ** I-II, Q. vi, a. 7, ad 2 um " refers the reader to the HverUh article of the
tixik que8ti<m in the firal part of the aecond part, in the response to the aeeond objection.
Note III. — ^The abbreviations onployed for the various bodes of the Bible are obvious. Eodesiasticus is indicated by
Bethu.t to dirtinguish it from Eoclesiastes iBeeUt.). It aliould also be noted that I and II Kings in D. V. correspond to I and II
Samuel in A. V.; and I and II Par. to I and II Chronicles. Where, in the qwlling of a proper name, there ia a mariced dii
between the D. V. and the A. V.. the form found in the latter b added* in parenthepcfc
Full Page Illustrations in Volume XI
Frontispiece in Colour page
New Orleans — St. Roch's Chapel and Cemetery, etc 14
St. Patrick's Cathedral, New York 26
Norwich Cathedral 122
Typical Coins of Twenty-five Centuries 152
Daniel O'Connell 202
Church of Santa Maria de Naranco, Oviedo 364
Oxford — ^Balliol, Christ Church, the Sheldonian, and Brasenose 365
Basilica of S. Antonio, commonly called The Santo, Padua 384
The Empress Theodora and her Suite 394
Altar-piece of the Lamb, Hubert and Jan Van Eyck, Ghent 395
Among the Lowly — L^on Lhermitte 402
Cathedral, Palencia 418
Cathedral, Palermo 41^
Notre-Dame de Paris 494
Cathedral and Baptistery, Parma 504
The Crucifixion — From the Passion Play of Oberammergau 530
Louis Pasteur in his Laboratory — A. Edelfelt 536
St. Paul— Ribera (Spagnoletto) 576
Paul III and his Nephews, Alessandro and Ottavio Famese — Titian 577
The Certosa, near Pavia 592
Perugia — ^The Porta Urbica Etrusca, etc 736
Penigino — Madonna with Four Saints, etc 737
St. Peter— Ribera (Spagnoletto) 750
Blessed Peter Canisius — C. Fracassini 758
Philadelphia 794
Map
Panama 438
THE
CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA
New Maxleo, a territory of the United States now
(Jan., 1911) awaiting only the completion of its Con-
etitution and the acceptance thereof by the Federal
authorities to rank aa a state. It lies between 31° 20'
and 37° N. lat., and between 103° 2" and 109° ^ W.
long.; it ia bounded on the north by Colorado, on the
east by Oklahoma and Texas, on the south by Texas
and the Republic of Mexico, and on the west by Ari-
sona. It is about 370 miles from east to west, 33^ from
north to south, and has an area of 122,580 sq. miles,
with mountainjplateau, and valley on either aideof the
Rio Grande. The average rainrall is 1 2 inches, usually
between July and September, so that spring and sum-
mer are dry, and agriculture and grazing siifTer. The
climate is uniform, the summers, aa a rule, moderate,
and, the atmosphere being dry, the heat is not opprcs-
Rve. In the north-west and north-east the winters
are long, but not severe, while in the central and south-
ern portions the winters are usually short and mild.
In the United States census of 1900 the popuhition
was 141,282, of which 33 per cent was illiterate; in
the cenaus ollSlO the population waa327 396. About
one-half of the inhabitants are of Spanish descent.
The soil in the yalleya ia a rich and sandy loam,
capable, with irrigation, of producing good crops. It
ia also rich in gold and silver, and important minee
have been opened near Deming, Silver City, and
Ixurdabms, in the south-weetem part of the state.
Thwe are copper mines near Glorieta in the north.
and near Santa Rita in the south; while coal is found
in great abundance near Gallup, Cerillos, and in the
north-west. The mineral production of New Mexico
for 1907 was 17,517,843, that of coal alone amounting
to $3,832,128. In 1909 the net product in coal,
ahipped from the mines, was 2,708,624 tons, or a total
value of $3,881,508. A few forests exist in the east-
ern pluns, and abundant timber is found in the north-
western and central districts. Though mining and
commerce as well as agriculture are
and lucrative industry; cattle-fanning if
importance. In 1908 and 1909 severe droughts
caused the sheep industry to decline somewhat. In
1909 New Mexico shipped 700,800 head of sheep; in
1008, 836,800; in 1907, 976,800. The wool shorn in
1909, from over 4,000,000 sheep, waa 18,000,000 Iba.,
which brought an average of 19 cents per lb., yielding a
cash production of $3,420,000. The shipments of cat-
tle in the same year amounted to 310,326, and 64,380
hides were handled in the same period. Farming ia
successfully carried on in the Rio Grande and other
valleys, Indian com, wheat, and garden products
bein^ the principal crops. For the year 1907 the ter-
prosa overertimate. The important manufacturing
mterests are those coimected with mining, railroads,
etc. Lumbering ia beinz developed oy capital
brought from the East, and large lumber miUs are now
in operation, notably at Albuquerque. There are 75
banks (41 national and 34 territorial) in the state,
with an aggregate capital of $3,274,086. The bonded
debt of the atat^ is $1,002,000, of which $89,579.49 is
covered by the sinking fund.
General HiSTOBT. — In April, 1536, there arrived at
CuliacAn, in the Mexican ftovmce of Sinaloa, Alvar
Nilfiez Cabeia de Vaca, Andr^ Dorantes, Alonso del
Castillo Maldonado, and the negro Estevanico, the
only survivors of
the ill-fated expe-
dition of NarvSei
whichhad left Spain
in 1528. Mendoza,
the Viceroy of
Mexico was told
astonishing tales by
Cf^eza de Vaca
concerning the
wealth of the coun
try to the north
and he forthwith
commanded Coro-
nado, govemo of
the Province of -
Nueva Gahcia (o g^ „ i^,„ u^x co
prepare an expe-
dition. The preparations went slowly, and Men
doia ordered Fnar Marcos de N za to make a prelim
inary exploration of the northern country. The
Franciscan left CuUacAn in 1539, accompanied by
Eatevanico and a few Indians. After untold hard-
ships he reached the famous pu«&Io of Zufii. took pos-
session of all the surrounding country, planted the
cross, andnamed the territory "The New Kingdom of
St. Francis". Marcos de Niia is, therefore, rightly
called the discoverer of New Mexico and Arisona. He
then returned to Mexico, and his narrative, especially
what he said about the seven cities of Cibola, was an
incentive to Coronado, who set out from Culiac&n in
1540, accompanied by Marcoa and a large body of
Spaniards and Indiana. Coronado crossed Sonora
(now Arizona) and entered New Mexico in July, 1540.
The expedition returned in 1542, but, although many
regions were discovered, no conquests were made nor
colonies established. In 1563 an expedition was led
into New Mexico by Francisco de Ibarra: it is worth
mentioning only for the reason that de Ibarra re-
turned in 1565 with the boast that he had discovered
"a new Mexico", which was, probably, the ori^ of
the name. Eapejo entered New Mexico in 1581, but
accomplished nothing. In this same year a Francift-
NEW MEXICO
NEW MEXICO
can Friar, Augustin Rodriguez, entered with a few
companions, and lost his life in the cause of Christian-
ity. In 1581 Elspejo called New Mexico Nueva An-
dalucia. By 1598 the name Nuevo M^jico was evi-
dently well known, since Villagrd's epic is called
* * Historiia del Nuevo M6 j ico " .
The exi>editions of Espejo and Father Austin Ro-
driguez were followed by many more of an unimpor-
tant character, and it was not until 1598^ when Don
Juan de Ofiate, accompanied by ten Franciscans under
Father Alonso Martinez, and four hundred men, of
whom one hundred and thirty were accompanied by
their wives and families, marched up alongside the
Rio Grande, and settled at San Juan de los Caballeros,
near the junction of the Chama with the Rio Grande,
thirty miles north of Santa F6. This was the first per-
manent Spanish settlenient in New Mexico. Here
was established, also, the first mission, and San Juan
de los Caballeros (or San Gabriel a few miles west on
the Chama river?) was the capital of the new province
until it was moved to Santa F6 some time oetween
1602 and 1616. The colony prospered, missions were
established by the Franciscans, new colonists arrived,
and by the middle of the seventeenth century general
prosperity prevailed.* In the year 1680, however, a
terrible Inaian rebellion broke out under the leader-
ship of Pope, an Indian of th^ pueblo of San Juan. All
the Spanisn settlements were attacked, and many peo-
ple massacred. The survivors fled to Santa F6, out,
after three days' fighting, were compelled to abandon
the city and were driven out of the province.
Thus was destroyed the work of eighty years. The
Spaniards did not lose courage: between 1691 and 1693
Antonio de Vargas reconquered New Mexico and en-
tered it with many of the old colonists and many
more new ones, his entire colony consisting of 800 peo-
ple, including seventy families and 200 soldiers. The
old villages were occupied, churches rebuilt, and the
missions re-established. A new vUla was founded,
Santa Cruz de la Cafiada, around which most of the
families which had come with De Vargas under Padre
Farf^ were settled. The colonies, no longer seri-
ously threatened b]r the Indians, progressed slowly.
By the end of the eighteenth century the population
of New Mexico was about 34,000, one-half Spaniards.
The first half of the nineteenth century was a period
of revolutions — rapid transformations of government
and f oreim invasions, accepted by the Spanish inhab-
itants of New Mexico in an easy-going spirit of sub-
mission unparalleled in history.
In 1821 the news of Mexican independence was re-
ceived, and, although the people of New Mexico were
ignorant of the events which had preceded it, and
knew absolutely nothing of the situation, they cele-
brated the event with great enthusiasm and swore
allegiance to Iturbide. ui 1824, just three years after
independence, came the news of the fall of Iturbide
and the inauguration of the Republic of Mexico:
throngs gathered at Santa F^, the people were ha-
rangued, and the new regime was applauded as a bless-
ing to New Mexico. When war was declared between
the United States and Mexico — an event concerning
which the New Mexicans were ignorant — Generu
Stephen Watts Kearny was sent to conquer New
Mexico. In 1846 he entered the territory, and Gen-
eral Armijo, the local military chief, fled to Mexico.
Kearny took possession of the territory in the name of
the United States, promising the people all the rights
and liberties whicn other citizens of the United States
enjoyed. The people joyfully accepted American
rule, and swore ooedience to the Stars and Stripes. At
one stroke, no one knew why or how, a Spanish colonv,
after existing under Spanish institutions for nearly
three centimes, was brought under the rule of a for-
eign race and under new and unknown institutions.
After the military occupation by Kearny in 1846.
Charles Bent was civil governor. He was murdered
at Taos, in 1847, by some Spaniards whom he had
grossly offended. In 1847-48 Donaciano Vigil was
civil governor.
In 1848, by the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, New
Mexico was formally ceded by Mexico to the United
States, and in 1850 it was regularly organized as a ter-
ritory (which included Arizona until 1863), and James
S. Calhoun was the first territorial governor. The
first territorial Legislative Assembly met at Santa F6
in 1851 : most of the members were of Spanish descent,
and this has been true of all the Assemblies until the
end of the century. Up to 1910 the proceedings of the
Legislature were in Spanish and English, interpreters
being always present. During the years 1861-62 the
Texan Confederates entered New Mexico, to occupy
Albuquerque and Santa F^^ but Federal troops ar-
rived from Colorado and California and frustrated the
attempt. During the years from 1860 to 1890 New
Mexico progressed very slowly. Education was in a
deplorable state (no system was established until
1890), the surrounding Indians continually harassed
the inhabitants, and no railroad was constructed until
after 1880. In 1860 the population was 80,567; in
1870, 90,573; in 1880, 109,793. Nine-tenths of the
population in 1880 was of Spanish descent: at pres-
ent (1911) this element is only about one-half, owing
to the constant immigration from the other states of
the Union. Since 1890 New Mexico has progressed
rapidly. Education is now enthusiastically supported
and encouraged, the natural resources are being rapidlv
developed, and the larger towns and cities have all
the marks of modem civilization and progress. Since
1850 many imsuccessful attempts have been made,
to secure statehood; at last, in June, 1910, Congress
passed an Enabling Act: New Mexico is to adopt a
Constitution, subject to the approval of Congress.
Missions op New Mexico. — The Franciscan Friar
Marcos de Niza, as we have seen above, reached New
Mexico near the pueblo of Zufii in 1539. This short
expedition may be considered, th^efore, as the first
mission in New Mexico and what is now Arizona.
With the expedition of Coronado (1540-42) several
Franciscans under Marcos de Nisa entered New
Mexico. There is some confusion about their exact
number and even about their names. It seems rea-
sonably certain, however, that Marcos had to abandon
the expedition after reaching ZufLi, and that two
Franciscan priests, Juan de radilla and Juan de la
Cruz, and a lay brother, Luis de Escalona, continued
with the expedition into New Mexico, remained as
missionaries among the Indians when Coronado re-
turned in 1542, and were finally murdered by them.
These were the first three Christian missionaries to re-
ceive the crown of martyrdom within the present
limits of the United States. Forty years after the
Niza and Coronado expeditions of 1539-42, it was
again a Franciscan who made an attempt to gain the
New Mexico Indians to the Faith. This was Father
Agustfn Rodriguez, who. in 1581, left San Bartolom^
in Northern Mexico ana, accompanied by two other
friars, Juan de Santa Maria and Fr. Francisco L6pez,
and some seventeen more men, marched up the Kio
Grande and visited many of the pueblos on both sides
of the river. The friars decided to remain in the new
missionary field when the rest of the expedition re-
turned in 1582, but the Indians proved intractable
and the two friars received the crown of mart3rrdom.
When news of the fate of Agustfn Rodriguez reached
San Bartolom^ in Nueva Vizcaya, Father Bernardino
Beltrdn was desirous of making another attempt to
evangelize New Mexico, but, being alone, would not
remain there. It was in 1598 that Don Juan de Ofiate
made the first permanent Spanish settlement in New
Mexico, at San Juan de los Caballeros. Ten Francis-
can friars under Father Alonso Martinez accom-
panied Ofiate in his conquest, and established at San
Juan the first Spanish Franciscan mission. Mission-
KEW MEXICO
aryvoik wsa befjun in earrieHt, and in 1599 Ofiate Bent
a party to Mexico for- re-enfrircements. With this
party vent Fathers Martfnei. Salazar, and Vercara to
obtain more friars. SaJaiardied on the way, Martl-
nei did not return, but a new Franciscan comUario,
Juan de Escalona, returned to Npw Mexico with Ver-
Eara and eight more Franciacans. New misaions were
being established in the near pu^ht, and prosperity
was at hand, but OOate's ambitions proved fatal: in
leoi he desired to conquer the country to the north
and weet, and started on an expedition with a small
force, taking with him two FranciacanB. The people
who remained at and near San Juan de los Caballeros
were left unprotected. Civil discord followed, and
the newly-settled province was abandoned, the set-
tlers, with the friars^ movinv south. Father Escalona
remained, at the risk of his life, to await the return of
Ofiate; but he had written to the viceroy, asking that
Ofiate should be recalled. Ofiate with a new comi-
aario, Francisco Escobar, and Father San Buenaven-
tura, set out on another counter expedition, and Es-
calona and the other p
tiieir missionary
work amons their
neophytes. New re-
eoforcements arrived
between 1005 and
1608, in spite of
Ofiate's misrule. In
1608 Father Alonao
Feinado came as co-
mUaria and brought
with him eight more
friars. By this time
8000 Indians had
been converted. By
1617 the Franciscans
had built eleven
churches and had
converted 14,000 In-
dians.
In 1620 Father
Ger6nimo de Z&rate
Salmertin, a very
lealous misaionary, came to New Mexico. There he
worked for eight years, and wrote a book on Chris-
tian doctrine in the language of the J£mei. By 1626
the missions numbered 27; 34,000 Indians had been
baptized, and 43 churches built. Of the friars only 16
were left. In 1630 Pr. Benavidee desired to establish
a bishopric in New Mexico, and went to Spain to lay
his petition before the king. In his memorial he says
that there were in New Mexico, in 1630, 25 missions,
covering 90 pue6^, attended by 50 fnars, and that
theChmtian natives numbeTcd 60,000. The missions
established in New Mexico in 1630, accordi&K to this
memorial, were the following: amon^ the Piros, or
Picoe, 3 misHioDs (Socorro, Senecd, Sevilteta); among
the Liguas, 2 (Sandia, Isleta); among the Queres, 3;
among the TompiroB, 8; among theTanos, 1; among
the Pecos, 1; among the Toas, or Tehuas, 3; at Santa
Ffi, 1; among the Taos, 1; among the Zufii, 2. The
other two are not mentioned. However, the wrongs
perpetrated by local governors exasperated the In-
dians, and the missionaries were thus labouring under
difficulties. By 1680 the number of missions bad
increased to 33, but the Indian rebellion broke out.
All the miHsions and settlements were destroyed, the
churches burned, and the settlera massacred. The
number of victims among the Spaniards was 400. Of
the missionaries, U escaped, while 21 were massacred.
With Don Diego de Vargas, and the reconquest of
New Mexico in 1691-95, the Franciscans entered the
province again. Father San Antonio was the guard-
ian, but in le&l he returned to £1 Paso, and, with
Father Francisco Vargas aa guardian, th<
HEW BOXIOO
were re-established. Not only were most of the old
missions again in a prosperous condition, but new ones
were established among the Apaches, Navaios, and
other tribes. Towards the middle of the ei^teenth
century, petty disputes arose between the fnars and
the Bishop of Durango, and the results were unfar-
ourable to the missions, which at this time numbered
from 20 to 25, Father Juan Mirabal being guardian.
In 1760 Bishop Tamar6n of Durango visited the prov-
ince. From this time on the Franciscan missions in
New Mexico changed, the friars in many cases acted
as jjarieh priests, and their work, did not prove so
fruitful.
During the last half ot the eighteenth century, and
during the last years of Spanish rule (180O'1821), the
missions declined more and more The Franciscans
still remained, and received salaries from the Govern-
ment, not as missionaries but as parish priests. They
were under their guardian, but the Bishop of Durango
controlled rehgious affairs, with a permanent vicar
in New Mexico. The Mexican rule of 1821-1846 was
worse than the Span-
ish rule, and the mis-
sions existed only in
name. At the time
of the American oc-
cupation, in 1846,the
' ' US, as such, no
existed.
ary
work in what is now
Arizona was in some
cases that of the.
New Mexican friars,
who from the begin-
ning of their labours
extended their mis-
sions among the Zufii
and the Moquis. A
few of these missions,
however, had no con-
nexionwhateverwith
the misaionary work
of New Mexico. After
Niia's exploration in
1540, we know little of the misaonanr work in Ari-
cona proper, until 1633, when Fray Francisco Par-
ras, wno was almost ^ne in his work, was killed
at Aguatevi. In 1680 four Franciscans, attending
three missions among the Moquis, were killed dur-
ing the New Mexican rebellion of that year. In
Northern Mexico, close to the Arisona line (or, as then
known. Fimeria Alta) , the Jesuits were doing excellent
mission work in 1600-1700. It was a Jesuit, also,
Father Eusebio Francisco Kino, who explored what is
now southern Arizona, in 1687. No missions were es-
tablished, however, in Arizona before Father Kino's
death in 1711, though churches were built, and many
Indians converted. The work of Father Kino was
abandoned after his death, until 1732, when FathMfl
Felipe Segeaser and Juan B. GrashofTer established
the first permanent missions of Arizona at San Xavfo'
del Bac and San Miguel de Guevavi. In 1750 these
two missions were attacked and plundered by the
Pimas,butthemie8ionariese8caped. In 1752 the mis-
sions were reoccupied. A rivalry between the Fran-
ciscans and the Jesuits hindered the success of the
In 1767, however, the controversy between Jesuits
and Fruiciscans was ended, and the Jf»uits expelled.
The Government, not content with their expulsion,
confiscatHi the mission property, though the Francis-
cans were invited to the field. Four Franciscans ar-
rived in 1768 to renew the missionary work and found
the missions in a deplorable state, but they persuaded
the Government to help in the restoration and to re-
store the confiscated property. It is to be observed
\>
NEW MEXICO
that theae missions of Arizona, as well as many of
those of Sonora in Mexico, were, until 1873, under the
control of the College of Santa Cruz (just across the
^Arizona line in Northern Mexico), separated from
1783 to 1791, and united in 1791. The two important
Arizona Missions, San Xavier del Bac and San Miguel
de Guevavi, became prosperous, the former under the
famous Franciscan, Father Francisco Garc^ from
1768 to 1774. Father Garcds laboured continually
among the Indians until he lost his hfe, in 1781. in his
missionary work near the Colorado River in Califor-
nia. The missions of Arizona declined after 1 800, and
in 1828 the Mexican Government ordered their aban-
donment. From this time until 1859, when Bishop
Lamy of Santa F^sent the Rt. Rev, J. P. Machebceuf
to minister to the spiritual needs of Arizona, there
'were no signs of Christianity in Arizona other than
abandoned missions and ruined churches.
Present Conditions (1910). — Pending the full ad-
mission of New Mexico to statehood, its government
is still that of a territory of the United States, regu-
lated bv the pro vi sons of the Federal Statutes. Ac-
cordingly, the governor and other executive officers are
appointed by the executive authority of the United
States and paid by the Federal Treasury; the Legisla-
ture (House of Representatives and Council) is elected
by the people of the territory ; the Territorial Judi-
ciary (-a chief justice and five associate justices) is ap-
pointed by the President of the United States for a
term of foiur years, but justices of the peace are elected
for two years.
Education. — The educational system of New
Mexico dates from 1890 and is still in process of de-
velopment. The public-school system is governed by
a territorial Boara of Education consisting of seven
members. This board apportions the school funds,
prepares teachers' examinations, selects booka, etc.
There are also the usual coimty and district officers.
At present there are approximately 1000 pubUc
schools in New Mexico, with about 50,000 pupils, of
whom 20,0(X) are Spanish and 100 negroes. There are
70 denominational schools, with 5,000 pupils, and 18
private schools, with 288 pupils. Futhermore, there
were, in 1908, 25 Indian schools with 1933 pupils.
The Catholic schools of the territory number 23,
with about 100 teachers and about 1500 pupils (esti-
mated m 1910; 1,212 in 1908). The most important
CathoHc school in New Mexico is St. Michaers Col-
lege at Santa F^, founded in 1859 by Bishop J. B.
Lamy. The sisters' charitable institutions (hospi-
tals, etc.) are state-aided. In 1909 the appropri-
ations for these purposes amounted to $12,000. The
other denominational schools are distributed as fol-
lows: Presbyterian. 25; Congregational, 9; Methodist,
11; Baptist, 2. The territorial (or state) university
was estabhshed in 1889 at Albuqueroue. It is sup-
ported by territorial appropriations ana land revenues.
For the year 1909-10 the income was $40,000. Its
teaching force consisted, in 1909-10, of 16 professors,
associate professors, and instructors, and the number
of students in attendance was 130. There are three
normal schools, one at Las Vegas, one at El Rito, and
one at Silver City; a miUtary school at Roswell; a
school of mines at Socorro ; and a college of agriculture
and mechanic arts at Mesilla Park — the best equipped
and most efficient school in New Mexico, receiving
both federal and territorial aid aggregating $100,000
a year (1909-10), having a teaching force of 40 profes-
sors, assistant professors, and instructors, and an at-
tenaance of 285 students (1909-10). The combined
valuation of the territorv^s educational institutions is
about $1,000,0(X), while the annual expenditures
aggregate $275,000.
Keligion. — In 1850, when New Mexico was organ-
ized as a territory of the United States, it (including,
till 1863, Arizona and part of Colorado) was made a
vicariate Apoetolic, under the Rt. Rev. John B. Lamy.
I NEW MEXICO
In 1853 New Mexico (with exceptions noted belpw)
was made the Diocese of Santa F^ and the vicar
Apostohc became its first bishop. In 1865 this dio-
cese became the Archdiocese of Santa F^, and Bishop
Lamy became its first archbishop. The archdiocese
includes all of New Mexico, except Dofia Ana, Eddy,
and Grant Counties, which belong to the Diocese of
Tucson. The present Archbishop of Santa F6 is the
Rt. Rev. John B. Pitaval. The Catholic population
of the territory in 1882 was 126,000; in 1906 it was
121,558 (U. S. Census Bulletin, no. 103, p. 36). But
the figures for 1882 (given by H. H. Bancroft) must
incluae the Catholic population of Arizona and prob-
ably also of Colorado. In 1906 the Catholics were
more than 88 per cent of the church membership of
the territory, which was 137,009, distributed as fol-
lows:—
Roman Catholics 121,558
Methodists 6,560
Presbyterians 2,935
Baptists 2,403
Disciples, or Christians 1,092
Protestant Episcopalians 869
Unclassified 1,592
Total 137,009
At present (1910) the total Catholic population of
New Mexico may be estimated at not less than about
130,000, about 120,000 being of Spanish descent. No
definite statistics are available on this last point. The
large Catholic population of New Mexico is due to its
having been colonized by the Spaniards, whose first
thought on founding a colony was to build churches
and establish missions. The recent Catholic immi-
gration has been from the Middle West, and this is
largely Irish.
Catholics distinguished in Public Life. — The fact
that until about the year 1890 the population of the
territory was mostly Spanish, and therefore Catholic,
is the reason why most of the men who have figured
prominently in the history of New Mexico have been
Catholic Spaniards. Among the more prominent
may be mentioned: Donaciano Vigil, military gov-
ernor, 1847-48; Miguel A. Otero, territorial secretary,
1861 ; delegates to the Federal (Jongress, Jos6 M. Ga-
llegos, 1853-54; Miguel A. Otero, 1855-60; Francisco
Perea, 1863-64; Jos6 F. Chaves, 186&-70; Jos^ M.
Gallegos. 1871-72; Trinidad Romero, 1877-78; Mari-
ano S. Otero, 1879-80; Tranquilino Luna, 1881-82;
Francisco A. Manzanares, 1883-4. The treasurers
and auditors from 1863 to 1886 were all, with but one
exception, Catholic Spaniards.
Legislation affecting Religion. — (1) Absolute free-
dom of worship is guarante^ by the Organic Act con-
stituting the territory, and by statute preference to
any religious denomination by law is forbidden. (2)
Horse-racing and cock-fighting on Sunday are forbid-
den; labour, except works of necessity, charity, or
mercy, prohibited, and the offence is punie^able by a
fine of from $5 to $15. (3) No religious test shall be
required as a qualification to any office or public trust
in this territory. Oaths are administered in the usual
fashion, but an affirmation may be used instead when
the individual has conscientious scruples against tak-
ing an oath. (4) No statutory enactment punishing
blasphemy or profanity has ever been passed in this
territory. (5) It is customary to open the sessions of
the Legislature with an invocation of the Supreme
Being, but there is no statutory authority either for or
against this ceremony. Until the present time (1910)
this function has always been discharged by a Catholic
priest. (6) Christmas is the only religious festival
observed as a legal holiday in Isew Mexico. New
Year's Day is also a legal holiday, but Good Friday,
Ash Wednesday, All Souls' Day, etc., are not recog-
nized. (7) There has been no decision in the courts of
New Mexico regarding the seal of confession, but it is
I
NSW NOBCIA
NIW OBUAMS
to be presumed that, in the absence of any statutory
provision covering the point, the courts of the terri-
tory would follow the general rule: that confession to a
priest is a confidential communication and therefore
mviolable. (8) Churches are, in the contemplation of
the laws of New Mexico, in the category of charitable
institutions. (9) No religious or charitable institu-
tion is permitted to hold more than $50,000 worth of
property; any property acauired or held contrary to
the above prohibition sliall oe forfeited and escheat to
the United States. The property of religious institu-
tions is exempt from taxation when it» is being used
and devoted exclusively to its appropriate objects,
and not used with a view to pecuniaiy. profit. The
clergy are exempt from jury and military service.
(10) Marriage may be either by religious or by civil
ceremony. The male must be eighteen years of age,
and the female fifteen, for marriage with parents' con-
sent; after the male is twenty-one ana the female
eighteen they may marry regardless of parents' con-
sent. Mamages between first cousins, uncles, aunts,
nieces and nepnews, half-brothers and sisters, grand-
parent and grandchildren, are declared incestuous and
absolutely void. (11) Education in the public schools
must be non-sectarian. (12) No charitable or reli-
Sious bequests are recognized unless made in writing
uly attested by the lawful number of witnesses. ( 13)
There are no restrictions as to cemeteries other than
that they must not be near to running streams. (14)
Divorce may be obtained for cruelty, adultery, de-
sertion, and for almost every ^und recognis^ as
sufficient in any state of the Union. The party seek-
ing divorce must have been a bona fide resident of the
territory for more than a year prior to the date of fil-
ing the action. Service on the defendant must be per-
sonal, if the defendant is within the territory: but may
be by publication, if the whereabouts of the defendant
are unknown. Trials of divorce are without a jury.
Baiccboft, H. H., Hittory of New Mexico and Arisona (San
Franciaco. 1888) ; Biennial Report of the State Superintendent of
Public Inetruetion of New Mexico (SanU F6, 1908) ; Blackmab,
Spanith Inetituiiona in the Southwest (Baltimore, 1891) ; CompiUa
Laws of New Mexico (Santa F6, 1897 and 1908) ; Catholic Direc-
tory for 1910; U. S. Census Burbau, Bulletin no. 103 (Washinc-
ton, 1906) : Enoelbardt. The Miseione and Mieeionariea of Cali-
fomia, I (San Francisco, 1908); II (San Francisco, 1910); Yi-
llaorI, Hittoria de la Nueva Mijico (AlcaU de Henares, 1610;
Mexico. 1900); lUuUrated Hietory of New Mexico (Los Ancelea,
1907) ; CouES. On the TraU of a Spanish Pioneer (tr. of the diary of
Father Francisco Garc^) (New York, 1900) ; lUport of the Oov-
emor of New Mexico to the Secretary of the Interior (Washington,
1909) ; Shea, History of the Catholic Church in the United States
(New York. 1892) ; Register of the University of New Mexico, 1909-
10 (Albuquerque, 1910); Register of the New Mexico College of
AgriaJture and Mechanic Arts (Santa F6, 1910); Pmo, Notidas
roas _ _
the New Mexico Historical Society, Santa F6); Publications of the
New Mexico Historical Society (SanU F6, 1898-1910).
AURELIO M. ESPINOSA.
New Noreia, a Benedictine abbey in Western Aus-
tralia, founded on 1 March. 1846, by a Spanish Bene-
dictine, Rudesindus Salvaao, for the christianizing of
the Australian aborigines. It is situated eighty-two
miles from Perth, the state capital: its territory is
bounded on the south and east by the Diocese of Perth,
and on the north by the Diocese of Geraldton. This
mission at first had no territory. Its saintly founder,
like the Baptist of old, lived in the wilderness, leading
the same nomadic life as the savajges whom he had
come to lead out of darkness. His food was of the
most variable character, consisting of wild roots dug
out of the earth by the spears of his swarthy neophytes,
with lizards, iguanas, even worms in times of distress,
or, when fortunate in the chase, with the native kan-
garoo. After three years of unparalleled hardships
amongst this cannibal race, Salvado came to the con-
clusion that they were capable of Christianity. As-
sisted byjsomefnends, he started for Rome in 1849 to
procure auxiliaries and money to assist him in prose-
cuting his work of civilization. While in Rome he was
appointed Bishop of Port Victoria in Northern Aus-
trfuia, being consecrated on 15 August, 1849. Before
he left Rome, all his people of Port victoria had ab^-
doned the diocese for the goldfields. Bishop Salvado
thereupon implored the pope to permit him to return
to his beloved Australian blacks. He set out. for
Spain, and obtained tiiere monetary assistance and
over forty young; volunteers. All these afterwards
became Benedictines. They landed in Australia in
charge of their bishop on 15 August, 1852.
Bishop Salvado, with his band of willing worker^
commenced operations forthwith. They cleared lane .
for the plou^, and introduced the natives to habits o
industry. They built a large monastery, schools anc
orphanages for the young, cottages for the married,
flour-mills to grind their wheat, etc. An important
village sopn sprang up, in which many natives were
fed, clothed, and made good Christians. On 12 March.
1867, Pius IX made New Norcia an abbey nuUius and
a prefecture Apostolic with jurisdiction over a terri-
tory of 16 square mjles, the extent of Bishop Salvado's
jurisdiction imtil his death in Rome on 29 December,
1900, in the eighty-seventh year of his age and the
fifty-first of his episcopate. Father Fulgentius Tor-
res, O.S.B., was elected Abbot of New Norcia in suc-
cession to Bishop Salvado on 2 October, 1902. The
new abbot found it necessary to frame a new policy
for his mission. Rapid cnanges were setting in;
agricultural settlers were taking up the land, dnving
out the sheep and cattle lords, ana absorbing the la-
bour of the civilized natives. The mission had now
to provide for the spiritual wants of the white popular
tion, and Abbot Torres boldly faced tiie situatiooby
entering upon a large scheme of improvements in and
around the monastery. With the approbation of the
Holy See, he had the boundaries of the abbey extended
to embrace the country between 30** and 31® 20' S.
latitude, and between the sea and 120® E. longitude —
a territory of over 30,000 sq. miles (nearly as large as
Ireland or the State of Maine). Abbot Torres
brought out many priests and young ecclesiastics for
the monastery and parochial work, and built churches
in the more settled districts of his new territory.
Since Abbot Torres became superior in 1901, the num-
ber of churches has increased from one to ten. To
foster higher education, Abbot Torres has erected a
magnificent convent and ladies' college, and has in
hand a similar institution for boys. He has already
completed a large and commodious girls' orphimage.
All these works have been accompUshed at the ex-
Eense of the Benedictine community. Abbot Torres
as not confined his ener^es solely to New Norcia.
He founded the * ' Drysdale River Aborigines Mission ",
2000 miles away, in the extreme nortn-west of Aus*
tralia, an unexplored land inhabited only by the most
treacherous savages. This mission was opened on 12
July, 1908, with a party of fifteen in charge of two
priests.
Abbot Torres was consecrated bishop in Rome on 22
May, 1910. On the fourth of the same month, by a >
Decree of the Propaganda, he was appointed adminis-
trator Apostolic of lumberley, and hsid the ''Drysdale ,
Mission erected into an abbey nulliua. He has now
under his jurisdiction a territory of 174,000 sq. miles —
an area nearly as large as five important states of the
United States — viz., Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, W.
Virginia, and Maine. The present position (1910)
of the mission is: churches, 10; priests,- 17 (secular, 7) ;
monastic students, 9; other religious, 33: nuns, 18;
high school, 1; primary schools. 4; charitable institu-
tions, 2; children attending Catholic schools, 350;
Catholic population, 3000.
James Flood.
New Orleans, Archdiocese of (Noyjb Aurb-
LiiE), erected 25 April, 1793, as the Diocese of Saint
NEW ORLEANS
6
NIW ORLEANS
Louis of New Orleans; raised to its present rank and
title 19 July, 1850. Its original territonr comprised
the ancient Louisiana Purchase and East and
West Florida, being bounded on the north by the
Canadian line, on the west by the Rocky Mountains
BJxd the Rio Perdito, on the east by the Diocese of Bal-
timore, and on the south by the Diocese of Linares and
the Archdiocese of Duran^o. The present boundaries
include the State of Louisiana, between the twenty-
ninth and thirty-first degree of n6rth latitude, bj\ area
of 23,208 square miles. The entire territory of
Louisiana has undergone a series of changes which
divide its history into four distinct periods.
I. Early Colonial Period. — The discoverers and
pioneers, De Soto, Iberville, La Salle, Bienville, were
accompanied by missionaries in their expeditions
through the Louisiana Purchase, and in the toilsome
beginnings of the first feeble settlements, which were
simply military posts, the Cross blazed the way.
From the beginning of its history, Louisiana had been
placed under the jurisdiction of the Bishop of Quebec;
in 1696 the priests of the Seminary of Quebec peti-
tioned the second Bishop of Quebec for authority to
establish missions in the West, investing the superior
sent out by the seminary with the powers of vicar-gen-
eral. The field for which they obtained this authori-
sation (1 May, 1698) was on tioth banks of the Missis-
sippi and its tributaries. They proposed to plant
their first mission among the Tamarois, but when this
became known, the Jesuits claimed that tribe as one
aJready under their care: they received the new mis-
sionaries with personal cordiality, but felt keenly the
official action of Bishop St-Valfier, in what they re-
garded as an intrusion. Fathers JoUiet de Montigny,
Antoine Davion, and Francois Busion de Saint-Cosme
were the missionaries sent to found the new missions
in the Mississippi Valley. In 1699 Iberville, who had
sailed from France, with his two brothers Bienville
and Sauvolle, and Father Du Ru, S.J., coming up the
estuary of the Mississippi, found Father Montigny
among the Tensas Indians. Iberville left Sauvolle in
command of the little fort at Biloxi, the first perma-
nent settlement in Louisiana. Father Borden ave was
its first chaplain, thus beginning the long line of zeal-
ous parish priests in Louisiana.
In 1703 Bishop St-Vallier proposed to erect Mobile
into a parish, and annex it in perpetuity to the sem-
inary; the seminary agreed, and tne Parish of Mobile
was erected 20 July, 1703, and united to the Seminary
of Foreign Missions of Paris and Quebec. Father Roul-
leaux de la Vente, of the Diocese of Bayeux, was ap-
pointed parish priest and Father Huve his assistant.
The Biloxi settlement being difficult of access from the
sea, Bienville thought it unsuitable for the headquar-
ters of the province. In 1718, taking with him fifty
men, he selected Tchoutchouma, the present site of
New Orleans, about 110 miles from the mouth of the
Mississippi River, where there was a deserted Indian
village. Bienville directed his men to clear the ground
and erect buildings. The city was laid out according
to the plans of the Chevalier Le Blond de La Tour,
chief engineer of the colony, the plans including a
parish church, which Bienville decided to dedicate
under the invocation of St. Louis. The old St. Louis
cathedral stands on the site of this first parish church,
and the presbytery in Cathedral Alley is the site of the
first modest clergy house. Bienville called the city
New Orleans after the Due d'Orl^ans, and the whole
territory Louisiana, or New France.
In August, 1717, the Due d'Orl^ans, as Regent of
France, issued letters patent establishing a joint-
stock compan>[ to be called '^The Company of the
West", to which Louisiana was transferred. The
companv was obUged to build churches at its own ex-
pense wherever it should establish settlements; also to
maintain the necessary number of duly approved
priests to preach, perform Divine service, and admin-
ister the sacraments under the authority of the Bishop
of Quebec. Bienville experienced much opposition
from the Companv of the West in his attempt to re-
move the colony from Biloxi. In 1721 Father Fran-
9ois-Xavier de Charlevoix, S.J., one of the first his-
torians of Louisiana, made a tour of New France from
the Lak^ to the Mississippi, visiting New Orieans,
which he describes as '^a little village of about one
hundred cabins dotted here and there, with little at-
tempt at order, a large wooden warehouse in which I
said Mass, a chapel in course of construction and two
storehouses' * . But under Bienville's direction the city
soon took shape, and, with the consent of the com-
pany, the colony was moved to this site in 1723. Fa-
ther Charlevoix reported on the great spiritual 'desti-
tution of the province occasioned by the missions
being scattered so far apart and the scarcity of priests,
and this compelled the council of the company to
make efforts to improve conditions. Accordingly, the
company applied to the Bishop of Quebec, and on 16
May, 1722, Louisiana was divided into three ecclesias-
tical sections. The district north of the Ohio was en-
trusted to the Society of Jesus and the Priests of the
Foreim Missions of Paris and Quebec; that between
the Mississippi and the Rio Perdito, to the Discalced
Carmelite Fathers, with headquarters at Mobile. The
Carmelites were recalled, not long after, and their dis-
trict was given to the Capuchins.
A different arrangement was made for the Indian
and new French settlements on the lower Mississippi.
Because of the remoteness of this district from Que-
bec, Father Louis-Frangois Duplessis de Momay. a
Capuchin of Meudon, was consecrated, at Bishop St-
Vallier's request, coadjutor Bishop of Quebec^ 22
April, 1714. Bishop St^Vallier appointed him vicar-
general for Louisiana, but he never came to America,
although he eventually succeeded to the See of Que-
bec. When the Company of the West applied to him
for priests for the lower Mississippi Valley he offered
the more populous field of colomsts to the Capuchin
Fathers of the Province of Champagne, who, however,
did not take any immediate steps, and it was not
till 1720 that any of the order came to Louisiana. Fa-
ther Jean-Matthieu de Saint- Anne is the first whose
name is recorded. He signs himself in 1720 in the
register of the parish of New Orleans. The last entry
of the secular clergy in Mobile was that of Rev. Alex-
ander Huve, 13 January. 1721. The Capuchins came
directly from France ana consequently found appUca-
tion to the Bishop of Quebec long and tedious; Father
Matthieu therefore applied to Rome for special pow-
ers for fifteen missions under his charge,.representing
that the great distance from the Bishop of Quebec
made it practically impossible for him to apply to the
bishop. A brief was really issued (Michael a Tugio,
"Bullarium Ord. FF. Minor. S.P. Francisci Capuci-
norum", Fol. 1740-52; BLL, pp. 322, 323)^ and Father
Matthieu seems to have assumed that it exempted
him from episcopal jurisdiction, for, on 14 March,
1723, he signs the register "Pdre Matthieu, Vicaire
Apostolique et Cut6 de la Mobile".
In 1722 Bishop de Momay entrusted the spiritual
jurisdiction of the Indians to the Jesuits, who were to
establish missions in all parts of Louisiana with resi-
dence at New Orleans, but were not to exercise any
ecclesiastical function there without the consent of the
Capuchins, though they were to minister to the French
in the Illinois District, with the Priests of the Foreign
Missions, where the superior of each body was a vicaj>
general, just as the Capuchin superior was at New Or-
leans. In the spring of 1723 Father Raphael de Lux-
embourg arrived to assume his duties as superior of
the Capuchin Mission in Louisiana. It was a difficult
task that the Capuchins had assumed. Their congre-
gations were scattered over a large area; there was
much poverty, suffering, and ignorance of religion.
Father Raphael, in the cathedral archives, says that
MKW ORLEANS 7 NEW ORLEANS
>
when he landed in New Orleans he could hardly secure honest wives and mothers. From time to time ships
a room for himself and his brethiren to occupy pending freighted with girls would arrive; they came over m
the rebuilding of the presbytery, much less one to con- charge of the Grey Nuns of Canada and a priest, and
vert into a chapel; for the population seemed indiflfer- were sent by the king to be married to the colonists,
ent to all that savoured of religion. There were less The Bishop of Quebec was also charged with the duty
than thirty persons at Mass on Sundays; yet, undis- of sending out young women who were known to be
mayed, the missionaries set to work and soon saw good and virtuous. As a proof of her respectability,
theu* zeal rewarded with a sreater reverence for reli- each girl was furnished by the bishop with a ciuiously
gion and more faithful attendance at church. In 1725 wrought casket; they are known in Louisiana history
New Orleans had become an important settlement, as "casket girls". Each band of girls, on arriving at
the Capuchins having a flock of six hundred families. New Orleans, was confided to the care of the Ursulmes
Mobile had declined to sixty families, the Apalache until they were married to colonists able to provide
Indians (Catholics) numbered sixty families, there for their support. Many of the best families of the
were six at the Balize, two hundred at St. Charles or state are proud to trace their descent from "casket
Les Allemandes, one hundred at Point Coupde, six at girls".
Natchez, fifty at Natchitoches and the other missions Tlie city was growing and developing; a better class
which are not named in the "BullariumCapucinorum" of immigrant was pouring in, and Father Charle-
(Vol. VIII, p. 330). voix, on his visit in 1728, wrote to the Duchesse de
The founder of the Jesuit Mission in New Orleans Lesdiguidres: "My hopes, I think, are well founded
was Father Nicolas-Ignatius de Beaubois, who was that this wild and desert place, which the reeds and
appointed vicar-general for his district. He visited trees still cover, will be one day, and that not far dis-
New Orleans ana returned to France to obtain Fa- tant, a city of opulence and the metropolis of a rich
thers of the Society for his mission. Being also com- colony. " His words were prophetic: New Orleans
missioned by Bienville to obtain sisters of some order was fast developing, and early chronicles say that it
to assume charge of a hospital and school, he applied to suggested the splendours of Paris. There was a gov-
the Ursulines of Rouen, who accepted the call. The emor with a military staff, bringing to the city the
royal patent authorizing the Ursulmes to found a con- manners and splendour of the Court of Versailles, and
vent in Louisiana was issued 18 Sept., 1726. Mother the manners and usages of the mother country
Mary Tranchepain of St. Augustine, with seven pro- stamped on Louisiana fife characteristics in marked
fessed nuns from Rouen, Le Havre, Vannes, Ploermel, contrast to the Ufe of any other American colony. The
Hennebon, and Elboeuf, a novice, Madeline Hau- Jesuit Fathers of New Orleans had no parochial resi-
chard, and two seculars, met at the infirmary at Henne- dence, but directed the Ursulines, and nad charge of
bon on 12 January, 1727, and, accompanied by Fa- their private chapel and a plantation where, in 1751,
thers Tartarin and Doutreleau, set sail for Louisiana, they mtroduced into Louisiana the culture of the
They reached New Orleans on 6 August to open the sugar-cane, the orange, and the fig. The Capuchins
first convent for women within the present limits of establbhed missions wherever they could. Bisnop St-
the United States of America. As the convent was Vallier had been succeeded by Bishop de Momay,
not ready for their reception, the governor gave up his who never went to Quebec, but resigned the see, after
own residence to them. The history of the Ursulines five years. His successor, Henri-Marie Du Breuil de
from their departure from Rouen through a period of Pontbriand, appointed Father de Beaubois, S.J., his
thirty years in Louisiana, is told by Sister Madeline vicar-general m Louisiana. The Capuchin Fathers
Hauchard in a diary still preserved in the UrsuUne refused to recognize Father de Beaubois' authority,
Convent of New Orleans, and which forms, with Fa- claiming, under the agreement of the Company of the
ther Charlevoix's history, the principal record of those West with the coadjutor bishop, de Momay, that the
.early days. On 7 August, 1727, the Ursulines bepan superior of the Capuchins was, in perpetuity, vicar-
in Louisiana the work which has since continue with- general of the province, and tiiat the bishop could
out interruption. They opened a hospital for the care appoint no other. Succeeding bishops of Quebec
of the sick and a school for poor children, also an acad- declared, however, that they could not, as bishops, ad-
emy which is now the oldest educational institution mit that the assent of a coadjutor and vicar-general to
for women in the United States. The convent in an agreement with a trading company had forever de-
which the Ursulines then took up their abode still prived every bishop of Quebec of the right to act as
stands, the oldest conventual structure in the United freely in Louisiana as in any other part of his diocese.
States and the oldest building within the limits of the This incident gave rise to some fnction between the
Louisiana Purchase. In 1824 the Ursulines removed two orders which has been spoken of derisively by
to the lower portion of the city, and the old convent Louisiana historians, notably by Gayarr^, as "The
became first the episcopal residence and then the di- War of the Capuchins and the Jesuits". The archives
ocesan chancery. of the diocese, as also the records of the Capuchins in
Meanwhile Father Mathurin le Petit, S.J., estab- Louisiana, show that it was simply a question of juris-
lished a mission among the Choctaws; Father Du diction, which gave rise to a discussion so petty as to
Poisson. among the Arkansas; Father Doutreleau, on be unworthy of notice. Historians exaggerate this be-
the Wabash : Fathers Tartarin and Le Boulenger, at yond all importance, while failing to chronicle the
Kaskaskia: Father Guymonneau among the Metcho- shameful spoliation of the Jesuits by the French Gov-
gimeas; Father Souel, among the Yazoos; Father emment wnich suddenly settled the question forever,
audouin, among the Chickasaws. The Natchez In- In 1761 the Parliaments of several provinces of
dians, provoked by the tyranny and rapacity of Cho- France had condemned the Jesuits, and measures were
part, tne French commandant, in 1729 nearly de- taken against them in the kingdom. They were ex-
stroyed all' these missions. Father Du Poisson and pelled from Paris, and the Superior Council of Louis-
Father Souel were killed by the Indians. As an in- lana, following the example, on 9 June, 1763, just ten
stance of the faith implanted in the Iroquois about this years before the order was suppressed by Clement XIV,
time there was received into the Ursuline Order at passed an act suppressing tne Jesuits throughout the
New Orleans, Mary Turpin, daughter of a Canadian province, declaring them dangerous to royal author-
father and an Illinois mother. She died a professed ity, to tne rights of the bishops, and to the public
nun in 1761, at the age of fifty-two with the distinc- safety. The Jesuits were charged with neglecting
tion of being the first American bom nun in this coun- their mission, with havine developed their plantation,
try. From the be^nning of the colony at Biloxi the and with having usurped the office of vicar-general,
immigration of women had been small. Bienville To the first charge the record of their labours was suffi-
made constant appeals to the mother country to send cient refutation; to the second, it was assuredly to the
mW 0BLIAN8
8
MIW 0BLIAN8
credit of the Jesuits that they made their i)]antation
BO productive as to maintain their missionaries; to the
thirdj the action of the bishops of Quebec in appoint-
ing the vicar-general and that of the Superior Council
itself in sustaining him was the answer. Nevertheless,
the unjust decree was carried out, the Jesuits' prop-
erty was confiscated, and they were forbidden to use
the name of their society or to wear their habit.
Their property was sold for $180,000. All their
chapels were levelled to the ground, leaving exposed
even the vaults where the dead were interred. The
Jesuits were ordered to give up their missions, to re-
turn to New Orleans and to leave on t^e first vessel
saiHng for France. The Capuchins forgetting their
difference interfered in behalf of the Jesuits; and find-
ing their petitions unavailing went to the river bank
to receive the returning Jesmts, offered them a home
I alongside of their own, and in every way showed their
disapproval of the CounciPs action. The Jesuits
deeply grateful left the Capuchins all the books they
haa been able to save from the spoliation.
Father Boudoin, S. J.^ the benefactor of the colony,
who had introduced the culture of sugar-cane and
oranges from San Domingo, and figs from Provence,
a man to whom the people owed much and to whom
Louisiana to-day owes so much of its prosperity, alone
remained. He was now seventy-two years old and
had spent thirty-five in the colony. He was broken
in health and too ill to leave his room. The^ dragged
him through the streets when prominent citizens in-
tervened and one wealthy planter, Etienne de Bor6,
who had first succeeded m the granulation of sugar,
defied the authorities^ and took Father Boudoin to his
home and sheltered him until his death in 1766. The
most monstrous part of the order of expulsion was
that^ not only were the chapels of the Jesuits in lower
Louisiana — ^many of which were the only places where
Catholics, whit^ and Indians, and negroes, could
worship Uod — ^levelled to the ^und, but the Council
carried out the decree even- m the Illinois district
which had been ceded to the King of England and
^hich was no longer subject to France or Louisiana.
They ordered even the vestments and plate to be de-
livered to the king's attorney. Thus was a vast terri-
tory left destitute of priests and altars, and the rarowth
of the Church retarded for many years. Of the ten
Capuchins left to administer to this immense terri-
tory, five were retained in New Orleans; the remainder
were scattered over the various missions. It is inter-
esting to note that the only native Louisiana priest at
this time and the first to enter the holy priesthood.
Rev. Bernard Viel, bom in New Orleans 1 October,
1736. was among the Jesuits expelled from the colony.
He oied in France, 1821. The inhabitants of New
Orleans then numbered four thousand.
II. Spanish Period. — In 1763 Louisiana was ceded
to Spain, and Antonio Ulloa was sent over to take pos-
session. The colonists were bitterly opposed to the
cession and finally rose in arms against tne governor,
giving him three days in which to leave the town.
(See Louisiana.) The Spanish Government resolved
to punish theparties who had so insulted its represent-
ative, Don Ulloa. and sent Alexander O'Reilly to as-
sume the office ol governor. Lafr^ni^re, President of
the Council, who chiefly instigated the passing of the
decree expelling the Jesuits from the colony, and the
rebellion against the Government, was tried by court
martial and with six of his partners in his scheme, was
shot in the Place d' Armes. O'Reilly reorganized the
Province after the Spanish model. The oath taken
y the officials shows that the doctrine of the Immacu-
late Conception was then officially recognized in the
Spanish dominions. "I appointed
swear before God . . .to maintain . . . the mystery
of the Immaculate Conception of Our Lady, the Vir-
gin Mary."
The change of government affected ecclesiastical
jurisdiction. The Province of Louisiana passed under
the iurisdictioh of the Bishop of Santiago de Cuba, the
Right Rev. Jaime Jos6 de Echeverrfa, and Spanish
Capuchins began to fill the places of their French
brethren. Contradictory Reports reached the new
bishop about conditions in Louisiana and he sent
Father Cirilo de Barcelona with four Spanish Capu-
chins to New Orleans. These priests were Fathers
Franciscp, Angel de Revillagades, Louis de Quintan-
ilia, and Aleman. They reached New Orleans, 19
July, 1773. The genial ways of the French brethren
seemed scandalous to the stem Spanish disciplinarian,
and he informed the Bishop of Cfuba concerning what
he considered ''lax methods of conduct and adminis-
tration". Governor Unzaga, however, interfered in
behalf of the French Capuchins, and wrote to the
bishop censuring the Spanish friars.* This offended
the bishop and both referred the matter to the Spanish
Court. The Government expressed no opinion, but
advised the prelate and governor to compromise^ and
so preserve narmony between the civil and eccelsiasti-
cal authorities. Some Louisiana historians, Charles
Gayarr^ among others, speak of the depravity of the
clergy of that period. These charges are not borne
out by contemporary testimony; the archives of the
cathedral witness that the clergy performed their
work faithfully. These charges as a rule sprang from
monastic prejudices or secular antipathies. One of
the first acts of Father Cirilo as pastor of the St.
Louis Cathedral was to have the catechism printed in
French and Spanish.
The Bishop of Santiago de Cuba resolved to remedy
the deplorable conditions in Louisiana, where confirm-
ation nad never been administered. In view of his
inability to visit this distant portion of his diocese, he
asked for the appointment of an auxiliary bishop, who
would take up his abode in New Orleans, and thence
visit the missions on the Mississippi as well as those in
Mobile, Pensacola, and St. Augustine. The Holy See
appointed Father Cirilo de Barcelona titular Bishop
of TricaU and auxiliary of Santiago. He was conse-
crated in Cuba in 1781 and proceaed to New Orleans
where for the first time the p^ple enjoyed the presence
of a bishop. A saintly man. he infused new Hfe into
the province. The whole of Louisiana and the Flor-,
idas were under his jurisdiction. According to official
records of the Church in Louisiana in 1785, the church
of St. Louis, New Orleans, had a parish priest, four
assistants; and there was a resident priest at each of
the following points: Terre aux Boeufs, St. Charles,
St. John the Baptist. St. James, Ascension, St. Ga-
briel's at Iberville, Point Coupee, AttaJcapas, Ope-
lousas, Natchitoches, Natchez, St. Louis, St. Gene-
vieve, and at Bernard or Manchac (now Galveston).
On 25 November, 1785, Bishop Cirilo appointed as
Sarish priest of New Orleans Kev. Antonio Ildefonso
iorenory Arze de Sedella, one of the six Capuchins
who had come to the colony in 1779. Father Antonio
(popularly known as "P^re Antoine") was destined
to exert a remarkable influence in the colony. Few
priests have been more assailed by historians, but a
careful comparison of the ancient records of the cathe-
dral with the traditions that cluster about his memory
show that he did not deserve on the one hand the in-
dignities which Gayarr^ and Shea heap upon him,
nor yet the excessive honours with which tradition has
crowned him. From the cathedral archives it has
been proven that he was simply an earnest priest
striving to do what he thought his duty amid many
difficulties.
In 1787 a number of unfortunate Acadians came at
the expense of the King of France and settled near
Plaquemines, Terre aux Boeufs, Bayou Lafourche,
Attakapas, and Opelousas, adding to the already
thrifty colony. They brought with them the precious
Register of St. Charles aux Mines in Acadia extending
from 1689 to 1749, only six years before their crud
2TEW ORUUirS
iiiii!
♦n Flor-
nt once
T^ftva^e, a
:»on,Rev.
tm, Father
f s of his
iliey were
. Twouge dis-
.c to Louis-
- to whom
■■:■ Holy See
orcctea the
Louisiana,
Joseph de
nnd the Right
"^ -'Mnry, with the
«hp two Floridas.
-MP IMocese of Ha-
♦' a church was pur-
"Arliest incumbent of
^ Rev. Francis Len-
Hjttchea were English
• iiad sided with Eng-
religious freedom, no
• ver made. On Uood
. Orleans was swept by a
I hundred buildings, in-
. iih the adjoinine convent
of Bishop Cirilo and the
I need to ashes. From the
> built French City rose the
tid New Orleans, practically
u)-day. Foretnost among the
that time was Don Andreas
tt it noble Andalusian family and
--r tor the colony. He had made a
<.)rlcans, and at a cost of $50,000
•o the city the St. Louis Cathedral.
'tfiv for the use of the clergy and the
Rt a cost of $114,000. He also re-
lii and the Cabildo,.the buildings on
cathedral, the hospital, the bojrs'
ior the Ursulines, and founded the
pid assimilation had gone on in
ricans began to make their homes in
11(1 in 1791 the insurrection of San Do-
^re many hundreds of wealthy noble
archives of the New Orleans Diocese
King of Spain petitioned Pope Pius VI
! 7!)0, to erect Louisiana and the Floridas
ito see, and on April 9, 1793, a decree for
j'-rment of the Diocese of Havana, Louisi-
•le Provinces of East and West Florida was
( j>ro\aded for the erection of the See of St.
Aevv Orleans, which was to include all the
i Province and the Provinces of East and
I Ida. The Bishops of Mexico, Agalopli,
.:i, and Caracas were to contribute, pro rata,
T the support of the Bishop of New Orleans,
. .h K time as the see would be selfHsustaining.
roe left the choice of a bishop for the new see
Iving of Spain, and he on 25 April, 1793. wrote
hop Cirilo relieving him of his office ot auxil-
.iiid directing him to return immediately to Cata-
i \Nitb a saliury of one thousand dollars a year,
i. (
which the Bishop of Havana was to contribute*
Bishop Cirilo returned to Havana and seems to have
resided with the Hospital Friars, while endeavouring
to obtain his salary, so that he might return to Europe.
It is not known where Bishop Cirilo died in poverty
and humiliation.
The Right Rev. Luis Pefialver y Cdrdenas was ap-
pointed firat bishop of the new See of Saint Louis of
New Orleans. He was a native of Havana, bom 3
April, 1719, and had been educated by the Jesuits of
his native city, receiving his degree in the university
in 1771. He was a priest of irreproachable character,
and a skillful director of souls. He was consecrated in
the cathedral of Havana in 1793. The St. Louis
p£uish church, now raised to the dignity of a cathe-
dral. was dedicated 23 December, 1794. A letter from
ike King, 14 August, 1794, decreed that its donor, Don
Almonaster, Was authorized to occupv the most prom-
inent seat in the church, second only to that of the
viceregal patron, the intendant of tne province, and
to receive the kiss of peace during the Mass. Don
Almonaster died in 1798 and was buried under the al-
tar of the Sacred Heart.
Bishop Pefialver arrived in New Orleans, 17 July,
1795. In a report to the king and the Holy See he be-
wiuled the indifference he found as to the practice of
religious duties. He condemned the laxity of morals
among the men, and the universal custom of concubin-
age among the slaves. The invasion of many persons
not of the faith, and the toleration of the Government
in admitting ail classes of adventurers for purposes
of trade, had brou^t about disrespect for rehgion.
He deplored the establishment of trading posts,
and of a lodge of French Freemasons, which counted
among its members city ofiBcials, officers of the garri-
son, merchants and foreigners. He believed the peo-
ple' clung to their French traditions. He said that the
King of Spain possessed ''their bodies but' not their
souls '\ He declared that "even the Ursuline Nuns,
from whom good results were obtained in the educar
tion of girls, were so decidedly French in their inclina-
tions that they refused to admit Spanish women, who
wished to become members of their order and many
were in tears because they were obliged to read spirit-
ual exercises in Spanish books". It was a gloomy pic-
ture he presented : but he set faithfullv to work ana on
21 December, 1795. called a synod, tne first and only
one held in the mocese of colonial New Orleans.
He also issued a letter of instruction to the clergy de-
Sloring the fact that many of his fiock were more than
ve hundred leagues away, and how impossible it was
to repair at one and the same time to all. He en-
joined the pastors to walk in the footsteps of Jesus
Christ and m all things to fulfil their duties. This let-
ter of instruction bearing his signature is preserved in
the archives of the diocese, and, with the call for the
synod, forms the only documents signed by the first
Bishop of New Orleans.
Bishop Pefialver everjrwhere showed himself active
in the cause of educational progress and was a gener-
ous benefactor of the poor. He was promoted to the
See of Guatemala, 20 July, 1801. Before his depart
ture he appointed, as vicars-general. Rev. Thomas
Canon Hasset and Rev. Patrick Walsh, who became
officially recognized as "Governors of the Diocese".
Territorially from this ancient see have been erected
the Archbishoprics of St. Louis, Cincinnati, St. Paul,
Dubuque, and Chicago, and the Bishoprics of Alexan-
dria. Mobile, Natchez. Galveston, San Antonio, Little
Rock, St. Augustine. ICansas City, St. Joseph, Daven-
S3rt, Cheyenne, Dallas, Winona, Duluth, Concordia,
maha, Sioux Falls, Oldahoma, St. Cloud, Bismarck,
and Cleveland.
Right Rev. Francis Porro y Peinade, a Franciscan
of the Convent of the Holy Apostles, Rome, was ap-
pointed to succeed Bishop Pefialver. But he never
took possession of the see. Some old chronicles in
STEW ORLEANS
10
MKW OBUAMS
Louisiana say that he was never consecrated; others
that he was^ and died on the eve of leaving Rome.
Bishop Portier (Spalding's ''Life of Bishop Flaget"),
says that he was translated to the See of Tarrazona.
The See of New Orleans remained vacant many years
after the departure of Bishop PefSalver.
In 1798 the Due d*0rl6ans (afterwards King Louis-
Philippe of 1^'rance) with his two brothers, the Due de
Montpensier and the Count de Beaujolais, \'isited
New Orleans. They were received with honour, and
when Louis-Philippe became King of France he re-
membered many of those who had entertained him
when in exile, and was generous to the Church in the
old French province.
III. French and American Period. — By the
Treaty of San Ildefonse, the Spanish Kin^ on 1 Octo-
ber, 1800, engaged to retrocede Louisiana to the
French Republic six months after certain conditions
and stipulations had been executed on the part of
France, and the Holy See deferred the appointment of
a bishop.
On 30 April, 18Cf3, without waiting for the actual
transfer of the province. Napoleon Bonaparte by the
Treaty of Paris sold Louisiana to the United States.
De Laussat, the French Commissioner, had reached
New Orleans on 26 March, 1803, to take iK>s8ession of
the province in the name of France. Spain was pre-
paring to evacuate and general confusion prevailed.
Very lie V. Thomas Hasset, the administrator of the
diocese, was directed to address each priest and ascer-
tain whether they preferred to return with the Span-
ish forces or remain in Louisiana; also to obtain irom
each parish an inventory of the plate, vestments, and
other articles in the Church which had been given by
the Spanish Government. Then came the news of the
cession of the province to the United States. On 30
April, 1803, De Laussat formally surrendered the 'col-
ony to the United States commissioners. The people
felt it keenly, and the cathedral archives show the aif-
ficulties to be surmounted. Father Hasset, as adn^in-
istrator, issued a letter to the clergy on 10 June, 1803,
announcing the new domination and notifying all of
the permission to return to Spain if they desired. Sev-
eral priests signified their desire to follow the Spanish
standard. The question of withdrawal was also dis-
cussed by the Ursuline Nuns. Thirteen out of the
twenty-one choir nuns were in favour of returning to
Spain or going to Havana. De Laussat went to the
convent and assured them that they could remain un-
molested. Notwithstanding this Mother St. Monica
and eleven others, with nearly all the lay sisters ap-
plied to the Marquis de Casa Calvo to convey them to
Havana. Six choir nuns and two lay sisters remained
to begin again the work in Louisiana. They elected
Mother St. Xavier Fargeon as superioress, and re-
sumed all the exercises of community life, maintaining
their academy, day school, orphan asylum, hospital
and instructions for coloured people in catechism . Fa-
ther Hasset wrote to Bishop Carroll, 23 December,
1803, that the retrocession of the province to the
United States of America impelled him to present to
his consideration the present ecclesiastical state of
Louisiana, not doubting that it would soon fall under
his jurisdiction. The ceded province consisted of
twenty-one parishes some of which were vacant.
"The churches were", to use his own words, "all de-
cent temples and comfortably supplied with orna-
ments and everything necessary for divine services.
... Of twenty-six ecclesiastics in the province only
four had agreed to continue their respective stations
under the FVench Government; and whether any more
would remain under that of the United States only
God knew." Father Hasset said that for his own part
he felt that he could not with propriety, relinquish his
Eost. and consequently awaited superior orders to take
is departure. He said that the Rev. Patrick Walsh,
vicar-general and auxiliary governor of the diocese,
had declared that he would not abandon his poet pro-
viding he could hold it with propriety. Father Hasset
died in April 1804. Father Antomo Sedella had re-
turned to New Orleans in 1791, and resumed his du-
ties as parish priest of the St. Louis Cathedral to
which he had been appointed by Bishop Cirilo. After
the cession a dispute arose i>etween mm and Father
Walsh, and the latter, 27 March, 1805, established the
Ursuline Convent as the only place in the parish for
the administration of the sacraments and the cele-
bration of the Divine Office. On 21 March, 1804,
the Ursulines addressed a letter to Thomas Jefferson.
President of the United States, in which they solicitea
the passage of an Act of Congress guaranteeing their
property and rights. The president replied reassuring
the Ursulines. "The principles of the constitution of
the United States", he wrote, "are a sure guaranty
to you that it will be preserved to you sacred and
inviolate, and that your Institution will be per-
mitted to govern itself according to its own voluntary
rules without interference from the civil authority.
Whatever diversity of shades may appear in the re-
ligious opinions of our fellow citizens, the charitable
objer os of your Institution cannot be of indifference to
any; and its furtherance of the wholesome purpose by
training up its young members in the way tney should
go, cannot fail to insure the patronage of the govern-
ment it is under. Be assured that it will meet with all
the protection my office can give it."
Father Walsh, administrator of the diocese, died on
22 August, 1806, and was buried in the Ursuline chapel.
The Archiepiscopal See of Santo Dominga, the metro-
politan of the province, to which the Diocese of Louis-
iana and the Floridas belonged, was vacant, and not
one of the bbhops of the Spanish province would in-
terfere in the New Orleans Diocese, though the Bishop
of Havana extended his authority once more over the
Florida portion of the diocese. As the death of Father
Walsh left the diocese without any one to govern it.
Bishop Carroll, who had meanwhile informed himself of
the condition of affairs, resolved to act under the decree
of 1 Sept., 1805, and assume administration. Father
Antoine had been openly accused of intriguing against
the Government; but beyond accusations m£^e to
Bishop Carroll there is nothing to substantiate them.
He was much loved in New Orleans and some of his
friends desired to obtain the influence of the French
Government to have him appointed to the Bishopric of
Louisiana. However, there is in the archives of the
New Orleans cathedral a letter from Father Antoine
to the Bishop of Baltimore declaring that having
heard that some members of the clergy and laity had
applied to Rome to have him appointed to the Bish-
opric of Louisiana, he hereby declared to the Bishop
of Baltimore that he could not consider the proposi-
tion, thathe was unworthy of the honour and too old to
do any good. He would be grateful to the bishop if he
would cut short any further efforts in that direction.
Bishop Carroll wrote to James Madison, secretary
of State (17 November, 1806) in regard to the Church
in Louisiana, and the recommending of two or three
clergymen one of whom might be appointed Bishop of
New Orleans. Mr. Madison replied that the matter
being purely ecclesiastical the Government could not
interfere. He seemed, however, to share the opinions
of Bishop Carroll in regard to the character and rights
of Father An toine. In 1806 a decree of the Propaganda
confided Louisiana to the care of Bishop Carroll of Bal-
timore, and created him administrator Apostolic. He
appointed Rev. John Olivier (who had been at Caho-
kia until 1803), Vicar^General of Louisiana and chap-
lain of the Ursuline Nuns at New Orleans. Father
Olivier presented his documents to the Governor of
Louisiana, and also wrote to Father Antoine Sedella
apprising nim of the action of the Propaganda. Father
Antoine called upon Father Olivier, but he was not
satisfied as to Bishop Carroll's authorization. The
NEW ORLEANS
11
NSW ORLEANS
▼icar-general published the decree and the bishop's
letter at the convent chapel. The Rev. Thomas J'lynn
wrote from St. Louis. 8 Nov., 1806, that the trustees
were about to install nim. He describes the church as
a good one with a tolerably good bell, a high altar, and
commodious pews. The house for the priest was con-
venient but m need of repair. Except Rev. Father
Maxwell there was scarcely a pnest in Upper
Louisiana in 1807.
As the original rescript issued by the Holy See to
Bishop Carroll had not been so distinct and clear as to
obviate objections, he applied to the Holy See asking
that more ample and distinct authorization be sent.
The Holy See placed the Province of Louisiana under
Bishop Carroll who was requested to send to the New
Orleans Diocese either Rev. Charles Nerinckx or some
secular or regular priest, with the rank of administra-
tor Apostolic and the rights of an ordinary to continue
only at the good will of the Holy See according to in-
structions to be forwarded by the Propaganda. Bishop
Carroll did not act inunediately, but on 18 August,
1812, appointed the Rev. Louis G.V. Dubourg Admin-
istrator Apostolic of the Diocese of Louisiana and the
two Floridas. Dr. Dubour^'s authority was at once
recognized by Father Antoine and the remainder of
the clergy. The war between the United States and
Great Britain was in progress and as the year 1814
drew to a close, Dr. Dubourg issued a pastoral letter
calling upon the people to pray for the success of the
Amencan arms. During the battle of New Orleans
(8 January, 1815) Gen. Andrew Jackson sent a mes-
senger to the Ursulinc Convent to ask for prayers for
his success. When victory came he sent a courier
thanking the sisters for their prayers, and he decreed a
Cublic thanksgiving; a solemn high Mass was cele-
rated in the St. Louis Cathedral, 23 January, 1815.
The condition of religion in the diocese was not en-
couraging, seven out of fourteen parishes were vacant.
Funds were also needed^ and Dr. Dubourg went to
Rome to ask for aid for his diocese. There the Propa-
ganda appointed him bishop, 18 September, 1818. and
on 24 September he was consecrated by Caroinal
Joseph Pamfili (see Dubourg).
Bishop Dubourg proposed the division of the dio-
cese and the erection of a see in Upi>er Louisiana, but
the news of troubles among the clergy in New Orleans
and the attempt of the trustees to obtain a charter
depriving the bishop of his cathedral so alarmed him
that he solicited the Propaganda to allow him to take
up his residence in St. Louis and establish his seminary
and other educational institutions there. He sailed
from Bordeaux for New Orleans (28 June, 1817),
accompanied by five priests, four subdeacons, eleven
seminarians, and three Christian Brothers. He
took possession of the church at St. Genevieve, a
ruined wooden structure, and was installed by Bishop
Flaget. He then established the Lazarist Seminary
at Bois Brule ("The Barrens"), and brought from
Bardstown, where they were temporarily sojourn-
ing. Father Andreis, Father Rosati, and the semi-
narians who had accompanied him from Europe.
The Brothers of the Christian Doctrine opened
a boys' school at St. Genevieve. At his request
the Rehgious of the Sacred Heart, comprising Mes-
dames Philippe Duchesne, Berthold, Andrd,and two
lay sisters reaching New Orleans, 30 May, 1818,
froceeded to 5t. Louis and opened their convent at
lorissant. In 1821 they established a convent at
Grand Coteau, Louisiana. The Faith made great prog-
ress throughout the diocese. On 1 January, 1821,
Bishop Dubourg held the first synod since the Pur-
chase of Louisiana. Where he had^ound ten super-
annuated priests there were now forty active, zealous
men at work. Still appeals came from all parts of the
immense diocese for pnests; among others he received
a letter from the banks of the Cx)lumbia in Oregon
begging him to send a priest to minister to 1500 Cath-
olics there who had never had any one to attend to
them. The UrsuUne Nuns, frequently annoyed by
being summoned to court, appealed to the Legislar
ture claiming the privileges they had enjoyed under
the French and Spanish dominations'^ Their ancient
ri^ts were reco^mzed and a law was passed, 28 Janu-
ary, 1818, enactmg that where the testimony of a nun
was required it should be taken at the convent by
commission. It had a far-reaching effect in later days
upon legislation in the United States in similar cases.
Spain by treaty ceded Florida to the United States,
22 February, 1818, and Bishop Dubourg was then
able to extend his episcopal care to that part of his
diocese, the vast extent of which prompted him to
form plans for the erection of a metropohtan see west
of the Alleghanies. This did not meet with the ap-
proval of the bishops of the United States; he then
proposed to divide the Diocese of Louisiana and the
Floridas, establishing a see at New Orleans embracing
Lower Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida.
Finally^ 13 August, 1822, the Vicariate Apostolic of
Mississippi and Alabama was formed with the Rev.
Joseph Rosati, elected Bishop of Tenagra, as vicar
Apostolic. But Archbishop Mar^chal of Baltimore
remonstrated because in establishing this vicariate,
the Propaganda had inadvertently invaded the rightd
of the Archbishop of Baltimore as the whole of th3se
States except a small portion south of the thirty-first
degree between Perdido and Pearl River belonged to
the Diocese of Baltimore. Bishop Rosati also wrote
representing the poverty and paucity of the Cathohcs
in Mississippi and Alabama, and the necessity of his
remaining at the head of the seminary. Finally his
arguments and the protests of the Arcnbishop of Bal-
timore prevailed^ and the Holy See suppressed the vi-
cariate, appointing Dr. Rosati coadjutor to Bishop
Dubourg to reside at St. Louis. Bishop Rosati was
consecrated by Bishop Dubourg. at Donaldsonville, 25
March, 1824, and proceeded at once to St. Louis.
In 1823 Bishop Duboure took up the subject of the
Indian Missions and laid before the Government the
necessity of a plan for the civilization and conversion
of the Indians west of the Mississippi. His plan met
with the approval of the Government and an allowance
of $200 a year was assigned to four or five missionaries,
to be increased if the project proved successful.
On 29 August, 1825, Alabama and the Floridas were
erected into a vicariate Apostolic, with the Rev.
Michael Portier the first bishop. The Holy See di-
vided the Diocese of Louisiana (18 July, 1826) and
established the See of New Orleans with Louisiana as
its diocese, and the Vicariate ApostoUc of Mississippi
to be administered by the Bishop of New Orleans.
The country north of Ixiuisiana was made the Diocese
of St. Louis, Bishop Rosati being transferred to that
see. ' Bishop Dubourg, though a man of vast projects
and of great service to the Church, was little versed
in business methods; discouraged at the difficulties
that rose to thwart him he resigned his see and was
transferred to Montauban. Bishop Rosati, appointed
to the See of New Orleans, declined the appointment
urging that his knowledge of English qualified him to
labour better in Missouri, Illinois, and Arkansas, while
he was not sufficiently versed in French to address the
people of New Orleans with success. On 20 March,
1827, the papal Brief arrived permitting him to re-
main in St. Louis but chardng him for a while with
the administration of the See of New Orleans. He
appointed the Rev. Leo Raymond de Neckere, CM.,
vicar-general, and strongly recommended his appoint-
ment for the vacant see. Father de Neckere, then
in Belgium whither he had gone to recuperate his
health, was summoned to Rome and appointed bishop.
Returning to New Orleans he was consecrated, 16
May, 1830. Bishop de Neckere was bom, 6 June,
1800, at Wevelghem, Belgium, and while a seminarian
at Ghent, was accepted for the Diocese of New Orleans
MIW 0BUBAN8
12
MKW OBUAm
by Biflbop Dubourg. He joined the Lazarists and
was ordained in St. Louis, Missouri. 13 October, 1822.
On 23 February, 1832, he convoked a synod attended
by twenty-one priests. Regulations were promulgated
for better discipline and steps were taken to form an
aaeociation for the dissemination of good literature.
Americans were now, pouring into New Orleans.
The ancient French limits had long since disappeared.
Such was the enterprise on all sides that in 1830 New
Orleans ranked in importance immediately after New
Yoikt Philadelphia, and Boston. It was the ^eatest
cotton and sugar market in the world . Irish emigration
also set in, and a church for the English-speaking peo-
ple was an absolute necessity as the cathedral and the
old Ursuline chapel were the oi^y places of worship in
New Orleans. A site was bougnt on Camp Street
near Julia, a frame church, St. Patrick's, was erected
and dedicated on 21 April, 1833. Rev. Adam Kinde-
Ion was the pastor of this, the first English-speaking
congregation of New Orleans. The foundation of
this parish was one of the last official acts of Bishop de
Neckere. The year was one of sickness and death. Chol-
era and vello w fever raged. The priests were kept busy
day ana night, and the vicar general. Father p. Rich-
ards, and Fathers Martial, Tichitofi, Kindelon fell vic-
tims to their zeal. Bishop de Neckere, who had retired
to a convent at Convent, La., in hope of restoring his
shattered health, returned at once to the city upon the
outbreak of the epidemic, and b^an visiting and min-
istering to the plague-stricken. Soon he too was seized
with fever and succumbed ten davs later, 5 September,
1833. Just before the bishop's death there arrived in
New Orleans a priest who was destined to exercise for
many years an mfluence upon the Uf e and progress of
the Jjhurch and the Commonwealth, Father James
Ignatius Mullen; he was immediatelv appointed to
the vacant rectorship of St. Patrick's. Upon the
death of Bishop de Neckere, Fathers Anthony Blanc
and V. Lavadi^re, S.J., became the administrators of
the diocese. In November, undismayed by the epi-
demic which still continued, a band of Sisters of Char-
itv set out from Emmitsburs, to take charge of the
Charity Hospital of New Orleans. The sisters had
come into the diocese about 1832 to assume the direc-
tion of the Poydras Asylum, erected by Julian Poy-
dras, a Huguenot. Seven of the new colony from
Emmitsburg were sent to the Asvlum and ten to the
Charity Hospital. Bishop de Neckere had invited
the Tertianr Sisters of Mount Carmel to make a foun-
dation in New Orleans, which they did on 22 October,
1833, a convent school and orphanage beine opened.
Father Augustine Jeanjean was selected by Rome
to fill the episcopal vacancy, but he declined and
Father Anthony Blanc was appointed and consecrated
on 22 November, 1835 (see Blanc, Anthony) . Bishop
Blanc knew the great want of the diocese, the need of
priests, whose raSiks had been decimated by age^ pes-
tilence, and overwork. To meet this want Bisnop
JBlano asked the Jesuits to establish a college in Louisi-
ana. They arrived on 22 January, 1837, and opened
a college at Grand Co|;eau on 5 January, 1838. He
then invited the Lazansts and on 20 December, 1838,
they arrived and at once opened a diocesan seminary
at Bayou Lafourche. In 1836, Julian Poydras haying
died, the Asylum which he founded passed entirely
under Presbyterian auspices, and the Sisters of Char-
ity being compelled to relinquish the direction, St.
Patrick's Orphan Asylum, now New Orleans Female
Orphan Asylum, was founded and placed under their
care. In 1841 the Sisters Marianites of Holy Cross
came to New Orleans to assume charge of St. Mary's
Orphan Boys' Asylum. They opened also an Acad-
emy for young ladies and the Orphanage of {he Immac-
ulate Conception for girls. The wants of the coloured
people also deeplv concerned Bishop Blanc, and he
worked assiduously for the proper spiritual care of the
■layeB. After the insurrection of San Domingo in
1793 a large number of free coloured people from that
island who were slave-holders themselves took refuge
in New Orleans. Thus was created a free colour^
population among which successive epidemics played
havoc leaving aged and orphans to be cared for. Ac-
cordingly in 1842 Bishop Blanc and Father Rousselon,
V.G., founded the Sisters of the Holy Family, whose
duty was the care of the coloured orphans and the aged
coloured poor. It was the first coloured sisterhood
founded in the United States, and one of the only two
that exist.
Bishop Blanc planned the erection of new parishes
in the (Jity of New Orleans, and St. Joseph's and the
Annunciation were founded in 1844. The foundation
of these parishes greatly diminished the conurbation
of the cathedral and the trustees seeing their inmience
waning entered upon a new war against religion.
Upon the death of Father AlOysius Moni, Bishop Blanc
appointed Father C. Maenhaut rector of the cathe-
dral, but the wardens refused to recognize his appoint-
ment, claiming the right of patronage formerly en-
joyed by the King of Spain. They brought an action
against the bishop in the parish court, but the judge
decided against the trustees, and the case was appealed
to the Supreme Court. The Supreme Court decided
that the right to nominate a parish priest, or the jits
paironatus of Spanish law, was abrogated in the state,
and the decision of the Holy See was sustained. But
the wardens refused to recognize this decision and
the bishop ordered the clergy to withdraw from the
cathedral and parochial residence. One of the mem-
bers of the board, who was a member of the city
council, obtained the passage of a law punishing by
fine any priest who should perform the burial service
over a dead body except in the old mortuary chapel
erected in 1 826 as part of the cathedral parish. Unaer
this ordinance Rev. Bernard Permoli was prosecuted.
The old chapel had long outlived its purpose, and on
19 December, 1842, Judge Preval decided the ordi-
nance illegal, and tne Supreme Court of the United
States sustained his decision. The faithful of St.
Patrick's parish having pubUcly protested against the
outrageous proceedings, the tide of public opinion set
in strongly against the men who thus defied all church
authority. In January, 1843, the latter submitted
and received the parish priest appointed by the bishop.
Soon after the faithful Catholics of the city petitioned
the Legislature to amend the Act incorporating the
cathedral, and bring it into harmony with ecclesiasti-
cal discipline. Even after the decision of the Legis-
lature the bishop felt that he could not treat with the
wardens as they defied his authority by authorizing
the erection of a monument to Freemasons in the
Catholic cemetery of St. Louis. To free the faithful,
he therefore contmued to plan for the organization of
parishes and the erection of new churches. Only one
low Mass was said at the cathedral, and that on Sun-
day. Bishop Blanc convened the third synod of the
diocese on 21 April, at which the clergy were warned
against yielding to the illegal claims of trustees, and
the erection of any church without a deed being first
made to the bishop was forbidden. For the churches
in which the trtistees system still existed special ref-
lations were made, governing the method of keepmg
accounts. At the close of 1844 the trustees, defeated
in the courts and held in contempt by public opinion
throughout the diocese, yielded completely to Bishop
Blanc.
This controversy terminated, a period of remarkable
activity in the organization of parishes and the build-
ing of new churches set in. The cornerstone of St.
Mary's, intended to replace the old Ursuline chapel
attached to the bishop s house, was laid on 16 Feb.,
1845; that of St. Joseph's on 16 April, 1846; that of
the Annunciation on 10 May, 1846. The Redemptor-
ists founded the parish of the Assumption, and were
installed in its church on 22 Oct., 1847. The parish
MIW ORLEANS
13
NEW 0BLIAM8
of Mater Dolorosa at Carrollton (then a suburb) was
founded on 8 Sept. ; that of the Holy Name of Mary at
Algiers on 18 Dec., 1848. In 1849 St. Stephen's par-
ish in the then suburb of Bouligny under tne Lazarist
Fathers and Sts. Peter and Paul came into existence.
The comer-stone of the Redemptorist church of St.
Alphonsus was laid by the famous Apostle of Tempeiv
ance, Father Theobald Mathew, on 11 April, 1850;
two years later it was found necessary to enlarge this
'churchy and a school was added. In 1851 the founda-
tion-stone of the church of the Immaculate Concep-
tion was laid, on the site of a humbler edifice erected
in 1848. This is said to have been the first church in
the world dedicated to the Immaculate Conception.
The parishes of St. John the Baptist in the upper town
and of St. Anne in the French quarter were organized
in 1852.
The French congregation of Notre-Dame de Bon
Secours was organized on 16 Jan., 1858. In the
midst of g^reat progress yellow fever broke out and five
priests and two Sisters of Charity swelled the roll
of martyrs. The devoted services of the Sisters of
Charity, especially durine the ravages of the yellow
fever, in attending the sick and caring for the orphans
were so highly appreciated by the Legislature that in
1846 the State made them a grant of land near Donald-
sonville for the opening of a novitiate, and a general
subscription was made throughout the diocese for
this purpose. The sisters established themselves in
Donaldsonville the same year.
In 1843, anxious to provide for the wants of the in-
creasing German and Irish emigration, Bishop Blanc
had sunmioned the Congregation of the Redemptorists
to the diocese and the German parish of St. Mary's
Assumption was founded by Rev. Czackert of that
congregation. In 1847 the work of the Society of
Jesus m the diocese, which had been temporarily
suspended, was resumed under Father Maisounabe as
superior, and a college building was started on 10 June.
In the following year Father Maisounabe and a bril-
liant young Irish associate. Father Blackney, fell vic-
tims to yellow fever. The population of New Orleans
now numbered over fifty thousand, among whom were
many German immigrants. Bishop Blanc turned over
the old Ursuline chapel to the Germans of the lower
portion of the city, and a church was erected, which
finally resulted in the foundation of the Holy Trinity
?arish on 26 October, 1847. In 1849 the College of St.
aul was opened at Baton Rouge. On 13 July, 1852,
St. Charles College became a corporate institution with
Rev. A. J. Jourdan, S. J., as president. In 1849 Bishop
Blanc attended the Seventh Council of Baltimore at
which the bishops expressed their desire that the See
of New Orleans be raised to metropolitan rank. On
19 July, 1850, Pius X established the Archdiocese of
New Orleans, Bishop Blanc being raised to the archi-
episcopal dignity. The Province of New Orleans
was to embrace New Orleans with Mobile, Natchez,
Little Rock, and Galveston as suffragan sees. The
spirit of Knownothingism invaded New Orleans as
other parts of the United States, and Archbishop
Blanc found himself in the thick of the battle. Public
debates were held, conspicuous among those who did
yeoman service in cruslung the efforts of the party in
Louisiana being the Hon. Thos. J. Semmes, a dis-
tinguished advocate. Rev. Francis Xavier Len^ and
Rev. N. J. Perche, both afterwards Archbishop of New
Orleans. Father Perche founded (1844) a French
diocesan journal ''Le Propagateur Catholique'',
which vigorouslv assailed the Knownothing doctrines.
On 6 June a mob attacked the office of the paper, and
also made a fierce attack on the Ursuline Convent,
breaking doors and windows and hurling insults at
the nuns.
In 1853 New Orleans was desolated by the worst epi-
demic of yellow fever in its history, seven priests and
five sisters being among its victims. On 6 March,
1854, the School Sisters of Notre Dame arrived in
New Orleans to take charge of St. Joseph's Asylum,
founded to furnish homes for those orphaned by the
epidemic. St. Vincent's Orphan A^lum was also,
opened as a home for foundUngs and infant orphans,
and entrusted to the Sisters of Charity. On 29 July^
1853, the Holy See divided the Diocese of New Or-
leans, which at that time embraced all Louisiana, and
established the See of Natchitoches (a. v.). The new
diocese contained about twenty-five tnousand Catho-
lics, chiefly a rural population, for whom there were
onlv seven churches. The Convent of the Sacred Heart
at Natchitoches was the only religious institution in
the new diocese. In 1854 Archbishop Blanc went to
Rome and was present at the solemn definition of the
dogma of the Immaculate Conception. In his report
to the Propaganda he describes his diocese as contain-
ing forty quasi-parishes, each with a church and one or
two priests and a residence for the clergy; the city had
eighteen churches. The diocese had a seminary under
the Priests of the Mission with an average of nine stu-
dents; the religious orders at Work were the Jesuits
with three establishments, Priests of the Mission with
three, and Redemptorists with two. The Catholic
gopulation of 95,000 was made up of natives of French,
panish, Irish, or American origin, French, Germans,
Spaniards, and ItaliEins. Distinctive Catholic schools
were increasing. The Ursulines, Religious of the Sa-
cred Heart, Sisters of Holy Charity, Marianites of the
Holy Cross, Tertiary Carmelites, School Sisters of
Notre Dame, and the Coloured Sisters of the Holy
Family were doing excellent woric. Many abuses had
crept m especially with regard to marriage, but after
the erection of new churches with smaller parochial
school districts, religion had gained steadily and the
frequentation of the sacraments was increasing.
In 1855 the Fathers of the Congregation of the Holy-
Cross came to New Orleans to establish a manual in-
dustrial school for the training of the orphan boys who
had been rendered homeless by the terrible epidemic
of 1853. They established themselves in the lower
portion of New Orleans, and became inseparably iden-
tified with religious and educational progress. In 1879
they opened their college, which is now one of the lead-
ing iiistitutions of Louisiana. On 20 January, 1856,
the First Provincial Council of NewOrieans was held,
and in January, 1858, Archbishop Blanc held the
fourth diocesan synod. In 1859 the Sisters of the
Good Shepherd were called by Archbishop Blanc to
New Orleans to open a reformatory for girls. Bishop
Blanc opened another diocesan seminary in the same
year, and placed it in charge of the Lazarist Fathers.
He convoked the second provincial council on 22 Janu-
ary, 1860. Just before the second session opened he
was taken so seriously ill that he could no longer at-
tend the meetings; he rallied and seemed to regain,
his usual health, but he died 20 June following.
Right Rev. John Mary Odin. Bishop of Galveston,,
was appointed successor io Arcnbishop Blanc, and ar-
rived m New Orleans on the Feast of Pentecost, 1861.
The Civil War had already begim and excitement was
intense. All the prudence and charity of the arch-
bishop were needed as the war progressed. An earnest
maintainer of discipline, Archbi^op Odin found it
necessary on 1 January, 1863, to issue regulations re-
garding the recklessness and carelessness that had pre-
vailed m the temporal management of the churches
the indebtedness of which he had been compelled to
assume to save them from bankruptcy. The regular
tions were not favourably received, and the arch-
bishop visited Rome returning in the spring of 1863,
when he had obtained the approvsJ of the Holy See
for his course of action. It was not till some time later
that through his charity and zeal he obtained the cor-
dial support he desired. His appeids for priests while
in Europe were not unheeded and early in 1863 forty
seminarians and five Ursulines arrived with Bishop Du- .
ffXW ORLEANS
14
HEW 0BLEAK8
bois of Galveston. Among the priests were Fathers
Gustave A. Rouxel, later Auxiliaiy Bishop of New Or-
leans under Archbishop Chapelle, Thomas Ueslin,
^terwards Bi^op of Natchez, and J. R. Bogaerts,
vicar-general under Archbishop Janssens. In 1860 the
Dominican Nuns from Cabra. Ireland, came to New
Orleans to take charge of St. John the Baptist School
and open an academy. In 1864 the Sisters of Mercy
came to the city to assume charge of St. Alpfaonsus'
School and Asyfum and open a convent and boarding-
school, and the Marists were offered the Church of St.
Michael at Convent, La. On 12 July, 1864, they as-
sumed charge of Jefferson CoUego founded by the
State in 1835, and donated to them by Valcour Aime, a
wealthy planter. The diocese was incorporated on 15
August, 1866, the legal name and title bemg '* The Ro-
man Catholic Church of the Diocese of New Orleans".
In 1867 during a terrible epidemic of yellow fever and
cholera. Fathers Spiessberger and Seelos of the Re-
demptorists died martyrs of charity. Father Seelos
was regarded as a saint and the cause of his beatifica-'
tion has been introduced in Rome (1905). In 1866,
owing to financial trials throughout the South, the di-
ocesan seminary was closed. In February, 1868, Arch-
bishop Odin founded "The Morning Star" as the offi-
cial organ of the Archdiocese, which it has continued
to be.
During the nine vears of Bishop Odin's administra-
tion he nearlv doubled the number of his clergy and
churches. He attended the Council of the Vatican,
but was obliged to leave Rome on the entry of the
Garibaldian troops. His health was broken and
he returned to his native home, Ambierle, France,
where he died on 25 May, 1870. He was bom on 25
February, 1801, and entered the Lazarists. He came
as a novice to their seminary. The Barrens, in St.
Louis, where he completed his theological stuaies and
received ordination (see Galveston, Diocese of).
He was an excellent administrator and left his diocese
free from debt.
Archbishop Odin was succeeded by the Rev. Napo-
leon Joseph Perche, bom at Angers, France, January,
1805, and died on 27 December, 1883. The latter com-
pleted his studies at the Seminary of Beaupr6, was or-
dained on 19 September, 1829, and sent to Murr'near
Angers where he worked zealously. In 1837 he came to
America with Bishop Flaget and was appointed pastor
of Portland. He came U> New Orleans with Bishop
Blanc in 1841, and he soon became famous in Louis-
iana for his eloquence and learning. Archbishop Odin
petitioned Rome for the appointment of Father
rerche as his coadjutor with the right of succession,
fiis request was granted and. on 1 May, 1870, Father
Perche was consecrated in tne cathedral of New Or-
leans titular Bishop of Abdera. He was promoted to
the see on 25 May, 1870. One of his first acts was
the re-establishment of the diocesan seminary. The
Benedictine Nuns were received into the diocese in
1870.
The Congregation of the Immaculate Conception, a
diocesan sisterhood, was founded in the vear 1873 by
Father Cyprien Venissat, at Labadieville, to afford
education and assistance to the children of families
impoverished by the war. In 1875 the Poor Clares
made a foundation, and on 21 November, 1877, the
Discalced CarmeUte Nuns of St. Louis sent two mem-
bers to make a foundation in New Orleans, their mon-
astery being opened on 11 May, 1878. In 1878 the
new parish of the Sacred Heart of Jesus was organized
and placed in charge of the Holy Cross Fathers from
Indiana. On 12 October, 1872, the Sisters of Perpet-
ual Adoration opened their missions and schools in
New Orleans. In 1879 the Holy Cross Fathers opened
a college in the lower portion of the city. Owing to the
financial difficulties it was necessary to close the di-
ocesan seminary in 1881. Archbishop Perche was a
great scholar, but he lacked administrative ability. In
his desire to relieve Southern families ruined by the
war, he gave to all largely and royally, and thus
plunged the diocese into a debt of over $600,000. He
was growing very feeble and an application was made
to Rome for a coadiutor.
Bishop Francis Aavier Leray of Natchitoches was
transferred to New Orleans as coadjutor and Apostolic
administrator of affairs on 23 October, 1879, and at
once set to work to liquidate the immense debt. It
was during the administration of Archbishop Perche
and the coadjutorship of Bishop Leray that the Board
of Trustees of the cathedral which formerly had caused
so much trouble passed out of existence in July, 1881,
and transferred all the cathedral property to Arch-
bishop Perche and Bishop Leray jointly, for the bene-
fit and use of the Catholic population. Archbishop
Leray was bom at Ch&teau Giron, Brittany, France,
20 April, 1825. He responded to the appeal for
priests for the Diocese of Louisiana in 1843, and com-
pleted his theological studies at the Sulpician seminary
in Baltimore. Be accompanied Bishop Chanche to
Natchez and was ordained b^ him on 19 March, 1852.
He was a most active missionary in the Mississippi
district and in 1860 when pastor of Vicksburg he
brought the Sisters of Mercy irom Baltimore to estab-
lish a school there. Several times during his years
of activity as a priest he was stricken with yellow
fever.
During the Civil War, he served as a Con-
federate chaplain; and on several occasions he was
taken prisoner by the Federal forces but released as
soon as the sacred character of his office was estab-
lished. On the death of Bishop Martin he was ap-
pointed to the See of Natchitoches, and consecrated
on 22 April, 1877, at Rennes, France; on 23 Octo-
ber, 1879, he was appointed coadjutor to Archbishop
Perche of New Orleans and Bishop of Janopolis. His
most difficult task was the bringing of financial order
out of chaos and reducing the enormous debt of the
diocese. In this he met with great success. During
his administration the debt was reduced by at least
$300,000. His health, however, became impaired, and
he went to France in the hope of recuperating, and
died at Chditeau Giron, on 23 September, 1887.
The see remained vacant for nearly a year. Very
Rev. G. A. Rouxel administering the affairs of the dio-
cese, until the Right Rev. Francis Janssens, Bishop of
Natchez, was promoted to fill the vacancy on 7 Au-
gust, 1888, and took possession on 16 September,
1888. Archbishop Janssens was bom at Tillburg,
Holland, on 17 October^ 1843. At thirteen he began
his studies in the seminary at Bois-le-Duc; he re-
mained there ten years, and in 1866 entered the Amer-
ican College at Louvain, Belgium. He was ordained
on 21 December, 1867, and arranged to come to Amer-
ica. He arrived at Richmond m September, 1868,
and became pastor of the cathedral in 1870. He was
administrator of the diocese pending the appointment
of the Right Rev. James (later Cardinal) Gibbons to
the vacant see; Bishop Gibbons appointed him vicar-
general, and five years later when ne was appointed to
the Archiepiscopal See of Baltimore, Father Janssens
became again administrator of the diocese. On 7
April, 1881, the See of Natchez became vacant by the
promotion of Right Rev. Wm. Elder as Archbishop
of Cincinnati and Father Janssens succeeded. While
Bishop of Natchez he completed the cathedral com-
menced forty years before by Bishop Chanche. Not
the least of the difficulties that awaited him as Arch-
bishop of New Orleans was the heavy indebtedness
resting upon the see and the constant drain thus made
which had exhausted the treasury. There was no
seminary and the rapid growth of the population aug-
mented the demand for priests. He at once called a
meeting of the clergy and prominent citizens, and
plans were formulated for the gradual liquidation
of the debt of the diocese, which was found to be
15
SSM.799. BddfeliisdeAtkliehMlreiiiieedittodboiit Ike aibiieB of Ike doer for firearms far Ike 1
fiaO^OOa Kotvitkrtawfi^lliisbiiideB,lke<fioeeBe, tioii of tke dmena ddbl. In October 1900 ke
tfc— i^l> Aoi^rf AiglJiiJifl|i Timiwn fntf iriliqinn tke fitHe fleoimwy at FoBckaloiila and opened a
a period of nuDBoal acdritj. One of hw finl acts, kUgber one in Xcv OrieoBS, placiBK it in ckuge of tke
Marek. 1890. «w to foond a fittle flemnmr, vkick L^saiisC Fatkem. Tke Ridbt Rer.G. A. Rooxelvas
maa opened at PontckatDnkk La^ 3 September, 1891^ appointed anriHarv bishop for IkeSee of NevOrieans^
aad placed under Ike Aeetian of tke BenedicCine aindv«5eoDsecvaledlOA|iiiLlS99. Elglit Rcr. J. M.
Patkers. He vent to Enrope in 1889 to aenne priests Laral w^as made Ticai-gumal and rector of Ike SL
for tke ^fioeeae and to ana^e for tke sale of bonds for LooiB Catkedial on 21 April, and Terr Rer. Jamcn
tke fiqmd^ion of tke debt. In Angost, 1892. after H. Blenk vie appointed Biskop of Porto kico and eon-
tke lyncking of Ike Itafians who wis fi in ited tke chief secrated in tke St. Louis Cstkedral with ArchfairiKip
of poliee. tke Mnaonaiy Sstexs of tke Sacred Heart, Bainada of Santiago de Cuba. 2 Jnhr. 1S99. Aiek-
foonded in Ilalr bj Motker Calwina for woA among bidiop Oiapelle vas absent from tke dSocesc dariag
Italian cnii^^aiiitB,anived in Xcv Orleans and opened the greater part of he administration, duties in Ike An-
a laige mimwi, afreeaehooly and an asjlum for Italian tillesandtkePhifippineBineonnexionvithhisporitaon
ospkaas^ and began also miaaon mixk among the as ApostoSc Delegate rbiming his attention, nerer-
Italian gsidcnen on Ike outEldrtB of tke citr and ai thefesshe accompnahed much for Xcv Orleans. Tke
Kenncr, La. The same year a tcirifie cjcione and dioeesan debt vas extinguished, and tke acti%iU in
storm swept the Lodaana Gulf oonst. and laid lov tke churdi work which had bc^gun under Arddttskop Jana-
lands along tke OaminadaCkenicie where there was a sen continued ;retuTningtoXcw Orleans he introduced
aetUemeot of Itafian and Spanish and Malay fisher- into the diocese the Dominican Fathers from tke
men. Out of a population of loOO orcr ^00 were nufipfMnes. In tke summer of 1905, while tke aick-
sw^it away. Rev. Fatker Grimaod perfonned tke bishop was administeiing confizmation in the coantzr
banal semees orer 400 bocfies as ther were aaahed parishes, vellow f erer broke out in Xew Orleans, and,
ashore. Father Bedel at Burns buned orer three deeming it his duty to be among his pec^»le, he xe-
knndred, and went out at mdbt to suceour tke wander- turned immediately to tke city. On the way from
ing and hdpleas. Archbiabop Janasens in a flmall tke train to his readcnce he was stricken, aixl <fied 9
boat went among the lonehr and desolate island settle- August, 1906 (see Chapkllk, PLacisb Loins). Aoxil-
ments comforting tke peo^ and healing them to re- iaiy Biskop Roooel became the administrator of the
build their broken horoea. diocjeae pending the appointment of a successor.
In 1893, the centcnanr of the diocese was cdetirated The Ri^t Rev. James Hurbert Blenk, SAI.. D.D.,
witk spkndoor at the St. Louis Cathedral; Canfinal Kdwp of PcmtIo Rico, was promoted to Xew Orleans,
(^>bons and many of the hierarchT were i^esent. 20 April. 1900.
Arehbishop Janasens was instrumental, at this time, in IV. CoxmiroRART Coxditioxs. — ArchludK^
eatabMiiiy the Louisiana Lepers' Home at Indian Blenk was bora at Xeostadt. Bavaria, 28 Jidy, 1S50»
Camp, and it was through his offices that the Ssten of Protestant parentage. Wliile a ddld, his^ family
of Otarithr from Emmitsburg took ckarge of the came to Xew Orleans, and it was hoe that the iigjit of
kome. He was deeply interested in the work of the the true Faith dawned upon the boy; he was bi^^tiaed
eofeored Sstera of the Holy Family, now domiciled in in St. Alfdionsus Qiurdi at the age of twdve. Hb
tke ancient Quadroon Ball RocMn arid Theatre of onle- raimary education having been completed in Xew
beOum daya, which had been turned into a convent Orleans, he entered Jefferson CoOege whoe he com-
and boaidiiip-adiooL Through the generoritr of a pleted his daasical and scientific studies unckr the
coiomed philanthropist. Thorny Lafon, AiehbidKyp Marist Fathers. He spent three years at the Marist
Janaaens was enabled to ivovide a larger and more houae of studies in Belley, France, completed his pro-
oomfortaUe home for the aged eoloured poor, a new batiooary studies at the Marist novitiate at Lyons,
asyfami for the boys, aixlthrou^ the legacy of $20,000 and was sent to Dublin to follow a hi^Ma* course of
left for this purpoee by Mr. Lafon, who died in 1883, mathematics at the Catholic Univcrsitv. Thence he
a special home, under the care of the Sisters of the went to St. Mary's CoOege, Dundalk, County Louth,
Good Shepherd, for the refmm of coloured girb. The whoe he occupied the diair of mathematics. Later
St. John Berdunan's ch»pel, a memorial to Thomy he returned to the Marist house of studies in Dubfin
Lafon, was csected in the Convent of the Hoi^ Family adiere he completed his theolo(pcal studies. 16
wluck he had 80 befriended. At this time Aitkbishop August, 1885, he was ordained pnest, and returned
Janaaena estimated the number ci Catholics in Im that year to l/wiisiana to labour among his own peo-
<iioeeae at 341,613; the value of church property at ^e. He was stationed as a pKiofessor at Jeffwson
S3,861,075; the number of bi^tiams a year 15,000 and Cdlege of wiach he became president in 1891 and held
tke immber of deaths, 5000. the position for six years. In 1S96, at the invitation
In 1896 the CathoUc Winter Sdiool of America was of the general of the Marista, he visited all the houses
ofganiaed and was formally opened by Cardinal of the congregation in Europe, and returning to Xew
SatoOi, then Apo8l<^c Ddegate to the Umted States. Orleans in F^ruary, 1897, he became the rector of the
After the deatii of Archbishop Janasens the lecture Churdiof the Holy Xameof Mary, Algias, which was
eouraea were abandoned. The active life led by the in duuge of the Marist Fathers. He erected the
nrehbidbop UAd heavily mMm him. Anxious to uqui- handsome pre^3rtery and gave a great impetus to re-
date enimfy the debt ci the diocese he made arrange- ligionandraucation m the parish and rity, being chair-
menta to visit Europe in 1897, but died aboarduie man of the Board of Studies of the newly organixed
steamer Creole, 19 June, on the voyage to Xew York. Winter School. He was a member of the Board of
Most Rev. Pladde Louis Chi^dfe, D.D., Arch- Consuhors during the administration of Archbishop
liiriiop of Santa F^, was appointed to the vacant See of Janasens and <tf Archbishop Chapelle; the latter se-
New Orleana, 1 December, 1897. Shortly after com- lected him as the auditor and secretary of the Apoa-
ing to New Orleans he found it imperative to go to tolic Ddegation to Cuba and POrto Rico. He was ap-
Emape to effect a settlement for the remainder S the pointed the first bishop of the Island of Porto Rico
diocesan debt of $130,000. While he was in Europe under the American occupation 12 June, 1899. A
war was declared between Spain and the United hurricane overswept Porto Rico just before Bishop
States, and, upon the declaration of peace. Archbishop Blenk l^t to take possession of his see; through his
Ckapdle was a^iointed Apostolic delegate extraor- personal ^orts he raised ova* $30,000 in the United
dinaiy to Cuba and Porto Rico and duufgig d'affaires States to take with him to alleviate the sufferings of
to the FhiliiqMne Islands. Returning fitHn Europe his new people. The successful work d[ Bishop Blenk
he anaassd for tke aaseasment of five per cent upcHi is a part of the history of the reconstruction along
NEW OBUAMS
16
NEW ORLEANS
American lines of the Antilles. He returned to New
Orieans as archbishop, 1 July, 1906, and new life was
infused into every department of religious and edu-
cational and charitaole endeavour. Splendid new
churches and schools were erected, especially in the
country parishes. Among the new institutions were
St. Joseph's Seminary and Collie at St. Benedict,
La.; St. Charles College, Grand Coteau, built on the
ruins of the old college destroved b^ fire; Lake
Charles Sanitarium: Marquette University; and the
Seaman's Haven, wnere a chapel was opened for sail-
ors. The new sisterhoods aomitted to the diocese
were the Religious of the Incarnate Word in charge of
a sanitarium at Lake Charies; the Relinous of Divine
Providence in charge of the school in Broussardville;
and the French Benedictine Sisters driven from
France, who erected the new Convent of St. Gertrude
at St. Benedict, La., destined as an industrial school
for girls. A large industrial school and farm for
coloured boys under the direction of the Sisters of the
Holy Family was opened in Gentilly Road, and two
new parishes outlined for the exclusive care of the
coloured race. In 1907, the seminary conducted by
the Lazarist Fathers was closed and Archbishop
Blenk opened a preparatory seminary and placed it in
charge of the Benedictine Fathers. The diocese as-
sumea full charge of the Chinchuba Deaf-mute Insti-
tute, which was established under Archbishop Jans-
sens and is the only Catholic institute for deaf-mutes
in the South. It is in charge of the School Sisters of
Notre Dame.
New Orleans' priesthood, like the population of
Louisiana, is cosmopolitan. The trainmg of the
priesthood has been conducted at home and abroad,
the diocese owing much to the priests who came from
France, Spain, Ireland, Germany, and Holland. Sev-
eral efiforte were made to establish a permanent semi-
nary and recruit the ranks of the priesthood from the
diocese itself. At various times also the diocese had
students at St. Mary's and St. Charles Seminary,
Baltimore, the Amencan College, Louvain, and has
(1910) twelve the(^ogical students in different semi-
naries of Europe and America. Each parish is incor-
porated and there are the corporate institutions of the
Jesuits and other religious communities. The houses
of study for religious are the Jesuit scholasticate at
Grand Coteau, and the Benedictine scholasticate of
8t. Benedict at St. Benedict, La. The Poor Clares,
discalced Carmelites, Benedictine Nuns, Congrega-
tion of Marianites of the Holy Cross, Ursuline Nuns,
Religious of the Sacred Heart, Sisters of St. Joseph,
Sisters of Perpetual Adoration^ Sisters of the Immacu-
late Conception, Sisters of the Holy Family (coloured).
Sisters of Mount Carmel, have mother-houses with
novitiates in New Orleans. In early days there were
distinctive parishes in New Orleans for French-, Eng-
lish-, and (jrerman-speaking Catholics, but with the
growing diffusion of the English language these parish
fines have disappeared. la all the churches where
necessary, there are French, English, and German ser-
mons and instructions; there are churches and chapels
for Italian emigrants and Hungarians, a German set-
tlement at St. Leo near Ra3me, domestic missions for
negroes under the charge of the Holy Family Sisters
and Josephite Fathers and Lazarists at New Orleans
and Bayou Petite, Prairie.
The educational system is well organized. The
principal institutions are: the diocesan normal school;
the Marquette University under the care of the
Jesuits; 7 colleges and academies with hidb school
courses for boys with 1803 students; 17 academies for
young ladies, under the direction of religious communi-
ties, with 2201 students; 102 parishes with parochial
schools having an attendance of 20,000 pupils; 117
orphan asylums with 1341 orphans; 1 infant asylum
with 164 infants; 1 industrial school for whites with
90 inmates; 1 industrial school for coloured orphan
boys; 1 deaf-mute asylum with 40 inmates; 3 hospi-
tals; 2 homes for the aged white, and 1 for the aged
coloured poor; 1 house of the Good Shepherd for the
reform of wayward sirls;.a Seaman's Haven. The
state asylums for the blind, etc., hospitals, prisons, re-
formatories, ahnshouses, and secular homes for incur-
ables, consumptives, convalescents, etc., are all visited
by Catholic priests, Sisters of Mercy, conferences of
St. Vincent ae Paul, and St. Margaret's Daughters.
There is absolute freedom of worship. The first St.
Vincent de Paul conference was organized in 1852.
The diocese has one Benedictine abbey (St. Joseph's,
of which Right Rev. Paul Schftuble is abbot); 15o
secular priests, 123 priests in religious communities,
making a total of 279 clergy; 133 churches with
resident priests and 90 missions with churches, making
a total of 223 churches; 35 stations and 42 chapels
where Mass is said. The total Catholic population is
550,000; yearly baptisms include 15,155 white chil-
dren, 253 white adults, 3111 coloured children, and
354 coloured adults (total number of baptisms 18,-
873): the communions average 750,180; confirmations
11,215; converts, 817; marriages, 3533 (including 323
mixed). The large centres of church activity are
the cities of New Orleans, Baton Rouge, Plaque-
mine, Donaldsonville, Thibodeaux, Houma, Franklin,
Joannerette. New Iberia, Lafayette. Abbeville, Mor-
gan City, St. Martin, Crowley, Lake Charles. The
churches and schools are all insured; an association
for assisting infirm priests, the Priests' Aid Society,
has been established and mutual aid and benevolent
associations in almost every parish for the assistance
of the laity. Assimilation is constantly going on
among the different nationalities that come to New
Orleans through intennarriage between Germans,
Italians, French^and Americans, and thus is created a
healthy civic sentiment that conduces to earnest and
harmonious progress ajonf .lines of religious, charita-
ble, educational, and social endeavour. The Catholic
laity of the diocese is naturally largely represented
in the life and government of\the community, the
population being so overwhelmi^jgly Catholic; Cath-
olics hold prominent civil positions, such as governor:
ma;)ror. and member of the Bar, Stai^ Legislature^ and
Umted States Congress. A Catiioli<B from Louisiana.
Edward D. White, has been recently OJ910) appointed
Chief Justice of the Supreme Court\of the United
States. Catholics are connected withXthe state nor-
mal schools and colleges, are on the board of the state
universities and pubhc libraries, and areVrepresented
in the corps of professors, patrons, and ptspils of the
Louisiana State and Tulane universiti&. Three
fourths of the teachers of the public sdiooLrlpf Louisi-
ana are Catholics.
The laity take a very active interest in the Religious
life of the diocese. Every church and convenp ^^ f te
altar society for the care of the tabernacle, scldalitieB
of the Blessed Virgin for young girls and women\ "^^^
Holy Name Society for men, young and old, isVs^^ab-
lished throughout the diocese, while conferences V^ 3^-
Vincent de Paul are established in thirty chuil^^^*
St. Margaret's Dau^ters, indulgenced like theSolp^^^y
of St. Vincent de Paul, has twenty-ei^t circl^
work, and the Total Abstinence Society is estabU
in many churches. Besides the Third Order o
Francis, the diocese has confraternities of the Hi
Death, the Holy Face, the Holy Rosary, and the 1
Agony; the Apostlesnip of Prayer is establishe
nearly all the churches, while many parishes
confraternities adapted to their special needs.
Catholic Knights of America and ICni^ts of Co V^~
bus are firmly established, while the Holy Spiri^ °^
ciety, devoted to the defence of Catholic FaithBt ^^
diffusion of Catholic truth, and the establishmrV^t of
churches and schools in wayside places, is doing Bnoble
work along church extension lines. Other so^pgtieg
are the Marquette League, the Society for the i^ivpa-
at
hed
St.
py
oly
m
ave
The
MKW P0MER4NIA
17
NEW POMS&ANIA
gation of the Faith, which traces its origin to Bishop
Dubourg of Louisiana, the Society of the Holy Child-
hood, and the Priests' Eucharistic League. Religious
life in the diocese is regular and characterized by strict
discipline and earnest spirituality. Monthly confer-
ences are held and ecclesiastical conferences three
times a year.
The religious communities in the diocese are: (1)
Male: Benedictines, Fathers and Brothers of the Holy
Cross, Dominicans, Jesuits, Josephites^ Lazarists.
Marists, Redemptorists, and Brothers of the Sacrea
Heart; (2) Female: Sisters of St. Benedict, French
Benedictine Sisters, Discalced Carmelite Nuns, Sis-
ters of Mount Carmel, Poor Clares, Sisters of Charity,
Sisters of Charity of the Incarnate Word, Sisters of
Christian Charity, Sisters of Divine Providence,
Dominican Sisters, Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Sis-
ters of the Holy Family, Sisters of the Immaculate
Conception, Sbters of St. Joseph, Little Sisters of the
Poor, Sisters Marianites of the Holy Cross, Sisters of
Mercy, School Sisters of Notre Dame, Sisters of Our
Lady of Lourdes, Religious of the Sacred Heart, Ursu-
line Sisters, Missionary Sisters of the Sacred Heart,
Sisters of Perpetual Adoration of the Blessed Sacra-
ment. C6lo\u«d Catholics : The works in behalf of the
coloured race began in the earliest days, in Louisiana,
when the Jesuits devoted themselves especially to the
care of the Indians and negroes. After the expulsion
of the Jesuits the King of Spain ordered that a chap-
lain for negroes be placed on every plantation. Al-
though this was impossible owing to the scarcity of
priests, the greatest interest was taken in the evan-
gdisation of negroes and winning them from super-
stitious practices. The work of zealous Catholic
masters and mistresses bore fruit in many ways, and
there remains to-day in New Orleans, despite the
losses to the Faith occasioned by the Civil War and
during the Reconstruction Period when hordes of
Protestant missionaries from the north flocked into
Louisiana with millions of dollars to proselytize the
race, a strong and sturdy Catholic element among the
coloured people from which much is hoped. The Sis-
ters of the Holy Family, a diocesan coloured order of
religious, have accompushed much good. In addition
to weir academy and orphanages for girls and boys
and homes for the coloured aged poor of both sexes,
located in New Orleans, they have a novitiate and
conduct an academy in the cathedral parish and
schools in the parishes of St. Maurice, St. Louis, Mater
Dolorosa, St. Dominic, and St. Catherine in New Or-
leans, and schools and a^lums in Madisonville, Don-
iJdsonville, Opelusas, Baton Rouge, Mandevilles,
Lafayette, and Palmetto, Louisiana. Schools for
coloured children are also conducted by the following
white relidous orders: Sisters of Perpetual Adoration,
Sisters of Mercy, Mount Carmel Sisters, Religious of
the Sacred Heart, Sisters of St. Joseph. Six coloured
schools in charge of lay Catholic teachers in vari-
ous parishes, St. Catherme's church in charge of the
Lazarist Fathers, and St. Dominic's in charge of the
Josephite Fathers in New Orleans are especially es-
tablished for Catholic negroes.
Arehitea of ths Dioce$4 of New Orleans; Arehivee of the St. Louie
Cathedral; Shba. The Caih. Church in Colonial Daye (New York,
1886); Idem, Life and Timee of Archbishop Carrol (New York,
1888) : loBM, Hist, of the Caih. Church in the U. S., 1808-86 (2 voIb.,
New York. 1802); Gatarbb, HisL de la Louisiane (2 voU., New
(Means, 1846-7); Charlevoix, Journal d*un Voyage dans
rAmiriiiue Septentrional, YI (Pans, 1744): db la Harpe, Jourruil
Hiei, de VStabliesemenl dee Franeais d la Louisiane (New Or-
leans, 1831) ; King, Sieur de BienviUe (New York, 1893) ; Dimitrt,
Hiel. of Louisiana (New York, 1892) ; Dxtmont, Mimoires Histor.
sur la Louisiane (Paris, 1763) ; Lb Pagb ou Prate, Hist, de la L.
gyols.. Paris, 1758); Fobtibr, L. Studiee (New Orleans, 1894);
■If, Hisi. ofL. (4 vols.. New York, 1894): Martin, Hist, oft,
from the earliest Period (1727) ; Kino and Ficklen, Hist, of L.
(New (Orleans, 1900) ; Archives of the Ursuline Consent, New Or-
leane. Diary of Sister Madeleine Haehard (New Orleans, 1727-65) ;
LeIUre of Sietsr M. H. (1727); Archives of Churches, Diocese of
New Orleans 0722-1909); Le PropagaUur Calholique (New Or-
leans), files; The Morning Star (New Orleans, 1868-1909), files:
Le MoniUwr de La Louisiane (New Orleans, 1794-1803), files;
XI.— 2
French and Spanish manuscripts in archives of Louisiana Hi»>
torical Society; Chambon, In and Around the Old St. Louis Cathe-
dral (New Orleans. 1008); The Picayune (New Orleans. 1887-
1909). files; Camille db Kochementeix, Les Jisuites et la AToic-
telle France au X VIII* Siide (Paris. 1906) ; Castellanos, New
Orleans as it Was (New Orleans, 1905) ; Member or the Order
OP Mercy, Essays BdtuxUional and Historic (New York, 1899);
Lowenstein, Hist, of the St. Louis Cathedral of New Orleans
(1882) ; Member op the Order op Merct, Caih. Hist, of Alar
hama and the Floridas; Centenaire du Ph-e Antoine (New Orleans,
1885); Harobt, Religious of the Sacred HeaH (New York, 1910).
Marie Louise Points.
•
N<fW Pomerania, Vicariate Apostolic of. — ^New
Pomerania, the largest island of the Bismarck Archi-
pela^, is separated from New Guinea byDampier
Strait, and extends from 148^ to 152^ E. long, and
from 4° to 7^ S. lat. It is about 348 miles long, from
12J^ to 923^ miles broad, and has an area of 9^50 sq.
miles. Two geographical regions are distinguishable.
Of the north-eastern section (known as the Gazelle
Peninsula) a great portion is occupied by wooded
mountain chains; otherwise (especially about Blanche
Bay) the soil is very fertile and admirably watered by
rivers (e. g. the Toriu and Kerawat), which yield an
abundance of fish. The white population is practi-
cally confined to the northern part of this section, in
which the capital, Herbertshdhe, is situated. The
western and larger section also has extensive mountain
chains, which contain numerous active volcanoes.
Tlie warlike nature of the natives, who fiercely resent
as an intrusion every attempt to land, has left us al-
most entirely ignorant of the interior.
The natives are finely built, coffee, brown in colour,
have regular features, and, when well cared for as at
the mission stations, approach the European stand-
surd, though their lips are somewhat thick and the
mouth hau or wide open. While resembling the south-
eastern Papuan, they use weapons unknown to the
latter — e. g. the sling, in the use of which they possess
marvellous dexterity, skilfully inserting the .stone with
the toes. They occupy few towns owing to the con-
stant feuds raging among them. One of their strang-
est institutions is their money ((ietoarrd), composed of
small cowrie shells threaded on a piece of cane. The
difficulty of procuring these shells, which are found
only in very deep water, accounts for the value set on
them. The unit is usually a fathom (the length of
both arms extended) of detDorra. The tribes have no
chiefs; an individual's importance varies according to
the amount of dewarra he possesses, but the final de-
cision for peace or war fests with the tribe. This en-
tire absence of authority among the natives is a g^reat
obstacle in the way of government. The natives are
very superstitious: a demon resides in each volcano,
and marks his displeasure by sending forth fire agiunst
the people. To propitiate the evil spirits, a piece of
deiDorra is always placed in the grave with the corpse.
■The celebrated institution of the Duk-Duk is simply a
piece of imposture^ by which the older natives play
upon the superstitions of the younger to secure the
food they can no longer earn. This ** spirit"" (a na-
tive adorned with a huge mask) arrives regularly in a
boat at night with the new moon, and receives the
offerings of the natives. The standard of moraUty
among the natives of New Pomerania is high com-
pared with that observed in New Mecklenburs (the
other large island of the Bismarck Archipelago),
where the laxity of morals, especially race suicide and
the scant respect shown for marriage, seems destined
rapidly to annihilate the population. In Nov., 1884,
Germany proclaimed its protectorate over the New
Britain Archipelago; New Britain and New Ireland
were given the names of Neupommem and Neumeck-
lenburg. and the whole group was renamed the Bis-
marck Archipelago. The great obstacle to the devel-
opment of the islands is their poisonous climate,
neither native nor European being immune from the
ravages of fever. The native population is estimated
at about 190,00a; the foreign population (1909) at 773
NKWPOBT 1
(474 white). About 13,464 acres are under cultiva-
tion, the principal products being copra, cotton, coffee,
and rubb«r.
The vicariate Apostolic was erected on 1 Jan., 1889,
and entrusted to the MisaionBTies of the Sacred Heart
of Issoudun, Since Sept., 1905, when the Marshall
Islands were made a separate vicariate, its territory is
confined 1« the Bismarck Archipelago. The lirst and
present vicar Apostolic is Mgr Louis Coupp^, titular
Bishop of Leros, The mission has already made re-
markable progress, and numbers according to the
latest statistics 15,223 Catholics; 28 missionaries; 40
brothers; 27 Sisters of Our Lady of the Sacred Heart;
65 Dative catecbista; 77 churches and chapels; 90 st&-
tions <20 chief); 29 schools with over 40oe pupils; 13
orphanases.
llomMhfu dti Miuimthavtn nm Hiltnip: DtuUclu Kaloniai-
bbU (1908), nippl. ,78 Kiq.
Thohas Kennedt.
Nsviwrt (ENai.*ND), DiocEaB of (Nboportbn-
8IS).-— This diocese takes its name from Newport, a
■a of about 70,000
Usk,
the
, of Mon-
mouth. Before the
restoration of hier-
archial government
in England by Pius
IX in 1850. the old
"Western District"
of England had, since
1840, been divided
into two vicariates.
The northern, com-
prising the twelve
counties of Wales
with Monmouth-
shire and Hereford-
shire, was called the
Vicariate of Wales.
When the country
was divided by an
Apostol icBrief dated
29 Sept., 1850, into dioceses, the six counties of South
Wales, with Monmouthshire and Herefordshire, be-
came the Diocese of Newport and Menevia. Mene-
via is the Latin name for St. David's, and the double
title was intended to signify that at some future day
there were to be two distinct dioceses. The first
bishop of the Diocese of Newport and Menevia was
the Right Reverend Thomaa Joseph Brown, 0£.B.,
who hiul already, as vicar Apostolic, ruled for ten
years the Vicariate of Wales. A further re-adjust-
ment of the diocese was made in March, 189-5, when ,
L«i XIII separated from it five of the counties of
South Wales, and formed a new vicariate, which was
to consist of all the twelve Welsh counties except Gla-
morganshire, pincc that date the name of the dio-
cese nas been simply "Newport", and it has consisted
of Glamorganshire, Mon month ahi re, and Hereford-
shire. TheCatholicpopulation (1910) is about 45,000,
the gener^ population being about 1,050,000.
The diocesan chapter, in virtue of a Decree of the
Congregation of Propaganda, 21 April. 1S52, issued at
the petition of Carding Wisernan and the rest of the
hierarchy, was to consist of monks of the English
Benedictine Congregation resident in the town of
Newport. As the congregation, up to this date
(1910), have not been able to establish a house in New-
port, permission from the Holy See has been obtained
for the members of the chapter to reside at St. Mi-
chael's pro-eathedral, Belmont, near Hereford. The
chapter comprises a cathedral prior and nine canons, of
whomfourareallowedtobenon-resident. Their choral
habit is the cucutia or frock of the congregation with
i HIWTOV
a special almuce. In assisting the bishop they dispense
with therucu/fa, and wear the almuce over the surplice.
The present bishop, the Right Reverend John Cuth-
bert Hedley, O.S.B., was consecrated as auxihary on
29 September, 1873, and succeeded in February,
1881, to Bishop Brown. He resides at Bishop's
House, Llanishen, Cardiff. The pro-cathedral is the
beautiful church of the Benedictine priory at Bel-
mont. There are in the diocese about 40 secular di-
ocesan priests, 21 Benedictines (of whom 15 work on
the Mission), and 14 Rosminian Fathers. There are
Eve deanerips. The principal towns are Cardiff,
Newport. Swansea, and Meiihyr Tydvil. The only
religious house of men is the Cathedral Priory, Bel-
mont, which is the residence of the cathedral pnor and
chapter, and is also a house of studies and n
the Good Shepherd, Sisters of Nasareth, Ursulines of
Chavagnes, St. Joseph of Annecy, St. Vincent de Paul,
and others. There are four certified Poor Law
schools; one for boys,
at Treforest, and
three for girls — two,
at Herefom and Bul-
lingham respectively,
conducted by the Sis-
ters of Charity, one
at Cardiff, conducted
by the Sisters of
Naiareth, There
are .^0 churches in
the diocese, bexides
several school chapels
and public oratories.
There are about 11,-
000 children in the
Catholic elemenlary
schools. There are
four secondary
schools' for girls, and
one centre (in Car-
diff) for female pupil
F. A. Crow.
Hew Twtunent. See Testauekt, The New.
Newton, John, soldier and engineer, b. at Norfolk,
Virginia, 24 August, 1823; d. in New York City, 1
May, 1895. He was the son of General Thomas I>tew-
ton and Margaret Jordan. In 1838 he was appointed
from Virginia a cadet in the U, S. Military Academy,
and graduated in 1842, standing second in a class that
included Roscncrana, Pope, and Longstreet. Com-
missioned second lieutenant of engineers, he was en-
gaged as assistant profeaaor of engineering at West
Point, and later in the construction of fortifications
uid other engineering projects along the coasts of the
Atlantic and theOulf of Mexico. Commissioned first
lieutenant in 1852 and promoted captain in I8S6. he
was appointed chief engineer of the Utah Expedition
in 1858. At the openmg of the Civil War be was
chief engineer of the Department of Fennsylvania,
and afterwards held a similar position in the Depart-
ment of the Shenandoah. Commissioned major on 6
August, 1861, he woriced on the construction of the
defences of Washington until March, 1862. He was
commissioned on 23 Sept., 1861, brigadier-general of
volunteers, and received command of a brigade en-
gaged in the defence of the city. He servi^ in the
array of the Potomac under McClellan during the
Peninsular Campaign, and distinguished himself by
his heroic conduct in the actions of West Point,
Gaines Mills, and Glendale. He led his brigade in
the Maryland campaign, taking part in the forcing
NXW WHSTMIKSTXB
19
NEW TSAB'8 DAT
of Crampton Gap and in the battle of Antietam, and
was for his gallant services brevetted lieutenant-
colonel of regulars. He led a division at Fredericks-
burg in the storming of Marye Heights, and was
rewarded on 20 March, 1863, with the rank of major-
|eneral of volunteers. He commanded divisions at
Chancellorsville and Salem Heights, and, at the death
of Reynolds on 2 July, 1863, was given oonmiand of
the First Army Corps, which he led on the last two
days of the battle of Gettysburg. On 3 July. 1863, fpr
gallant service at Gettysburg, he was brevetted
colonel of regulars. He ensaged in the pursuit of the
Confederate forces to Warrenton, Virginia, and
towards the end of 1863 was active in the Rapidan
Campaign. In May, 1864, he was transferred to the
Army of the Cumberland, and commanded under
General Thomas the Second Division, Fourth Corps.
He fought in all the actions during the invasion of
Georgia up to the capture of Atlanta. For his gallan-
try in this campaign, especially in the battle of Peach
Tree Creek, he was brevetted on 13 March, 1865.
major-general of volunteers and brigadier-general and
major-general of regulars. He then took command of
various districts in Florida until, in January, 1866, he
was mustered out of the volunteer service.
Commissioned lieutenant-colonel of engineers in the
regular service on 28 December. 1865, Wewton was
ordered in April, 1866, to New York City, where he
thenceforth resided, engaged on the engineering la-
bours that made his name famous. He was superin-
tendent engineer of the construction of the defences on
the Long Island side of the Narrows, of the improve-
ments of the Hudson River, and of the fortifications at
Sandy Hook. He was also one of the board of engi-
neers deputed to carry out the modifications of the de-
fences around New York City. The profXMsed en-
largement of the Harlem River, and the improvements
of the Hudson from Troy to New York, of the channel
between New Jersey and Staten Island, and of the
harbours on Lake Champlain were put under his
charge. On 30 June^ 1879, he was named coloneJ, and
on 6 March, 1884, chief of engineers in the regular ser-
vice with the rank of brigadier-general. Among New-
ton's achievement, the most notable was the removal
of the dangerous rocks in Hell Gate, the principal
water-way between Ijong Island Sound and the East
River. To accomplish this task successfully, required
the solution of difficult engineering problems never
before attempted, and the invention of new apparatus,
notably a steam drilling machine, which nas since
been in general use. Newton carefuUy studied the
problem, and the accuracy of his conclusions was
shown by the exact correspondence of the results with
the objects sought. Hallett's Reef and Flood Rock,
having been carefully mined under his directions,
were destroyed by two great explosions (24 September,
1876; 10 October. 1886). This engineering feat ex-
cited the universal admiration of engineers , and many
honours were conferred upon him. On Newton's vol-
untary retirement from the service in 1886, Mayor
Grace of New York, recognizing his superior skill, ap-
pointed him commissioner of public works on 28 Aug.
This post he voluntaiily resigned on 24 Nov., 1888.
On 2 April, 1888. he accepted the presidency of the
Panama Railroaa Companjr. which position he filled
until his death. In 1848 General Newton married
Anna M. Starr of New London, Connecticut. In his
early manhood he became, and until his death re-
mained, an earnest and devout member of the Catho-
lic Church.
PowBLL, UM of Officer* of the U. S, Army, 1776-1900; Cni>
LVM, Bioifra^ical Regiater of the Offioere and OradtuUea of the
U. S. Mtlitary Academy; Appleton*a Bncyd. Amer. Biog., s. v.;
SmTB, In Memoriam ofOeneral John Newton (New York, 1805).
John G. Ewinq.
New Westmiiister. See Vancouvbb, Abchdio-
CBBB OF.
New Year's Day.— The word year is etymologi-
cally the same as himr (Skeat), and signifies a going,
movement etc. In Semitic, r\^v, year, sigmfies * repe-
tition, sc. of the course of the sun '' (Gesenius) . Since
there was no necessary starting-point in the circle of
the year, we find among different nations, and among
the same at different epochs of their history, a great
variety of dates with wnich the new year began. The
opening of spring was a natural beginning, and in the
Bible it^lf there is a close relationship oetween the
beginning of the year and the seasons. The ancient
Roman year began in March, but Julius Caesar, in
correcting the calendar (46 b. c), made January the
first month. Though this custom has been univer-
sally adopted among Christian nations, the names,
September, October, November, and December (i.e. the
seventh, eigdith, ninth, and tenth), remind us of the
past, when March began the year. Christian writers
and councils condemned the heathen orgies and ex-
cesses connected with the festival of the Saturnalia,
which were celebrated at the beginning of the year : Ter-
tullian blames Christians who regarded the customary
Presents — called alrena (Fr. itrennes) from the goddess
trenia, who presided over New Year's Day (cf. Ovid,
"Fasti", 185--90) — as mere tokens of friendly inter-
course (De Idol, xiv), and towards the end of the sixth
century the Council of Auxerre (can. I) forbade Chris-
tians "strenas diabolicajs observare". The II Coun-
cil of Tours held in 567 (can. 17) prescribes prayers
and a Mass of expiation for New Year's Day, adding
that this is a practice long in use (patres nostri «to-
tuerunt). Dances were forbidden, and pagan crimes
were to be expiated by Christian fasts (St. Augustine,
Serm., cxcvii-viii in P. L., XXXVIII, 1024; Isidore of
Seville, "De Div. Off. EccL", I, xh; Trullan Council,
692, can. Ixii). When Christmas was fixed on 25
Dec, New Year's Day was sanctified by commem-
orating on it the Circumcision, for which feast the
Gelasian Sacramentarv give^ a Mass (In Octahda Do-
mini), Christians did not wish to make the celebra-
tion of this feast very solemn, lest they might seem to
countenance in any way the pagan extravagance of
the opening year.
Among the Jews the first day of the seventh month,
Tiskri (end of September), began the civil or economic
year "with the sound of trumpets'' (Lev., xxiii, 24:
Num., xxix, 1 ) . In the Bible the day is not mentionea
as New Year's Day, but the Jews so regarded it, so
named it, and so consider it now (Misnnah, Rosh
Hash., I, 1). The sacred year began with Nisan
(earlv in April), a later name for the Bibhcal abhibh,
i. e. "montn of new com", and was memorable "b^
cause in this month the Lord thy God brought thee
out of Egypt by nigjit" (Deut., xvi, 1). Barley
ripens in Palestine during the early part of April; and
thus the sacred year began with the harvest, the civil
year with the sowing of the crops. From Biblical
data Josephus and many modem scholars hold that
the twofold beginning of the year was pre-exilic, or
even Mosaic (cf. "Antiq.", I, iii, 3). Since Jewish
months were related by the moon, while the ripen-
ing barley of Nisan depended upon the sun, the Jews
resorted to intercalation to bring sun and moon dates
into harmony, and to keep the months in the seasons
to which they belonged (for method of adjustment, see
Edersheim, "The Temple, Its Ministry and Services
at the Time of Jesus Christ", x).
Christian nations did not agree in the date of New
Year's Day. They were not opposed to 1 January as
the beginning of the year, but rather to the pagan ex-
travagances which accompanied it. Evidently the
natural opening of the year, the springtime, together
with the Jewish opening of the sacred year, Nisan, sug-
gested the propnety of putting the beginning in that
beautiful season. Also, the Dionysian method (so
named from the Abbot Dionysius, sixth century) of
dating events from the coming of Christ became an
, /
mW YORK 20 NIW YORK
important factor in New Yeai^ calculations. The An- should be dominant. It is probable, but not certain,
nunoiation, with which Dionysius began the Christian that there were priests with Verrazano and Gomez,
era, was fixed on 25 March, and became New Year's and that from a Catholic altar went up the first
Day for England, in early times and from the thirteenth prayer uttered on the site of the present great metrop-
century to 1 Jan., 1752, when the present custom olis of the New World. While pubhc worship by
was introduced there. Some countries (e. g. Get- Catholics was not tolerated, the generosity of the
many) began with Christmas, thus being almost in Dutch governor, William Kieft, ^d the people of
harmony with the ancient Germans, who made the New Amsterdam to the Jesuit martyr. Father Isaac
winter solstice their starting-point. Notwithstanding Jogues, in 1643, and after him, to his brother Jesuits,
the movable character of Easter, France and the Low Fathers Bressani and Le Moyne, must be rememberea
Countries took it as the first day of the year, while to their everlasting credit. Father Jogues was the
Russia, up to the eighteenth century, made September first priest to traverse the State of New York; the
the first month. The western nations, however, first to minister within the limits of the Diocese of
since the sixteenth, or, at the latest, the eighteenth New York. When he reached Manhattan Island,
century, have adopted and retained the first of Janu- after his rescue from captivity in the summer of 1643,
ary. In Christian Uturgy the Church does not refer he found there two Cathohcs, a young Irishman and a
to the first of the year, any more than she does to the Portuguese woman, whose confessions he heard,
fact that the first Sunday of Advent is the first day of St. Mary's, the first rude chapel in which Mass was
the ecclesiastical year. said, in the State of New York, was begun, on 18
In the United States of America the great feast of November, 1655, on the. banks of the lake where the
the Epiphany has ceased to be a holyday of obligation. City of Svracuse now stands, by the Jesuit mission-
but New Year continues in force. Since the myste- aries. Fathers Claude Dablon and Pierre Chaumonot.
ries of the Epiphany are commemorated on Christmas In the same year another Jesuit, Father Simon Le
^the Orientals consider the feasts one and the same in Moyne, journeyed down the river to New Amster-
import — it was thought advisable to retain by prefer- dam, as we learn from a letter sent bv the Dutch
ence, under the title "Circumcision of Our Lora Jesus preacher, Megapolensis (a renegade Catholic), to the
Christ*', New Year's Day as one of the six feasts of Classis at Amsterdam, telling them that the Jesuit
obligation. The Fathers of the Third Plenary Coun- had visited Manhattan "on account of the Papists
cil of Baltiinore petitioned Rome to this effect, and residing here, and especially for the accommodation
their petition was granted (Con. Plen. Bait., Ill, pp. of the French sailors, who are Papists and who have
105 sqq.). (See Circumcision, Feast of the; Chro- arrived here with a good prize." The Church had no
NOLoar; Christmas.) foothold on Manhattan Island until after 1664, when
SoHBOD in Kirehml^., a. v. Neujahr; Wwot. ibid., ^ v. the Duke of York claimed it for an English colony.
Sr?ioifS:^^„a^i^%J^.1i5'nd2;f isST)^ SSli Twenty yean, later the CathoUc governor, Thomw
•HsiM, Th€ TempU, It$ Minittry and ServUet at tfu titne of Juu$ Dongan, not only fostered his own faith, but enacted
Sf*^'*^* f • ^j ^^^^fr ^v ^^^^*'^• 4,***,**^ ■• . ^- • g«'P«''« the first law passed in New York establishing religious
New Ttar, iUd. (Jan.. 1907); Thubston. Chri«tma$ Day and the island (30 October, 1683) was m a chapel he opened
Cknttian Calendar, iWd. (Dec., 1888; J»n., 1899). For Rab- about where the CUStom house now stands. With
buuo legends ae6/#wMAjy«cyrf....v.isr«yn«.. him came three EngUsh Jesuits, Fathers Thomas
JOHN J . 1 lERNBY. Harvcy, Henry Harrison, and Charles Gage, and they
New York, Archdiocese of (Neo-Eboracensis) ; soon had a Latin school in the same neignDourhobd.
see erected 8 April, 1808; made archiepiscopid 19 July, Of this Jacob Leisler, the fanatical usurper of the
1850: comprises the Boroughs of Manhattan, Bronx, government, wrote to the Governor of Boston, in
and Kichmond in the City of New York, and the August, 1689: ''I have formerly urged to inform your
Counties of Dutchess. Orange, Putnam, Rockland, Hour, that Coll Dongan, in his time did erect a Jesuite
Sullivan, Ulster, and Westchester in the State of New Colledge upon cullour to learn Latine to the Judges
York; also the Bahama Islands (Britiidi Possessions); West — Mr. Graham, Judge Palmer^ and John Tudor
an area of 4717 square miles in New York and 4466 in did contribute their sones for sometime but no boddy
the Bahama Islands. The latter territory was placed imitating them, the colledge vanished'' (O'Callaghan,
in 1886 under this jurisdiction by the Holy See because "Documentary Hist, of NT Y.", II, 23) .
the facilities of access were best from New York: it With the fall of James II and the advent of WilUam
formerly belonged to the Diocese of Charleston. The of Orange to the English throne. New York's Catholic
suffragans of New York are the Dioceses of Albany, colony was almost stamped out by drastic penal laws
Brooklyn, Buffalo, Ogdensburg, Rochester, and Syra- (see New York, State of). In spite of them, how-
cuse in the State of New York, and Newark and Tren- ever, during the years that followed a few scattered
ton in New Jersey. All these, in 1808, made up the representatives of the Faith drifted in and settled
territory of the original diocese. The first division down unobstrusively. To minister to them there
took place 23 April, 1847, when the creation of the came now and then from Philadelphia a zealous Ger-
Dioceses of Albany and Buffalo cut off the northern man Jesuit missionary. Father Ferdinand Steinmayer,
and western sections of the State: and the second, in who was commonly called "Father Farmer". Gath-
1853, when Brooklyn and Newark were erected into ering them together, he said Mass in the house of a
separate sees. German fellow-countryman in Wall Street, in a loft
New York is now the larsest see in population, and in Water Street, and wherever else they could find ac-
the most important in innuence and material pros- commodationl Then came the Revolution, and in
perity of all the ecclesiastical divisions of the Church this connexion, owing to one of the prominent politi-
' m Continental United States. cal issues of the time, the spirit of the leading colonists
I. Colonial F^riod. — Nearly a century before was intenselv anti-Cathohc. The first flag raised by
Henry Hudson sailed up the great river that bears the Sons of Liberty in New York was inscribed "No
his name, the Catholic navigators Verrasano and Popery". When the war ended, and the president
Gomez, had guided their ships along its idiores and and Congress resided in New York, the Catholic
placed it under the patronage of St. Anthony. The representatives of France, Spain, Portugal, with
Calvinistic Hollanders, to whom Hudson gave this Charles Carroll, his cousin Daniel, and Thomas Fitz
foundation for a new colony, manifested their loyalty Simmons, Catholic members of Congress, and oflScers
to their state Church by ordaining that in New and soldiers of the foreign contingent, merchants and
Netherland the "Reformed Christian reUgion ac- others, soon made up a respectable congregation,
oording to the doctrines of the Synod of Dordrecht" Mass was said for them in the house of the Spanish
D«ar the Bowline Oreen, in the Vauxhall G&rdene,
which WM a hall on the river front near Warren
Street, and in a carpenter's ahop in Barclay Street.
FiDally, an Irish Capuchin, Father Charles Whelan,
who had served aa a cliaplain in De Grasse's
Beat, and tvas acting as private chaplain to the Portu-
Euese consul-general, Don Joed RoisSilva, took up also
Uie care of this scattered flock, which numbered leas
than two hundred, and only about forty of them
practical in the observances of their faith.
Through efforts led by the French consul, Hector St.
John de Cr^vecieiir (q. v.), an act of incorporation
vras secure*!, on 10 June, 1785, tor the "Truateea of
the Roman Catholic Church of the City of New York,"
in which Jos6 Rois Silva,
James Stewart, and Henrv
Duffin were associated with
him as the first board. An
unexpired lease of lots at
Barclay and Church streeta
waabou^t from the trustees
of Trimty church, Thomas
Stoughton, the Spanish Con-
sul-general, and Itis partner
Dominick Lynch, advancing
the purchase money, one
thousand pounds, and there
on 5 Oct., 1785, the corner-
stone of St. Peter's, the first
per
Cal
opened 4 Nov., I78C. The
first resident pastor was Fa-
ther Whelan, who, however,
was forced to retire owing to
the hostility of the trustees
and of another Capuchin, the
Rev. Andrew Nugent, before
the Church was opened. The
prefect Apostolic, the vener-
able John Carroll, then
visited New York to admin-
ister confirmation for the
first time, and placed the
church in chargeof a Domili-
iean,FatherWilliamO'Brien,
who may be regarded as the
oi^nieer of the parish, He had as his
Fathers John Connell and Nicholas Burke, and, in his
efforts to ^d the establishment of the church, went as
far as the City of Mexico to collect funds there imder
the auspic^ of his old schoolfellow, the archbishop of
that see. He brought back S5920 and a number of
paintings, vestments, etc. Father O'Brien and his
assistants did heroic work durins the yellow fever
epidemics of 1795, 1799, 1801, and 1805. In 1801 he
established the parish school, which has since been
carried on without interruption. The church debt at
this time was S6500; the income from pew rents,
S1120. and from collections, S360, a year. The Rev.
Dr. Matthew O'Brien, another Etominican, the Rev.
John Byrne, and the Rev. Michael Hurley, an Au-
gusttnian, were, during this period, assistants at St.
Peter's. In JuJy, 1807, the Rev. Louis Sibourd. a
French priest, was made pastor, but he left in the fol-
lowing year, and then tne famous Jesuit, Anthony
Kohlmann (q. v.), was sent to take charge. It was
at this time that the Holy See determined to erect
Baltimore into an archbishopric and to establish the
new Dioceses of New York, Philadelphia, Boston, and
Bardstown, Ky.
II. CEB*TiONOFTHEDiocBBii.— Wehaveapicture
of the situation in New York when the first Dishop
L ' VMW TOBE
was named: a letter sent on 8 Nov., 1808, by Father
Kohlmann, who was then acting as the administrator
of the diocese, to his friend Father Strickland S. J., of
London, England, says, "Your favour of the 6th Sept. ,
WHS delivers to me at the beginning of October in the
City of New York, where our Right Rev. Bishop Car-
coll has thought proper to send n^e in the capacity
of rector of this immense congregation and Vicar
General of this diocese till the arrival of the Right Rev.
Hichard Luke Concanen, Bishop of New York. The
congregation chiefly consists of Irish, some hundreds
of French, and as many Germans, in all, according to
the common estimation, of 14,000 souls. Rev. Mr.
Fenwick, a young Father of our society, distinguished
for his learning and piety, has been sent along with
me, I was no sooner arrived
in the city and, behold, the
trustees, though before out
arrival they had not spent a
cent for the reparation and
furniture of their clergy-
man's house, laid out for the
said purpose above tSOO. All
very name of the Society of
Jesus, though yet little known
in this part of the country."
What rapid progress was
made, he mdicates, two years
later, when, again writing to
Father8trickland,on 14Sept.,
1810, he tells him: "Indeed
it is but two years that we ar-
rived in this city without hav-
ing a cent in our pocket, not
even our passage money,
which the trustees paid for
Father Fenwick and me . . .
and to see things ao far ad-
vanoed as to see not only the
Catholic religion highly re-
spected by the first characters
of the city, but even a Cath-
olic collie estabhshed, the
house well furnished both in
town and in the college im-
[irovements made in the col-
ege [tie] for four or five hun-
dred dollars ... is a thing
.- n..^, ., fh. I1TSS. "'"'^^ I am at a loss to con-
"• B*"^"' ^- !"*«' ceive and which I cannot
ascribe but to the infinite Uberality of the Lord, to
whom alone, therefore, be all glory and honour. 'The
college is in the centre not of Long Island but of
the Island of New York, the most deUghtful and most
healthy spot of the whole island, at a distance of four
small miles from the city, and of half a mile from the
East and North rivers, both of which are seen from the
house; situated between two roads which are very
much frequented, opposite to the botanic gardens
which belong to the State. It has adjacent to it a
beautiful lawn, garden, orchard, etc." — This spot is
now the site of St. Patrick's Cathedral on Fifth ave-
We can judge from the family names on the register
of St. Peter's church that the early Catholics of New
York were largely Irish; next in number come the
French, then the Germans, followed by those of Ital-
ian, Spanish and English origin. There were enough
Germans in 1808 to think themselves entitled to a
church and pastor of their own nationaUty, for on 2
March of that year Christopher Briehill, John Kner-
inger, Geoi^ Jacob, Martin Nieder, and Francis
Wemeken mgned a petition which they sent to Biehop
Carroll praying him ' ' to send us a pastor who is capa-
ble of undertaking the spiritual Care of our Souls in the
German Ijuiguage, which is our Mother Tongue.
NEW YORK '
Many of us <Jo not know any Erii^liab at all, and these
nho nave some knowledge of it are not well enough
versed in the Rnglish Language as to attend Divine
Service with any utility to themselves. Aa we have
not yet a place of worahip ot our own we have made
appncation to the Trustees of the English Catholic
Chu
I this
city to grant
permission to per-
fonn our worship
in the German
Language in their
church at such
interfere with
their regular ser-
vices. This per-
mission they have
readily granted
us. "During the
Course of the year
we shall take care
to find an oppoi^
tunity to provide
ourselves with a
suitable building
we have no doubt
liderabiy increase."
n congregftt
quarter of a century after its date. But Father Kohl-
mann saw to it that another church should be started,
and St. Patrick's was begun "between the Broadway
and the Bowery road" in 1809, to meet the needs of
the raoidly increasing number of Catholics on the
east aide of the city. It was also to serve as the cathe-
dral church of the new diocese. The comer-stone was
laid 8 June, 1809, but, owing to the hard times and the
war of 1812 with England, the structure was not
ready for use until i May, 1S15, when it was dedicated
by Bishop Chevenis who came from Boston for that
purpose. It was then far on the outskirts of the city,
and, to accustom the people to go there. Mass was
Bfud at St. Peter's every other Sunday. The ground
on which it was built was purchased in 1801 for a
graveyard, and the interments in it from that time
until the cemetery was closed in 1833 numbcred32,-
1S3. Some of the Catholic laymen prominent durioK
this period were Andrew Morris, Matthew Reed,
Cornelius Heeney, Thomas Stou^ton, Dominick
Lynch, Benjamin Disobrey, Peter Burtsell, uncle of
the Rev. James A. Neil, the first native of New York
to be admitted to the priesthood, Joseph Icard, mer-
chant and architect, Hugh McGinnis, Dennis Doyle,
Miles F. CloBsey, Anthony Trapanni, a native of
Meta, Italy, pioneer Italian merchant and the first
foreigner to be naturalised under the Constitution,
Francis Varet, John B. Lasala, Francis Cooper, George
Gottsberger, Thomas O'Connor, Thomas Brady, Dr.
William James Macneven, and Bernard Dornin, the
first Catholic publisher, for whose edition of Paato-
rini's "History of the Church," issued in 1807, there
were 318 New York City subscribers.
III. The Hibbarcht. — A. When Biahop Carroll
learned that it was the intention of the Holy See to
recognize the growth of the Church in the United
States by dividing the Diocese of Baltimore and creat-
ing new sees, he advised that New York be placed un-
der the care. of the Bishop of Boston till a suitable
choice could be made for that diocese. Archbishop
Troy of Dublin, however, induced Pius VII to appoint
as New York's first bishop an Irish Dominican, Father
Richard Luke Concanen, who had resided many years
in Rome as the agent of the Irish bishops and was
much esteemed there. He was prior of St. Clement's
at Borne, librarian of the Minerva, and distinguished
2 HEW TOBK
for his learning. He had refused a nomination for a
see in Ireland and was much interested in the missions
in America, about which he had kept up a correspond-
ence with Bishop Carroll, It was at his suggestion
that Father Fenwick founded the first house of the
Dominicans in Kentucky. He was consecrated first
Bishop of New York at Rome, 24 April, 1808, and
some time after left for Leghorn on his way to his see,
taking with him the pallium for Archbishop Carroll.
After waiting there for a ship for four months he re-
turned to Rome. Thence he went to Naples, expect-
ing to sail from that port, but the French military
forces in possession of the city detained him as a
British subject, and, while waiting vainly to be re-
leased, he died of fever, 19 June, 1810. Fmding that
he could not leave Italy, he had asked the jKipe to ap-
point the "Rev. Ambrose Marfchal to be his coadjutor
bishop in New York, The Amprican bishops cor-
dially endorsed this choice and considered that the ap-
pointment would be made. Archbishop CarroM,
writing to Father C. Plowden, of Ijondon, 25 June,
1815, said : "It was known here that before the death
of Dr. Concanen his Holiness at the Dr's entreaty in-
tended to assi^ to him as his coadjutor the Rev. Mr.
Mar£chal, a priest of St. Sulpice, Dow in the Seminary
here, and worthy ot any promotion in the Church.
We still expected that this measure would be pursued ;
and that we made no presentation or recommendation
of any other for the vacant see."
B. — Archbishop Troy, of Dublin, however, with
the other Irish bishops, proposed to the pope another
Irish Dominican, the Rev. John Connolly, for the
vacant see of New York, and he was consecrated at
Rome, 6 Nov., 1814 (see CONNOU-T, John). It was a
selection which might have proved embarraBHing to
American Catholics, for Bisiiop Connolly was a
British subject, and the United States was then at
war with Great Britain. "I wish," wrote Archbishop
Carroll to Father Plowden, 25 June, 1815, "this may
not become a very dangerous precedent fruitful o(
mischief by draw-
ing upon our reli-
gion a false opin-
ion of the servility
of our principles.
Owing to his own
views of the situ-
ation in the dio-
cese, Bishop Con-
nolly did not
fellow-members of
the hierarchy or to
the administrator
of the diocese.
Father Kohl mann
was, therefore, in
anticipation of the
bishop's arrival,
recalled by his su-
Eriors to Mary-
id, the college
was dosed, and Jobm Cdnmollt
the other Jesuits Beoood Buhop o( Now York
soon after left the diocese. Finally, Bishop Con-
nolly arrived in New York unannounced, and with-
out any formal local welcome, 24 Nov., 1815, his
ship taking sixty-eight days to make the voyage from
Dublin. In the diocese he found that everything
was to be created from resources that.were very small
and in spite of obstacles that were very great. The
diocese embraced the whole State of New York and
half of New Jersey. There were but four priests in
this territory. Lay trustees had become so accus-
tomed to having their own way that they were not
disposed to admit even the authority of a biahop.
mw TOBK 2
Dr. Connolly was not wanting in firmpesH, but the
prefoinK needs of the times, forcing an apparent con-
ceasioi) to the established order of thinea, aubjected
bim to much difficulty and many humiOations. He
was a miBsionai^ priest rather tnan ^ bishop^ as he
wrote Cardinal Litta^ Prefect of Propaeanda, in Feb-
ruary, 181S, but he discharged all his iaDorioua duties
with humility and earneat real. His diary further
notes that he told the cardinal: "I found here about
13,000 CathoUcs. . . . Atprewot there are about 16,-
000 mostly Irish; at least 10,000 Irish Catholics ar-
rived At New York only within these last three years.
They spread through all the other stat«s of this con-
federacy, and make their religion known everywhere.
Bishops ought to be granted to whatever here is will-
ing to erect a Cathedral, and petition for a bishop.
. . . The present dioeeses are quite too extensive.
Our Cathedral owes S.^3,000 borrowed to build it. . . .
This burden hinders us from supporting a sufficient
number of priests, or from thinking to erect a semi-
nary. The American youth have an invincible re-
Duenance to the ecclesiastical state."
!e Hiade a vintation of the diocese.
{ mw YORK
tracted by the commercial growth of the State. But in
spite of all. he went on bravely visiting all parts of
ttie State, building and encouraging the building of
churches wherever they were needed, obtaining aid
from Rome and from the charitable in Europe. Ho
found but two churches in the citv when he came; to
these he added six others and multiplied for bis flock
the facilities for practising their religion, his constant
endeavour being to give his people priests, churches,
and schools. With the trustees in New York Qty
and in BulTaio he had many sad experiences, but he
unflinchingly upheld his constituted authority. In
1834 he organized, with the Bev. John Hafleiner as
pastor, the first German CathoUc congregation in New
York in a small disused Baptist church at Pitt and
De Lancey Streets, which became the church of St.
Nicholas. It was about this time, too, that a public
controversy over Catholic doctrine raged between the
Calviniat ministers, Rev. John Breckenridge and Rev,
William Browolee, and the vicar-general. Rev. Dr.
plishment at thattiroe; provided churches for the peo-
ple in Brooklyn, Buffalo, Albany, Utica, and Pater-
eon' introduced the Sistera of Charity, started the
oiphan asylum, and encouraged the opening of parish
schools. He died at his residence, 512 Broadway, S
Feb., 1825, worn out by his labours and anxieties.
Notable men of this period were Fathers Michael
O'Gorman and Richard Bulger — the latter the first
priest ordained in New Yoric (1820) —Charles D,
Ffrench, John Power, John Faman, Thomas 0. Lev-
ins, Philip Larise^ and John Shannahan. There were
several distinguished converts, including Mother
Seton, founder of the American branch of the Sisters
of Qiarity; the Rev. Virgil Barber and ilia wife, the
Rev. John Richards, the Rev. George Kewley, the
Rev. George £. Ironside, Keating Lawaon, and others.
Two years elapsed before the next bishop was ap~
pointed, and the Rev. Dr. John Power during that
Kriod governed the diocese as administrator. Brook-
. I's first church was organized during this time. It
was during Bishop Connolly's adminiBtration also,
that New York's first Catholic paper "The Tnith
Teller " was sUrted, on 2 April, 1825.
G— The choice of the Holy See for the thitid bishop
was the Rev. Dr. John Dubois, president of Mount
St. Mary's College, Emmitsburg (see Dubois, Johk),
and he was consecrated at Baltimore, 29 October,
1886. The Rev. William Taylor, a convert who had
come from Cork, Ireland, in June, 1818, at the sugges-
tion of Bishop England of Charleston, endeavoured
to be himself made bishop, going to Rome in Jan-
uuy, 1820, for that purpose. This visit to Rome
being fniitleBB, Tayior went to Boston, where he
remained several years with Bishop Chevenis, re-
turning to New York when that prelate was trans-
ferred to France. He was exceedingly popular with
non-Catholics because of his liberality. He preached
the sermon at the consecration of Bishop Dubois and
used the occasion to expatiate on what he called "dis-
astrous experiences which resulted to relipon from
faiiudidoue iqjpMntmenta", hinting at coming trouble
for the bishop m New York. He left New York aimul-
taneoudy with the arrival of the hmhop there, and
BMled for France, where his old friend Mgr Chevenis,
then Archbishop of Bordeaux, receiv^ him. He died
suddenly, while preaching in the Irish college, Paris,
ml828.
None (rf the predicted dbturbances happened when
Bishop Dubois took poasesnon of his see, though the
abuse of trusteeism, grown more and more insolent
and unmanageable by toleration, hampered his efforts
from the very start. Fanaticism was aroused among
the Protertont sects, alarmed at the numerical in-
crease (rf the Church through the immigration at-
Power, assisted by Fathers Varela, Levins, and Schnel-
ler. It was followed by the fanatical attack on Catho-
Uc religiouH communities known as "The Awful Dis-
closures of Maria Monk". Dr. Dubois "had then
reached the age of seventy and, though still a vigorous
combatant when necessary, was disinclined to religious
controversy. Perhaps he did not understand the
country and the people as well as the younger men
whe had grown up in America; perhaps he was de-
terred by his memories of the French Revolution"
(Herbermann, "Hist. Records and Studies", 1, Pt. 2,
333),
At length the manv burdens and anxieties of his
charge told on the bishop, and he asked for a coadju-
tor, naming the Right Rev. P. F. Kenrick, Coadjutor
of Philadelphia, as his first choice, and the Rev.
Thomas F. Mulledy, S.J., and the Rev. John Hughes,
of Philadelphia, as alternates. Father Hughes, of
Philadelphia, who had been his pupil at Emmitsburg,
was selected and consecrated titular Bishop of Baateo,
7 January, 1838. His youth and vigour soon put new
life into the alTaira of the Church m New York, and
were especially efficient in meeting the aggressions of
the lay tniatees. Bishop Hughes had fully realized
the d^igers of the system as shown in Philadelphia,
and he lost no time in meeting and crushing it in New
York. Bishop Dubois, through ill health, had to re-
linquish the details of his chaise more and more to his
youthful aasiatant, whose activity he warmly wel-
comed. Several attacks of paralysis warned him to
^ve up the management of the diocese. His remain-
, KEW TOBK 2
faig daya he epeot quietljr preparing for the end. hU
coadjutor ever treating him with respectful kinaness
and sympathy. He died 20 December, 1S40, full of
years and merite. Those of his assistants who were
notably prominent were F'ather Felix Varela, an emi-
nently pious and versatile priest, an exile from Cuba,
and uie Revs. Joseph Schneller, Dr. Constantine C.
I^, Alexander Mupietti, John Kaffeiner, the pioneer
G«nnan pastor; Hatton Walsh, P. Malou, T. Ma-
Buire, Michael Curran, Gregory B. FardoWj Luke
Beny, John N. Neumann, later a Redemptonst and
Bishop of Philadelphia, and John Walsh, long pastor
of Bt. James, Brooklyn.
D. — Bishop Hughes, the administrator, at once as-
sumed the title of the see as its fourth bishop, and is
the really great figure in the constructive period of
New York's history. " It was a day of great men in
the civil order", b^ the historian, Dr. John Gilmaiy
Shea, "the day of^Clay, Webster, Calhoun, yet no
maa of that era spoke so directly or so effectively to
the American peo-
ple as Bishop
Hughes, He was
not an ordinary
It had been
well said that in
any assemblage he
would have been
notable. He
was full of noble
thoughts and aspi-
— *■ — and de-
a separate article
(«« HUOHE.
John)j and it will
BuflSce to mention here some of the many diatinguished
men who helped to make hia administration so impor-
tiwit in local recordB. Among them were the Rev. Wil-
liam Quarter, afterwards first Bishop of Chicago, and
his brother, the Rev. Waiter J. Quarter, the Rev. Ber-
nard O'Reilly, first Bishop of Hartford; the Rev. John
Loughlin, firet Bishop of Brooklyn; the Rev. James R.
Bayley, first Bishop of Newarlc and Archbishop of
Baltimore; the Rev. David Bacon, first Bishop of
Portland; the Rev. William G. McCIoskey, first rec-
tor of the American College at Rome and fourth
Bishop of Louisville, Ky., son of one of the Brooklyn
pioneers; the Rev. Andrew Byrne, first Bishop of Lit-
tle Rock; the Rev. John J. Conroy, Bishop of Albany;
the Rev. Wilham Starra, vicar-«eneral; the Rev. Eir.
Ambrose Manahan, the Rev. Dr. J. W. Cummings,
tington, F. E. White, Donald McLeod, Isaac T.
Hecker, A. F. Hewit, Alfred Young, Clarence Wal-
worth, and Edgar P. Wadhams, later Bishop of
Ogdensburg.
E. — As the successor of Archbidiop Hughes, Bishop
John McCIoskey of Albany was promoted to be the
second archbishop. He had been consecrated Coad-
jutor of New York, with the right of succeaaion, in
1844, but resigned both offices to become the first
"■ ' ' '" in 1847 (see McClosket, John).
V York in spite of his own protests
of unworthiness, but with the unanimous approval
and rejoicing of the clergy and liuty. He was bom
in Brooklyn, 10 Mlirch, 1810. and was there^re the
first native bishop, as he was the second native of New
York to be ordained to the priesthood. He was a
gentle, polished, amiable prelate, and accompiished
much for the progress of Cathohc New York. The
Protectory, the Foundling Asylum, and the Mission of
the Immaculate Virgin for homeless children were
founded under his auspices; he resumed work on the
new Cathedral, and saw its completion ; the provincial
seminary at Troy was organized; churches, schools,
and charitable institutions were everywhere increasea
and improved. In the stimulation of a gen«al ap-
preciation of the QeccHBtty of Catholic education the
cardinal (he was elevated to the Purple in 1875)
was inceasant and most vigorous. He saw that the
foimdations of the structure, laid deep by his illustri-
ous predecessor, upheld an (difice in which all the re- ,
quiremente of modem educational methods should be
found. Like him, also, as years crept on, he asked
for a coadjutor, and the Bishop of Newark, Michael
AuEUStine Comgan, was sent to him.
F.— Bom in Newark, 31 August, 1830, hie college
days were spent at Mt. St. Mary's, Emmitaburg, and
at Rome. Ordained in 1863, Bishop Corrigan be-
came president of Seton Hall Collese m 1868, Bishop
of Newark in 1873, Coadjutor of New York in 1880,
and archbishop in 1885 (see Corrioan, Michael A.).
He died, from an accidental fait during the building of
the Ladv Chapel at the Cathedral, 5 May, 1902. It
was eaia of him by the New York "Evemng Post":
"Thememory of hie life distils a fragrance like to that
of St. Francis." By some New Yorkers he was for a
time a much misunderstood man, whose memory time
will vindicate. Acute thinkers are appreciating his
worth as acivilian as well as a churchman, and the fact
that, for Catholics, he grappled with the first menac-
ing move of Socialism and effectually and permanently
checked its advance. He was an administrator of
ability and, aocially, a man of winning personality.
To the serious problem of providing for the spiritual
need of the inrushing thousands of European immi-
grants he gave successful consideration. The splen-
did seminary at Dunwoodie is his best memorial. Ita
beautiful chapel he built at a cost of (60,000 — his
whale private inherited fortune. During hia admin-
istration controversy over the school question was
waged with a certain amount of acrimony. He was
regarded as the leader of those all over the country
who stood for uncompromising Catholic education.
Archbishop Corrigan was also drawn into conflict
with the Rev, Dr. Edward McGlynn, rector of 8t.
Stephen's church, a man of considerable ability, but
whose radical views on the ownership of land had
brought on him the official censure of Cardinal Si- '
meoni. Prefect of Propaganda. In the municipal elec-
tion 01 1886, in spite of the archbishop's warnings, he
became the open partisan of Henry George who waa
the candidate tor mayor of the Single Tax party. Aa
a consequeace, he waa suapended, and, as an alumnus
of the College of Propaganda, was summoned to
Rome to answer the charges made against him. He
refused to go and waa excommuniceted.^For details
and text of official tetters, sec Archbishop Corrigan's
statement to New York papers (21 January, 1887) and
Dr. McGlyna's formal answer in Henry George's
"Standard" (5 February, 1887).~Dr. McGlynn'a
partisans organized themselves into what they called
the Anti-Poverty Society. He addressed this body
every Sunday until about Chrietmaa, 1802, when,
having willingly accepted the conditions laid aown by
the pope, he waa abaolved from cenaure and recon-
ciled by Mgr Satulli, the Apostolic delegate. Ac-
cording to a published statement by Mgr Satolli, the
conditionswere in this form: "Dr. McGlynn had pre-
sented a brief statement of his opinions on mor^
HKV TOBK
25
ecoaomic mattere, and it was judged not contrary" to
the doctrine eonatantly taught by the Church, and ae
recently confirmed by the Holy Father in the encycli- .
cal 'Rerum Novarum'. AIbo it is hereby made
known that Dr. McGlynn, besides publicly professiDg
hia adherence to all the doctrines and te&cninBs of the
Catboho Church, has expressed his regret (saying that
be would be the first to regret it) for any word or act
of his that may have seemed lacking in the respect due
to ecclesiastical authority, and he hereby intends to
repair as far as he can any offense which may have
hotn given to Catholics. Finally, Dr. McGlynn has
of his own free will declared and promised that,
within the limits of a not lon^ period of time, he will
go to Rome in the spirit and intention which are be-
coming to a good Catholic and a priest." In L8M
Dr. McGlynn was appointed pastor of St. Mary's
church, Newburg, where he remained quietly until
his death in 1001.
Archbishop Corrigan made hia last visit ad limina
in 1890 and after his return, until his death in 1002,
devoted himself entirety to the duties of his high
office. His death brought out the fact that he was
the foremost figure of the community in the respect
and affection of his fellow-citizens. His unaaaumiag
personaUty and his gentle method, his considerate
kindness and his unanected piety were pathways to
the loVe and veneration of his own flock. His stead-
fast adherence to principle, as well as his persuasive
maimer of, not only teaching, but also of acting out
the doctrines of his religion, his profound scholarship,
his experienced judgment, were ever employed when
there was question of a religious, moral, or civilimport
to his fellow-men. The truth of this is to be found in
the testimony of Leo XIH, himself, of the civil digni-
taries of the land, of his brethren in the episcopate,
of his own clergy and laity, on the inoumful occa-
sion of his death. Under the second and third arch-
bishops, Mgr William Quinn, V.G,, was a prominent
figure, and among his associates of this era were Mgr
Thomas S. Preston, Mgr Arthur J. Donnel^, Mgr
James McMabon, Mgr F. F. McSweeny, Fathers
M, Ouiran, William EVerett W. H. Clowiy Feiix H.
Fairelly, Eugene McGuire, Thomas FarrelL^ Edward
J. O'Reilly, M. J. O'Parrell Oater Bishop of Trenton),
and Edmund Aubril.
G. — As fourth archbishop, the Holy See confirmed
the choice of the diocesan electors, and appointed to
fill the vacancy the auxiliary, the Right Rev. John
Murphy Farley, titular Bishop of Zeugma, who was
gtimoted to the archbishopric 15 September, 1002.
e was bom at Newton Hamilton, County Armagh,
Ireland, 20 April, 1842. His primary studies were
made at St. McCartan's College, Monaghan. and, on
his coming to New York, were continued at St. John's
College, Fordham. Thence he went to the provincial
aeminary at Troy for his philosophy course, and after
this to the American College, Rome, where he was
ordiuned priest U June, 1870, Returning to New
Yoric, he ministered as an assistant in St. Peter's
parish, States Island, for two years, and in 1872 was
appointed secretary to the then Archbishop McCios-
key, in which office he served until 1884, when he was
made pastor of St. Gabriel's church. New York City.
He accompanied the cardinal to Rome in 1878, for the
election ol Leo XIII, which event, however, took place
before their arrival, la 1884 he was made a private
chamberlain; in 1892 he was promoted to the domes-
tic prelacy, and in 1895 to be prothonotary apostohc.
In 1891 he was chosen vicar-general of the diocese by
Archbishop Corrigan, and, on 21 December, 1895, was
con»ecrat«i as his auxiliary, with the title of Bishop of
Zeugma. At the death of Archbishop Corrigan, he
was appointed his successor, 15 Sept., 1902, and Pius
X named him assistant at the pontifical throne in
1904. He made progress in Catholic education in the
diocese the keynote of his administration, and witbin
the first e_j, _, ^
primary list, encouraged the increase
also of high schools, and founded Cathedral Collie aa
a preparatory aeminan'.
In the proceedings of the annual convention of the
CathoUc Educational Association held in New York in
1903, ondofthe National EucharisticCongress in 1904,
Archbishop Farley took a most active and directive
part. Synods were held regularly every third year,
and theologicBl conferences cguarterly, to give effect
to every instruction and legislative act of the Holy
See. A monthly recollection for all the priests of the
diocese assembled together was institutea. Provision
was made for the religious needs of Italians and other
Catholic immigrants — the Italian portion of his flock
numbering about 400,000 souls. The great work of
issuing "rHB Catholic Encyciajpedia owed its
inception and progress to his help and stimulus.
The centenary of the erection of the diocese was
celebrated under his direction by a magnificent festi-
val lasting a week
(April 27-May 2, '
1908); the Lady
Chapl of the Car
thedra] was com-
pleted, the Cathe-
dral debt was paid
off, and the edifice
consecrated 5 Oc-
tober, 1910, Car-
dinalVincenio
Vannutelli, papal
legate to the
Twenty -first Eu-
charistio Con-
HresB, Cardinal
Logue, Primate of
All Ireland, Cai^
dinal Gibbons of
Baltimore,70 prel-
ates, 1000 priests,
congregation of
the laity being
nresent at the
Mass of the day.
Archbishop Farley was pven on auxiliary in the
Right Rev. Thomas F. Cusack, who was consecrated
titular Bishop of Tbemisoj-ra, 25 April 1904, Bishop
Cusack was bom in New York, 22 Feb., 1862, and
made hia classical course at St, Francis Xavier's
College where he graduated in 1880. His theol^cal
Studies were pursued at the provincial seminary, "rroy,
where he was ordained priest in 1885, He was a very
successful director of the Diocesan-Apostoiate (1897-
1904) beforehis consecration aabi,';hop, after which he
was appointed Rector of St. Stephen s parish,
IV. — DtocESAN iNanTunoNa, — The Cathedral. —
St, Patrick's Cathedral, standing on the crest of New
York's most magnificent thoroughfare, is the noblest
temple ever dedicated, in any land, to the honour of
the Apostle of Ireland, It is an edifice of which every
citizen of the great metropolis is just,ly proud. Its
style is the decorated and geometnc Gothic of which
the cathedrals of Reims, Amiens, and Cologne ore
Srominent examples. It was planned in 1853 by
omes Renwick of New York; oonstniction was begun
in 185S, and the building was formally opened and
dedicated on 25 May, 1879 (building operations hav-
ing been suspended, owing to the Civil War, from 1861
-66), The site of the cathedral, the block bounded
by Fifth Avenue, Fiftieth Street, Fourth Avenue, and
Fifty-first Street, has been in the possession of the
church authorities, and used for ecclesiastical purposes,
except during a very brief interval (1821-1828), wnce
1 March, 1810, The block on which the Cathedra
stands was purchased at its then marketable value
f
NEW YORK 26 NEW YORK
apd therefore never was a gift or donation from the New York Literary Institution, the first collegiate
city, as has been said sometimes, either ignorantly or school of the diocese, in a house on Mott Street oppo-
even with conscious malice. The comer-stone was, site the church. It was an immediate success, and
laid on the afternoon of Simday, 15 August, 1858. by was soon removed to a house on Broadway, and then.
Archbishop Hughes, in the presence of an assemblage in March, 1812^ to a suburban site in the village ot
estimated at one hundred thousand. The address de- Elgin, now Fiftieth Street and Fifth Avenue, the site
livered by the archbishop is regarded as one of the most of St. Patrick's Cathedral. Although well patronized
eloquent and memorable he ever uttered. The gather- by the best families of the city, the inability of the
ing may be considered the first public manifestation of Jesuit community to keep up the teaching staff forced
that great Catholic New York which became the won- the abandonment of the enterprise in 1815. To sup-
der and admiration of the nineteenth century, and it ply teachers for girls, Father Kohlmann secured sev-
lent inspiration and power to the magic of his ringing eral Ursuline Nuns from Cork, Ireland, who arrived in
words of joy and triumph. the city 9 April, 1812. Their convent was located
St. Patrick's Cath^iral is the eleventh in size among near the Literanr Institution, and the Legislature, by
the great chiu-ches of the world. -Its dimensions are the Act of 25 March, 1814, incorporated "The Ursu-
as follows, the Lady Chapel excluded: Exterior: — Ex- line Convent of the City of New York", by which
treme length (with Lady Chapel), 398 feet; extreme "Christine Fagan, Sarah Walsh, Mary Baldwin and
breadth, 174 feet; general breadth, 132 feet; towers at others are incorporated for the purpose of teaching
base, 32 feet; height of towers, 330 feet. Interior: — poor children". After a year, as no other subjects
Length, 370 feet; breadth of nave and choir (exclud- joined their community, and they were n6t satisfied
ing chapels), 96 feet; breadth of nave and choir (in- with the location, which was too remote from the city
cludine chapels), 120 feet; length of transept^ 140 feet; for them to receive daily spiritual direction from a
central aisle, 48 feet wide, 112 feet liigh; side aisles, ch^lain, these nuns gave up the school and returned
24 feet wide, 54 feet high; chapels 18 feet wide, 14 feet to Ireland.
high, 12 feet deep. The foundations are of very large With the advent of Bishop Connolly to the diocese
blocks of blue gneiss, which were laid in cement mortar (24 November, 1815) St. Patrick's parochial school
up to the level of the surface. Above the eround-Une, was opened in the basement of the cathedral. The
the first base-course is of granite, as is also the first "Catholic Almanac" for 1822 relates that ** there are
course under all the columns and marble works of the in this city two extensive Catholic schools conducted
interior. Above this base-course the whole exterior upon a judicious plan and supported partly by the
of the building is of white marble. The cost of the funds of the State and partly by moneys raised twice
building was about four million dollars. In the origi- a year by the two congregations". The report of the
nal plan there was an apsidal Lady Chapel, but work trustees of St. Peter's church to the superintendent of
on this was not begun until 20 July, 1901, during the common schools, in 1824, states that the average num-
administration of Archbishop Corrigan. It was fin- ber of scholars in St. Peter's and St. Patrick's schools
ished by Archbishop Farley in 1906. The architect from their opening had been about 500 each. These
was Charles T. Mathews whose design was thirteenth- two were the pioneer schools of that great Catholic
century French Gothic. This chapel is 56}^ feet parochial system of free schools throughout the dio-
long by 28 feet wide and 56 feet high. The building of cese which has been the example and stimulus for
the Lady Chapel was started by a memorial gift for Catholic education all over the United States. On
that purpose from the family of Eugene Kelly, the 28 June, 1817, three Sisters of Charity, sent to her
banker who died in New York, 19 Dec, 1894. Eu- native city by Mother Seton, arrived in New York
fene Kelly was bom in County Tyrone, Ireland, 25 from Emmitsburg to take charge of the orphan asylum
Jov., 1808, and emigrated to New York in 1834. and school of St. Patrick's church. In 1830 these
Here he engaged in the drygoods business, and later Sisters of Charity took charge of St. Peter's school and
at St. Louis, Mo., whence he went to California in opened two academies. In 1816, owin^ to the con-
1850 during the gold excitement. As a banker and flict between the French rule of their institute, for-
merchant there, he amassed a considerable fortune the bidding the care of boys, and other details of discipline
interests of which took him back to New York to live which greatly interfered with diocesan progress,
in 1856. He was a trustee of the Cathedral for sever^ Bishop Hughes received permission to organize an in-
terms and indentified with the Catholic charitable, dependent community with diocesan autonomy. This
educational, and social movements of the city. In was estabtished 8 December, 1846, with the election of
the crypt of the chapel the deceased archbishops are Mother Elizabeth Boyle as the first superior. The
burieci, and the vault of the Kelly family is at the rear novitiate was opened at 35 East Broaciway, but in
of the sacristy under the Chapel. 1847 was moved to Fifth Avenue and One Hundred
Education. — In the cause of Catholic education the and Fifth Street, where the academy for girls and
Diocese of New York can claim the proud distinction mother-house of Mount St. Vincent was established,
of being the pioneer, the unceasing and uncompromis- Ten years later the city took this property for Central
ing advocate. In 1685 the Jesuit Fathers Harvey and Park, and the community moved to the banks of the
Harrison began the first Catholic educational institu- Hudson, just below Yonkers, where the College of
tion in the state; the New York Latin School, which Mount St. Vincent, and the headquarters of the com-
stood near the present site of Trinity Church, Wall munity now are. There are about eighteen hundred
Street and* Broadway, and was attended by the sons of these sisters teaching in more than sixty parish
of the most influential colonial families. This school schools and in charge of diocesan institutions,
was closed by the fanatical intolerance which followed In 1841 a community of the Religious of the Sacred
the Dongan administration in 1638. In 1801, Father Heart was sent to the diocese by Mother Barat, and
Matthew O'Brien, O.P., pastor of St. Peter's church, established their first school at Houston and Mulberry
opened the free school of the parish which has been Streets. A year later this was moved to Astoria,
carried on ever since without interruption. During Long Island, and in 1846 to the present site of the
the first five years it was supported entirely by the convent at Manhattan ville. where, under the direc-
people of the parish, but in 1806 the legislature of the tion, for many years, of tne famous Mother Mary
state, by an act pas.sed 21 March, placed the school Aloysia Hardey, it became, not only a popular educa-
on the same footing as those of other religious denomi- tional institution but the centre whence radiated most
nations in the city; all of them received state support of the progress made by the Institute throughout the
at the time, and Father O'Brien's school received its United States. When the first Religious of the Sacred
share of the pubhc money. After St. Patrick's church Heart arrived in New York, 31 July, 1827^ on their
was commenced. Father Kohlmann, S.J., began the way from France to make the first foundation in the
ST. PATRICK'S CATHEDRAL, NEW YORK
NSW TOBK :;
United StaUfl at St. Louis, Missouri, fii^op Dubois
was moet favourably ifflprefised by them, and wished
to have a commuiuty for New York also. A letter
which he wrote to Mother Barat in the following
October expresaes this desire and gives a view of his
charge at that time. "It was my intention", he says,
"to visit you and your pious associates in Paris in
order to give you a better idea of our country before
asking you to establish a house in New York. There
is DO doubt as to the success of an order like yours in
this city ; indeed it is greatly needed ; but a consider-
able sum of money would be .required to supply the
ureent needs of the foundation. The Catholic popu-
lation, which averages over tJiirty thousand souls, is
very poor, besides chiefly composed of Irish emipants.
Contributions from Protestants are so uncertain and
property in this city so expensive that I cannot prom-
ise any asristance. All I can say is that I believe one
of your schools, commenced with sufficient money to
Eurchase property and support itself until the ladies
ave time to make themselves known, would succeed
beyond all our expectations. ... 1 have the sorrow
of witnessing an
abundant harvest
rotting in the earth,
throi^h lack of Apos-
tolic labourers and
(he necessary funds
to organise the va-
rious needs of the dio-
cese." Although
Bishop Dubois was
not able to accom-
flish ^ desire to
ave a school then
established, his
prophecy as to its
opened was amply
justified by subse-
quent results.
The Sisters of
Mercy, Sisters of St.
Dommic, School Sis- ^' '°'""
ten of Notre Dame, and other teaching
ties followed in ttie course of the succeeding years,
until now (IfllO) the parish schools of the archdiocese
are in charge of twenty-six different religious com-
mumties, twenty-two of Sister? and four of Brothers.
In I82S an Irishman named Jamee D. Boylan with the
approbation of Bishop Dubois attempted to establish
a religious community on the lines of the Irish Broth-
ers of Charity te teach the boys' schools, and opened
two schools. The attempt failed in the course of the
year, owing to want of buaineBs tact and the inimical
spirit of trusteeism. The Christian Brothers opened
then- first school in New York in September, 1848, in
St. Vincent de Paul's parish, at 16 East Canal Street.
La Salle Academy was opened in Canal Street in 1850,
moved to Mulberry Street in 1856 and East Second
Street in 1857, Manhattan College was opened in
1853. These Brothers have charge also of the De La
Salle Institute, the Classon Point Military Academy,
twenty-aix parish schools, and the great Catholic Pro-
tectory. Bishop Hughes, in 1846, iovited the Jesuits
to return to the diocese and take charge of St. John's
Collie and Seminary at Fordham, which he had
opened there in the old Rose Hill manor house, 24
June, 1841. The seminary was moved to Troy in
1864, and St, John's remained as jiart of Fordnam
University. St. Francis Xavier's Collie was begun
at the school of the church of the Holy Name of Jesus,
Eliiabeth Street, in 1847. It was burned down in
the following year, reopened in Third Avenue near
Twelfth Street, and fin^y located in West Sixteenth
Street in 1850, Loyola School was opened by the
Jeeuits in 1899 at Faric Avraiue and Fifty-third street.
7 MEW TOBK
As baa been said, the state appronriatioa for educa-
tion was divided at first among all schools. Public
education in New York, at the opening of the nine-
teenth century, was denominational, and under the
direction of the Public School Society organized in
1806 "U> provide a free school for the education of
poor children in the city who do not belong te, or are
not provided for by any religiouB denomination". In
1808 the name was changed te the " Free School Soci-
ety of New York" and again in 1826 to the "Public
SchoolSociety of New York", with power "to provide
tor the education of all children not otherwise pro-
vided for". This society gradually became, under
the control of intolerant sectarian ministers, a com-
bination against Catholic interests so that, when, in
1840, the eight Catholic parish schools, with an at^
tendance of about 4000 pupils, made a demand for the
share of the school appropriations to which the law
entitled them, it was refused by the Board of Alder-
men after a memorable hearing of the CathoUc peti-
tion in the City Hall on 29-30 October, 1840, at which
Bishop Hughes made one of his greatest oratorical
efforts. As a result
of this contest the
Public School Soraetv
was soon after abol-
ished, and the pres-
ent system of public
school control was
enacted. The Cath-
olics of New York
also determined to
organize and main-
tain theirown system
of frae parish schools.
"Go", Bishop
Hu^es told them,
"bmld your own
schools; raise argu-
Xnta in the shape
the best educat«d
and most moral citi-
zens of the Repub-
lic, and the day will
come when you will enforce recognition ".
To supply priests for dte diocese Bishop Dubcns es-
tablished a seminaiT at Nyack-on-Hudson, in 1833,
but it was burned aown just as it was ready to be
opened. Cornelius Heeney then offered the bishop
the ground in Brooklyn on which St. Paul's church
now stands, refumng, however, to give the diocese the
title to the property immediately, and the design to
build in Brooklyn was abandoned. In 1838 the es-
tate of John Laf arge, Grovemont, in Jefferson County,
was purchased and the seminary begun there. The
place was then so inaccessible and impracticable that
it was given up, and, on 24 Jdne, 1841, Bi^op
Hbghes, administrator of the diocese, opened with
thirty students the new St. John's seminary and col-
lege at Fordham, then a village just outside the city.
The Rev. John McCloskey, later Archbishop of New
York and fii^ cardinal in the United States, was its
first president. The seminary remained at Fordham
until 24 Oct., 1864, when it was moved again to Troy,
where St. Joseph's seminary began with fifty-seven
students transferred from Fordham. The faculty
was composed of secular priests from Ghent, Belgium,
under the direction of the Very Reverend H. Vander-
hende. Here the seminary remained until 1896, dur-
ing which period more than 700 priests were ordained
there. The building was then given over to the Sis-
ten of St. Joseph of the Diocese of Albany as a noviti-
ate and training-school, and, on 12 August, 1896, the
new provincial seminary at Dunwoodie was solemnly
dedicated by Cardinal Satolli, then Apostolic delegate
to the United States, The care of this seminary was
entrusted to the Sulpician Fathere, but these telir«d
NXW YORK 28 NKW YORK
in 1906, and the work was continued by the secular vear by the Legislature — ^the first Catholic Society so
clerry of the archdiocese. A further step in provid- legalized in the state — and Mother Seton sent three of
ing facilities for seminary training was taken up by her Sisters of Charity from Emmitsburg to ttJce care
Archbishop Farlev in September, 1903, by the opening of the children. This asylum was moved in 1S51 to
of Cathedral College for the preparatory studies of the block adjoining the Cathedral in Fifth Avenue
ecclesiastical students. and remained there until this property was sold and
In the cause of education the work done by the the institution located in Westchester County, in
Catholic publishers must be noted; for New York. 1901. A Union Emira^t Society, to aid immigrants,
with the increase of its Catholic population, developed the precursor of the Irish Emiflnunt Society and the
also into a great producing and distributing centre for Emiflrant Industrial Savings Bank (see Emigrant
Catholic literature of all kinds. It b claimed for Aid Societies) was organiz^ in 1829. St. Patrick's,
Bernard Domin who arrived in New York in 1803, an the first New York Conference of the Society of St.
exile from Ireland, that he was the first publisher Vincent de Paul, was affiliated to the Paris Council in
of exclusively Catnolic works in the United States. 1849, and in the steady, increase of the organization
His edition of Pastorini's '^History of the Christian throu|^out the diocese opened a new field Tor Catho-
Qiurch" (1807) was the first Catholic book published lie charity. The sturdy fight that had to be made
in New York. The next year he issued an edition of against the raids on poor and neglected Catholic chil-
Dr. Fletcher's "Reflections on the Spirit of Religious dren in the public institutions was mainly through its
Controversy", for which he had 144 city subscribers, members, and out of their efforts, in great measure.
There were 318 for the Pastorini book, and these two also grew the Kreat Catholic Protectory, the Mission
lists make an interesting directory of Catholic New of the Immaculate Virgin^ the Foundling Asylum, and
York families at the opening of the nineteenth cen- the more recent Fresh Au* and Convalescent Qomes,
tury. Domin left New York for Baltimore in 1809. Day Nurseries, and other incidental details of modem
He was followed in New York by Matthew Field who philanthropy.
published "at his library 177 Bowery within a few V. Statistics. — The following religious communi-
doors of Delancey St.'' the first Amencan year book, ties now have foundations in the diocese (1910) :
"The Catholic Laity's Directory to the Church Ser- Men, — ^Augustinians, Augustinians of the Assumption,
vice: with an almanac for the year 1817". About Fathers of the Blessed Sacrament, Benedictines, Ca-
1823 John Doyle began to publish books at 237 Broad- puchins, Carmelites, Dominicans, Franciscans, Jes-
way, and, up to 1849, when he went to San Francisco, uits. Fathers of Mercy^ Fathers of the Pious Society
he had issued many books of instruction and devotion, of Missions, Missionaries of St. Charles, Missionary
Most of the Doyle plates were taken over by Edward Society of St. Paul the Apostle, Redemptorists, Sale-
Dunigan, who had associated with him in business his sian Fathers, Brothers of Mary, Christian Brothers,
half-brother James B. Kirker. He was the first pub- Marist Brothers, Brothers of the 'Christian Schools,
lisher to encourctge Catholic authors to give him their Missionaries of La Salette. Women. — Sisters of St.
writings. John Gilmary Shea's early histories were Agnes, Little Sisters of the Assumption, Sisters of St.
published by this firm, as was a fine edition of Hay- Benedict, Sisters of Bon Secours, Sisters of Charity,
dock's Bible (1844) and many school-books and stand- Sisters of Christian Charity, Sisters of the Divine
ard works. In 1837 Dennis and James Sadlier be^an Comoassion, Sisters of Divine Providence, Sisters of
to issue Butler's "Lives of the Saints" and an edition St. Dominic, Sisters of the Order of St. Dominic,
of the Bible in monthly parts, and thus commenced Felician Sisters, Missionanr Sisters of the Third Order
what later developed mto one of the largest book of St. Francis, Sisters of the Poor of St. Francis,
concerns in the United States. The hst of their pub- Sisters of St. Francis, Franciscan Missionaries of
lications is as varied as it is lengthy, and remark- Mary, Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Helpers of
able for the time was their series of ^'Metropolitan" the Holy Souls, Sisters of the Holy Child Jesus,
school books. Patrick O'Shea, who had been associ- Marianite Sisters of Holy Cross. Sisters of the Holy
atedwith the Dunigan concem, began for himself in Cross, Sisters of Jesus Mary, Sisters of the Sacred
1854 and, until his death, in 1906, was a veiy indus- Heart of Mary. Sisters of Mercy, Sisters of Miseri-
trious producer of Catholic books, his publications corde, School Sisters of Notre Dame, Sisters of the
includins^ besides a great number of school books. Congregation of Notre Dame, Little Sisters of the
many editions of vuuable works, such as Darras Poor, Sisters of the Atonement, Reparatrioe Nuns,
"History of the Church "j Digby's " Mores "^ Brown- Religious of the Cenacle, Presentation Nuns, Relidous
son's "American Repubhc", Lingard's "History of of the Sacred Heart, Religious of the VisitatioUj Mis-
England", Wiseman's and Lacordaire's woiks. Ben- sionary Sisters of the Sacrcd Heart, Ursuline Sisters,
ziger Brothers, in 1853, opened the branch of their Missionaiy Franciscan Sisters of the Immaculate (I!on-
German house that developed into the great concem, ception. Mission Helpers of the Sacred Heart,
covering all branches of the trade. Father Isaac X. The jprogress of the diocese is shown by the records
Hecker, C.S.P., as part of his dream for the evan- kept of the gradual growth of population which made
gelization of his non-Catholic fellow-countrymen, a great metropolis out of the small provincial city,
founded, in 1866j the Catholic Publication Society. The notable mcrease begins with the immigration
Into this enterprise his brother, George V. Hecker, during the canal and railroad-building perioa, after
also a convert, unselfishly put thousands of dollars. 1825, the exodus from Ireland following the famine
Its manager was Lawrence Kehoe, a man well versed year of 1847, and the German flight after the Revolu-
in all the best ideals of the trade, who sent out its tionary disturbances of 1848. In 1826 in New York
many books, bound and printed in a lavishness of City there were but three churches and 30,000 Cath-
style not attempted before. olics; and in the whole diocese (including New Jersey)
CharUiea. — New York gave early evidence of the only eight churches, eighteen priests, and 150,000
characteristic of heroic charity. In a letter written Catholics. The diocesan figures for 1850 are recorded
by Father Kohlmann, 21 March, 1809, he mentions as follows: churches, 67; chapels, 6; stations, 50;
"applications made at all houses to raise a subscrip- priests, 99; seminary^ 1. with 34 students; academies,
tion for the relief of the poor by which means $3000 9; hospital, 1; charitable institutions, 15; Catholic
have been collected to be paid constantly each year", population, 200,000. In 1875 the increase is indicated
New Yoric then had only one church for its 16,000 by these figures: churches, 139; chapels, 35; priests,
Catholics. An orphan asylum was opened in 1817 in 300; ecclesiastical students in seminary, 71; colleges,
a small wooden house at Mott and Prince Streets, the 3; academies, 22; select schools, 18; hospitals, 4:
"New York Catholic Benevolent Society", for its charitable institutions, 23; religious communities of
support and management, was incorporated the same men, 17, of women, 22; Catholic population, 600,000.
mw TOEK 2
In 1900 we find these totob: churohefl, 269 (cit)',
llli country, 148}; chapeU, 164; etstiona, 34; pnesta,
676 (regulars, 227); 112 eccleeiaBtical students; 60
pariah schools for bo^ in city, with 18,653 puptlB;
61 [oT girls, with 21,199 pupils; parish schools outside
city for boys, 32, with 3743 pupils; for girls, 34, with
.4K42 pupils; in colleges and academies, 2439 boys and
24S4j^la; schools for deaf mutes, 2; day nurseries, 4;
emigrant homes, 5; homes for aged, 3; hospitals, 15;
industrial and morm schools, 26; mfant asylum, 1;
oipban asylums, 6; total of young people under Cath-
olic care, 68,269; Catholic population, 1^000,000.
The ^gures for 1910 are: archbishop, 1; buhop, 1;
churches, 331 toity, 147; country, 184); rfiapels, 193;
stations (without churches) r^ularly visited, 35;
priests, 926 (secular, 605; regular, 324); theological
seminary (Dunwoodie), 1; students, 165; students
(Rome), 11; preparatory seminary, 1; students, 235;
pupils in colleges and academies for boys, 3407; in
academies for girls, 3812; parish schools. New York
aty, for boys, 90, with 27,896 pupils; tor girls, 60,
with 31,004 pupils; outade New York City 58, with
6377 male pupila, 6913 female; total in pansh schools,
72,193; Bchoola for deaf mutes, 3; day nuTBcries, 15;
emigrant homes, 5; homes for the aged, 4; hospitals,
23; mdustrial and reform schools, 36; orphan asylums,
7 ; asylums for the blind, 2; total of youiu; people under
C;atholiccare,101,087;CathoUcpopulftUon, 1,219,620.
Besides those for English-speaking Catholics, there
are now churches and priests in New York for Ger-
mans, Italians, Poles, French, Hungarians, Bohemians,
Lithuanians, Greek Albanese, Greek Syrians, Greek
Ruthenians, Slovaks, Spaniards, Chinese, for coloured
people and for deaf mutes.
Sbu, Hin. 0/ Cath. Ch. in V. B. (Nn YoTk, 1S86): Idem,
Colli. CKt nf JV, Y. (Now York, 1878]; Saia^aititai ftnnnb.
atatt Bf Nnc York (Albuy, ieO»: O'Caluohah. Dotvmmiani
Hit.ofNKB l-DTJKAlbiuiy, 1M9-B1):B»TLI!T, HiWStrfcAi/lA*
Barla Ui^: CatlL. Ch.ontht Itland of iVw Yvrt (New York,
ISM); FiNOm, HiWvoiFro»*" Amerieaaa (New York, 1872);
— - ■' '■' ■nSui/«rj(tK{Morrat*iwii.l90»);WHm,
:;'^o\k.
:. Fatrici'i Cathidnl {1
Ura York (New York. lOOfi): Rinis.
fc_[/. S. {Milwuikee, 1898); TUCaiho-
U, S. C«Ta. Hut. Socmr. Hitlorieai Rtardt and
Bide, Clicf,, Calk. /furariAk,r/. 5. (Milnakee. 1898); TU'
He DiTiHarv; U, 8. C*Tn.THi»r. Bocmrr. Hilmeai Ram
ainditt (Naw York. 1890-1910); Itmcnat, JVoK An. M. d.
CiTTWBii (New York, 1903); Hiluu, Lift e/Uu UoH S4i. John
Huffm (New York, 18M); Bbahh, ifiHt ftn. J«hn Huettt (Kew
York, IB99); CtHFBiLL, PwnHr JViiito t^ North Aauriea (Sew
York, 1909-10): Mam Atontia Bardai (New York. IStO); Nev
Yurk Trulk TdUr, file*; ^r«m<n'( Jounai, Blea; Uttnpelilan
Rttord, fil»: ToAM. fiJ«; Calhaiic Aim, files; BaowmoH, B. F..
Broufuon'i Eirlv. iiiddU and Laitr Lijt (Detroit. 1S93-1900);
BiHHrrr. CaHiotyi PonttUv in OU Ntte Ycrk (New York. 1900):
ZwiuuiH, Saifion in New Ntthertand (Rocherter. 1910).
JofiXPH F. MOONBT.
Heir Toric, State or, one of the tiiirteen colonies of
Great Britain, which on 4 July, 1776, adopted the
Declaration of IndependenoB and became the United
States of America.
BoOHnAiuEa and Abea. — The State of New York
lies between 40° 29' 40" and 45° 0" 2" N. lat. ftod be-
tween 71° 51' and 79° 45' 54" W. long. It is bounded
by Lake (Ontario, the St. Lawrence River, and the
DoniinioD of Canaida on the north ; by Vermont, Massa-
chusetts, and Connecticut on the east; by Pennsyl-
vania, New Jersey, and the Atlantic Ocean on the
south, and by Pennsylvania, Lake Erie, and the Ni-
agara River on the west. It has an area of 46,170
square miles, of which 1550 square miles is water sur-
face. From east to west it is 326-46 miles in width;
it is 3(X) miles long on the line of the Hudson River.
Phtsioai, CHARACTEaiBTica. — Tho physical geog-
raphy of New York is very varied. It mcludes the
high range of the Adirondack Mountains in the north-
em part. In the southern and eastern part lie im-
portant portions of the Appalachian svstem, of which
the principal branches are: the CatskiU Mountains on
the west bank of the Hudson River below Albany; the
ranges of the Blue Kdge, which crosB the Hudson at
West Feint and form the Litchfield and Berkshire
Hills and the Green Mountuns on the eastern boun-
dary of the State and in Connecticut, Massachueetta,
and Vermont, and the foothills of the Alleghanies in
the south-westem portion. The highest peak in the
State is Mount Marcy in the Adirondacks, which baa
an altitude of 5344 feet. The valley of the Mohawk
divides the mountainous district in the eastern part
of tlie State, and forms a natural channel in which the
Erie Canal now lies, and which affords easy communi-
cation by water and rail between the Great Lakes and
the Huoson River valley. On the Niagara River is
one of the great cataracts of the world, Niagara Falls,
which is a mile wide and 164 feet high. The preserva-
tion of its natural beauty has been ensured by the
erection of a State Faric, which adjoins a similar pailc
established by the Canadian Government.
"Geolopoally, the State of New York is moat intsi^
esting. The Hudson River valley and the Adiron-
dacks form part of the Aichssan continent, which ia
regarded as the old-
est portion of the
earth's surface.
The Hudson' River
rises in the Adiron-
dack country. It
isnavigableforlSl J
miles, from Troy to D
the sea. The Pah- \
uides of the Hudson \
are among the most
interesting and im-
portant examples
of basaltic rocks in
the worid. The
principal rivers of —
the State, beeidea 8»*i. or Nbw Yout
the great Hudson River and its tributary, the Mo-
hawk, are the Susquehanna River, whicn rises in
Lake Otsego in the central part of the State; the Dela-
ware, which rises on the western slope of the Catskill
mountain country, and the All^eny, which rises in
the south-westem comer of the State. None of these
is of commercial importance within the State of New
York, all pasfdng on to form the principal rivers of
Penns^vania. The series of large inland lakes in
central New York form a matked featuie of its phya-
cal geonvphy. They are of great natural beauty.
bedaes Demg of importance for tr^isportation and
commerce, and many of the large cities and towns of
the State nave grown up on their banks. The land
surrounding them and tne valleys of the brooks and
small rivers which form their feeders and outlets are
of remarlcable fertility. The foreate of the State are
extensive. They lie principally in the Adirondack,
CatskiU, and Blue Ridge country. They are the rem-
nants of the primeval forests that once covered most
of the State. The State has established by constitu-
tional provision and statutory enactments an exten-
sive system of forest preserves. They are the Adiron-
dack Preserve, containing approximately 1,500,(K)0
acres, and the Catskill Preserve, contaimng 110,000
acres. Provinon is made by law for increasing tlidr
area from year to year. The beautiful valleys of the
Hudson and its tributaries extend from the sea into
the foothills of the Adirondaclcs at Lake George. The
valley of Lake Charoplain on the eastern slope of the
AdirondaclcB adjoins the valley of Lake George, and
continues it, except for a divide of about two miles at
its beginning, into the Dominion of Canada and the
St. Lawrence valley. The great central plain of the
State, lying between the mountunous districts of the
south and west and the Great Lakes and the Adiron-
dacks and the eastern mountain ranges on the north
and east, is renowned for the fertility of its soil and the
extent of its manufactures.
NKW YORK
30
NEW YORK
The only sea-coast of the State is fonned by Lone
Island, and extends for 130 miles from New York
Harbour to Montauk Point, which is nearly opposite
the boundary line between the States of Connecticut
and Rhode Island. The waters Ijdns between Long
Island and the mainland form Long Island Sound, one
of the most important waterways of the United
States. From the head of navigation on the Hudson
River at Troy, a distance of 151 miles from the sea,
there extends across the State to Lake Erie one of its
great possessions, the Erie Canal, completed in 1825.
It is 387 miles long. From Troy to Wiitehall at the
head of Lake Champlain extends another of the State's
great works, the Champlain Canal, establishing water
connexion with the St. Lawrence valley on the north.
Ample communication by water from the Lake States
on the west and from Canada on the north to the
Atlantic Ocean at New York Bay is provided by this
canal system. There are also three other important
interior canals owned bv the State, the Oswego, the
Cayuga and Seneca, and the Black River cansSs. In
1909 the goods carried free on these state canals
valued nearly sixty million dollars. There is now un-
der construction by the State the Great Barge Canal,
wUch it is estimated will cost more than $60,000,000.
It is intended to provide navi^tion for modem canal
baijges of 1000 tons from Lake Erie to New York City.
The physical geo^phy of the State has been an
important factor in its growth. The easy communi-
cation afiforded by its great rivers and its convenient
waterways has made it the favoured highway for do-
mestic trade and commerce and emigp:ution for more
than a century, while its possession of the greatest
seaport of the North Atlantic Ocean has made the
State the principal gateway for the world's trade with
North America. The ice-free and deep-channelled
port of New York, lying at the mouth of the Hudson
Kiver, with its wide roadsteads and anchorages and
vast transportation facilities is indeed the greatest
property of the State of NeW York. The port has a
total water front of 444 miles.
Means of Communication. — ^The means of com-
munication within the State are admirable.
Railroads. — In 1907 there were 8505 miles of railway
and 3950 miles of electric railway tracks. The great
railroad of the State is the New York Central system be-
tween New York and Buffalo which provides com-
munication between New York City and the principal
places in all parts of the United States by its own lines
and their direct connexions. The great New England
system, the New York, New Haven and Hartford
Railroad, besides having its terminal in New York
City, crosses the southern part of the State into the
coal and iron country of Pennsylvania. It controls
also the extensive New York, Ontario, and Western
Railroad, extending diagonally across the State from
Oswego on Lake Ontario to the Hudson River at Wee-
hawken, oppjosite New York. The Erie system, in ad-
dition to being one of the trunk lines to Chicago, is
, probably the greatest freight carrier in the Union. Its
passenger traffic around New York City is also of
great extent. Its terminal is in Jersey City opposite
New York. The Delaware and Hudson Railroad ex-
tends from its connexion with the Grand Trunk of
Canada, at Rouse's Point on Lake Champlain, to Al-
bany, where it forms a connexion with a network of
roads extending into many of the important centres
of central and western New York. The Delaware,
Lackawanna, and Western Railroad runs parallel to
the southern boundary of the State in New Jersey and
Pennsylvania, and has its eastern terminal at Ho-
boken on the Hudson River also opposite New York
City. It extends also to the north a most important
line from Binghamton to Buffalo, Utica, and Oswego.
It is the ^atest of the anthracite coa! carriers. The
Buffalo, Rochester, and Pittsburg Railroad connects
the three large cities named in its title, and serves one
of the important agricultural, manufacturing, and
mining districts of the States of New York and Penn-
sylvania. The Pennsylvania Railroad, one of the
great nation^ trunk hnes, with its Hudson tunnels
and its new vast terminal in New York City, is one of
the great institutions of New York. Its main lines
centre about Philadelphia. It owns and operates in
addition to its other properties the entire railroad sys-
tem of populous Long Island, whose wonderful growth
in population and industry seems but a presage of
still more extensive development. The Hudson Tun-
neb under the Hudson River connect the City of New
York with the terminab of most of the railroads on
the New Jersey side of the Hudson; recently opened
(1910) tunnels imder the East River bring the Long
Island Railroad into direct connexion with the Penn-
sylvania S3rstem, and thus with the rest of the conti-
nent. These tunnels are a marvellous achievement
in subaoueous construction. The development of the
terminals of these trunk lines and of their accessories
especially about the port of New Yoric is a sreat ob-
ject lesson in the astounding development of uie West-
ern Hemisphere in less than eighty years. The first
railroad in the State, the Hudson and Mohawk, was
built in 1831. It was 17 miles long and ran from Al-
bany to Schenectady on the Mohawk. It was one of
the earliest steam railroads in the world.
Water RoiUea. — The communication by water
within New York State is not less wonderful. To the
ocean navigation that fills the port of New York must
be added the traffic on the rivers, lakes, and canals of
the State and upon Lon^ Island Sound. The prosper-
ous cities and towns which are ranged along the bsmks
of the Hudson River, across the State on the lines of
the canals and lakes and rivers, and upon the shores of
Lake Erie, Lake Ontario, and the St. Lawrence River
are sustained largely by it.
Wagon Roads. — The improved system of State high-
ways, begun in late years, hajs given modem highways
to many of the rural districts and laid out avenues be-
tween the cities. It is based upon subventions of
highway improvements by means of loans and aids
from the State treasury to the various local authori-
ties. The growth of vehicular traffic by electric tram-
ways and by automobiles has greatly promoted this
work.
Climate. — The climate of the State is salubrious,
and corresponds generally with that of the north tem-
perate zone. In 1909 — which was somewhat abnor-
mal, it is true — the extremes of temperature were 102®
above zero maximum and 35® below zero minimum.
For 1909 the mean annual temperature of the entire
State was 45.8°. The average rainfall throughout the
State for the same year was 36-03 inches. New York
State is divided by the Department of Agriculture of
the United States into three climatological districts:
(1) the Hudson, Delaware, and Susquehanna basins.
(2) the Allegheny River, and (3) the Great Lakes and
the St. Lawrence. The great extent of the State
causes very variable climatic conditions within its
boundaries. In 1909 the mean annual temperature
for one part of the Adirondack region was 39 and for
the vicinity of New York City 52 . The rainfall dur-
ing the year 1909 averaged from 18* 10 inches in Liv-
ingston County to 62-7 inches in Jefferson County.
The winters in the Adirondack country, the St. Law-
rence, and the Champlain valleys are generallv severe,
while the Hudson Valley, Long 'Island, and the vicin-
ity of New York City have moderate winters and hot
summers.
Population. — New York has been since 1820 the
most populous state in the Union. The Federal Cen-
sus returns of 1910 place the population at 9,113,-
279; the State Census of 1905 placed it at 8,067,308.
The City of New York in 1910 comprised 4,766.883
souls. It is one of the centres of the population of the
world. In a circle of 680 square miles area with ite
NEW TO&K
31
NEW TO&K
centre at the Battery (the same area as that of Greater
London) there are dwelling six miUiond of people, or
scarcely a million less than in^he London district,
which it is to be remembered is not a municipality.
This metropolitan district is the most cosmopolitan
commimitv in the world. Its urban character is most
varied and interesting. One division of it. the City of
New York proper, is so large that if divided it would
Qiake three cities such as Chicago, Philadelphia, and
Pitt«bur^. Yet n^ly a million and a half of people
tive outside the limits of the city and within the indi-
cated area.
The cities of Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, Albany,
and Troy are the five next in size; according to the
census of 1910 they include respectively 423,715,
218,149, 137,249, 100,253, and 76,813 people. In
1905 there were 4821 Indians still on the State Reser-
vations. There were 47 municipalities in New York
in 1900 having a population of more than 8000 people,
and in them 68'5 per cent of the people dwelt. In
1900 there were 3,614,780 males and 3,654,114 females
in the State. There were 99,232 coloured people.
1,900,425 of the population or a little less than one
quarter were foreign bom. Of these there were 480,-
026 Germans, 425,553 Irish, 182,248 Italians, 165,610
Russian (mostlv Hebrews), and 135,685 Enelish — ^to
mention only the largest groups. The popiuation of
the whole State in 1790 was 340, 120 by the first Federal
Census. In 120 years it has increased more than
twenty-six times.
In 1906, according to the Federal Census Bureau,
there were 2,285,768 Roman CathoUcs in New York,
forming 63.6 per cent of the total of 3,591,974 reU-
gious communicants or church members in the State
of New York. It is the largest religious denomina^
tion in the State. However, onlv 43*7 per cent of the
people of the State claimed membership in any church
or denomination. In 1906 there were 278 Roman
Catholics for each 1000 of the population, a gain of
8'6 per cent over the figures of the census reports of
1890. The number of Protestant Epfscopalian com-
municants at the same date in the State was 24 for each
1000 of the population. In 1906 the Federal Census
reports show that in the State of New York the num-
ber of churches and halls fo^worship was 9193, having
a seating capacity of 3,191,267. There were also
presbyteries valued at $22,283,225. The Sunday
schools were 8795 in number and attended by 1,247,-
051 scholars. The entire value of all church propeity
was $255,166,284, on which the debt was $28,382,866.
The Catholic Annual for 1910 shows the following
carefully gathered for the dioceses of New York State.
All these dioceses, it should be noted, are wholly in-
cluded within the State boimdaries ana together com-
prise the whole State;
New York...
Albany
BrooUsm. . .
Boffftlo
Ogdensbtirg..
Rochester...
Syracuse
Totals...
H
.« O
1,210.820
1Q3,525
700,000
244.739
02.000
121.000
161,463
2,722,547
J
6
331
171
105
104
154
120
106
1280
020
232
426
346
135
163
110
2350
8
148
47
76
111
15
54
18
460
a jL
101,087
20,362
78,667
36,405
4,079
10,770
0.141
260,420
These Catholic estimates are interesting for the pur-
poses of comparison with those of the official docu-
ments, and particularly as being in advance of the re-
sults of the Federal Census of 1910, which are now
being prepared but cannot be published in detail for
some years to come. The present population of the
State of New York, according to the census of 1910,
is 9,113,279, about one-tenth of the entire population
of the United States.
Wealth and Rbsoubces. — New York is the wealth-
iest State in the Union. The aggregate value of all
the property within the State in 1904, as estimated by
the Federal Census Bureau, was $14,769,042,207, of
which $9,151,979,081 represented real property and
improvements. The revenue of the State Oovemc
ment in 1908-9 was $52,285,239. The City of New
York received the enormous revehue of $368,696,334
in 1908, and had in the same year a funded debt of
$598,01^,644. The resources of the State of New
York lie first in its commerce^ and then in its manu-
factures, agriculture, and minmg.
Commerce. — In 1908 Now York City was the third
shipping port of the world, being surpassed only by
Lonaon and Liverpool. Its imports were of the value
of approximately 780 millions and its exports 600
millions. The tonnage movement of foreign trade
for the year ending 30 June, 1909, was: entered, 12,-
528.723 tons; cleared, 11,866,431 tons. The shipping
of the inland waters and of the Great Lakes controlled
by the State of New York is of equally vast extent.
Buifalo, with a population of over 400,000, receives
in its port on Lake Erie a la^e portion of the shipping
trade of Canada and of the Lake States of the. Union.
The other ports of Lakes Erie and Ontario are simi-
larly prosperous.
Manyfaciurea. — New York is the leading State of
the Union in manufactures. In 1905 it had invested
in manufactures more than $2,000,000,000, and the
value of its manufactures products was approximately
$2,500,000,000. In the same year it produced 47 per
cent of the men's and 70 per cent of the women's
clothes made in the United States. The value of its
textile output in the same year was $114,371,226.
Agriculture. — In 1900 there were in New York 226,-
720 farms of a total area of 22,648,100 acres, of which
15,599,986 acres were improved land. The principal
crops are maize, wheat, oats, potatoes, and hay. The
wool clip in 1908 was estimated at 5,100,000 pounds.
The largest dairy interests in the United States are
within the State of New York.
Mining. — The mines of the state in 1908 yielded
Products valued at $45,609,861 ; the quarries produced
Uildin^ stone valued at $6,137,279. The Onondaga
salt springs produced in the same year products of the
value of $2,136,738, while the petroleum wells yielded
$2j071,533 worth of crude petroleum.
Public Debt. — The State of New York has no
funded debt except for canals and highways. Its out-
standing bonds for these purposes on 30 September,
1909, aggregated $41 ,230,660. It has no direct taxa-
tion. It has a surplus in its treasury. The assessed
valuation of the taxable property within the State for
1909 was just short of $10,000,000,000. The title of
"Empire State", given to New York by common
consent, is well deserved.
Educational System. — ^The public educational
system of New York is extensive and arranged upon
broad plans. It is governed by a general revised stat-
ute of more than 2000 sections called "Education
Law ", adopted in 1910. This law provides for a cen-
tral organization called the "Education Department"
composed of the regents of the University of the State
of New York, who are the legislative branch, and the
Commissioner of Education, who is made the chief
executive officer of the system and of the r^ents.
The work of the Educational Department is divided
into three parts, the common schools, the academic or
seoondan' schools, and the colleges and universities.
The head of the regents of the university is the chan-
cellor. Executive control, however, is entrusted to
the commissioner of education, who, with his assist-
ants and subordinates, has charge of the enormous de-
tails of the entire eaucational system of the State
mw YORK
32
NEW YORK
under the legislative control of the regents and the di-
rection of the statutes of the State passed by the legis-
lature. The colleges and universities of the State are
separate' corporations, formed either by the regents or
by special statutes. They are under either pnvate or
municipal control. There is no State universitjr as
such, although Cornell University has been given
many of the privileges and State aids usually granted
to such an institution. These corporations are sub-
ject, however, to the provisions of tne Education Law
and the jurisdiction of the Education Department.
The academies or secondary schools are also either
Srivate or public. The public secondary schools are
irectly in charge of the school boards and boards of
education of the various divisions of the State. The
private academies may enroll themselves under the
Department of Education, and receive the privi-
leges of the public academies in respect to examina-
tions and certificates from the Eaucation Depart-
ment. There is, however, no legal compulsion put
upon them in this respect. The common schools of
the State are divided generally into those which are
controlled by the local boards of education in the cities
and more populous centres, and those which are con-
trolled by the local school officers elected by the peo-
ple in the school districts in other parts of the State.
Woman sufTrape is granted in school officers' elections.
In the great cities of the State the bommon and sec-
ondary schools are usually placed in charge of school
boards and officers provided for in the city charters,
which are in the form of statutes enacted by the legis-
lature.
In New York City is situated the large college
Jmown as the College of the City of New York, main-
tained at public expense. It has the most extensive
buildings for educational purposes in the city and an
enrolment of more than 3736 pupils. On the Hudson,
at West Point, is situated the famous United States
Military Academy for the training of officers for the
arm\^ It is entirely imder Federal control through
the War Department, and has 525 cadets in attend-
ance. The professional schools of the State of all
classes are controlled by the Education Department
under stringent provisions. Admission to the secular
professions generally is g[ranted by State certificates
awarded after rigid examinations by State examining
boards. The schools for the training of teachers are
also either under departmental control or, in the more
populous centres^ under the control of the several
boards of education of the localities. Primary edu-
cation is compulsory between the ages of seven and
sixteen years. The state does not interfere, however,
with the hberty of choice of schools b^r parents. No
discrimination is made against parochial and private
schools, which have enrolled themselves with the
Education Department: they receive, however, no
public financial aid, if the small grant made by the
Department to defray the cost of examinations in the
enrolled secondary schools be excepted.
In 1908 there were 1,841,638 children between five
and eighteen years of age in New York State; there
were 1,273,754 pupils and 36,132 teachers in the pub-
lic schools. The academies or secondary schools of
the State had 95,170 pupils and 1523 teachers; the col-
leges and universities 22,097 students and 2699 teach-
ers. There were 12,068 public school buildings, 144
public secondary schools or academies, and 30 colleges
and universities. The appropriation of public mon-
eys for educational purposes in New York State for
the year 1907 was $71,838,172. The City of New
York alone paid in 1909 for public school education
$36,319,624. Its schools contained 730,234 pupils
and had 17,073 teachers and directors. The public
statistics of the Department of Education of New
York available show that 451 parochial schools, be-
sides numerous academies ana colleges, were con-
ducted under the auspices of the Catholic Church in
New York in 1908. The number of pupils in the
Catholic educational institutions of the State cannot be
ascertained with certainty. A large number of Cath-
olic schools and academies make no public reports,
but it is conservatively estimated that 210,000 pupils
were in the Catholic schools in 1908. The State Edu-
cation Department reported that in 1907, 179^677
pupils were registered as in the Roman Catholic Ele-
mentary Schools alone. The CathoUc Annual of 1910
estimates the number of young people under Catholic
care including the orphans and other inmates of char-
itable institutions as 269.420.
There are many excellent high schools and acade-
mies in the State conducted bv the Catholic teaching
orders of men and women and by secular priests ana
laymen. The colleges under Catholic auspices are:
Fordham University, St. Francis Xavier College,
Manhattan College, Brooklyn College, St. Francis
College, St. John's College, Brooklvn — ^aU in New
York City; Canisius College at Buffalo, Niagara Uni-
versity at Niagara Falls, and the College of New Ro-
chelle, a flourishing college for women in charge of the
Ursuline Nuns. All of these institutions are under
the jurisdiction of the Education Department of the
State of New York. In 1894 there was inserted in
the Constitution of the State a provision that neither
the State nor any subdivision thereof should use its
propert)r or credit or any public money or authorize or
permit either to be usea directly or indirectly in aid or
maintenance other than for examination or mspection
of any school or institution of learning wholly or in
part under the control or direction of any religious
denomination or in which any denominational tenet
or doctrine is taught. The Catholic seminaries for
the education of priests are flourishing. The great
novitiates of the Jesuits, Redemptorists, and Christian
Brothers, and several others maintained by various
religious orders, are in the Hudson Valley, south of
Albany. The seminary of the Archdiocese of New
York at Dunwoodie, Westchester County, which is the
monument of fhe late Archbishop Comgan, is one of
the leading seminaries of the United States. The dioc-
esan seminaries of St. John's at Brooklyn, St. Bern-
ard's at Rochester, and the Seminary of Our Lady of
Angels, conducted by the priests of the Mission at
Niagara Falls, in the Diocese of Buffalo, are of the
hi^est standing for scholarship and training.
MiUTiA. — ^The militia of the State, whicn is com-
posed exclusively of volunteers, numbers 17,038
trained officers and men in all the arms of the military
service. It is intended to form the nucleus of a mih-
tary force in time of need by training; volunteer citi-
zen-soldiers in the military art. It is most liberally
supported by the State and most carefully trained in
co-operation with the Federal Government.
Libraries. — ^The Ubraries of the State are numer-
ous and important. The Education Department
maintains a generous system for the estabhshment of
libraries and provides generous State aid for their sup-
port. The great library of the State is the New York
Public Library in the City of New York, which in 1909
owned 1,549.260 books and 295,078 pamphlets, in all
1,844,338 volumes. It will soon (in 191 1) occupy the
magnificent building erected by the City of New York
in Bryant Square at Fifth Avenue ancf Forty-second
Street, which has just been completed. It is largely
endowed by the testamentary gifts of John Jacob
Astor, James Lenox, and Samuel J. Tilden, and re-
ceives aid from the City Treasury.
History. — The territory which now forms the
State of New York may, as regards its history, be di-
vided into two parts. The first part includes the
Hudson River valley, the valley of the Mohawk, the
land around Newark Bay and New York Harbour,
and the western end of Long Island — which, speaking
generally, were, together with the sparse Delaware
River settlements, the only portions of New Nether-
NEW TO&K
33
NEW TO&K
land actually occupied by the Dutch when the prov-
ince was granted by the English Crown to the Duke of
York in 1664. The second part comprises the rest of
the State excluding eastern Ix)nK Island : this was the
Indian country, the home of the Iroquois and the
other tribes forming the Five Nations; now mostly re-
membered from the old romances, but a savage and
fierce reality to the Dutch and EngUsh colonists. As
late as 1756 there were only two counties to be found
in the entire province west of the Hudson River. In-
terposed between the French and the Dutch (and
afterwards the English), and brought from time to
to time into their quarrels for supremacy, the Indians
kept the land between the Great Lakes, the Hudson,
and the St. Lawrence truly ''a dark and bloody
ground " until the end of the eighteenth century, when,
as part of the military operations of the Revolution,
the expedition of the American forces, sent by Wash-
inKton under^Dommand of General John Sullivan, fi-
nidly broke their power at the Battle of Newton near
Elmira in 1779.
Although their military power was thus destroyed,
the Indians still remained a menace to the settlers in
remoter districts for many years. Gradually, how-
ever, their opposition was overcome, and they finally
became the wards of the State, living on reservations
set apart for their exclusive occupancy. A remnant
of them (4821 in the year 1905) still survives. Early
in the nineteenth centiuy large grants of land began to
be made by the State at small prices to land companies
and promoters for the purpose of fostering occupation
by settlers. Systematic colonization was immedi-
ately undertaken, and a large emigration from Ver^
mont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, and the Dutch
settlements in the Hudson Valley began to flow into
the Iroquois country. This continu^ prosperously,
but not rapidly until De Witt Clinton, one of the
great figures in the history of New York,upon his taking
the office of Governor in 1818, pressed forward vigor-
ously the long-standing plans for the construction and
completion of the great artificial waterways of the
State, the Erie and tne Champlain canals. European
immigration then became essential to supply the la-
bour needed for the success of these plans. Stalwart
men and women flocked from the British Islands and
Germany in astounding numbers, and in forty years
the i)opulation of New York City mcreased more than
six times (from 33,131 in 1790 to 202,589 in 1830).
The labouring men, who worked outside the cities on
the public works, with their families became settlers
in the villages and towns that grew up along the
canals. The general prosperity which succeed^ the
successful completion of these works and their opera-
tion, and the consequent enormous development of
the State's resources, drew others into the territory.
The population of the State of New York itself in-
creased from 340,120 in 1790 to 1,918,608 in 1830.
The European inmiip;ration thus begun included of
course a large proportion of Catholics. Bishop Du-
bois estimated that in 1830 there were 35,000 Catho-
lics in New York City and 150,000 throughout the
rest of the State and in northern New Jersey, made up
chiefly of poor emigrants. The Irish element was
very large, and the first Catholic congregations in
New YoA were in some cases almost wholly Irish. To
them soon came their devoted missionary priests to
minister to them in the Faith which had survived
among their race and grown even brighter in the night
of the iniquitous penal days, which had then but just
begun to pass away. The State of New York, be-
cause of tne uncertain boundaries of the old Dutch
province of New Netherland, at first laid claim to the
country which now comprises the State of Vermont,
and also to part of the land now lying in western Mas-
sachusetts and Connecticut. These claims were set-
tled by mutual agreement in due course and the
boundaries were fixed. The State of Vermont there-
XL— 3
upon became the fourteenth State of the Union in 1791,
being the first admitted after the adoption of the
United States Constitution in 1789. The first com-
plete State Constitution framed after the Revolution
was that of New York. It was adopted on 20 April,
1777, at Kingston on the Hudson. John Jay, George
Clinton, and Alexander Hamilton were its princip^
framers. The City of New York became the capital
of the State after the Revolution, as it had been the
capital of the Province of New York before. Upon
the adoption of the United States Constitution in
1789 it became the capital of the United States. Presi-
dent Washington was inaugurated there at Federal
Hall at the head of Broad Street, the first capital of
the United States. His house stood at the foot of
Broadway. Its site is now occupied by the Washing-
ton Building. In 1790 the capital of the United
States was removed to Philadelphia, and in 1797 the
capital of the State was removed to Albany where it
has since remained. Since 1820 the City of New
York has been the commercial and financial centre of
the continent of North America.
Ecclesiastical History. — On 8 April, 1808, the
Holy See created the Diocese of New York coinci-
dently with the establishment of the American Hier-
archy by the erection of Baltimore to be an Archi-
episcopal See with New York, Philadelphia, Boston,
and bardstown (now Louisvule) as suffragan sees^
Doctor Richard Luke Concanen, an Irish Dominican
resident in Rome, was appointed first Bishop of New
York, but died at Naples in 1809, while awaiting an
opportunity to elude Napoleon Bonaparte's embargo
and set out for his see. After a delay of six years
his successor Bishop John Connolly, also a Dominican,
arrived at New York in November, 1815, and min-
istered as the first resident bishop to his scattered
congregations of 17,000 souls (whom he describes as
"mostly Irish") in union with the four priests, who
were au he had to help him throughout his immense
diocese. He died on 5 February, 1825, after a de-
voted and self-sacrificing episcopate^ and is buried
under the altar of the new St. Patnck's Cathedral.
During the vacancy of the see, preceding the arrival
of Bisnop ConnoUv (1808-15), the diocesan affairs
were administered by Father Anthony Kohlmann (q.
v.). He rebuilt St. Peter's church in Barclav Street,
and in 1809 bought the site of old St. Patrick s Cathe-
dral in Mott Street, the building of which he finished
in 1815. He also bought in 1809 the land and old
residence in the large block on Fifth Avenue at Fif-
tieth Street — part of which is the site of the present
St. Patrick's Cathedral — and there established a
flourishing boys' school called the New York Literary
Institution.
In 1822 the diocesan statistics were: two churches
in New York City, one in Albany, one in Utica, one
in Auburn, one at Carthage on the Black River, all
of which were served by one bishop and eight priests.
Bishop Connolly was succeeded on 29 October, 1826,
by John Dubois (q. v.), a Frenchman who had been
a fellow student of Robespierre and was one of the
imigri priests of the French Revolution. He was one
of the founders of Mount St. Mary's, Emmitsburg,
Maryland — "the mother of priests ', as it has been
called — and passed through the cholera epidemic of
1832, when 3000 people died in the City of New York
between July and October. He increased the churches
and brought to his diocese zealous priests. It is
noteworthy that he ordained to the priesthood at St.
Patrick's in June, 1836, the Venerable John N. Neu-
man (q. v.), afterwards the saintly Bishop of Phila-
delphia. After a life of arduous labour, trial, and
anxiety both as a missionary, an educator, and a pio-
neer bishop, his health broke down, and he was
granted in 1837 as coadjutor John Hughes (q. v.),
who iustly bears the most distinguished name m the
annals of the American hierarchy even to this day.
NEW TOBK 34 NEW YORK
Bishop Hushes was consecrated on 9 February. 1838. have been Catholics. Francis Keman was United
A stroke of paralysis att-acked the venerable Bishop States Senator for New York from 1876-82. Denis
Dubois almost inunediately afterwards, and he was an O'Brien closed a distinguished career as Judge of
invalid until his death on 20 December, 1842, where- the Court of Appeals, the court of last resort, by his
upon he was succeeded by his coadjutor as Bishop of retirement for age in 1908 after a continuous service
New York. In April, 1847, the Sees of Albany and of eighteen yea)«. The first Catholic Justice of the
Buffalo were created. Bishop John McCloskey (q. Supreme Court was John R. Brady, elected in 1859,
v.), afterwards the first American cardinal, who was and loyal sons of the Church have been on that bench
then Coadjutor Bishop of New York, was transferred ever smce. Mayors of the great cities of the State,
to Albany, and Reverend John Timon, Superior of the senators, assemblyman. State officera and represen-
Congregation of the Mission, was made Bishop of tatives in Congress, and a multitude of other public
Buffalo. In October, 1850, the Diocese of New York officers have been chosen from the Catholic citizen-
was erected into an archiepiscopal see with the Sees of ship ever since the beginning of the nineteenth c^i-
Boston, Hartford, Albany, and Buffalo as its sufifra- tury and have rendered distmguished service to the
J^ans. Archbishop Hughes sailed for Rome in the State. For many years the two orilUant leaden of the
oUowing month, and received the pallium from the New York Bar weie Charles O'Conor and James T.
hands of Pius IX himself. Brady, sons of Irish Catholic emigrants. In medi-
The career of Archbishop Hughes and the history cine Gunning S. Bedford and Thomas Addis Emmet
of his archdiocese and its suffragan sees are fully kept for many years the Catholic name^at the top of
treated under their appropriate titles, and need not the profession, and they have now worthy successors,
be discussed here. The life of Archoishop Hughes In tne great public works and industries of the State
marked the great formative period in the history ofthe Catholics have had more than their share of the labour
pioneer Church in New York. His great work in the and its rewuxis. In the commercial life of New York
cause of education, in the establishment of the paro- some of the largest fortunes have been honourably
chial schools, the establishment of the great teaching gathered bv Catholic men, who have been most gen-
and other religious orders, and the erection of semi- erous to the reUgious and charitable works of the
naries and colleges for the training of candidates for State.
the priesthood, as well as in the solution of the tremen- Legal. — ^The State of New York has a constitu-
dous problems connected with the building up of the tional government. It was the model of that of the
churches and charities and the preservation of the United States of America. The union of the executive.
Faith, had a profoimd effect upon the attitude of the legislative, and judicial branches of government under
State of New York towards religious institutions and a written constitution is its principle. Its execu-
persons and ecclesiastical affairs. The Knownothing tive head is the governor. The legislature has two
movement of the fifties (see Knownothingism) was houses, the Senate and Assemblv, which meet annually
profoundly felt in New York, but the number and im- at Albany, the State capital, its courts are composed
portance of the Catholic population protected them principaljy of a Court of Appeals (the highest court)
frdm the cowardlyassaults made upon the Catholics and the Supreme Court, which is divided into four
in other places. The presence of Archbishop Hughes AppeUate Divisions, and numerous courts of first
was ever a tower of strength in the conflict and in pro- instance, divided into districts throughout the State,
ducing the overwhelming defeat which this un-Amer- There are many minor and local courts supplementing
ican movement met. The only effect of this sectarian the Supreme Court.
agitation ui)on the legislation of the State was the The State of New York has always been foremost in
passage in 1855 of a plainly unconstitutional statute the pursuit of freedom of worship and religious toler-
which sought to prevent CathoUc bishops from hold- ation. It is true, however, that her first Constitution
ing title to propertv in trust for churches or congre- in 1777 excluded all priests and ministers of the Gospel
gations. It proved of no avail whatever. In 1862, from her legislature and offices, and put a prohibitory
after the Civil War began, it was quietly repealed. religious test upon foreign-bom C^thohcs who appli^
In 1853 the Dioceses of JBrookl3m in New York and for citizenship. Herein we find an echo of the bitter in-
of Newark in New Jersey were established, the first tolerance of the eighteenth century, which was strongly
Bishop of Brooklyn being Reverend John Loughlin opposed in the Convention. The naturalization dis-
and tne first Bishop of Newark Reverend James ability disappeared very soon on the adoption of the
Roosevelt Barley (q. v.). who later became Arch- Federal Constitution m 1780, and, by subsequent
bishop of Baltimore. In i868 the Diocese of Roches- constitutional amendments, all these remnants of an-
ter was separated from Albany, and the venerable and cient bigot^ were formally abolished. It is remark-
beloved apostle of Catholicism in north-western New able to find John Jay, otherwise most earnest in the fight
York, Bishop Bernard J. McQuaid (q. v.), appointed for civil liberty, the leader in these efforts to impose
its first bishop. religious tests and restraints of liberty of conscience
In 1872 the Diocese of Ogdensburg was created, upon his Catholic fellow-citizens. This Constitution,
and in November, 1886, the youngest diocese of the nevertheless, proclaimed general reUgious liberty in
State, Syracuse. It is unnecessary to sketch further unmistakable terms. The provision is as follows:
here the hbtory of Catholicism in New York State ''The free exercise and enjoyment of religious prof es-
during the incumbency of the archiepiscopal office by sion and worship without discrimination or preference
Cardinal McCloskey, Archbishop Hughes s successor, shall forever hereafter be allowed within this State to all
and that of his successor Archbishop Corrigan, or of mankind provided that the liberty of conscience hereby
his Grace, John M. Farley, its present archbishop. It granted shall not be so construed as to excuse acts
is sufficient to record the continual progress in tne ad- of licentiousness or justify practices inconsistent with
vancement of Catholic interests, in the building up of the peace or safety of this State." The statutes of the
the Church, and in adjusting its activities to the needs State which permitted the formation of religious cor-
of the people. porations without restraint, and gave to them when
Distinguished Catholics. — The Catholics of New formed, freedom to hold property and conduct their
York State have produced their full proportion of p>er- affairs unhampered by the civil power^ are conteinpo-
sons of distinction in the professions, commerciaJ, raneous with tne restoration of order within its bordera
political, and social life. Of the ninety-seven justices after the British evacuation in November, 1783, and
who now sit in the Supreme Court seventeen are of were among the first statutes adopted by the legisla-
the Catholic faith. Among the justices of the lower ture in 1784. The laws of New York which relate to
courts are many Catholics. Since 1880 three mayora matters of religion have been in many instances models
of New York City (Messrs. Grace, Grant, and Gilroy) for the other States. The Dutehmen who settled in
mw tore: 35 new tobk
New Netherlands and the other emi^ants and their faring people, emigrants, Spanish negroes from the
descendants who came within their mfluence in the West Indies, and at least part of the 7000 Acadians,
Province of New York, early learned the value and who were distributed along the Atlantic seaboard in
reason of religious toleration. The Dutchmen in 1755 after the awful expatriation which that devoted
America did not persecute for reliodbn's sake. people suffered, although the annals are almost bare of
The present civil relations of the Catholic Church to references even to their existence. Father Farmer
the Sfcate of New York and their history form an in- from Philadelphia came to see the oppressed Catho-
teresting study. The Dutch Colony of the seven- lies during his lon^^ service on the missions between
teentii century was officially intolerantly Protestant. 1752-86, but his visits have no historv. They had
but was, as has been noted, in practice tolerant ana no church or institutions of any kina. As Arch-
fair to people of other faiths who dwelt within New bishop Bayley truly said, a chapel, if they had had
Netherlana. When the English took the province means to erect one, would have been torn down. The
from the Dutch in 1664, they granted full religious first mention of their public worship shows them hear-
toleration to the other forms of Protestantism, and ing Mass in a carpenter shop, and afterwards in a
preserved the property rights of the Dutch Reformed public hall in Vauxnall Garden (a pleasure ground on
Church, while recogmsin^ its discipline. The Gen- the Hudson near Warren Street), New York, between
eral Assembly of the province held m 1682 imder the the years 1781-83 when they had begun to take
famous Governor Thomas Dongan, an Irish Catholic heart because of the religious hberty which was to be
nobleman, adopted the Charter of Liberties, which theirs under the new republican government whose
proclaimed religious liberty to all Christians. Al- arms had already triumphed over England at York-
though this charter did not receive formal royal sane- town. Their number at this time was reported as be-
tion,thefactof religioustqlerationwasneverthelessuni- ing about two hundred, with Only twenty odd com-
versally recognized. In 1688 the Stuart Revolution municants, as Father Farmer lamented,
in England reversed this policy of liberality, and the . The Revolution of 1776 overthrew entirely the S3r8tem
Province of New York immediatelv followed the ex- of government churches and all religious proscrip-
ample of the mother-country in all its bitter intoler^ tion by law, and the State Constitution of 1777 pro-
ance and persecution by law of the Catholic Church vided. as has been seen, for general religious liberty,
and its aaherents. In 1697, although the Anglican The Legislature in 1784 carried ou^ the declaration.
Church was never formally established in the Province It provided ** that an universal equality between every
of New York, Trinity Church was founded in the City religious denomination, according to the true spirit
of New York by royal charter, and received many of the Constitution, toward each other shall forever
civil privileges and the munificent grants of land which prevail *\ and followed this by a general act providinjS
are the source of its present great wealth. The Dutch for the incorporation of churches and religious sod-
Reformed Churches continued, however, to enjoy eties under clear general ruleS) few, simple, and easy
their property and the protection of their rights un- for all. This law made a most unusual provision in
disturbea by the new Anglican founda,tion, the inhabi- aid of justice for the vesting in these corporate bodies
tants of Dutch blood being then largely in the ascend- immeaiately of ''all the temporalities panted or de-
ant. This condition continued many years, for it is vised directly to said church, congregation or society,
a fact that, when the Revolution occurred in 1776, or to any person or persons in trust to and for their
the majority of the inhabitants of the Province of New use and although such gift, grant or devise may not
York were, contrary to general belief, not of English have strictly been agreeable to the rigid rules of law, or
descent. might on strict construction be defeated by the opera-
The political conditions at home, and also the long tion of the statutes of mortmain." It made provision
contest between England and France for the control also with great prescience for the protection of clergy-
of North America resulted, as has been stated, in the^ men from the exercise of arbitrary i)ower by the lay
enactment by the provincial legislature from time to , directors of religious corporations by taking from the
time of proscriptive laws against the Catholic Faith trustees of the church the power to fix the ssJaiy of the
and its adherents — laws which are savage in ^heir clergyman and by requiring the congregation to fix it at
malignity. Catholic priests and teachers were or- special meetings. To prevent abuses, nowever, and in
derea to keep away from the province or, if they by accordance with legal tradition and precedent, restrio-
any chance came there, to depart at once. Severe tions upon the amount of real estate and personal prop-
penalties were provided for disobedience to these laws, erty which a church could hold were made, and the
extending to long imprisonment or even death . These Court of Chancery was placed in control of all such mat-
laws were directed in' many cases principally against ters by requiring that annual reports should be made by
the Catholic missionaries among the Iroquois, who the churches to it. The final clause of the act crystal-
were almost exclusively Frenchmen. They were lize^ the principle of the Constitution, that, wlule the
adopted also, it is consohng to think, against the pro- State protects and fosters religion in its beneficent
test of many of the best of the colonial legislators and work, it must not interfere in religious matters. It is
under the urging of authority, and were rarely en- as follows: ''Nothing herein contained shidl be con-
forced. This was not so in the case of the unfortunate strued, adjudged, or taken to abridge or affect the
schoolmaster John Ury. however. In the disturbances rights of conscience or private judgnient or in the least
and panic of the so-called Negro Plot of 1741 he was to alter or change the religious constitutions or spvem-
actually tried in New York and executed under these ments of either of the said churches, congregations or
statutes for the crime of being a "Popish priest'' and societies, so far as respects or in any wise concerns the
teaching his religion. Although it is held by some doctrine, discipline or worship thereof."
that Ury was not a Catholic priest. Archbishop Bayley The Constitution of 1777 and the legislation of the
gives good reason for believing the contrary, citing Revolutionary period in aid of it are remarkable for
especially the fact that the record shows that he deep sagacity and great grasp of principles, as well as
never denied the accusation at any time, and therefore for the conservative and sane treatment of the inno-
died as a priest. The entire body of this legislation vations and novelties which the radical changes in the
was formally repealed at the first session of the L^s- government made necessary. This is the more re-
Uture of the State of New York. markable when it is remembered that this Constitution
The condition of the few Catholics who dared pro- was adopted in time of war by delegates who liud down
Bcription and persecution in the province of New York their arms in most cases to join in the deliberations upon
before the Revolution of 1776 was deplorable from a it, and that the legislature first met immediately
religious point of view. These Catholics must have after the close of this war time. It was besides a ven-
been recruited in numbers from time to time from sea- ture in an almost virgin field. Its wisdom, knowledge.
MIW YORK 36 NEW TORS
and broadnoBB are priceless treasures of the citisens of in details, agreed ''that the Christian religion was en-
New Yoric. The wisdom of the Constitution is shown grafted ui)on the law and entitle to protection as the
particularly in the provision creating the bodv of the Basis of morals and the strength of Government." In
law for the State. It enacted that the law of the State 1861 a similar question was presented for decision in
should be constituted of the Common Law of EnMand the well-known case of LinaenmuUer vs. People (33
and of tne Acts of the Legislature of the Colony otNew Barbour Rei)orts 548) . The plaintiff sought from the
York, as together forming the law of the colony on 19 court an injunction to restrain the police of New York
April, 1775 (the day of the battle of (Doncord and Lex- City from mterferin^ with theatrical performances on
ington). It was expresdy declared, however, ''that Sunday. The opimon of the Supreme Court was
alTsuch parts of the said Common Law and tdl such of written by Justice William F. Allen, a most distin-
the said Statutes and Acts aforesaid or parts thereof guished jurist, and was afterwards (1877) adopted by
as may be construed to establish or maintain any par- the Court of Appeals as the decision of the highest
ticular denomination of Christians or their ministers, court. It oontams an admirable and exhaustive study
are repugnant to this constitution and hereby are ab- of the Simday laws. It takes the claim of the plain-
rogated and rejected." tiff, stated broadly, to be that "the Bible, and religion
To New York belongs the honour of having been the with all its ordinances, including the Sabbath, are as
first of all Englishnspeaking states from the time of effectually abolished by the Constitution as they were
the Protestant Reformation, to protect by its courts in France during the Revolution) and so effectually
and laws, the secrecy and sanctity of auricular confes- abolished that duties may not be enforced as duties to
sion. In Jime, 1813, it was judicially determined that the State because they have b^n heretofore asso-
auricular confession as a part of church discipline pro- ciated with acts of religious worship or connected with
tects the priest from being compelled in a court of law religious duties." It then proceeds: "It would be
to testify to statements made to him therein. The strange that a people. Christian in doctrine and wor-
decision was made bv De Witt Clinton, presiding in ship, many of whom or whose forefathers had sou^t
the Mayor's Court of New York City on the tricu of these shores for the privilege of worshipping God in
one Phillips for theft, and the priest, whose protest simpUcity and purity of faith, and who regarded re-
was there considered, was the revered Father Anthony ligion as the basis of their civil liberty and the founda^
Kohlmann mentioned above. The decision is more tion of their rights, should, in their zeal to secure to all
remarkable because it was contrary to the principles the freedom of conscience which they valued so highly,
of the English cases, and the opposite view had the solemnl^r repudiate and put beyond the pale of the law
support of respectable authorities. the religion which was as dear to them as life and de-
Although no form of religion is considered by the throne the God, who, thev openly and avowedlv pro-
State of New York as having rights superior to fess to believe, had been their protector and guide as a
any other, yet the fact of the existence of the Chris- people." The (Dourt announced the broad decision
tian relimon as the predominating faith of the peo- that every act done, maliciously tending to bring re-
ple has oeen uniformly recognized by the courts, ligion into contempt, may be punished at common
constitutional conventions, and legislatures. As law, and the Christian Sabbath, as one of the institu-
early as 1811, Chancellor Kent, writing the opinion tions of religion, may be protected from desecration
of the Court in the case of- People vs. Ruanues (8 by such laws as the Legislature in their wisdom may
Johnson 294), made the celebrated dictum: '^e are deem necessary to secure to the community the privi-
a Christian people and the morality of the country is lege of an undisturbed worship, and to the day itself
deeply ingrafted ui)on Christianity." This famous that outward respect and observance which may be
case arose on the conviction of the defendant for bias- deemed essential to the peace and good order of so-
phemy in maliciously reviling Jesus Christ in a public ciety, and to preserve religion and its ordinances from
place. In the absence of a specific statute the question open reviling and contempt. It further held that this
was presented whether such an act was in New York must be considered, not as a duty to God, but as a
a crime at common law. The Court held that it was, duty to society and to the State. This decision firmly
because to vilify the Author of Christianity under the established the proposition that, as a civil and politi-
circumstanoes presented was a gross violation of de- cal institution, the establishment and regulation of a
oency and good order, and blasphemy was an abuse Sabbath are within the just powers of civil govem-
of the right of religious liberty. The court further ment. It remains the law of the State confirmed by
held that, though the Constitution discarded religious many decisions up to this time,
establishments, it did not forbid judicial cognizance Many interestmg questions have arisen from time
of those offences against religion and morality which to time in the courts as to how far the Engli^ doc-
have no reference to any such establishment or to any trines as to "superstitious uses", mortmain, and
particular form of government, but are pimishable bo- charities, especially in relation to the ownership of
cause they strike at the root of moral obli^tion and lands by religious corporations and charitable corpo-
weaken social tiesj that the Constitution never meant rations and as to their capacity to take charitable oe-
to withdraw religion in general, and with it the best quests and devises, remained the law of the State under
sanctions of moral and social obligation, from all the Constitution. As to superstitious uses, it has been
consideration and notice of the law; ana that the expressly held that that English post-Reformation
framers intended only to banish test oaths, disabilities doctrine has no place in this State; that those profess-
and the burdens, and sometimes the oppressions, of ing the Roman Catholic Faith are entitled in law to
Church establishments, and to secure the people of the same respect and protection in their reli^ous ob-
the State freedom from coercion and an equahty of servances as those of any other denomination, and
right on the subject of religion. that these observances cannot be condenmed as super-
This decision of the Supreme Court that, although stitious by any court as matter by law. The right to
Christianity is not the religion of the State, consideiid make provision for Masses for the dead by contracts
as a political corporation, it is nevertheless closely inter- made inter vivos was expressly proclaimed by the
woven into the texture of society and is intimately con- Court of Appeals. Direct bequests for Masses are
nected with all the social habits, customs, and modes in law "chanties" and to be considered as such. As
of life of the people, gave offence in certain quarters, to these charities generally, the Court of Appeals in
In view of this Ru^^ case, an amendment was pro- 1888 settled finally after much discussion tnat the
posed in the Constitutional Convention of 1821 to the English doctrine of trusts for charitable uses, with all
effect that the judiciary should not declare any partic- its refinements, was not the law in New York ; that the
ular rdigion to be the law of the land. It was rejected settled policy of the State was clear, and consisted in
afterafulldebatein which itsopponentSyWhilediffering the creation of a i^stem of public cnaritieB to be ad-
MIW TORS
37
NEW TORS
minktered through the medium of oorporate bodies,
created bv legislative power and endowed ¥nth the
same legal capacity to hold property for their corpo-
rate purposes^ as a private person or an ordinarv pri-
vate corporation had to receive and hold transfers of
property. It was decided, therefore, in the leading
case of Holland vs. Alcock (108 New York Reports
329), that direct bequests for Masses cannot be made
definitely as such except to incorporated churches or
other corporations having legal i)ower to take property
for such purposes. There is no difficulty in practice,
however, in this regard, as Mass legacies are now
either given to an incorporated church directly, or are
left as personal bequests accompanied by requests,
which in law do not derogate from the absolute
quality of the ^ft.
However, it is to be noted that the rules laid down
by the Court of Appeals in the matter of charities have
been radically changed by legislation since 1888. The
decision of the Court of Appeals in the Tilden will case,
by which the elaborate plans for public charity made
by Samuel J. Tilden were defeated b^r the application
of these rules, was followed almost immeaiately by
Chapter 701 of the Laws of 1893, which provides that
sifts by will for charitable purposes shail not be de-
feated because of indefiniteness in designatinjs the
beneficiaries, and that the power in the regulation of
the gifts for charitable purposes formerly exereised
by the Court of Chancery under the ancient law of
England should be restored and vested in the Supreme
Court as a Court of Eauity. The Court of Appeals
construing this statute nas held that the existence of
a competent corporation or other definable trustee
with power to take is no longer necessary /or the va-
lidity of a trust for charitable uses, and tnat any legal
trust for such purposes may be executed by proper
trustees if such are named, and, if none are named, the
trust will be administered by the Supreme Court. It
is important to note, however, that this act must be
confined to the cases to which it applies, and that it
does not enable an unincorporated charity or associa-
tion to take bequests or devises.
There exist, however, notwithstanding the liberal-
ity of the New Yoric system, some important re-
strictions upon the conduct of religious and charitable
corporations. The better opinion and the weight of
judicial authority are, that, notwithstanding the re-
pealing act of the L^slature of 1788 above noted,
the English statutes of Elizabeth, which restricted re-
ligious and charitable corporations, may hold in the
alienation and encumbering of their real estate, have
been adopted as the law of this State, and that such
acts can only be lawfully done under the order of the
Supreme Court. Limitations upon the value of the
property and the amount of the income of religious
and chiuitable corporations have also been uniformly
made by the New York Statutes. The present law,
however, is most liberal in this respect, the property
of such corporations being limited to |i5, 000,000 and
the annual income to $600,000. and provision is also
made that no increase in the value of property arising
otherwise than from improvements made thereon by
the owners shall be taken into account. By recent
act also the strict requirements for accounting to the
Supreme Court, the successor of the Court of Chan-
cenr, as to their property and income, which in the
early statutes controlled such corporations, are con-
fined to cases where the attorney-general intervenes
for the purpose by petition to the Supreme Court upon
proper cause being shown.
The law of New York on the general subject of the
Chureh and the legal position of the latter before the
law has been defined oy the statutes and numerous
decisions. The results may be briefly stated as fol-
lows: Religious societies as such are not legal en-
tities, although as an aggregation of the individuals
composing them, for motives of convenience, they are
recogniied as existing in certain cases. They can
neither sue nor be sued in civil courts. They cannot
hold property directly, althoufjh they may control
property held by others for their use or upon trusts
created by them. The existence, however, of the
Chureh proper, as an organised legal entity, is not
recognized by tne municipal law of New York. There
is no statute which authorizes the incorporation of
the Chureh at large. The incorporation is generally
made of the congregation or assemblage of persons
accustomed statedly to meet for Divine worsnip, al-
though provision has been made for the incorporation
of special eeclesiastical bodies with governing author-
ity over churehes. For example, the Catholic dioceses
of Albany, Buffalo, and Brookl3ai have been thus
incorporated formsJly. The general plan provides
specially for the incorporation and government of the
churches of the separate denominations, as gathered
into congregations. Each important denomination,
therefore, has its own particular provisions in the Re-
ligious Corporation Law, the general statute of the
State which has codified these laws and decisions. In
the case of the Roman Catholic Church, incorporation
is obtained in this way. A certificate of incorpora-
tion must be executed by the arehbishop or bishop,
the vicar-general of the diocese, the rector of the con-
gregation, and two laymen thereof, selected by such
officials or a majority of them. It must state the
corporate name of the chureh, and also the municipal-
ity where its principal place of worship exists or is in-
tended to be located. On filing such certificate with
the clerk of the coimty in which the principal place of
worship is or is intended to be, or with the Secretary
of State in certain cases, the corporation is created.
Questions of the civil rights of persons, relating
either to themselves or to property, whatever may be
their relations to chureh organizations, are as a matter
of course the subject of adjudication in the civil tri-
bimals. But judicial notice will be taken of the exist-
ence of the church discipline or government in some
cases, and it is always the subject of evidence. When,
therefore^ personal rights and rights of property are
in cases in the courts dependent upon questions of
doctrine, discipline, church government, customs, or
law, the civil court will consider as controlling and
binding the determinations made on such questions
by the highest tribunal within the Chureh to which
they have been presented. While a dernnnan, or
other person, may always insist that his ci^ or prop-
erty rights as an individual shall be determined ac-
cording to the law of the land, his relations, rights, and
obligations arising from his position as a member of
some religious body must be determined according to
the laws and procedure enacted by that body for such
purpose. Wnere it appeared, therefore, in one case
that questions growing out of relations between a
priest and his bishop had been submitted by the par-
ties to an ecclesiastical tribunal which the churen it-
self had organized for hearing such causes and was
there decided by it, it was held by the Court of Ap-
peids that the civil courts were justified in refusing
to proceed further, and that the decision of the Chureh
juoicatory 'in the matter was a bar and a good defence
(Baxter vs. McDonnell, 155 New York, 83). The
Chureh at laree, however, under the law of New York
depends wholly upon moral power to carry on its
functions, without the possibility of appeal to the
civil authorities for aid either through the Legislature
or the Court. Where there is no incorporation, those
who deal with the Church must trust for the perform-
ance of civil obligations to the honour and good f utb
of the members. The congregations formed into civil
corporations are governed by the principles of the
common law and statute law. With their doctrinal
peculiarity and denominational character the courts
nave nothing to do, except to carry out the statutes
which protect their rights in this respect. However,
NEW TOBK 38 NEW TOBK
these statutory rishts are, as will be seen, very to be regarded as valid notwithstaadins the statute,
extensive. Generally speaking, whateyer the oorpo- This amending statute was passed at tne session of
ration chooses to do that is within their corporate 1907, and there are as yet no important adjudications
power is lawful except where restricted by express ui)on it.
statute. Annulment of Marriage. — An action to annul her
Control of Churches. — From time to time important marriage may be brought by a woman where she was
restrictions upon the general power of the religious under sixteen years of age at the time of the marriage
corporations m particular denominations have oeen and the consent of her parents or guardian was not
made. The present ReUgious Corporation Law, for had and the marriage was not consunmiated and not
eiuunple, requires the trustees of such a body to ad- ratified by mutual assent after she attained the age of
minister the temporalities of the church in accordance sixteen years. Either the husband or wife may sue
with the discipline, rules, and usages of the religious for annulment of marriage for lunacy, nonage, prior
denomination or ecclesiastical governing body, if any, valid marriage, or because consent was ohtamed by
with which the corporation is connected, and m accor- force, duress, or fraud, and finally for physical in-
dance with the provisions of law relatinjp; thereto, and capacity under certain rigid restrictions. The tend-
further for the supi)ort and maintenance of the corpora- ency of the courts of late years is to construe the pro-
tion and its denominational or charitable work. It re- vision as to fraud Uberally, and annidment has been
quires also the consent of the bishops and other offi- granted on this ground where the husband has been
cers to the mortgage, lease, or conveyance of the real convicted of a felony and concealed the fact before the
property of certain cnurches. In the case of Catholic marriage, and again where false representations had
churches it is expressly provided also that no act or been made before the marriage by the woman as to
proceeding of the trustees of any such church shall be the birth of a child to the plaintiff. The Court of Ap-
vaUd without the express sanction of the archbishop peals in the last case held, as the reasonfiJ[>le oonstruc-
or bishop of the diocese or, in case of his absence, of tion of the statute, that the essential fact to be ^own
the vicar-general or administrator. To prevent the was that the fraud was material to the degree that,
creation of abuses from the generality of any of its had it not been practised, the party deceived would
provisions^ the statute cont^ns a further section not have consented to the marriage (Di Lorenzo vs.
directing that no provision thereof shall authorize Di Lorenzo, 174 New York, 467 and 471). This de-
the fixing or changmg of the time, nature, or order of cision, it should be noted, was put squarely on the
pubUc or social or other worship of an^ church in any ground that in New York marriage is a civil contract
other manner or by any other authority than in the to which the consent of parties capable in law of con-
manner and by the authority providoi in the laws, tractingisessential, and, where the consent is obtained
regulations, practice, discipline, rules, and usages of by legal fraud, the marriage may be annulled as in
the religious denomination or ecclesiasticid ^veming the case of any other contract. Condonation of the
body, if any, with which the church corporation is con- force, duress, or fraud is required to be assumed from
necteid, except in churches which have a congrega- the fact of voluntary cohabitation after knowledge of
tional form of government. the facts by the innocent party, and will, if establLuied,
Ecdesuistical Persons. — ^The relations of ecclesiasti- defeat the action. Provision is also made for an ac-
cal persons one to the other have aJso been considered tion for the annulment of a marriage in certain cases
by the courts. It has been held that the personal ftt the instance of any relative having an interest in
contracts of a bishop are the same as those of a layman having it annulled or by a parent or guardian or next
as far as their form^ force, and effect are concerned, friend either in the lifetime of a party or after his or
It has been determmcKl, however, that the relation her death, where such an action will further the cause
of master and servant does not exist between a bishop of justice.
and his priests, but only that of ecclesiastical superior Divorce. — Actions for absolute divorce and the dis-
and inferior. Finally, the courts have ruled that a solution of marriage can be maintained only for the
priest or minister in an^^ church by assuming that cause of adultery. The New York Courts will hear
relation necessarily subjects his conduct in that no action for divorce unless both parties were residents
capacity to the law and customs of the ecclesiastical of the State when the offence was committed, or were
body from which he derives his office and in whose married within the State, or the plaintiff was a resi-
name he exercises his functions. dent of the State at the time of the offence and is
Marriage. — Until very recent times New York fol- resident when the action is commenced, or finally
lowed the common law respecting marriage. Ail that when the offence was committed within the State and
was required for a Valid marriage was the deliberate the injured party is a resident of the State when the
consent of competent parties entering into a present action is commenced. Divorces obtained by citizens
agreement. No ceremony or intervention of a civil of New York in the courts of foreign Jurisdiction are
authority was necessary. not recognized as valid in the State of New York un-
However, it is now provided that, although the less personal jurisdiction of both of the parties is
contract of marriage is still in law a civil contract, properly obtained by the foreign courts. Collusion of
marriages not ceremonial must be proven by writings the parties is strictly guarded against. Condonation
authenticated by the parties under strict formalities of the offence is made a defence. The action must be
and in the presence of at least two witnesses and re- brought within five years after the discovery of the
corded in the proper county clerk's office. . It is now offence. Adultery by the plaintiff is a complete de-
provided aJso that ceremonial marriages must not be fence to the action. The provisions for the custody
celebrated without first obtaining a niarriage licence, of the children of a dissolved marriage and for the
It is to be noted, however, that a failure to procure maintenance of the innocent wife and children are
the marriage licence does not invalidate a ceremonial very detailed and effective. Remarriage is forbidden
marriage, but only subjects the offending clergyman to the guilty party during the life of the spouse, unless,
or magistrate who officiates thereat to the penalties of after five years have elapsed, proof is made of his or
the statute. All clergymen and certain magistrates her uniform good conduct, when the defendant may
are given power to solemnize marriages. No partio- be permitted by the Court to marry again. The
ular form is required except that the parties must ex- practical effect of these prohibitions is very slight be-
pressly declare that they take each other as husband cause the entire validity of the subsequent marriages
or wile. In every case one witness besides the clergy- of guilty parties in New York divorce actions^ when
man or magistrate must be present at the ceremony, they are made out of the State of New York, is recog-
It is provided, however, that modes of solemnizing nized by the New York courts, the only penalty pro-
marriage adopted by any religious denomination are vided for the disobedience to the decree being the
NIW TOBK 39 NEW TOBK
punishment of the offender for contempt of court, benevolent, charitable, or religious institutions, but
and the infliction of this penalty is unheard of at such disposition is valid to the e^ctent of one-hall. In
the present day. The divorce law of New York, it addition, certain kinds of corporations are still further
may be noted, is more conservative than that of any restricted in respect to the portion of the estate of such
other state in the Union except South Carolina, where persons which they may receive: in some cases it
no divorce a vinculo is permitted. Limited divorce or is only one-fourth. In respect to the invalidity by*
decree of separation a menaa et ihoro is granted for statute of legacies or devises made by wills executed
numerous causes, viz: cruel and inhuman treatment, within two months of the testator's death, this limita-
abandonment, neglect or refusal to provide for the tion was formerly widely applicable. Recent amend-
wife, and conduct making it unsafe and improper for ments, however, have restncted it to the corporations
the plaintiff to cohabit with the defendant. The formed under tne old statutes, and it applies now to
usual purpose of actions for limited divorce is to pro- very few others, and these mostly corporations cre-
vide support for the children and alimony for the wife ated by special statutes. Bequests and devises to un-
out of tne husband's funds after the husband and wife incorporated churqhes or charities, are, as has been
have separated. These actions are comparatively in- stated, invalid. Foreign religious and charitd[>le cor-
frequent. The judgmeiit in them has of course no porations, however, may take bequests and devises if
effect upon the validity of the marriage bond. It is authorized to do so by their charters. They are also
Kranted only for grave cause, and the necessary bona permitted to carry on unhampered their work in the
fide residence of the parties in the State is of strictest State of New York. The legacies and devises to re-
proof, imder the terms of the statute, ligious, charitable, and benevolent corporations are
Charities. — ^The system of charities which has grown exempt from the succession tax assessed upon legacies
up within the State of New York, whether religious or and devises in ordinary cases.
secular, is one of the features of its social Ufe. As was Exemption from Taxation. — ^The Tax Law provides
said by the Court of Appeals in 1S88 in the famous that the real and personal property of a ''corporation
case of Holland vs. Alcock above noted: ''It is not or association organized exclusively for the moral or
certain that any political state or society in the world mental improvement of men or women or for religious,
offers a better system of law for the encouragement Bible, tract, charitable, benevolent, missionary, hos-
of property Umitations in favour of religion and learn- pital, infirmary, educational, scientific, literary, U-
ing, for the relief of the poor, the care of the insane, of brary, patriotic, historical, or cemetery purposes or
the sick and the maimed, and the relief of the desti- for the enforcement of law relating to children or ani-
tute, than our system of creating organized bodies by mals or for two or more such purposes and used ex-
the legislative power and endowing them with the dusively for carrying out thereupon one or more of
same legal capacity to hold property which a private such purposes", shall be exempt from taxation. Great
person has to receive and hold transfers of property." care is taken, however, to protect against the abuse of
A charitable or benevolent corporation may be this rig^t ot exemption. In some few cases further
formed under the Membership Corporation Law by exemptions are also made; thus, for example, real
five or more persons for any lawful, charitable, or property not in exclusive use for the above corporate
benevolent purpose. It is subject in certain respects purposes is exempt from taxation, if the income there-
to the supervision of the State Board of Charities and irom is devoted exclusively to the charitable use of the
of the Supreme Court, but this power of visitation is corporation. Prop^y held by any officer of a reli-
not oppressive and never exercised except in case of gious denomination is entitled to the same exemption
gross libuse and imder strict provisions as to proce- under the same conditions and exceptions as property
dure. State and municipal aid to private charitable held by a religious corporation itself,
corporations is permitted by law. Some of the great Freedom of Worship. — ^It is expressly provided by
private charities of the Catholic Church receive such statute that all persons committed to or taken charge
aid in larpe amounts, particularly in the great cities, of by incorporated or unincorporated houses of refuge,
The pubhc subvention of private charitable corpora- reformatories, protectories, or other penal institutions,
tions is an old custom in the State, beginning when ad- receiving either public moneys or a per cajnta sum
most all charities were in Protestant hands and the from any municipality for the support of inmates.
Catholic charities were very few and poor. Although shall be entitled to the free exercise and enjoyment of
vigorously attacked in the Constitutional Conven- reUgious profession and worship without discrimina-
lion of 1904, it was sustained and continued by the tion or preference, and that these provisions may be
action of that convention and ratified by the people of enforced by the Supreme Court upon petition of any
the State. The system has done much for tne cause one feeling himseli aggrieved by a violation of it
of the education and maintenance of defective, de- ' (Prison Law Section 20). It is further provided that
pendent, and delinquent children, and for the building all children committed for destitution or delinquency
up of the hospitals for the destitute sick and aged in by any court or public officer shall, as far as practica-
.ah the religious denominations. The Catholic pro- ble, be sent to institutions of the same religious faith
tectories of New York and Buffalo and the Catholic as the parents of the child.
foundling and infant asylums throughout the State Liquor Law. — ^The excise legislation of the State is
are the models for such institutions in the whole treated in an elaborate general statute called the
United States. The charities under Catholic auspices " Liquor Tax Law", but better known as the "Raines
which receive no State aid are, however, in the vast Law from the name of the late Senator John Raines
majority, and are found in great numbers in every who drafted it. In substance it provides for a State
quarter of the State, caring for the children and the Department of Excise presided over by a commis-
aged, the sick and the destitute. They are served by doner of excise^ appointed by the governor and con-
an army of devoted religious, both men and women, firmed by the Senate, who is given charge of the
The State institutions for the care of the insane and issuance of all licences to traffic within the State in in-
1'uvenile delinquents are numerous, and the alms- toxicating liquor, and also of the collection of the li-
louses, hospitals, and other charitable agencies under cence fees and the supervision of the enforcement of
the care of the counties and other municipedities the drastic penalties provided for violations of the law.
abound throughout the State. There are alone six- Its purpose was to take away the granting of excise
teen great State hospitals for the insane, conducted Ucences by the local authorities, who had in some
most carefully and successfully. cases greatly abused the power, and also to subject
Restrictions on Beouests and Devises. — No person local peace and i)oIice officers to the scrutiny, and in
having a parent, husband, wife, or child can legally some cases the control of the State authorities in excise
devise or bequeath more than one-half his estate to matters. It has resulted generally in a great improve-
HEW ZEALAND
40
MEW ZEALAND
ment in excise conditions throughout the State, as well
as incidentally in an enormous increase in the revenue
of the State from tMs source. It has caused the al-
most complete disappearance of imlicenced liquor-
selling, ana has improved general order and decency
in the ousiness of trafficking in liquor, especially in the
congested parts of the cities. The principle of high
licence b carefully followed. The fee for a saloon
licence, for example in the Borough of Manhattan, is
$1200 per annum, the charge decreasing, according to
the circumstances, to $150 per annum in the rural di^
tricts. The State is divided into excise districts which
are in charge of deputy commissioners supervised by
the staff of the commissioner of excise at Albany. Al-
though it is an imusual provision which thus central-
izes the power over the hquor traffic at Albany, and it
seems to violate the principle of home rule adopted by
all the public parties, the experiment is on the whole
re^arde^ with satisfaction. It should be noted that
this law has created a very great abuse because of its
provision attaching the rigit to sell liquor on Sunday
to the keeping of hotels. There have thus sprung into
existence the ''Raines Law Hotels'', which, satisf3ring
the very inadequate provisions of tne statute, obtain
hotel licences without any legitimate business reason,
and primarily for the purpose of selling liquor on Sun-
day. They are generally conducted as to their hotel
accommodations in such a way as to be a menace to
public order and decency in the poorer residential dis-
tricts of the large cities of the State. They often defy
police control, and their legal status makes their regu-
lation or supervision most difficult. Earnest efforts
have been made for many years to remedy the evil,
but have met with but partial success. Ample provi-
sion is also made for local option as to prohioitive
liquor licences in all localities of the State excepting
the larger cities. It has worked well in practice.
Clergymen, — Priests and ministers of the Gospel are
exempted from service on juries and from service in
the militia of the State. A clergyman's real and per-
sonal property to the extent of $1500 is exempt from
taxation, if he is regularly engaged in performinff his
duty, is permanently disabled by impaired healtn, or
is over seventy-five years old. The dwelling-houses
and lots of religious corporations, actually used by
the officiating clerg3anen thereof, are also exempt to
the extent of $2000. Any clergyman is empowered
at his pleasure to visit all coimty jails, workhouses,
and State prisons when he is in charge of a congregation
in the town where they are located. .
Holidays. — The l^al holidays of the State are New
Year's Day, Lincoln iS Birthday (12 February). Wash-
ington's Birthday (22 February), Memorial Day (30
May), Independence Day (4 July), Labour Day (first
Monday of September), Columbus Day (12 October),
and Christmas Day. . If any of these days fall on Sun-
day, the day following is a public holiday. The statute
also provides that the day of the general election, and
each day appointed by the President of the United
States or by the Governor of the Stat« as a day of
''ffeneral thanksgiving, general fasting and prayer, or
ower general religious observances ". shall be holidays.
Each Saturday, which is not a holiday, is a half-holi-
day. There is of course no reli^ous significance in
the creation of any of these hohdays, as far as the
State is concerned. Good Friday, by general custom,
is observed as a holiday throughout the State, al-
though it b not designated as a legal holiday. The
rules of the local school boards throughout the State
also provide liberty to both Christian and Jewish
scholars to take time from the school attendance
for religious observances on their respective holy-
days.
Lamb, Hitt. of City of New York (New York, 1877); Batlby,
Hiat. ofCath. Church on Island of N. Y. (New York, 1869): U. S.
Catholic Historical Society, Records and Stttdiea (New York), es-
peciallv for Oct.. 1900, and Nov., 1907; United States Census 1900;
Nmo York SUUc Census 1906; Lincoln, Constitutional Hist, of
N. Y. (Roohesier. 1906) ; Aubxandeb. Politieal Hiat. afihs State of
N. Y. (New York, 1906) ; Wilson. Memorial Hist, of City of N. F.,
Statesman's Year Book for 1910 (New York. 1910) ; Report of N. Y.
Chamber of Commerce (New York, 1910) ; U. S. Census Bulletin,
Relioious Bodiee 1906 (Washington, 1909); O'Callaqhan, Laws
and (Ordinances of New Netherlands Colonial Laws of N. Y. (Al-
bany); Documents relating to Colonial Hist. (Albany, 1859-87);
FowLEB, Introduction to Bradford's Laws (New York, 1894);
Sampson, Catholic Question in America (New York, 1813); Do-
bates of the ConUitutional Convention of 1821; Bibosetb, Gum-
ming AND GiLBEBT, Consolidated Laws of N. Y. (New York,
1909); Eedesiastieal Records of N. Y. (1901-5): Revised Statutes;
Reports of Revisers; Smith. N. Y. City in 1789 (New York, 1889);
Report of Commissioner of Excise (Albany, 1910) ; Shea, Hist, of
Cath. Church in the U. S. (New York, 1886) ; Glabkb, Lives of the
Deceased Bishops of the Cath. Church in the U. S. (New York,
1872) : Booth. Hist, of the CUy of N. Y. (New York, 1880) ; Eedesi-
astieal Records of N. Y. (official) (Albany, 1901); DeGoubct-
Shea, Pages of Hist, of Cath. Church in U. S. (New York, 1857);
Fablbt, Hist, of St. Patrick's Cathedral (New York, 1908); Zwieb-
LEiN, Religion in New Netherland (Rochester, 1910).
Edward J. McGuirb.
New Zealand, formerly described as a colony, has,
since September. 1907, by royal proclamation, been
granted the style and designation of ''Dominion",
the territory remaining, of course, as before imder
British sovereignty. It consists of three main islands
(North Island. South Island, sometimes also called
Middle Islana, and Stewart Island) and several
groups of smaller islands lying at some distance from
the principal group. The smaller groups included
within the dominion are the Chatham, Auckland,
Campbell. Antipodes, Boimty, Kermadec, and Cook
Islands, along with half a dozen atolls situated outside
the Cook Group. The total area of the dominion —
104,751 square miles — is about one-seventh less than
the area ot Great Britain and Ireland. The quantity
and ouality of the grazing land available has made
New Zealand a great wool, meat, and dairy-produce
country. Its agricultural capabilities are very con-
siderable; its forests yield excellent timber: and its
mineral resources, though as yet but little aeveloped
and not very varied in character, form one of the
coimtry's most valuable assets. Volcanoes, one of
which, Ngauruhoe, the highest cone of Mount Ton-
gariro, was in active eruption in 1909, and a volcanic
elt mark the centre ot the North island. In the
North Island also is the wonderland of the boiling
geysers — said by geologists to be the oldest in the
world, with the exception of those in Wyoming and
Idaho — and the famous ''Hot Lakes" and pools,
which possess great curative virtue for all rheumatic
and skin diseases. An Alpine chain, studded with
snow-clad peaks and mantled with dlaciers of greater
magnitude than any in the Alps of Europe, descends
along the west coast of the South Islana. In the
Soutn Island dso are the famous Otago lakes (Wan-
aka, Wakatipu, Te Anau, and Manapouri) of which
the late Anthony Trollope wrote, " I do not know that
lake scenery could be nner". The south-west coast
of the island is pierced by a series of sounds or fiords,
rivalling in their exquisite beauty the Norwegian ana ,
Alaskan fiords; in the neighbourhood is a water-
fall (the Sutherland Falls) over 1900 feet in height.
Judged by mortality statistics the climate of New
Zealand is one of the best and healthiest in the world.
The total population of the dominion on 31 December,
1908, was 1,020,713. This included the Maori popu-
lation of 47,731, and the population of Cook and otner
Pacific islands, aggregating 12,340.
I. Civil History. — ^Tasman discovered the islands
in 1642 and called them "Nova Zeelanda'', but Cap-
tain Cook, who surveyed the coasts in 1769 and fol-
lowing vears, first made them known. The colony was
planted in 1840 by a company, formed in ^England
and known first as the New Zealand Company, after-
wards as the New Zealand Land Company, which
with auxiliary associations founded successively the
settlements of Wellington, Nelson, Taranaki, Otago.
and Canterbury. New Zealand was then constituted
a dependency of the Colony of New South Wales
NEW ZEALAND 41 MEW ZEALAND
(Australia), but on 3 May, 1841, was prod^med robbed and despoiled by the earl^ white civilisation
a separate colonv. A series of native wars, arising and by trader-missionaries, tardy justice has at length
ohieny from endless disputes about land, began in been done to the native race. To-day the Maoris
1S43 and ended in 1869, since which time unbroken have four members in the house of representatives and
peace has prevailed. A measure of self-government two in the legislative council, all men of high lineage
was granted in 1852, and full re8i)onsible government and natural orators. Until recent years it was sup-
in 1866. The provincial governments created by the posed that the Maoris were dyinp out, but later statis-
Constitution Act were abolished in 1876, and one tics show the contrary. The official figures show that
supreme central government established. The Gov- the Maori population fell from 41,993 in 1891 to 39,-
emment consists of a governor, appointed by the 854inl896, increased to 43,143 in 1901, and further to
crown^ and two houses of Parliament — ^the legislative 47,731 in 1906 (last census year).
council* or upper chamber, with members nominated HI. Thb Catholic Chttbch in New Zealand. —
by the governor for life (except those nominated The first Catholic settler in New Zealand was an Irish-
subsequently to September 17, 1891, after which date man named Thomas Poynton, who landed at Hoki-
all appointments are for seven years only), and the anga in 1828. Until ten years later the footsteps of
house of representatives with members elected tri- a Catholic priest never pressed New Zealand soil,
ennially on an adult suffrage. The first' Speaker of Poynton's brave and pious wife, a native of Wexford
the New Zealand House of Representatives (1853-60), County, took her first two children on a journey of
the late Sir Charles Clifford, was a Catholic, and his over two thousand weary miles of ocean to be baptized
son. Sir George Clifford, one of New Zealand s promi- at Sydney. Throush Poynton's entreaties for a mis-
nent public men, though bom in the dominion was sionarv the needs otthe country became known, first
educated at Stonyhurst College, and has shown his at Sydney and next at Rome. In 1835 New Zealand
fidelity to old ties by naming his principal New Zea- was included in the newly created Vicariate A]X)6tolic
land residence '^ Stonyhurst''. There are a number of of Western Oceanica. In the following year its first
Catholic names in the list of past premiers, cabinet vicar Apostolic, Mgr Jean Baptiste Francois Pompal-
ministers, and members of Parliament who have lier, set out for his new field of labour with seven mem-
helped to mould the laws and shape the history of the bers of the Society of the Marist Brothers, which only
dominion. Thepresent premier (1910), the Right a few months before had received the approval of
Hon. Sir Joseph Ward, P.Cf., K.C.M.G., is a Catholic, Pope Gregory XVI. On 10 January, 1838, he, with
and out of a iep^lative council of forty-five members three Maoist companions, sailed up the Hokianga
five are Cathohcs. River, situated in the far north-west of the Aucklajid
The prominent feature of the political history of the Province. The cross was planted in New Zealand,
past twenty years has been the introduction and de- and the first Mass celebrated in the house of the first
velopment of that body of advanced'' legislation for Catholic settler of the colony. Irish peasant emi-
which the name of New Zealand has become more or grants were the pioneers of (Jatholic c(Monization in
less famous. The mere enumeration of the enact- New Zealand; the French missionaries were its pioneer
ments would occupy considerable space. It must ai)ostles. Four years later (in 1842) New Zealand
si^ce to say that, broadly speaking, their purpose is was formed into a separate vicariate, Mgr Pompallier
to fling the shield of the State over every man who being named its first vicar Apostolic. From this time
works for his livelihood; and, in addition to regulating forward events moved at a rapid pace. In 1848 the
wages, they cover practically every risk to life, limb, colony was divided into two dioceses, Auckland
heiuth, and interest of the industrial classes. It with its territory extending to 39^ of south latitude
should be mentioned that there is no strong party of forming one diocese, Wellmgton with the remaining
professed State-Socialists in the dominion, and the re- territory and the adjoining islands forming the second,
forms and experiments which have been made have in (See Auckland, Diocbsb of.) Bishop PompaJlier
all cases been examined and taken on their merits, remained in charge of Auckland, and Bishop Viard,
and not otherwise. Employers have occasionally pro- who had been consecrated his coadjutor in 1846, was
tested against some of the restrictions imposed, as appointed administrator of the Diocese of Wellington,
being harassing and vexatious; but there is no politi- wmch was entrusted to the Society of Mary. By
cal party in tne country which proi)oses to repeal Brief of 3 July, 1860, Bishop Viaid ceased to l>e
these measures, and there is a general consensus of coadjutor and was constituted first Bishop of Welling-
opinion that, in its main features, the ''advanced ton. In 1869 the Diocese of Dunedin, comprising
legislation" has come to stay. In 1893 an Act came Otago, Southland, and Stewart's Island, was carved
into force which granted the franchise to women. The out of the Diocese of Wellington, and the Ri^ht Rev.
women's vote has had no perceptible effect on the Patrick Moran who died in 1895 was appointed its
relative position of political parties; but it is generally first bishop. His successor (the present occupant of
agreed that the women voters have been mainly re- the see), the Right Rev. Dr. Verdon, was consecrated
sponsible for the marked increase in recent years of the in 1896. In 1887^ at the petition of the Plenary
no-licence vote at the local option polls. Elections Synod of Australasia, held in Sydney in 1885, the hier-
are quieter and more orderly than formerly. archy was established in New Zealand, and Welling-
II. Thb Maobis. — The New Zealand natives, or ton became the archiepiscopal see. The Most Rev.
Maoris, as they call themselves, are generally acknowl- Dr. Redwood, S.M., who had been consecrated
edged to be intellectually and physically the finest Bishop of Wellington in 1874, was created archbishop
aboriginal race in the South Sea Islands. Their map- and metropolitan by papal brief, receiving the pallium
nificent courage, their high intelligence, their splendid from the hands of the Right Rev. Dr. Luck, Bishop oS
Shysique and nxanly bearing, the stirring part they Auckland. The same year (1887) witne^ed theereon.
ave played in the history of the country, the very tion of the Diocese of Christchurch. The firslj 8^d(
ferocity of their long-relinquished habits, have all present bishop is the Right Rev^ Dtv Gfimes,, S;M.^
combined to invest them with a more than ordinary consecrated in the same 3rear. Ten years latec Ne^>
degree of interest and curiosity . Of their origin i t can Zealand, hitherto dependent on Austratia, was inade a
only be said, broadly, that they belong to the Polyne- separate ecclesiastical province,
sian race — ethnologists have tried to trace a likeness to Some idea of the rapid: growth of the Catholic popu-
the Red Indians of North America — and according to lation, both in numbers and in activity, may be gath-
tradition they came to New Zealand about twenty- ered from the following figures. In 1840^ when New
one generations ago (i. e^ about five hundred and Zealand was declared a colony, the number of Catho-
twenty-five years) from Hawaiki, an island of the lie colonists was not above 500 in a total population of
Pacific not identified with any certainty. After bein^ sonje 5000.. Eleven years later they numbered; 3;i72.
MIW ZEALAND
42
MIW ZEALAND
in a total population of 26,707. At the last Govern-
ment census (1906) the Catholic total had amounted
to 126,995. The total population of the dominion
(exclusive of Maoris), according to the same census,
was 888,578, so that the Catholic population is sUghtly
over one-seventh of the whole. To-day (1910) the
estimated Catholic population of New Zeedand is over
130,000, with 4 dioceses, 1 archbishop, 3 suffragan
bishops, 212 priests, 62 religious brothers. 855 nuns,
333 cnurches, 2 ecclesiastical seminaries (comprising
1 provincial ecclesiastical seminarv and 1 ecclesiasti-
cal seminary for members of the Ni arist Order), 2 col-
leges for boys, 32 boarding and high schools, 18 supe-
rior day schools, 15 chantable institutions, and 112
Catholic primary schools. According to tne "New
Zealand Official Year-Book" for 1909 (a Government
publication) the total number of Catholic schools in
the dominion is 152 and the niunber of CathoUc pupils
attending is 12,650. New Zealand has addra one
new religious congregation (the Sisters of Our Lady of
Compassion), founded in 1884 by Mother Maiy Au-
bert, to "Heaven's Army of Charity" in the (Jatho-
lic Church. Under the direction of their venerable
foimdress the members of the order conduct schools
for the Maoris at Hiruharama (Jerusalem) on the
Wanganui River, a home for incurables, Wellington,
and a home for incurable children, Island Bay, Well-
ington. The order has quite recently extenaed its
operations to Auckland.
The ordinary organizations of the laity, as usually
found in English-speaking coimtries, are well and
solidly established throughout the dominion. For
benefit purposes New Zealand formed a separate dis-
trict of the Hibernian Australasian Catholic Benefit
Society. Thanks to capable management, due to the
fact that the society has drawn to its ranks the ablest
and most representative of the liuty, the organization
is making remarkable progress. On 30 January^ 1910.
the membership was reported at 2632; the funeral
fund stood at £7795:2:2 (nearly $40,000) and the
sick fund amounted to £12,558 :5K) (over $62,000).
The Society of St. Vincent de Paul was probably the
earliest lay organization established in New Zealand, a
conference formed at Christchurch in July, 1867, by
the Rev. Fr. Chastagner, S.M., being the first founded
in Australasia. In almost every parish there are
young men's clubs, social, literary, and athletic; in con-
nexion with these a federation has been formed under
the name of the Federated CathoUc Clubs of New
Zealand. In 1909 a Newman Society, on the lines
of the Oxford University Newman Society, but with
wider and more directly practical objects, was inau-
gurated by the Catholic gnuiuates and undergraduates
of New Zealand University. As the number of uni-
versity men amongst New Zealand Catholics is now
very considerable, the new society promises to prove
an important factor in the defence and propagation of
the faith.
IV. Missions to the Maoris. — ^From the outset,
the convernon of the native race was set in the fore-
front of the Church's work in this new land. When
the Marist Fathers, having been withdrawn to the
Dioc^ of Wellington, left the Diocese of Auckland
in 1850, they had in that 'part of the North Island
6044 neophytes. In 1853 there were about a thou-
sand native Christians in the Diocese of Wellington.
Homes and schools for native children were founded
by the Sisters of Mercy at Auckland and Wellington;
and in 1857 the governor. Sir Georse Grey, in his offi-
cial report to Parliament, gave nigh praise to the
Cathohc schools among the Maoris. Up until 1860
the Maori mission was most flourishing. Then came
the long-drawn years of fierce racial warfare, during
which the natives kept their territory closed against
all white menj and the Catholic missions were sumost
completely ruined. They are being steadily built up
once more by two bodies of earnest and devoted men,
the Marist Fathers in the Archdiocese of Wellington
and Diocese of Christchurch, and the Mill Hill Fa-
thers in the Diocese of Auckland. The progress made
during the last twenty-five years may be gathered
from the following summaries, (a) The Arcndiooese
of WeUington and Diocese of Christchurch (districts:
Otaki, EQruharama, Raetihi, Wairoa, and Okato) have
about 40 stations and 19 churches, served by 7 priests.
There are also 4 native schools; 1 highly efficient na-
tive high school, maintained bv the Sisters of Our
Lady of the Missions; and 1 orphanage, conducted by
the Sisters of Our Lady of Compassion. The total
number of Catholic Maoris is about 2000. Several
very successful conventions of Maori tribes have been
held in Otaki since 1903. At the last (held in June,
1909), whioh was attended by His Grace Archbishop
Redwood, the institution of a Maori Catholic maga-
zine was decided upon and has since been carried out.
(b) The Diocese of Auckland (districts: Rotorua, head-
quarters of the provincial of the mission, Matata,
Tauranga, Hokiimga, Okaihau, Whangaroa, Whan-
garei, Durgaville, and Coromandel) has 57 stations
and 22 churches, served by 16 priests, of whom 9 are
wholly and 7 are partly engaged on the Maori mission.
There are 4 native schools conducted bv the Sisters of
St. Joseph. The total number of Catholic Maoris is
about 4000. Throughout the three dioceses the Ma-
ori i)opulation is extremely scattered, and the mission-
aries nave frequently to travel g^reat distances. As
the deleterious influence of Maori tohungaism (beUef
in wizards and '^medicine-men") is on the wane, and
the rancorous feelings engendered by the war are now
subfflding, the prospect in this distant outpost of the
mission neld is most hopeful and promising.
V. Education. — Primary education is compulsory
in New Zealand; and of every 100 persons in the do-
minion at the time of the census of 1906, 83.5 could
read and write, 1.6 could read only, and 14.9 could
neither read nor write. As mentioned above, New
Zealand became a self-governing colony in 1852.
Each province had its separate l^islature and the con-
trol 01 education within its borders, and most of the
provinces subsidized denominational schools. The
provincial legislatures were abolished by the Acts of
1875-6^ and one of the eariy measures (1877) of the
centrahzed New Zealand Government was to abolish
aid to denominational schools and to introduce the
(so-called) national svstem known as ''free, secular,
and compulsory". From that dav to this the entire
public school system of New Zealand has remained,
legally, pureW secular.
From the nrst Catholics have protested against the
exclusion of Christian teaching from the schools; and
they have refused, and contmue to refuse (unless
where forced by circumstances) to send their children
to schools from which their religion is excluded. As
in other countries, so here. Catholics have shown the
sincerity of their protest by creating, at enormous and
continual sacrifices, a great rival system of educa-
tion imder which some 13,000 Catholic children are
nurtured into a full and wholesome development of
the faculties that God has bestowed upon them. With
scarcely an exception. Catholic primary schools follow
precisely the same secular curriculiun as that pre-
scribed under the Education Act for the public schools;
and they are every year inspected and examined, under
precisely the same conditions as are the public schools,
Dy the State inspectors. The cost of canying on the
public school system is not derived from any special
rate or tax, but the amount is paid out of the Consoli-
dated Fund, to which Catholics, as taxpayers, con-
tribute their share. Catholics are thus subjected to a
double impost: they have to bear the cost of building,
equipping, and maintaining their own schools, and
they are compelled also to contribute their quota of
taxation for the maintenance of the public school sys-
tem, of which, fromtsonscientious motives, they cannot
mCJBA
43
mCJBA
avail themsdves. New 2#ealand Catholics have never
adced or desired a grant for the reli^ous education
which is imparted in their schools. But they have
urged) and tney continue to urge, their claim to a fair
share of that taxation to which they themselves con-
tribute, in return for the purely secular instruction
which, in accordance with the Groveniment pro-
gramme, is given in the Catholic schools. Tneir
standing protest against the injustice so long inflicted
on them by the various governments of the country,
and their unyidding demand for A recognition of the
riffht of Christian taxpayei*s to have their children
^ucated in accordance with Christian principles, con-
stitute what is known, par exceUencef as 'Hhe educa-
tion question'' in New Zealand, it is unhappily
necessary to add that of late vears, for no very ol>-
vious or adequate reason. Catholic agitation on the
subject has not been so active as it once was; and im-
less a forward movement is made, the prospects of
success for the cause, on behalf of which such splendid
battles have been fought and such heroic sacrifices
have been endured, are exceedingly remote.
VI. Literature and Catholic Journalism. —
There is no New Zealand Uterature in the broad and
general acceptation of the term. The usual reason
assigned is tnat so young a coimtry has not yet had
time to evolve a literature of its own; but perhaps an
equally important factor in producing anci maintain-
ing the existing condition of thin^ is the smallness
of the market for literary wares, in consequence of
which New Zealand writers possessing exceptional
talent inevitably gravitate towards Sydney or Lon-
don. In general hterature the one conspicuous name
is that of Thomas Bracken, Irishman and Catholic,
author of several volumes of poems, which have at-
tained Kreat popularity both in Australia and in New
Zealand. Amongst scientific writers, notable Cath-
olic names are those of the late W. M, Maskell, for-
merly Registrar of New Zealand University, and the
Very Rev. Dr. Kennedy, S.M., B.A., D.D., F.R.A.S.,
present Rector of St. Patrick's College, both of whom
nave made many valuable contributions to the pages
of scientific journals and the proceedings of learned
societies.
As usually happens in countries that are over-
whelmingly Protestant, by far the greater portion
of the purely Catholic literature that has been pub-
lished m New Zealand is apologetic in character.
"What True Free-masonry Is : Why it is condemned ",
published in 1885 by the Rev. Thomas Keane, is a
aetaUed and extremely effective treatment of the sub-
ject. "Disunion ana Reunion", by the Rev. W. J.
Madden, is a popular and ably written review of the
course and causes of the Protestant Reformation.
One of the most learned and certainly the most pro-
lific of the contributors to Catholic literature in New
Zealand was the Very Rev. T. Le Menant des Ches-
^nais, S.M., recently deceased. His works include
^"Nonconformists and the Church": "Out of the
Mase"; " The Temuka Tournament" (a controversy ) ;
a volume on "Spiritism"; "The Church and the
World"; etc. The last-named work, published only
a few years before the venerable author's death, was
very favourably reviewed by English and American
papers. A notable addition to the Catholic literature
of the dominion has been the recent publication of
three volumes from the pen of the editor of the "New
Zealand Tablet" the Rev. H. W. Cleary, D.D.
These works, "Catholic Marriages", an exposition
and defence of the decree "Ne temere", "An Im-
peached Nation; Being a Study of Irish Outrages";
and "Secular versus Religious Education: A D&cus-
sion", are thorough in the treatment of their respec-
tive subjects and possess value of a permanent char-
acter. A modest beginning has been made towards
the compilation of a detail^ history of the Catholic
Qiurch m the dominion by the publication, a few
months ago. of "The Church in New Zealand: Mem-
oirs of the Early Days", by J. J. Wilson.
The history of Catholic journalism in New Zealand
is in effect the historv of the "New Zealand Tablet",
founded by the late Bishop Moran in 1873, the Cath-
olics of this country having followed the principle that
it is better to be represented by one strong paper than
to have a multiplicity of publications. fVom the first
the paper has been fortimate in its editors. In the
earlv days the work done by its revered founder, in
his battle for Catholic rights, and by his valued lay
assistant, Mr. J. F. Perrin, was of a solid character.
The prestige and influence of the paper was still fur-
ther enhanced by the Rev. Henry W. Cleary, D.D.,
who made the " New Zealand Tablet " a power in the
landj and won the respect of all sections of the oom-
mumty not only for the Catholic paper but for the
Catholic body which it represents. In February,
1910, Dr. Cleary was appointed Bishop of Auckland,
and was consecrated on 21 August in Enniscorthy
cathedral, Co . Wexford, Ireland. It is safe to say that
there are few countries in the world in which, in pro-
portion to size and population, the Catholic press has
a higher status than in New Zealand.
PoifPALUER, Earlff Hutory of the CaihoHc Church in Oceania
(E. T., Auckland. 1888); Moran. Hietory of the Catholic Church
tn Auwtraiaeia (Sydney) ; Au^ralaeian Catholic Directory for 1910;
Wilson. The Church in New Zealand: Memoire of the Sarly Daye
(Dunedin, 1910); Dilkjb, Greater Britain (1885); DAvriT, Life
and Progreea in Australaeia ^London, 1808); Rbbyss, New Z«a-
land (London, s. d.); Jose, Hietary ofAuttralana (Sydney. 1901);
Rbbvbs, The Long White Cloud (London, 1898); WBiairr and
Rbeves, New Zealand (London, 1908) ; New Zealand Official Year'
Book for 1906 (last oensuB year) and for 1909; Douolas. The
Dominion of New Zealand (London, 1909) ; Hocxbn_A BihUoQ-
raphy of the Literature Rdating to New Zealand (Wellington,
1909). issued by the New Zealand Govemment-^he most com-
plete bibliography that has been published. It is no mere list of
books, but gives a full account of each item, from Tasman'b
Journal of 1643 onwards, with explanatory notes, biographical
information and criticism, sjmopsiB of important periodicals, and
a full index.
J. A. Scott.
Niessa, titular see of Bithvnia Secunda, situated on
Lake Ascanius, in a fertile plain, but very unhealthful
in summer. It was first colonized by the Battsei and
was called Ancora or Helicora. Destroyed by the
Mysians, it was rebuilt about 315 b. c. by Antigonus,
after his victoi^ over Eumenius, and was thenceforth
called Antif^oma. Later Lysimachus enlarged it and
called it Nicsea in honour of his wife. At first the
Idngs of Bithynia resided there almost as often as at
Nicomedia between which and Nicsa arose a struggle
for influence. It was the birthplace of the astrono-
mer Hipparchus and the historian Dio Cassius. Pliny
the Younger frequently mentions the city and its
public monuments. Numerous coins of Nicsa attest
the interest of the emperors. After the first (Ecu-
menical Council, held tnere in 325, Constantine gave
it the title of metroiK)lis, which Valens afterwards
withdrew, but which it retained ecclesiastically. In
the fifth century it took three suffragans from the juris-
diction of Nicomedia, and later six. In 787 a second
(Ecumenical Council (the seventh) was held there
against the Iconoclasts, which, like the first, assembled
more than 300 bishops. Among its archbishops, of
whom Le Quien (Onens Christ., I, 639-56) names
forty-six, those worthy of mention are Theognis, the
first known bi^op, a partisan of Arius at the council
of 325: Anastasius, a sixth-century writer; Sts. Peter
and Tneophanes C^raptos, two victims of the Icono-,
clasts in tne ninth century; Ignatius, the biographer
of the patriarchs Tarasius and Nicephorus; Gregory
Asbestus, former metropolitan of Syracuse and the
consecrator of Photius; Eustratius, commentator on
Aristotle and polemist under Alexius Comnenus; and
Bessarion, afterwards cardinal.
Nicaea grew more important during the Middle
Ages. Captured by the Seljukids at an unknown
date, perhaps subsequent to the revolt of Melissenus
XnCJIA 44 MIGOA
agaioflt Nice^onis Botaniates, it was afterwards Constantine and Silvester came to an agreement (see
ceded to the Turks by Alexius Comnenus. In 1096 Silyesteb I, Saint. Pope). In order to eiq)edite the
the troops of Peter the Hermit, having attempted to assembling of the Council, the emperor plac^ at the
capture the town, were completely defeated and mas- disposal of the bishops the public conveyances and
sacred. In Jime. 1097, the city was taken, after a posts of the empire; moreover, while the Council lasted
memorable siege, by the Crusaders and ceded by them he provided abundantly for the maintenance of the
to the Greek Emperor Alexius I. It was retained, members. The choice of Nicsa was favourable to the
but with great difficulty, during the twelfth century, assembling of a large number of bishops. It was eaidly
After the capture of Constantinople by the Latins m accessible to the bishops of nearly all the provinces,
1204 Niciea, restored, fortified, and embellished, be- butespeciallytothoseof Asia, Syria, Palestine, Egypt,
came imtil 1261 the capital of the new Byzantine Greece, and Thrace. The sessions were held in the
Empire of the Lascari or Pakeologi. For nearly sixty principal church, and in the central hall of the imperial
years it played a most important part. It was finally palace. A large place was indeed necessary to receive
captured by the Turkish Sultan Orkhan in 1333, from such au assexnoly, though the exact number is not
which time it has formed a part of the Ottoman Em- known with certainty. Eusebius speaks of more than
pire. To-day Nicasa is called Isnik. It is a village 250 bishops, and later Arabic manuscripts raise the
of 1500 Greek and Turkish inhabitants in the sandj^ figure to 2000 — an evident exaggeration in which,
of Erthoprul and the vilayet of Brusa. The Greek however, it is impossible to discover the approxi-
metropobtan resides at Ghemlek, the ancient Chios, mate total number of bishops, as well as of the priests,
The ramparts, several times restored and now in a deacons, and acolytes, of whom it is said that a great
good state of preservation, are 4841 yards in circum- number were also present. St. Athanasius. a member
Terence. There are 238 towers, some of them verv of the council, speaks of 300, and in his letter "Ad
ancient. Four ancient gates are. well preserved. Afros'' he says explicitly 318. This figure is almost
Amon^ the monuments may be mentioned Yechil- universally adopted, and there seems to be no good
Djami^ the Green Mosque, and the church of the As- reason for rejecting it. Most of the bishops present
sumption, probably of the ninth century, the mosaics were Greeks; among the Latins we know only Hosius
of which are very rich. of Cordova, Cecilian of Carthage, Mark of Calabria.
Smith. Did. Greek and Roman Geog., II (London. 1870). 422; Nicasius of Dijon, Donnus of Stndon in Pannonia, and
&.V??.£riSS*^?St^T^n'i^.'l^^^^^^ the two Rx)man prieste Victor and Vincentius, repr^
NioBa und ihre Moeanken (StrMbuis, 1890). senting the pope. The assembly numbered among
S. Vailh£. its most famous members St. Alexander of Alexandria,
Eustathius of Antioch, Macarius of Jerusalem, Euse-
Nicna, ConyciLS of, respectivelv the First and bins of Nioomedia, Eusebius of Csesarea, and Nicholas
Seventh (Ecumenical Councils, held at Nicsea in of Myra. Some had suffered during the last persecu-
Bithynia (see above). tion; others were poorly enough acquainted with
I. The First Council of NiCiSA (First (Ecumeni- Christian theolo^. Among the membm was a young
cal Council of the Catholic Church) , held in 325 on the deacon, Athanasius of Alexandria, for whom this Coun-
ocoasion of the heresy of Arius (see Arianism). As cil was to be the prelude to a life of conflict and of
early as 320 or 321 St. Alexander, Bishop of AJexan- gloiy (see Athanasius, Saint).
dria, convoked«a council at Alexandria at which more Tne year 325 is accepted without hesitation as that
than one hundred bishops from Egypt and Libya of the First Coimcil of Nicsea. There is less agree-
anathematized Arius. Tne latter continued to om- ment among our early authorities ai^ to the month and
date in his church and to recruit followers. Being day of the opening. In order to reconcile the indica^
finally driven out, he went to Palestine and from there tions furnished by Socrates and by the Acts of the
to Nicomedia. During this time St. Alexander pub- Council of Chalcedon, this date may, perhaps, be
lished his ''Epistola encyclica", to which Arius re- taken as 20 May, and that of the drawing up of the
plied; but henceforth it was evident that the quarrel symbol as 19 June. It may be assumed ¥nthout too
nad gone beyond the possibility of human control, ereat hardihood that the synod, having been convoked
SoBomen even speaks of a Council of Bithyma which for 20 Mav, in the absence of the emperor held meet-
addressed an encvclical to all the bishops asking them ings of a less solemn character until 14 June, when
to receive the Arians into the communion of the after the emperor's arrival, the sessions properly so
Church. This discord^ and the war which soon broke called b^an, the symbol being formulated on 19 June,
out between Constantine and Licinius, added to the after which various matters — the paschal controversy,
disorder and partly erolains the progress of the reli- etc. — ^were dealt with, and the sessions came to an end
gious conflict during the years 322-23. Finally Con- 25 August. The Council was opened by Constantine
stantine, having conquered Licinius and become sole with the greatest solemnity. The emperor waited
emperor, concerned himself with the re-establishment until all the bishops had taken their seats before mak-
of religious peace as well as of civil order. He ad- ing his entry. He was clad in gold and covered with
dressed letters to St. Alexander and to Arius depre- precious stones in the fashion of an Oriental sovereign,
eating these heated controversies re^ardins questions A chair of gold had been made ready for him, and
of no practical importance, and advising the adversa- when he haa taken his place the bishops seated them-
ries to agree without delay. It was evident that the selves. After he had been address^ in a hurried
emperor did not then grasp the significance of the allocution, the emperor made an address in Latin,
Arian controversy. Hosius of Cordova, his counsel- expressing his will that religious peace should be re-
lor in religious matters, bore the imp^al letter to established. He had opened the session as honorary
Alexandria, but failed in his concihatory^ mission, president, and he assisted at the subsequent sessions,
Seeing this, the emperor, perhaps advised by Hosius, but the direction of the theological discussions was
judged no remedy more apt to restore peace in the abandoned, as was fitting, to the ecclesiastical leaders
Church than the convocation of an oecumenical coun- of the council. The actual president seems to have
dl. been Hosius of Cordova, assisted by the pope's
The emperor himself, in very respectful letters, legates, Victor and Vincentius.
begged the oishops of every country to come promptly The emperor began by making the bishops under-
to Nicsea. Several bishop from outside the Roman stand that they had a greater and better business in
Empire (e. g.. from Persia) came to the Council. It is hand than personal quarrels and interminable recrimi-
not historically known whether the emperor in con- nations. Nevertheless, he had to submit to the in-
voking the Council acted solely in his own name or in fliction of hearing the last words of debates which had
concert with the pope; however, it is probable that been going on previous to his arrival. Eusebius of
mCMA
45
XnCJBA
CflBearea and his two abbreviatbrs, Socrates and Sozo-
men, as well as Rufinus and Gelasius of Cyzicus. re-
port no details of the theological discussions. Runnus
tells us only that daily sessions were held and that
Arius was often summoned before the assembly; his
opinions were seriously discussed and the opposing
arguments attentively considered. The majority,
especially those who were confessors of the Faith, ener-
getically declared themselves against the impious doc-
trines of Arius. (For the part played by the Eusebian
third party, see Eubebiub of Nicomedia. The adop-
tion of the term 6/wo6trtos by the Council is fully
treated under Homooubion. For the Creed of Euse-
bius, see Eubebiub of Casarea: Ldfe.) St. Athana-
sius assures us that the activities of the Council were
nowise hampered bsr Constantine's presence. The em-
peror had bv this time escaped from the influence of
Eusebius Of Nicomedia, and was under that of Hosius,
to whom, as well as to St. Athanasius, may be attrib-
uted a preponderant influence in the formulation of
the symbol of the First (Ecumenical Council, of which
the following is a literal translation: —
We believe in one God the Father Almighty, Maker of
all thiuKS visible and invisible; and in one Lord
Jesus Christ, the only begotten of the Father, that
is, of the substance [in rijs oMas] of the Father, God
* of God, light of light, true God of true God, begot-
ten not made, of the same substance with the Fa-
ther l6/uo6triow rtf vATpq, through whom all things
were made both in heaven and on earth; who for us
men and for our salvation descended, was incarnate,
and was made man, suffered and rose again the
third da^, ascended into heaven and cometh to
judge living and dead. And in the Holy Ghost.
Those who say: There was a time when He was
not, and He was not before He was begotten; and
that He was made out of nothing (/( oitK Bvrtav) ; or
who maintain that He is of another hypostasis or
another substance [than the Father], or that the
Son of God is created, or mutable, qr subject to
change, [them] the Catholic Church anathematizes.
The adhesion was general and enthusiastic. All
the bishops save five declared themselves ready to
subscribe to this formula, convinced that it contained
the ancient faith of the Apostolic Church. The op-
ponents were soon reduced to two, Theonas of Mar-
marica and Secundus of Ptolemais, who were exiled
and anathematized. Arius and his writings were also
branded with anathema, his books were cast into the
fire, and he was exiled to lUyria. The lists of the sign-
ers have reached us in a mutilated condition, disfig-
ured by faults of the copyists. Nevertheless, these
lists may be regarded as authentic. Their study is a
problem which nas been repeatedly dealt with in mod-
em times, in Germany and England, in the critical edi-
tions of H. Gelzer, H. Hilgenfeld, and O. Contz on the
one hand, and C. H. Turner on the other. The lists
thus constructed give respectively 220 and 218 names.
With information derived from one source or another,
a list of 232 or 237 fathers known to have been present
mav be constructed.
Other matters dealt ¥rith by this coimcil were the
controversy as to the time of celebrating Easter and
the Meletian schism. The former of these two will be
foimd treated under Eabteb, Easter Controversy; the
latter under Melbtius of Lycopolib.
Of all the Acts of this Council, which, it has been
maintained, were numerous, only three fragments
have reached us: the creed, or symbol, given above
(see also Nicene Cbeed); the canons; the ^modal
decree. In reality there never were an}^ official acts
besides these. But the accoimts of Eusebius, Socrates.
Sozomen, Theodoret, and Rufinus m&^ be considered
as very important sources of historical information, as
well as some data preserved by St. Athanasius, and a
history of the Council of Nicsea written in Greek in the
fifth century by Gelasius of Cyzicus. There has long
existed a dispute as to the number of the canons of
First Niccea. All the collections of canons, whether in
Latin or Greek, composed in the fourth and Mih cen-
turies agree in attributing to this Council only the
twentv canons, which we possess to-day. Of these
the following is a brief rdsum^ : Canon i : On the admis-
sion, or support, or expulsion of clerics mutilated by
choice or by violence. Canon ii : Rules to be observed
for ordination, the avoidance of undue haste, the de-
position of those guilty of a grave fault. Canon iii:
AH members of the clergy are forbidden to dwell ¥rith
any woman, except a mother, sister, or aunt. Canon
iv: Concerning episcopal elections. Canon v: Con-
cerning the excommunicate. Canon vi: Concerning
patriarchs and their jurisdiction. Canon vii confirms
the right of the bishops of Jerusalem to ^joy certain
honours. Canon viii concerns the Novatians. Canon
ix: Certain sins known after ordination involve invali-
dation. Canon x: Lapsi who have been ordained
knowingly or surreptitiously must be excluded as soon
as their irregularity is known. Canon xi : Penance to
be imposed on apostates of the persecution of Licinius.
Canon xii: Penance to be imposed on those who up-
held Licinius in his war on the Christians. Canon xiii :
Indulgence to be granted to excommunicated persons
in danger of death. Canon xiv: Penance to be im-
posed on catechumens who had weakened under pei^
secution. Canon xv: Bishops, priests, and deacons
are not to pass from one church to another. Canon
xvi: All clerics are forbidden to leave their church.
Formal prohibition of bishops to ordain for their dio-
cese a cleric belonging to another diocese. Canon xyii :
Clerics are forbidden to lend at interest. Canon xviii
recalls to deacons their subordinate position with re-
gard to priests. Canon xix : Rules to be observed with
regard to adherents of Paul of Samosata who wished
to return to the Church. Canon xx: On Sundays and
during the Paschal season prayers should be said
standmg.
The business of the Council having been finished
Constantine celebrated the twentieth anniversary of
his accession to the empire, and invited the bishops to
a splendid repast, at the end of which each of them re-
ceived rich presents. Several days later the emperor
commandea that a final session should be held, at
which he assisted in order to exhort the bishops to
work for the maintenance of peace; he conmiended
himself to their prayers, and authorized the fathers to
return to their dioceses. The greater number hast-
ened to take advantage of this and to bring the reso-
lutions of the council to the knowledge of their
provinces.
II. Second Council of Nicjiba (Seventh (Ecumeni-
cal Council of the Catholic Church), held in 787. (For
an account of the controversies wbach occasioned this
council and the circumstances in which it was con-
voked^ see IcoNOCLASM, I, II.) An attempt to hold a
council at Constantinople, to deal with Iconoclasm,
having been frustrated bv the violence of the Icono-
clastic soldiery, the papal legates left that city. When,
however, they had reached Sicily on their way back to
Rome, thev were recalled by the Empress Irene. She
replaced the mutinous troops at Constantinople with
troops commanded by officers in whom she had every
conndence. This accomplished, in May. 787, a new
council was convoked at Nicsea in Bitn3rnia. The
pope's letters to the empress and to the patriarch (see
IcoNOCLABM, II) provc Superabundantly that the
Holy See approved the convocation of the Council.
The pope afterwards wrote to Charlemagne: ''Et sio
synodtun istam, secimdum nostram ordinationem,
fecerunt" (Thus they have held the synod in accord*
ance ¥rith our directions).
The empress-regent and her son did not assist in
person at the sessions, but they were represented there
by two high officials: the patrician and former consul,
Petronius, and the imperial chamberlain and logo-
NICABAaUA 46 NICABAOUA
thete John, with whom was associated as secretary the biilum of 753 were refuted. The discussion was end-
former patriarch, Nicephorus. The acts represent as less, but in the course of it several noteworthy things
constantly at the head of the ecclesiastical members were said. The next session, that of 13 October, was
the two Roman legates, the archpriest Peter and the especially important; at it was read the tf/>or or dog-
abbot Peter; after them come Tarasius, Patriarch of matic decision, of the council [see Images, Venera-
Constantinople, and then two Oriental monks and tick of (6)]. The last (eighth) session was held in
priests, John and Thomas, representatives of the Patri- the Magnaura Palace, at Constantinople, in presence
archs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerus^em. The of the empress and her son, on 23 October. It was
operations of the council show that Tarasius, properly spent in oiscourses, signing of names, and acclama-
speaking, conducted the sessions. The monks John tions.
and Thomas prof essed to represent the Oriental pa- The council promulgated twenty-two canons relating
triarchs, though these did not know that the coun- to points of discipline, which may be summarized as folf
cil had been convoked. However, there was no fraud lows : Canon i : Tne clergy must observe " the holy can-
on their part: they had been sent, not by the patri- ons,'' which include the Apostolic, those of the six pre-
archs, but by the monks and priests of superior rank vious (Ecumenical Councils, those of particular synodB
acting 8edibu8 impedUiSf in the stead and place of the which have been published at other synods, and those
patriarchs who were prevented from acting for them- of the Fathers. Canon ii: Candidates for bishop's
selves. Necessity was their excuse. Moreover, John orders must know the Psalter by heart and must have
and Thomas did not subscribe at the Council as vicars read thoroughly, not cursorily, all the sacred Scrip-
of the patriarchs, but simply in the name of the Apos- tures. Canon iii condemns the appointment of bishops,
tolic sees of the Orient. With the exception of these priests, and deacons by secular princes. Canon iv:
monks and the Roman legates, all the members of the Bishops are not to demand money of their clergy : an^
Council were subjects of tne Bysantine Empire. Their bishop who through covetousness deprives one of his
number, bishops as well as representatives of bishops, clergy is himself deposed. Canon v is directed against
varies in the ancient historians between 330 and 367 : those who boast of navine obtained church preferment
Nicephorus makes a manifest mistake in speaking oi with money, and recalls the Thirtieth Apostolic Canon
only 150 members: the Acts of the Council which we and the canons of Chalcedon against those who buy
still possess show not fewer than 308 bishops or repre- preferment with money. Canon vi : Provincial synods
sentatives of bishops. To these may be added a cer- are to be held annually. Canon vii: Relics are to be
tain number of monks, archimandrites, imperial secre- placed in all churches : no church is to be consecrated
taries, and clerics of Constantinople who nad not the without relics. Canon viii prescribes precautions to
light to vote. be taken against feigned converts from Judaism.
The first session opened in the church of St. Sophia, Canon ix : All writings against the venerable images are
24 Sept., 787. Tarasius opened the council with a to be surrendered, to be shut up with other heretical
short discourse: ''Last year, in the beginning of the books. Canon x: Against clerics who leave their own
month of August, it was desired to hold, under my dioceses without permission, and become private
presidency, a council in the Church of the Apostles at chaplains to great personages. Canon xi: Every
Constantinople; but through the fault of several bish- church and every monastery must have its own oeco-
ops whom it would be eas^r to count, and whose names nomus. Canon xii: Against bishops or abbots who
I prefer not to mention, since everyone knows them, convey church property to temporal lords. Canon
that council was made impossible. The sovereigps xiii: Episcopal residences, monasteries, and other ec-
have deigned to convoke another at Nicsea, and Chnst desiastical buildings converted to profane uses are to
will certainly reward them for it. It is this Lord and be restored their rightful ownership. Canon xiv:
Saviour whom the bishops must also invoke in order Tonsured persons not ordained lectors must not read
to pronounce subsequently an eouitable judgment in a the Epistle or Gospel in the ambo. Canon xv:
just and impartiid manner." Tne members then pro- Against pluralities of benefices. Canon xvi: The
ceeded to tne reading of various official documents, clergy must not wear sumptuous apparel. Canon
after which three Iconoclastic bi^ops who had re- xvii: Monks are not to leave their monasteries and
tracted were permitted to take their seats. Seven begin building other houses of prayer without being
others who had plotted to make the Council miscarry provided with the means to finish the same. Canon
in the preceding year presented themselves and de- xviii: Women are not to dwell in bishops' houses or in
clared themselves ready to profess the Faith of the monasteries of men. Canon xix:Supenors of churches
Fathers, but the assembly thereupon engaged in a and monasteries are not to demand money of those
lone discussion concerning the admission of heretics who enter the clerical or monastic state. But the
and postponed their case to another session. On 26 dowry brought by a novice to a reli^ous house is to be
September, the second session was held, during which retained by that house if the novice leaves it without
the pope's letters to the empress and the Patriarch any fault on the part of the superior. Canon xx pro-
Tarasius were read. Tarasius declared himself in full hibits double monasteries. Canon xxi : A monk or nun
agreement with the doctrine set forth in these letters, may not leave one convent for another. Canon xxii:
On 28, or 29, Sept., in the third session, some bishops Among the laity, persons of opposite sexes may eat to-
who had retracted their errors were allowed to taKe gether, provided they give thanks and behave with
their seats; after which various documents were read, decorum. But among religious persons, those of op-
The fourth session was held on 1 October. In it the posite sexes may eat together only in the presence of
secretaries of the council read a lone series of citations several God-fearing men and women, except on a
from the Bible and the Fathers in favour of the ven- journey when necessity compels,
eration of images. Afterwards the dogmatic decree r^^'^^}^^^^^' J^^f^\'^^?^i^o^^' ^®^^' f"^^'
•.TOO .v^^An^-^^ ««zl »*«<> ^^^^^^ K« «ii i-k^. ..,»».u»..<. -D««. Nxcana tynoda: Syruche Texte (1898); Revillout, Le Con"
was presented, and was signed bv all the members ^iU d« Nide dW« Ut texu» eoptea (Paris. 1889) (thes^ two w
present, by the arcmmandntes of the mODasterieS, and fenins to the Pint Nio»a).— For the literature of theArian,
by some monks: the papal leeates added a declaration t^« Easter, and the Iconoclastic controversies, see bibliographies
to 4.1%^ aIVa^4- ^uL* *\^^^t w^^-mJ^^^A^, *^ ^^^^:^,^ «ii ™i.^ given under Abianism; Athanabius, Saint; Homoousion;
the effect that they were ready to receive all who g^ornDK. Batter Contr<niriy; IcovociIbm; IiiioBs. Vmswu.-
had abandoned the Iconoclastic heresy. In the fifth tion of.
session on 4 October, passages from the Fathers were H. Leclercq.
read which declared, or seemed to declare, against the
worship of imaees, but the reading was not continued Nicaragua, Repttbug and Diocese of (de Ni-
to the end, and the council decided in favour of the caragua). — The diocese, suffragan of Guatemala, is
restoration and the veneration of images. On6 0cto- coextensive with the Central American Republic of
ber, in the sixth session, the doctrines of the concUia^ Nicaragua. This republic (see Chile, Map of South
n and the Caribbeaa Se&, has , . ..
of 4S,200 square milee and a population of about
600,000 inhabitaivts. The great maas of the inhabi-
tanta are either aborigines, or negroes, or of mixed
blood, thoae of pure European descent not ^(ceeding
1500 ID number. The legiBlative authority is vested
in a single chamber of thirty-six membere, elected for
•ix years: the executive, in a president, whose term of
office is also rix yeare, exercising his functions through
k cabinet of nine responsible ministers The country
is traversed by a deep depression, running parallel to
the Pacific coast, within which are a chain of volcanoes
(among them, Monotombo, 7000 feet) and the great
lakes,ManaguaandNicaragua (orCocibolga). From
the latter (a body of water 02 milee long and, at ita
widest, 40 miles wide) the country takes its name, de-
rived from Nicarao, the name of the aboriginal chief
who held sway in the regionH round about Lake Coci-
bolga when the Spaniards, under Divila, first explored
the country, in 1522. From that time, or soon after,
until 1822 Nicaragua waaaSpaniahpoBseaaion, forming
part of the Province of Guatemala. From IS22 untu
1839 it was one of the five states constituting the Cen-
tral American Federation; from 1840 until the present
time (1911) it has been an independent republic, with
ita cajjital at Managua (pop,, about 35,000). The
tUxirigiiieB of the Mosquito Coast, a swampy tract ex-
lending along the Nicaragutin shores of the Caribbean,
were nomin^ly under British protection until 1860,
when, by the Treaty of Managua, this protectorate
was ceded by Great Britain to the republic; in 1905,
anotlier treaty recognised the absolute sovereignty of
Nicaragua over what had been, until then, known as
tiie Mosquito Reservation. Since the time of its ac*
r' -ing political independence, Nicara^a has been in
oat continuous turmoil. Commercially, the coun-
. try is very poorly developed; its chief exports are
coffee, cattle, and mahogany; a certain amount of gold
has been mined of recent years, and the nascent rubber
industry is regarded as promismg.
The Diocese of Nicaragua was canonically erected
in 1634 (according to other authorities, 1531), with
Die^o Alvarez for its first bishop. It appc&rs to have'
been at first a suffragan of Mexico, though some au-
thorities have assigned it to the ecclesiastical Province
of Lima, but in the eiriitccnth centurv Benedict XIV
made it a sufTrag&n of Guatemala. The episcopal res-
idence is at lAon, where there is a fine cathedral. A
concordat between the Holy See and the Republic of
Nicaragua was concluded in 1861^ and the Catholic is
etill recognised as the state religion, though Church
and State are now separat«d, and freedom is constitu-
tioiudly guaranteed to all forms of religious warship.
After 1894 the Zelaya Government entered upon a
eouise of anti-Catholic le^lation which provoked a
protest from Bishop Francisco UUoa y Larrios, and
the bishop was banished to Panama. Upon the death
of this prelate, in 1908, his coadjutor bisn op, Simeone
Pereira, succe«ded him. The returns for 1910 give
the Diocese of Nicaragua 42 parishes, with 45 priests,
a seminary, 2 colleges, and 2 hospitals.
theGreeklUte WHsinuseatNicaatro. The first bishop
of this citv of whom there is any reoord was Henry
(1090); Bishop Tancredo da MonU Foscolo (1279)
was deposed by Honoriua iV for having consecrated
John of Aragon, King of Sicily, but he was reinstated
by Boniface Vni; Bishop Paolo Capisucco (1533) waa
1 of the judges in the case of the marriage of Henry
bm^t thd n
Martorano, the former Mamertum (the first bishop of
which was Domnus, in 761), was united to the Diocese
of Nicastro, The diocese is a suffragan of Reggio in
Calabria; it has 52 parishes, with 1 10,100 inhabitants;
71 churches and chapels, 2 convents of the Capuchins,
! orphan asylum and boarding-school, directed
E. M^CFHERSON.
SlMrtro{NBOC4aTHi:N8I8), acityoftheProvinceof
Cataniaro, in Calabria, southern Italy, situated on a
promontory that commands the Gulf of St. Euphemia;
above it is an ancient castle. The commerce of the
Eort of Nicastro consists of the exportation of acid,
erbs, and wine. The cathedral, an ancient temple,
with the episcopal palace, was outside the city; having
been pillaged by the Saracens, it was restored in the
year 1100, but it waa destroyed in the earthquake of
1038, with the episcopal palace, under the ruins of which
most valuable archives were lost. For a long time,
took him to attend his coronation in Rome, thence U,
Naples, to complete Castel Capuano and Castel dell'
Uovo (1221-31). In 1233 Niccola was in Lucca; the
oIto-riii«w) of the Deposition over the side door of the
cathedral may be of this date. The marble um or
Area made to contain the body of St. Dominic in the
church bearing his name in Bologna, is said to be an
earlv work, but shows maturity; the charming group
of the Madonna and Child upon it, forcshaoows all
the Madonnas of ItaUan art. From Niccola's designs
was built the famous basihca of St. Anthony in Padua,
the church of the Feari in Venice is also attributed to
him, possibly on insufficient grounds. In Florence he
desimed the interior of Sta. Trinity which Michelangelo
loved 80 much that he called it his lady, "la mia
Dama". Having been ordered by the GhibeUines to
destroy the Baptistery frequented by the Guelphs,
Niccola undermined the tower catlea Guardthmorio,
causing it to so fall that it did, not touch the precious
HICl
48
MZd
edifice. Oa his return t« Pisa, the architect erect«d
the campanile for the church of 8, Niccold which con-
tiuns the remuksble wioding stair UDaupport«d at its
centre; an invention repeated by Bramante for the
"Belvedere", and by San Gallo in the renowned
well at Orvieto. In 1242 Niccola superintended the
building of the cathedral of Pistoja, and in 1263 the
restoration of S. PieCro Magmore. He remodelled 8.
Domenico at Arezio, the Duomo at Volterra, the
FSeve and Sta. Marghcrita at Cortona. MiKh of his
work at Bsa is believed to have perished in the fire of
1610. A wonderful creation (1200) is the hexagonal,
insulated pulpit of the Baptistery. It is supported by
seven columns, three of them resting on hons. The
panelshavereliefsfrom the New Testament; the pedi-
ments, figures of virtues; the spandrels, prophets and
evangelists. The architectural part ia Italian Gothic:
the sculptures are mainly pure reproductions of the
antique. A second
pulpit for the Duomo
of Siena followed in
1266. Niccola's early
sculpture shows
clumsiness, if we are
to beheve that the
figures outside the
Misericordia Veechia
in Florence are his.
In later life, whether
from Rome or from
hia own Camposanto
at Pisa (Roman sar-
cophagus used for the
Countess Beatrice of
Tuscany; Greek vase
with figures he repro-
duced) be learned to
create with the free-
auty , and
E?'
Ruhn
aptly that he ma^
have used clay for his
and church of La Scoreola, commemorating Charles
of Anjou'a victory at TMliacoazo, now in ruins: in
sculpture, the statuettes for the famous Fonte Ma
giore at Peni^a, erected after his design (1277-~S0).
CICOONAU, Sltfris d(21a icuJfura (Veoin, 1S13); Pebuhs,
Tuttan KolBlar' (London, 1864); LObek, HiiUni o/tcutplurt, U.
BDBNnr iLondon, 18G2-72).
M. L. Hakdlbt.
Mice, Diocese ov (Niciensis), comprises the De-
rtment of Alpes-Maritimea. It was re-established
the Concordat of 1801 as suffragan of Aix. The
Countahip of Nice from 1818 to 1860 was part of the
Sardinian States, and the see became a suffragan of
Genoa. When Nice was annexed to France in I860,
certain parts which remained Italian were cut off
from it and added to the Diocese of Vintimille. In
1862 the diocese was again a suSragan of Aix. The
arrondissemcnt of Grasse was separated from the
Diocese of Frfjus in 1836, and given to Nice which now
unites the three former Dioceses of Nice, Grasse, and
Vence.
I. DiocEBB or Nice. — Traditions tell us that Nice
was evangelized by St. Barnabas, sent by St. Paul, or
dse by St, Mary Magdalen, St. Martha, and St. Lai-
anis; and they make St. Bassua, a martyr under De-
cius, the first Bishop of Nice. The See of^Nicein Gaul
existed in 314. since the bishop sent delegates to the
Council of Aries in that year. The first bishop his-
terically known is Amanttus who attended the Coun-
cil of Aquileia in 381. Cimiei, near Nice, where still
can be seen the remuns of a Roman amphitheatre,
■Jid which was made illustrious by the martyrdom of
the youthful St. Pontius about 260. had also a see, held
in the middle of the fifth century by St. Valerianus; ft
rescript of St. Iieo the Great, issued after 450 and con-
firmed by St. Hilarys in 465, united the Sees of Nice
and Cimiei. Tiiis newly-formed see remained a suf-
fragan of Embrun up to the time of the Revolution
(see Q/iF, DiocBSE of). Mgr Duchesne has not dis-
covered sufficient historical proof of the episcopate
at Nice of St, Valerianus (433-43), of St. Deutherius
(490-93), martyred by the Vandals, of St. Syagrius
(d. 787), Count of Brignolea and son-m-law pernaps of
Charlemagne, St. Anselm, a former monk of I,^rins,
is mentioned as Bishop of Nice (1100-07). Bishops
of Nice bore the title of Counts of Drap since the dona-
tion of property situated at Drap, made in 1073 by
Pierre, Bishop of Vaison, a native of Nice, to Ray-
mond I, its bishop, and to his successors, Charl»-
magne, when visiting Cinuei devastated by the XJom-
bards in 574, causrai
St. Syagrius to build
on its nilns the mon-
astery of St, Pon-
tius, the largest Al-
pine abbey of the
Middle Ages.
II. DlDCESBOF
Grasse.— The first
known Bishop of
Antibes is Armentar-
iuB who attended the
Council of Vuson in
442; Mgr Duchesne
admits as possible
that the Remigius,
who signed at the
Council of NImes in
396 and in 417 re-
ceived a letter from
Pope ZoMmus, may
have been Bishop of
Antibes before Ai^
mentarius. About
the middle of the
thirteenth century the See of Antibes was transferred
to Grasse. Bishops of Grasse worthy of mention are;
Cardinal Agoatino Trivuliio (1537-1648); the poet
Antoine Oodeau (1636-63), one of the most cele-
brated habitu^ of the HAtel de Rambouillet, where
he was nicknamed "Julia's dwarf" on account of hia
small stature.
III. Diocese op Vence. — The first known Bishop
of Vence is Severus, bishop in 439 and perhaps as early
08 419. AmonK others are: St. Veranus, son of St.
Eucherius, Archbishop of Lyons and a monk of L^rins,
bishop before 451 and at least until 465; St, Lambert,
first aBenedictine monk (d. 1154); Cardinal Alessan-
dro Famese (1505-11). Antoine Godeau, Bishop of
Grasse, was named Bishop of Vence in 1638; the Holy
See wished to unite the two dioceses. Meeting wiui
opposition from the chapter and the clergy of Vence
Godeau left Grasse in 1653, to remain Bishop of Vence,
which see he held until 1672.
The foBowMg saints are specially honoured in the
Diocese of Nice: The youthful martyr St. Celaus,
whom certain traditions make victim of Nero's perse-
cution; St. Vincentius and St. Orontius, natives of
Cimiei, apostles of Aquitiune and of Spain, martyiB
under Diocletian; St. Hospitius, a hermit of Cap Fer-
rat (d. about 581); Blessed Antoine Gallus (1300-92),
a native of Nice, one of St. Catherine of Siena's
confessors. The martyr St, Reparata of Cssarea in
Palestine is the patroness of the diocese. The chief
pilgrimages of the diocese are: Our I^ady of Laghet,
near Mtmaco, a place of pilgrimage since the end of
the seventeenth century; tne chapel of the Sacred
Heart of Jesus at Roquefort near Grasse; Our Lady
of Valcluse; Our Lady of Brusq; Our I^ady of Vie.
NlCCOU PUINO
mCKKI
49
Nionn
Prior to the application of the law of 1901 agunat
aasociatioDB, the diocese counted Aaaumptiooista,
CapuchiiiH, Ciotercians of the Immaculate Concep-
tion, Jeeuita, Priesta of the ChriBtian Doctrine, Fran-
Giacana, Laiarists, Diacalced Carmelites, Oblates of
Mary Immaculate, Saledons of Dom Bosco, Camil-
lians, several orders of teaching Brothers. The Sis-
ters of St. Martha, devoted to teaching and nurmng
and founded in 1832, have their mother-house '
cr^hea, 16 day nurseries, 2 institutions for crippled
children, 1 boys' orphanage, 10 girls' orphanages, 3
aewing rooms, 11 hospitals or asylums, 4 convalescent
homes, 6 houaea for the care of the sick in their own
homeSj 1 insane asylum. 1 asylum for incurablefl.
The Diocese of Nice, whitner every year the warm and
balmy climate of the COte d'Azur attracts innumer-
able loreignerB, counted in 1900 about 260,000 inhabi-
tants, 32 pahuies and 185 succuraal pariahea.
OaOia ClirMaiia (noH, 1T2S). III. 1100-87, 1212-33. 1267-96,
that coundl a new form was presented and inserted
in the Act«, though not accepted by the council. The
Nicene Symbol, however, continuM to be the only one
in use among the defenders of the Faith. Gradually
it came to be recognized as the proper profea^on ot
faith for candidates for baptism. Its alteration into
the Nicene-Constantinopoutan formula, the one now
in use, is usually ascribed to the Council of Congtanti-
nople, since the Council of Chalcedon (451), which
deugnated this symbol as "The Creed of the Council
of Constantinople of 381 " had it twice read and in-
serted in its Acta. The historians Socrates, Soiomen,
and Theodoret do not mention this, although they do
record that the bishops who remained at the council
after the departure of the Macedonians confirmed the
Nicene faith. Hefele (II, 9) admits the possibility of
our present creed being a condensation of the " Tome "
(rhiiot), i. e. the exposition of the doctrines concerning
the Trinity made by the Council of Constantinople;
but he prefers the opinion of R£mi Ceillier and Tille-
mont tracing the new formula to the "Ancoratus"
of Epiphanius written in 374, Hort, Caspari, Har-
nack, and others are of the opinion that the Con-
stantinopolitan form did not originate at the Council
of Constantinople, because it is not in the Acts of
the council of 381, but was inserted there at a later
date; because Gregory Nazianzen who was at the
council mentions only the Nicene formula adverting
to its incompleteness about the Holy Ghost, showing
that he did not know of the Conatantinopolitan form
which supplies this deficiency; and because the Latin
Fathers apparently know nothing of it before the
middle of the fifth century.
The following is a literal translation of the Greek
text of the Coastantinopolitan form, the brackets in-
dicating the words altered or added in the Western
liturgical form in present use: —
"We believe (1 believe) in one God, the Father
Almighty, maker of heaven and earth, and of all
things visible and invisible. And in one Lord Jesus
Christ, the only begotten Son of God, and bom of the
Father before all ages. (God of God) light of light,
true God of true God. Begotten not made, consub-
stantial to the Father, by whom all things were made.
Who for us men and for our salvation came down from
heaven. And was incarnate of the Holy Ghost and
of the Virgin Mary and was made man; was crucified
also for us under Pontius Pilate, suffered and was
buried; and the third day he rose again according to
the Scriptures. And ascended into heaven, sitteth
at the right hand of the Father, and shall come again
with glory to judge the living and the dead, of whose
Kingdom there snail be no end. And (I believe) ii
I, SB, 3tB, 3S6-8; Tumuni, Ctmiifu dt Prcnntcc.-
nTw. i4la ciU lit Nia 1 du dtjnrtemenl da Alpa-Ua
(2 ToU.. Nice. ISSZ) : Albin ■>■ CiaALA, Kit dtrH., guide nui. n
■riiK. da purDiuu IPsHi, 1900) : Cm de PiiBua add Saiqb,
Ckartrte' dt TnUaix da Sainl-Pmt hart ki muri lU Niim (Mon-
•■». 1903); Cau DC Piiblu, Carlulairt d> fancitnnt callMraia
dt Kiet <Tuiia. 1888): Chapoh. Slatuu tjricdaux (Sign. 1906);
TlMERAHD. Hit. d> Vtntt, cM. HtclU, boronnie (Farii. ISBO).
Georges GoTAti.
Nloanfl and Nlcoiio-Coiutantlnop<dltui CiMd.
— The orimn and history of the Nicene Creed are set
forth in the articles: Nic.«a, Codncila of; Arius;
Arianisuj EusEBiuB OF C««arka; Fiuoque. As
approved in amplified form at the Council of Constan-
tmople (381) q, v., it is the profession of the Chris-
tian Faith common to the Catholic Church, to all the
Eastern Churchee separated from Rome, and to most
of the Protestant denominations. Soon after the
Council of Nicsa new formulas of f^th were com-
poaed, most of them variations of the Nicene Symbol,
to meet new phases of Arianism. There were at least
tour before tlie Council of Sardica in 341, and in
XI.— 4
the Holy Ghost, the Lord and Giver of life, who pro-
ceedeth from the Father (and the Son], who together
with the Father and the Son is to be adored and glori-
fied, who apake by the Prophets. And one noly,
catholic ana apostolic Churcn. We confess (I con-
fess) one baptism for the remission of sins. And we
look for (1 look for) the resurrection of the dead and
the life of the world to come. Amen".
In this form the Nicene article concerning the Holy
Ghost is enlarged; several words, notably the two
clauses "of the substance of the Father" and "God
of God", are omitted as also are the anathemas;
ten clauses are added; and in five places the words are
differently located. In general the two forms contain
what is common to all the baptismal formulas in the
early Church. Vosaius (1577-1849) was the first to
detect the similarity between the creed set forth in the
" Ancoratus " and the baptismal formula of the Church
of Jerusalem. Hort (1876) held that the symbol is a
revision of the Jerusalem formula, in which the moat
important Nicene statements conoeming the Holy
Ghoat have been inserted. The author of the revision
may have been St. Cyril of Jerusalem (315-386, q, v.).
Various hypotbesea are offered to account for the
NICSPHOEUS 50 NICSPHOEUS
tradition that the Niceno-Constantinopolitan symbol the matter was not openly discussed, he and his fol-
originated with the Council of Constantinople, but lowers now held virtually no church communion with
none of them is satisfactory. Whatever be its origin, Nicephorus and the priest, Joseph. But, through a
the fact is that the Council of Chalcedon (451) attrib- letter written by Archbishop Joseph, the course which
uted it to the Council of Constantinople, and if it was he and the strict church party followed became public
not actually composed in that council, it was adopted in 808, and caused a sensation. Theodore set forth, by
and authorized by the Fathers assembled as a true ex- speech and writing, the reasons for the action of the
pression of the Faith. The history of the creed is strict party and firmly maintained his position. De-
oompleted in the article Filioqub. fending himself against the accusation tnat he and his
, JSP?*'**'"** JBnairidum Symdoiorum (i(Hh ed., Freiburg, companions were schismatic, he declared that he had
1908), for texts of oreecu in Greek and Latin; Hbfslb, Coneihen' lr*»T** oHowi* no l#^n» od Tw«<ici;ki4k u^A aa.%o«.,»^ ^^ K;«k
mmcKichu, I and II. Fr. tr. Leclbrq. II. pt. I, 11-13 (trane- ^^pt Silent M long as possible, had censured no bish-
Utor'e note): iUhmack in Reaimcveiopddie far proteH, Theologie ops. and had always mcluded the name of the patn-
g^m^,iW7hn,r.KonsUinUnop^ arch in the liturgy. He asserted his love and his
fre&^r^'SSSJI^iiSSl^i^Ej.'rS:;^!- ¥a^:St attachment to the patriarch, and «ud he would with-
bob. MV (Chriatiania, 1866 sq.): Swainbon. The Nuxm and draw all opposition if the patriarch would acknowl-
AjpottUt' Creedt, etc. (London, 1876); Hort. Two Dutaiation*, edge the Violation of law by removing the priest
II: on the ConstarUinopolttan Creed and the other Battem Creede of Jnoonh P^mnpmr NiAAnhnnia nnw tnnlr vinlAnt mAAA.
the fourth century (Cambridge. 1876) ; Kuneb. Dae n. k. Symbol ^fOaepH, Jf^mperor iN icepnorus now tOOJC Violent meas-
in studien mr Geaeh. der Theol. u. Kirehe (Leipiis. 1898) ; Idbm, ures. He Commanded the patnarch to Call a synod.
Martin Bremita, ein neu» Zeuoe fUr doe aUktrchl. Taufbekennt- which was held in 809, and had Plato and several
niee (Leipiig, 1896). J. WiLHELM. monks forcibly brought before it. The opponents of
the patriarch were condemned, the Archbishop of
NicaphoruB, Saint, Patriarch of Constantinople, Thessalonica was deposed, the Abbots Plato and Th&-
806-815, b. about 758 ; d. 2 June, 829. This champion odore with their monks were banished to neighbouring
of the orthodox view in the second contest over the islands and cast into various prisons,
veneration of images belonged to a noted family of This, however, did not discourage the resolute op-
Constantinople. He was the son of the imperial secre- ponents of the '^ Adulterine Heresy''. In 809 Theo-
tuy Theodore and his pious wife Eudoxia. Eudoxia dore and Plato sent a joint memorial, through the
was a strict adherent of the Church and Theodore had Archimandrite Epiphanius, to Pope Leo III, and later,
been banished by the Emperor Constantine Coprony- Theodore laid the matter once more before the pope
mus (741-75) on account of his steadfast support of in a letter, in which he besought the successor of St.
the teaching of the Church concerning images. While Peter to grant a helping hand to the East, so that it
still young Nicephorus was brought to the court, mi^ht not be overwhelmed by the waves of the" Adul-
where he became an imperial secretary. With two terme Heresy". Pope Leo sent an encouraging and
other officials of high rank he r^resen ted the Empress consolatory reply to the resolute confessors, upon
Irene in 787 at the Second Council of Nicaea (the which they wrote another letter to him through
Seventh (Ecumenical Council), which declared the Epiphanius. Leo had received no communication
doctrine of the Church respecting images. Shortly from Patriarch Nicephorus and was, therefore, not
after this Nicephorus sought solitude on the Thracian thoroughly informed in the matter; he also desirod to
Bosporus, where he had founded a monastery. Here spare the eastern emperor as much as possible. Con-
he devoted himself to ascetic practices and to the sequently, for a time^ he took no further steps in the
study both of secular learning, as grammar, mathemat- matter. Emperor Nicephorus continued to persecute
ics, and philosophy, and the Scriptures. Later he was all adherents of Theodore of Studium. and, in addi-
recalled to the capital and given charse of the great tion, oppressed those of whom he haci grown suspi-
hospital. Upon the death of Patriarch Tarasius (25 cious, whether clergy or dignitaries of the empire.
February, 806), there was ^p'eat division among the Moreover, he favoured the heretical Paulicians and
clergy and higher court officials as to the choice of his the Iconoclasts and drained the people by oppressive
successor, finally, with the assent of the bishops taxes, so that he was universally hated. InJuly, 81i,
Emperor Nicephorus (802-1 1 ) appointed Nicephorus the emperor was killed in a battle with the Bulgarians,
as patriarch. Although still a layman, he was known His sonStauracius, who had been wounded in the
by all to be very religious and highly educated. He same fight, was proclaimed emperor, but was deposed
received Holy Orders and was consecrated bishop on by the chief men of the empire because he followed
Easter Sunday, 12 April. 806. The direct elevation of the bad example of his fatner. On 2 October, 811,
a layman to thepatriarchate, as had already happened with the assent of the patriarch, Michael Rhangabe,
in the case of Tarasius, aroused opposition in tne ec- brother-in-law of Stauracius^^was raised to the throne,
clesiastical party among the clergy and monks. The The new emperor promised, in writing, to defend the
leaders were the abbots, Plato of Saccadium and Theo- faith and to protect both clergv and monks, and was
dore of Studium, and Theodore's brother. Archbishop crowned with much solemnit^^ by the Patriarch Nice-
Joseph of Thessalonica. For this opposition the Ab- phorus. Michael succeeded in reconciling the patri-
bot Plato was imprisoned for twenty-four days at the arch and Theodore of Studium. The patnarch again
command of the emperor. deposed the priest Joseph and withdrew his decrees
Nicephorus soon gave further cause for antagonism, against Theodore and his partisans. On the other side
In 795 a priest named Joseph had celebrated the un- llieodore, Plato, and the majority of their adherents
lawful marriage of Emperor Constantine VI (780-97) recognized the patriarch as the lawful head of the
with Theodota, during the lifetime of Maria, the right- Byzantine Church, and sought to bring the refractory
ful wife of the emperor, whom he had set aside. For back to his obedience. The emperor had also recourse
this act Joseph had been deposed and banished. Em- to the papacy in reference to these quarrels and had
peror Nicepnorus considered it important to have this received a letter of approval from Leo. Moreover, the
matter settled and, at his wish the new patriarch, patriarch now sent the customary written notification
with the concurrence of a synod composed of a small of his induction into office {Synodica) to the pope. In
number of bishops^ardoned Joseph and, in 806, re- it he sought to excuse the long delay by the tyranny of
stored him to his office. The patriarch yielded to the the preceding emperor, interwove a rambling confes-
wishes of the emperor in order to avert more serious sion of faith^ and promised to notify Rome at the
evil. His action was regarded by the strict church proper time m regard to all important questions,
party as a violation of ecclesiastical law and a scandal. Emperor Michael was an honourable man of good
Before the matter was settled Theodore had written intentions, but weak and dependent. On the advice of
to the patriarch entreating him not to reinstate the Nicephorus he put the heretical and seditious Pauli-
guilty priest, but had received no answer. Although cians to death and tried to suppress the loonodasta.
NICSPH0EU8
51
NIClatON
The patriarch endeavoured to establish monastic dis-
cipline among the monks, and to suppress double mon-
asteries whicn had been forbidden by the Seventh
CBcumenical Council. After his complete defeat, 22
June, 813, in the war against the Bulgarians, the em-
peror lost all authority. With the assent of the patri-
arch, he resigned and entered a monastery with his
chiloren. The popular general, Leo the Armenian,
now beeame emperor, 11 July, 813. When Nice-
phorus demanded the confession of faith, before the
coronation, Leo put it off. Notwithstanding this,
Nicephorus crowned him, and later, Leo again refused
to make this confession. As soon as the new emperor
had assured the peace of the empire by the overtnrow
of the Bulgarians his true opinions began gradually to
i^pear. Be entered into connexion witn the oppo-
nents of images, among whom were a number of
bishops; it steadily grew more evident that he was pre-
paring a new attack upon the veneration of images.
With fearless energy the Patriarch Nicephorus now pro-
ceeded against the machinations of the Iconoclasts.
He brou^t to trial before a synod several ecclesias-
tics oppo«ed to images and forced an abbot named
John and also Bishop Anthony of Sykeum to submit.
Bishop Anthony's acquiescence was merelv feigned.
In December, 814, Nicephorus had a long confer-
ence with the emperor on the veneration of images but
no agreement was reached. Later the patriarch sent
several learned bishops and abbots to convince him of
the truth of the position of the Church on the venera-
tion of images. The emperor wished to have a de-
bate between representatives of the opposite dogmatic
opinions, but the adherents of the veneration of im-
ages refused to take part in such a conference, as the
Seventh (Ecumenical Council had settled the question.
Then Nicephorus called together an assembly of
bishops and abbots at the Church of St. Sophia at
which he excommunicated the perjured Bishop An-
thony of Sykeum. A lar^^ numoer of the laitv were
also present on this occasion and the patriarch with
the clergy and people remained in the church the en-
tire nicpCb in prayer. The emperor then summoned
Nicephorus to him, and the patriarch went to the im-
perial palace accompanied by the abbots and monks.
Nicephorus first had a long, private conversation with
the emperor, in which he vainly endeavoured to dis-
suade Leo from his opposition to the veneration of
images. The emperor received those who had accom-
panied Nicephorus, among them seven metropolitans
and Abbot Theodore of Studium. They all repudi-
ated the interference of the exnperor in dogmatic ques-
tions and once more rejected Leo's proposal to hold a
conference. The emperor then commanded the ab-
bots to maintain silence upon the matter and forbade
them to hold meetings. Theodore declared that si-
lence under these conditions would be treason and
expressed sympathy with the patriarch whom the em-
peror forbade to hold public service in the church.
Nicephorus fell ill; when he recovered the emperor
called upon him to defend his course before a synod of
bishops friendly to iconoclasm. But the patriarch
would not recognize the synod and paid no attention
to the summons. The pseudo-ejrnod now commanded
that he should no longer be called patriarch. His
house was surrounded by crowds of angry Icono-
clasts who shouted threats and invectives. He was
guarded by soldiers and not allowed to perform any
official act. With a protest against this mode of pro-
cedure the patriarch notified Leo that he found it
necessary to resign the patriarchal see. Upon this he
was arrested at midnight in March, 815, and banished
to the monastery of m. Theodore, which he had built
on the Bosporus.
Leo now raised to the patriarchate Theodotus, a
married, illiterate layman who favoured iconoclasm.
Theodotus was consecrated 1 April, 815. The exiled
Nicephorus persevered in his opposition and wrote
several treatises agednst iconoclasm. After the mur-
der of the Emperor Leo, 25 December, 820. Michael
the Amorian ascended the throne and the defenders of
the veneration of images were now more considerately
treated. However, Michael would not consent to an
actuaJ restoration of images such as Nicephorus de-
manded from him, for he declared that he did not wish
to interfere in religious matters and would leave every-
thing as he had found it. Accordingly Emperor Leo's
hostile measures were not repealed, although the per-
secution ceased. Nicephorus received permission to
return from exile if he would promise to remain silent.
He would not agree, however, and remained in the mon-
astery of St. Theodore, where he continued by speech
and writing to defend the veneration of images. The
dogmatic treatises, chiefly on this subject, that he
wrote are as follows: a lesser ''Apology for the Catho-
lic Church concerning the newly arisen Schism in re-
gard to Sacred Images'' (Mi^e,P. G., C, 833-849),
written 813-14; a larger treatise m two parts; the first
part is an ''Apology for the pure, unadulterated Faith
of Christians against those who accuse us of idolatry^"
(Migne, loc. cit., 535-834); the second part contains
the Antirrhetici"j a refutation of a writing by the
Emperor Constantme Copronymus on images (loc.
cit., 205-534). Nicephorus added to this second part
seventy-five extracts from the writings of the Fathers
[edited by Pitra, "Spicilegium Solesmense", I (Paris,
1852), 227-370]; in two further writmgs. which also
apparently belong together, passages trom earlier
writers, that had been used by the enemies of images
to maintain their opinions, are examined and ex-
plained. Both these treatises were edited by Pitra;
the first 'Eirfjcpto'it in "Spicilegium Solesmense", I,
302-335; the second *Arrf/J^iy<rif in the same, I, 371-
503, and IV, 292-380. The two treatises discuss pas-
sages from Macarius Magnes, Eusebius of Csesarea,
and from a writing wrongly ascribed to Epiphanius of
C3rprus. Another work justifying the veneration of
images was edited by Pitra under the title " Antirrhe-
ticus adversus iconomachos" (Spicil. Solesm., IV,
233-91). A final and, as it appears, especially impor-
tant treatise on this question has not yet been pub-
lished. Nicephorus also left two small historical
works, one known as the "Breviarium", the other the
"Chronographis", both are edited b^ C. de Boor,
"Nicephori archiep. Const, opuscula historica" in the
"Bibliotheca Teubneriana" (Leipzig, 1880). At the
end of his life he was revered and after death regarded
as a saint. In 874 his bones were translated to Con-
stantinople with much pomp by the Patriarch Metho-
dius and interred, 13 March, in the Church of the
Apostles. His feast is celebrated on this day both in
the Greek and Roman Churches; the Greeks also ob-
serve 2 June as the day of his death.
Vita Nicephori audore fgnatio diacono in Acta SS.,MBreh, II,
294 aaq. (Latin), 704 sqq. (Greek), and in Mionb, P. O., C, 37
■qq.; Bibliotheea haoiographica grata, ed. BoLLANDiam (2nd ed.),
186; HBBOBNitOTHER, PhoHua, I (Ratisbon, 1867), 261 oqq.;
Idbm, Kirchengeschicht6 (4th ed. KinacH). II, 31 sqq.; Kbdm-
BACHKR, Oetch, der hytantinitchen Litt. (2nd ed. £hrbl*.rx>), 71
sqq., 349 sqq.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Nicephorus Blemmydes. See Blemmioa, Nicne-
FH0RX7B.
Nicephorus Gregoras. See Hbstchasm.
Nic^ron, Jean-Pierre, French lexicographer, b. in
Paris, 11 March, 1685, d. there, 8 July, 1738. After his
studies at the College Mazarin, he joined the Bama-
bites (August, 1702). He taught rhetoric in the col-
lege of Loches, and soon after at Montargis, where he
remained ten years. While engaged in teaching, he
made a thorou^ study of modem languages. In
1716 he went to Paris and devoted his time to literary
work. His aim was to put together, in a logically ar-
ranged compendium, a series of biographical and bibli-
ographical articles on the men who had distinguished
themselves in literature and sciences since the time of
NICBTA8
52
NICITA8
the RemuBsance. It required long research ss well as
Kreat industry. After eleven years he published the
first volume of his monumental work under the title
of '^M^moires pour servir k Thistoire des hommes
illustres de la r^publique des lettres avec le cata-
logue raisonn^ de leurs ouvrages'' (Paris, 1727).
Thirty-eight volumes followed from 1728 to 1738.
The last volume from his pen was published two years
after the author's death (Paris, 1740). Father Oudin,
J.-B. Michauld, and Abb6 Goujet later contributed
three volumes to the collection. A German transla-
tion of it was published in 1747-1777. It has been
often repeated that this work lacks method, and that
the length of many articles is out of proportion to the
value of the men to whom they are devoted. This
criticism, however true it may be, does not impair the
fenuine qualities and importance of the whole work.
)ven now, these " M^moires" contain a great amount
of information that could hardly be obtained else-
where. Moreover, they refer to sources which, but
for bur author^ would be easily overlooked or ignored.
Besides this onginal composition, he translated various
books from English, among wnich should be men-
tioned: ''Le voyage de Jean Ovington k Surate et en
divers autres lieux de TAsie et de 1 Af rique, avec This-
toire de la revolution arrive dans le royaume de Grol-
conde" (Paris, 1725); "La Ck>nver8ion de TAngle-
terre au Christianisme compart avec sa pr^tendue
reformation" (Paris, 1729).
D'ARTIO^^r. Mhnoirea iPhisUrire el de lUUnUure, I (Paris, 1749) ;
GouJBT, Eloge de J. P. Nieiron in vol. XL of Mimoiret (Paris, 1840) ;
CHAUFFBPii, Diet, hietorique et critique (AmBterdam, 1850-56).
Louis N. Delamarre.
Nicataa (Niceta), Bishop of Remesiana (Roma-
tiana) in what is now Servia, b. about 335; d. about
414. Recent investigations have resulted in a more
definite knowledge olthe person of this ecclesiastical
writer. Gennadius of Marseilles, in his catalogue of
writers ("De viris iUustribus", xxii) mentions a
'^Niceas Romatianse civitatis episcopus" to whom
he ascribes two works: one, in six books, for cate-
chumens, and a little book on a virgin who nad fallen.
Outside of this reference no writer and bishop of the
name of Niceas is known. This Niceas^ therefore,
is, without doubt, the same as Nicetas, " Bishop of the
Dacians'^ the contemporary and friend of St. Pau-
linus of Nola. The identity is shown by a comparison
of Gennadius Goc. cit.) with Paulinus in his "Car-
inina" (xvii, xxvii), and, further, by the agreement
in time. In Dacia, where, according to Pauunus, his
friend Nicetas was bishop, there was a city call^
Romatiana (now Bela Palanka) on the great Roman
military road from Belgrade to Constantinople, and
this was the see of Nicetas. He is mentionea a num-
ber of times in the letters and poems of St. Paulinus
of Nola, especially in Carmen xxvii (ed. Hartel in
"Corp. Script, eccl. lat.", XXX, 262 sqq.), and in
Carmen xvii " Ad Nicetam redeuntem in Daciam " (op.
cit., 81 sqq.), written on the occasion of Nicetas's
pilgrimage to Nola, in 398. to visit the ^ave of St.
Feux. In this latter poem Paulinus descnbes how his
friend, journeying home, is greeted everywhere with
joy, because in his apostolic labours in the cold regions
of the North, he has melted the icy hearts of men by
the warmth of the Divine doctrine. He has laid the
yoke of Christ upon races who never bowed the neck
m battle. Like the Goths and Dacians, the Scythians
are tamed; he teaches them to glorify Christ and to
lead a pure, peaceable Ufe. Paulinus wishes his de-
garting friend a safe journey by land and by water,
t. Jerome, too, speaks of the apostolic labours of
Nicetas and says of him that he spread Christian
civilization among the barbarians by his sweet songs
of the Cross (Ep. Ix, P. L., XXII, 592).
This is all that is known concerning the life of
Nicetas. Particulars concerning his literary activity
are also given by Gennadius and Paulinus. The
tradition concerning his writings afterwards became
confused: his works were erroneously ascribed to
Bishop Nicetas of Aquileia (second half of the fifth
century) and to Nicetius of Trier. It was not until
the researches of Dom Morin, Bum, and others that
a larger knowledge was attained concerning the works
of Nicetas. Gennadius (loc. cit.) mentions six books
written by him in simple and clear style {simplici et
nitido 8ennone)f containing instructions for candidates
for baptism (competerUes), The first book dealt with
the conduct of the candidates; the second treated
of erroneous ideas of heathens; the third, of belief in
one Divine Majesty; the fourth, of superstitious cus-
toms at the birth of a child (calculating nativities) ; the
fifth, of confession of faith; the sixth, of the sacrifice of
the paschal lamb. The work has not been preserved
in its entirety, yet the greater part is still extant.
Four fragments are known of the first book, one frag-
ment of the second, the third probably consists of the
two treatises, usually separated, but which undoubt-
edly belong together, namely, "De ratione fidei"
and "De Spiritus sancti potentia" (P. L., LII, 847,
853). Nothing is known of the fourth book. The
fifth, however, is most probably identical with the
"Explanatio symboli habita ad competentes" (P. L.,
LII, 865-74); in the manuscripts it is sometimes
ascribed to Origen, sometimes to Nicetas of Aquileia,
but there are very strong reasons for assigning it to
the Bishop of Remesiana. Nothing is known of the
sixth book. Gennadius mentions another treatise
addressed to a fallen virpn, "Ad lapsam virginem
libellus'^ remarking that it would stimulate to refor-
mation any who had fallen. This treatise used to be
wrongly identified with the "De lapsu virginis conse-
cratffi" (P. L., XVI, 367-84), traditionaUy assigned
to St. Ambrose. Dom Morin has edited a treatise,
unknown until he published it, "Epistola ad virginem
lapsam" [Revue Benedictine, XIV (1897), 193-202],
which with far more reason may be regarded as the
work of Nicetas.
Paulinus of Nola praises his friend as a hymn-writer;
from this it is evident that Gennadius has not given a
complete list of the writings of Nicetas. It is, there-
fore, not impossible that further works, incorrectly
ascribed by tradition to others, are really his. Morin
has ^ven excellent reasons to prove that the two
treatises, "De vigiliis servorum Dei" and "De
Ssalmodis bono", which were held to be writings of
[icetius of Trier (P. L., LXVIII, 365-76), are in
reality the work of Nicetas ["Revue Biblique Inter-
nat.", VI (1897), 282-88; "Revue Benedictine",
XIV (1897), 385-97, where Morin gives for the first
time the complete text of "De psalmodis bono"].
Particularly interesting is the fresh proof produced —
again by Morin — to show that Nicetas, and not St.
Ambrose, is the author of the "Te Deum" [Revue
Benedictine, XI (1894), 49-77, 377-345]. Paulinus,
hke Jerome, speaks of him particularly as a hymn-
writer. (See Tb Deum.) According to the testi-
mony of Cassiodorus (De instit. divinarum litterarum,
xvi) the "Liber de Fide" of Nicetas was, in his time,
included in the treatise "De Fide" written by St.
Ambrose, which shows that at an early date some
were found to credit the great Bishop of Milan with
works due to the Dacian bishop. The first complete
edition of the works of Nicetas is that of Bum (see
bibliography below).
Burn, Nieeta of Remesiana^ Hie Life and Worke (Cambridge,
1005) ; Wbtman, Die Editio princepe dee Niceta von Remeaiana in
ArchivfUr laleinieche Lexikofraphie, XIV (1905), 478-507: HOm-
PKL, Nicetae Biechof von Remeaiana (Erlangen, 1895) ; Ceapul,
Qennadiw ale Literarhietoriker (Mazuter, 1898). 56-61; Turnkr,
Niceta and Ambroeiaeter in Journal of Theoloffical Studiee, VII
(1906), 203-19. 355-72: Patin, Niceta Biechof von Remeaiana ale
SehriftateUer und TheoUju. (Munich, 1909) ; Babdbnhbwbr, Patrol'
offy, tr. Shahan (St. Louis. 1907) ; Kxbn, Patrologie^ II (Padei^
bom, 1908). 134-36.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Nicataa Akominatoa. See Akominatob.
NicKmnt
53
Nlootius, Saint, Bishop of Trier, b. in the latter
part of the fifth century, exact date unknown; d. in
563 or more probably 566. Saint Nicetius was the
most important bishop of the ancient See of Trier, in
the era when, after tne disorders of the Migrations,
Prankish supremacy began in what had been Roman
Gaul. Considerable detail of the life of this vigorous
and zealous bishop is known from various sources,
from letters written either by or to him, from two
poems of Venantius Fortunatus (Poem., Lib. Ill, ix,
X, ed. Leo, in Mon. Germ. Hist.: Auct. antiq., IV
(1881), Pt. I, 63-64 sq.) and above all from the state-
ments of his pupil Aredius, later Abbot of Limoges,
which have been preserved by Gregory of Tours (De
vitis Patrum, xvii; De Gloria Confessorum, xciii-xciv).
Nicetius came from a Gallo-Roman family; his home
was apparently in Auvergne. The Nicetius mentioned
by Sidonius Apollinaris (Epist. VIII, vi) mav have
been a relative. From his youth he devoted himself
to religious life and entered a monasteiy, where he d&-
veloi>^ so rapidly in the exercise of Christian virtue
and in sacred learning that he was made abbot. It
was while abbot that King Theodoric I (511-34)
learned to know and esteem him, Nicetius often re-
monstrating with him on account of his wrong-doing
without, however, any loss of favour. After the death
of Bishop Aprunculus of Trier, an embassy of the
clergy and citizens of Trier came to the royal court to
elect a new bishop. They desired Saint Gailus, but the
king refused his consent. They then selected Abbot
Nicetius, whose election was confirmed by Theodoric.
About 527 Nicetius set out as the new bishop for
Trier, accompanied by an escort sent by the Mng,
and while on the journey had opportunity to make
known his firnmess in the administration of his office.
Trier had suffered terribly during the disorders of
the Migrations. One of the first cares of the new
bishop was to rebuild the cathedral church, the resto-
ration of which is mentioned by the poet Venantius
Fortunatus. Archaeological research has shown, in
the cathedral of Trier, the existence of mason-work
belonging to the Franldsh period ^hich may belong
to this reconstruction by Nicetius. A fortified castle
(caateUum) with a chapel built by him on the river
Moselle is also mentioned by the same poet (Poem.,
Lib. Ill, n. xii). The saintly bishop devoted himself
with great zeal to his pastoral duty. He preached
daily, opposed vigorously the numerous evus in the
moral Ufe both of the higher classes and of the com-
mon people, and in so doing did not spare the king and
his courtiers. Disregarding threats, he steadfastly
fulfilled his dutv. On account of his misdeeds he
excommunicated King Clotaire I (511-61), who for
some time was sole ruler of the Prankish dominions; in
return the king exiled the determined bishop (560).
The king died, however, in the following year, and
his son and successor Sigebert, the ruler of Austrasia
(561-75), allowed Nicetius to return home. Nicetius
took part in several synods of the Prankish bishops:
the synod of Clermont (535), of Orleans (549), the
second synod of Clermont (549), the synod of Toul
(550) at which he presided, and the synod of Paris
(555).
Nicetius corresponded with ecclesiastical digni-
taries of high rank in distant places. Letters are ex-
tant that were written to him by Abbot Florianus
of Romain-Moiitier (Canton of Vaud, Switzerland),
by Bishop Rufus of Octodurum (now Martigny, in
the Canton of Valais, Switzerland), and b^ Arch-
bi^op ^f appinius of Keims. The general mterests
of the Church did not escape his watchful care. He
wrote an urp^ent letter to Emperor Justinian of Con-
stantinople m regard to the emperor's position in the
controversies arising from Monophysitism. Another
letter that has been preserved is to Clodosvinda, wife
of the Lombard King Alboin, in which he exhorts this
princess to do ever^hing possible to bring her hus-
band over to the Catholic faith. In his pergonal life
the saintly bishop was very ascetic and self-mortify-
ing; he fasted freq^uently, and while the priests and
clerics who lived with him were at their evening meal
he would go, concealed by a hooded cloak, to pray in
the churches of the city. He founded a school of his
own for the training of the clergy. The best known
of his pupUs is the later Abbot of Limoges, Aredius,
who was the authority of Gregory of Tours for the
latter's biographical account of Nicetius. Nicetius
was buried in the church of St. Maximin at Trier.
His feast is celebrated at Trier on 1 October; in the
Roman Martyrology his name is placed under 5
December. The genuineness of two treatises as-
cribed to him is doubtful: '' De Vigiliis servorum Dei"
and ''De Psalmodise Bono".
NicelivM Opera in P. L. LXIII, 361 aqq.; Hontrsim, HitloHa
Trevirensis aiplotnatieat I (Augsburg, 1750), Ix, 35 aqq.; Iokm,
Prodromua hi^oria Trniren^it, I (Aiigsburg. 1757), 415 sqq.;
Mabii4IX>n, Ada Sanct. ord. S. BenedieU^ I (Paris, 166iS), 191 aqq.;
Makx. GetchichU dea Erxttifla Trier, I (Trier. 1858), 82 sq.; 11,
377 sq.; Mandkbnach, Die Schrijten dee hi. Nicetius, Bisehof van
Trier (Maini, 1850) ; Katskb, Leben und Schrifien dee hi. NieeHua
(Trier, 1873) ; Morxn in Revue b^nSdidine (1897), 385 sqq.
J. P. KiBBCH.
Nichei a recess for the reception of a statue, so de-
signed as to give it emphasis, frame it effectively^ and
afford some measure of protection. It hardly existed
prior to the twelfth centur3r, and is one of the chief
decorative characteristics of Gothic architecture. The
constant and often lavish use of sculptured images of
the saints was an essential part of the great style
that was so perfectly to express the Catholic Faith,
and that had its beginnings in Normandy as a result
of the great Cluniac reformation: and from the mo-
ment the roughly chiselled bas-relief swelled into the
round and detached figure, the unerring artistic in-
stinct of the medieval builders taught them — as it
had taught the Greeks — that fig[ure sculpture becomes
architectural only when it is incorporated with the
building of which it is a part, by means of surrounding
architectural forms that harmonize it with the fabric
itself. In Romanesque work this frame is little more
than flanking shafts supporting an arch, the statue
being treated as an accessory, and given place wher-
ever a space of flat wall appeared between ihe col-
umns and arches of the structural decoration. The
convenience, propriety and beauty of the arrangement
were immeoiately apparent, however, and thence-
forward the development of the niche as an independ-
ent architectural form was constant and rapid. Not
only did the canopied niche assimilate the statue in
the architectural entity and afford it that protection
from the weather so necessary in the north; it also, in
conjunction with the statue itself, produced one of the
richest compositions of line, light, and shade known
to art. The medieval arcnitects realised this and
seized upon it with avidity, using it almost as their
chief means for obtaining those spots and spaces of
rich decoration that gave the final touch of perfection
to their marvellous fabrics. In the thirteenth century
the wall became recessed to receive the statue, the
flanking shafts became independent supports for an
arched and gabled canopy, while a pedestal was intro-
duced, still further to tie the sculpture into the archi-
tecture. Later the section of the embrasure became
hexagonal or octagonal, the arched canopy^ was cusped.
the gable enriched witn crockets and pinnacles, ana
finally in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries the
entire feature became almost an independent composi-
tion, the canopy being developed into a thing of mar-
vellous complexity and richness^ while it was lavished
on almost every part of the building, from the doors
to the spires, and within as well as without. Protes-
tant and revolutionary iconoclasm have left outside of
France few examples of niches properly filled by their
original statues, but in such masterpieces of art as the
cathedrals of Paris, Chartres, Amiens, and Reims, one
mCHOLAB
54
mCHOLAB
may see in their highest perfection these unique mani-
festations of the subtility and refinement or the per-
fect art of Catholic civilization.
Ralph Adams Cram.
Nicholas X, Saint, Pope, b. at Rome, date im-
known; d. 13 November, 867; one of the gr^t popes
of the Middle Ages, who exerted decisive influence
upon the historical develoi)ment of the papacy and its
position among the Christian nations of Western Eu-
rope. He was of a distinguished family, being the son
of the Defensor Theodore, and received an excellent
training. Already distinguished for his piety, benevo-
lence, ability, knowledge, and eloquence, he entered,
at an early age, the service of the Church, was made
Bubdeacon by Pope Seigius II (844-47), and deacon
by Leo IV (847-55). He was employed in all impor-
tant matters during the pontificate of his predecessor,
Benedict III (855-58). After Benedict's death (7
April, 858) the Emperor Louis II, who was in the
neighbourhood of Rome, came into the city to exert
his influence upon the election. On 24 April Nicholas
was elected pope, and on the same day was conse-
crated and enthroned in St. Peter's in the presence of
the emperor. Three days after, he gave a farewell
banquet to the emperor, and afterwards^ accompanied
by the Roman nobility, visited him in his camp oef ore
the city, on which occasion the emperor came to meet
thepope and led his horse for some distance.
Christianity in Western Europe was then in a most
melancholy condition. The empire of Charlemagne
had fallen to pieces. Christian territory was threatened
both from the north and the east, and Christendom
seemed on the brink of anarchy. Christieui morsdity
was despised; many bishops were worldly and un-
worthy of their office. There was danger of a univer-
sal decUne of the higher civilization. Pope Nicholas
appeared as a conscientious representative of the Ro-
man Primacy in the Church . He was fiilled wi th a high
conception of his mission for the vindication of Christian
morauty, the defence of God's law against princes and
dignitaries, and of ecclesiastical law against powerful
bishops. Archbishop John of Ravenna oppressed the
inhabitants of the papal territory, treated his suffragan
bishops with violence, made unjust demands upon
them for money, and illegaUy imprisoned priests. He
also forged documents to support his claims against
the Roman See and maltreated the papal l^ates. As
the warnings of the pope were without result, and the
archbishop ignored a tmice-repeated summons to ap-
pear before the papal tribunal, he was excommuni-
cated. Having first visited the Emperor Louis at
Pavia, the archbishop repaired, with two imperial
delegates, to Rome, where Nicholas cited him before
the Roman synod assembled in the autumn of 860.
Upon this John fled from Rome. Going in person to
Ravenna, the pope then investigated and equitably
regulatea everything. Again appealing to the em-
peror, the archbishop was recommend^ by him to
submit to the pope, which he did at the Roman Synod
of November^ 861. Later on, however, he entered
into a pact with the excommunicated Archbishops of
Trier and Cologne, was himself again excommuni-
cated, and once more forced to make his submission to
the pope. Another conflict arose between Nicholas
and Archbishop Hincmar of Reims: this concerned the
prerogatives of the papacy. Bishop Rothad of Sois-
Bons had appealed to the pope a^inst the decision of
the S3rnod of Soissons, of 861, which had deposed him;
Hincmar opposed the appeal to the pope, but eventu-
ally had to acknowledge the right of the papacy to
take cognizance of important legal causes (caitsce ma-
jores) and pass independent judgment upon them. A
further dispute broke out between Hincmar and the
pope as to the elevation of the cleric Wulfad to the
archiepiscopal See of Bourges, but here, again, Hinc-
mar finally submitted to the decrees of the ApostoUc
See, and the Prankish synods passed corresponding
ordmances.
Nicholas showed the saxne zeal in other efforts to
maintain ecclesiastical discipline, especiadly as to the
marriage laws. Ingiltrud, wife of Count Boso, had
left her husband for a paramour; Nicholas commanded
the bishops in the dominions of Charles the Bold to
excommunicate her unless she returned to her hus-
band. As she paid no attention to the summons to
appear before the Sjmod of Milan in 860. she was put
under the ban. The pope was ^so involved in a oes-
perate struggle with Lothair II of Lorraine over the
mviolability of marriage. Lothair had abandoned
his lawful wife Theutberga to marnr Waldrada. At
the Synod of Aachen, 28 April, 862, the bishops of Lor-
raine, unmindful of their duty, aiyproved of this illicit
union. At the Sjmod of Metz, June, 863, the papal
legates, bribed by the king, assented to the Aachen de-
cifflon, and condemned the absent Theutberga. Upon
this the pope brought the matter before his own tribu-
nal. The two archbishops, Gtinther of Cologne and
Thietgaud of Trier, who had come to Rome as dele-
gates, were- summoned before the Lateran Synod of
October, 863, when the pope condemned and deposed
them as well as John of Ravenna and Hagano of Ber-
gamo. The Emperor Louis II took up the cause of
the deposed bishops, while Kins Lothair advanced
upon Rome with an army and laid siege to the city, so
tnat the pope was confined for two days in St. Peter's
without food. Yet Nicholas did not waver in his de-
termination; the emperor, after being reconciled with
the pope, withdrew from Rome and commanded the
Archbishops of Trier and Cologne to return to their
homes. Nicholas never ceased from his efforts to
bring about a reconciliation between Lothair and his
lawful wife, but without effect. Another matrimo-
nial case in which Nicholas interposed was that of
Judith, daughter of Charles the Bold, who had mar-
ried Baldwin, Count of Flanders, without her father's
consent. Prankish bishops had excommunicated
Judith, and Hincmar of Reims had taken sides against
her, but Nicholas urged leniency, in order to protect
freedom of marriage. He commanded Hincmar to
bring about a reconciliation between father and daugh-
ter, and succeeded in obtaining Charles's consent to
the marriage. In many other ecclesiasticaJ matters,
also, he issued letters and decisions, and he took active
measures against bishops who were neglectful of their
duties.
In the matter of the emperor and the patriarchs of
Constantinople Nicholas snowed himself the Divinely
appointed ruler of the Church. In violation of ec-
clesiastical law, the Patriarch Ignatius was deposed in
857 and Photius illegallv raised to the patriarchal see.
In a letter addressed (8 May, 862) to the patriarchs of
the East, Nicholas called upon them and all their
bishops to refuse recognition to Photius, and at a Ro-
man synod held in April, 863. he excommunicated
Photius. He also encouraged the missionanr activity
of the Church. He sanctioned the union of the Sees
of Bremen and Hamburg, and confirmed to St. An-
sehar, Archbishop of Bremen, and his successors the
office of papal legate to the Danes. Swedes, and Slavs.
Bulgaria having been converted oy Greek missiona-
ries, its ruler, Pnnce Boris, in August, 863, sent an em-
bassy to the pope with one hundred and six questions
on tne teaching and discipline of the Church. Nicho*>
las answered these inciuiries exhaustively in the cele-
brated ''Responsa Nicolai ad consulta Bulgarorum"
(Mansi, "Coll. Cone", XV, 401 sqq.). The letter
shows now keen was his desire to foster the principles
of an earnest Christian life in this newly-converted
people. At the same time he sent an embassy to
Prince Boris, charged to use their personal efforts to
attain the pope's object. Nevertheless, Boris finally
joined the Eastern Church.
At Rome, Nicholas rebuilt and endowed several
mCHOLAS
55
mCHOLAS
ohuichee, and constantly sought to encourage reli-
gious life. His own personal lite was guided by a spirit
of earnest Christian asceticism and profound piety.
He was very highly esteemed by the citizens of Rome,
as he was by his contemporaries generally (cf . Regino,
"Chronicon", ad an. 868, in '^Mon. Germ. Hist.:
Script.", I, 579), and after death was regarded as a
saint. A much discussed question and one that is im-
portant in judging the position taken by this pope is,
whether he made use of the forg;ed pseudo-lsido-
rian papal decretals. After exhaustive investigation,
Schrdrs lias decided that the pope was neither ac-
quainted with the pseudo-Lddorian collection in its
entire extent, nor did he make use of its individual
parts; that he had perhaps a general knowledge of the
false decretals, but did not base his view of the law
upon them, and that he owed his knowledge of them
solely to documents which came to him from the
Prankish Empire [Schrdrs, ''Papst Nikolaus I. und
Pseudo-Isidor" in "Historisches Jahrbuch", XXV
(1004), 1 sqq.; Idem, "Die pseudoisidorische 'Ex-
ceptio spolii Dei Papst Nikolaus I" in "Historisches
Jahrbuch", XXVI (1905), 275 sqq.].
Rot, St, NiehoUu I (London. 1901). in SainU Sertea; Nicolat
pp. I. BvUtola, in jAwrt, Regetta Rom. PorU., I (2nd ed.). 342
Hber dot VerhOUnia von Stoat %md Kirehe (Berlin. 1909) ; Langkn,
Oeaehiehte der rfhnisehen Kirehe^ III: Von NiMatu I hit Qregor
VII (Bonn, 1892), 1 aqq.; Hkpblb, ConeUienootehiehU, II (4th
ed.), 112 aqq.. ed. Kxrsch; 236 sqq. See also bibliography to
UXNCIIAK, ABCHBXSHOP OF RXXMS; lONATXUB OF CON8TAMTXNOPLK,
Saint; PHonns. J. p. KiRBCH.
Nieholmi n, Pope (Gerhard of Burgundt), b. at
Chevron, in what is now Savoy; elected at Siena, De-
cember. 1058 ; d. at Florence 19 or 27 July, 1061 . Like
his preaecessor, Stephen X, he was canon at Li^e. In
1046 he became Bisnop of Florence, where he restored
the canonical life among the clerfi^ of numerous
churches. As soon as the news of the death of Stephen
X at Florence reached Rome (4 April, 1058). the
Tusculan party appointed a successor in the person of
John Mincius, Bisnop of Velletri, under the name of
Benedict X. His elevation, due to violence and coi^
ruption, was contrary to the specific orders of Stephen
X that, at his death, no choice of a successor was to be
made until Hildebrand's return from Germany. Sev-
eral cardinals protested against the irregular proceed-
injES. but they were compelled to flee from Rbme.
Hilaebrand was returning from his mission when the
news of these events reached him. He interrupted his
journey at Florence, and after agreeing witti Duke
€rodf rey of Lorraine-Tuscany upon Bishop Gerhard
for elevation to the papacy, ne won over part of the
Roman population to the support of his candidate.
An embassy dispatched to the imperial court secured
the confirmation of the choice by the Empress Agnes.
At Hildebrand's invitation, the cardinals met in De-
cember, 1058, at Siena and elected Gerhard who as-
sumed the name of Nicholas II. On his way to Rome
the new pope held at Sutri a well-attended synod at
which, in tne presence of Duke Godfrey and the im-
perial chancellor, Guibert of Parma, he pronounced
deposition against Benedict X. The latter was driven
from the city in January, 1059, and the solenm corona-
^on of Nicholas took place on the twenty-fourth of
the same month. A cultured and stainless man, the
new pontiff had about him capable advisers, but to
meet the danger still threatening from Benedict X and
his armed supporters, Nicholas empowered Hildebrand
to enter into negotiations with the Normans of south-
em Italy. The papal envoy recognized Count Richard
of Aversa as Prince of Capua and received in return
Norman troope which enabled the papacy to carry on
hostilities against Benedict in the Campagna. This
campaign aid not result in the decisive overthrow
of the opposition party, but it enabled Nicholas to
undertime in the early part of 1059 a pastoral vis-
itation to Spoleto, Farfa, and Osimo. During this
journey he raised Abbot Desiderius of Monte Cas-
sino to the dignity of cardinal-priest and appointed
him l^ate to Campania, Benevento, Apulia, and
Calabna. Early in nis pontificate he had sent St.
Peter Damiani and Bishop Anselm of Lucca as his
legates to Milan, where a married and simoniacal
clergy had recently given rise to a reform-party known
as the " Pataria". A synod for the restoration of ec-
clesiastical discipline was held under the presidency of
these envoys who, in spite of a tumultuous upxising
which endangered their lives, succeeded in obtaining
from Archbishop Guido ana the Milanese clergy a
solemn repudiation of simony and concubinage.
One of the most pressing needs of the time was the
reform of papal elections. . It was right that they
should be treed from the nefarious influence of the
Roman factions and the secular control of the empe-
ror, hitherto less disastrous but always objectionable.
To tins end Nicholas II held in the Liateran at Easter,
1059 a synod attended by one hundred and thirteen
bishops and famous for its law concerning papal elec-
tions. Efforts to determine the authentic text of this
decree caused considerable controversy in the nine-
teenth century. That the discussions did not result
in a consensus of opinion on the matter need not sur-
prise^ if it be remembered that thirty years after the
pubhcation of the decree complaints were heard re-
garding the divergency in the text. We possess to-day
a papal and an imperial recension and the sense of the
law may be statea substantially as follows: (1) At the
death of the pope, the cardinal-bishops are to confer
among themselves concerning a candidate, and, after
they nave agreed upon a name, they and the other
caroinals are to proceed to the election. The remain-
der of the clergy and the laity enjoy the right of ac-
claiming their choice. (2) A member of the Roman
clergy is to be chosen, except that where a qualified
canmdate cannot be found in the Roman Church, an
ecclesiastic from another diocese may be elected. (3)
The election is to be held at Rome, except that when a
free choice is impossible there, it may take place else-
where. (4) If war or other circumstances prevent the
solemn enthronization of the new pope in St. Peter's
Chair, he shall nevertheless enjoy the exercise of full
Apostolic authority. (5) Due regard is to be had for
the right of confiimation or recognition conceded to
King Henry, and the same deference is to be shown to
his successora. who have been granted personally a like
privilege. Tnese stipulations constituted indeed a
new law, but they were also intended as an implicit ap-
probation of the procedure followed at the election of
Nicholas II. As to the imperial right of confirmation,
it became a mere personal privilege panted by the
Roman See. The same s3rnod prohibited simoniacal
ordinations, lay investiture, and assistance at the
Mass of a priest living in notorious concubinage. The
rules governing the life of canons and nuns which were
published at tne diet of Aix-la-Chapelle (817) were
abolished, because they allowed private property and
such abundant food that, as the bishops indignantly .
exclaimed, they were adapted to sailors and intemper-
ate matrons rather than to clerics and nuns. Beren-
garius of Tours, whose views opposed to the doctrine of
Christ's real presence in the Eucharist, had repeatedly
been condemned, also appeared at the Council and
was compelled to sign a formula of abjuration.
At the end of June, 1059, Nicholas proceeded to
Monte Cassino and thence to Meifi, the capital of Nor-
man Apulia, where he held an important synod and
concluded the famous alliance with the Normans
(July- August, 1059). Duke Robert Guiscard was in-
vested with the sovereignty of Apulia, Calabria, and
Sicily in case he should reconquer it from the Saracens ;
he bound himself, in return, to pay an annual tribute.
mCHOLAS
56
KICHOLAS
to hold lua lands as the pope's vassal, and to protect
the Roman See, its possessions, and the freedom of
papal elections. A smiilar agreement was concluded
with Prince Richard of Capua. After holding a synod
at Benevento Nicholas returned to Rome with a Nor-
man army which reconquered Prseneste. Tusculum,
and Numentaniun for the Holy See and forced Bene-
dict X to capitulate at Galena (autumn of 1059).
HSfdebrand. the soul of the pontificate, was now
created archdeacon. In order to secure the general
acceptance of the laws enacted at the synod of 1059,
Cardinal Stephen, in the latter part of that year, was
sent to France where he presided over the synods of
Vienne (31 January, 1060) and Tours (17 February.
1060) . The decree which mtroduced a new method of
papal election had caused great dissatisfaction in Ger-
many, because it reduced the imperial right of confirma-
tion to the precarious condition of a personal privilege
granted at will: but, assured of Norman protection,
Nicholas couldf fearlessly renew the decree at the
Lateran 83rnod held in 1060. . After this council Car-
dinal Stephen, who had accomplished his mission to
France, appeared as papal legate in Germany. For
five days ne vainly solicited an audience at court and
then returned to Rome. His fruitless mission was
followed by a German synod which annulled all the
ordinances of Nicholas II and pronounced his deposi-
tion. The pope's answer was a repetition of the de-
cree concerning elections at the synod of 1061, at
which the condemnation of simony and concubinage
amonff the clergy was likewise renewed. He lies
buriea in the church of St. Reparata at Florence of
which city he had remained bishop even after his ele-
vation to the papal throne. His pontificate, though
of short duration, was marked by events fraught with
momentous and far-reaching consequences.
JafiiI, Regeala Pontif. Roman,,! (2Dd ed.. LeipBUE, 1885), 557-
66: DipUmata, BpitUla, Decreta in P. L., CXLIII, 1301-66;
Ci^VEL, Le Pape NicoUu II (Lyons, 1906) ; Delabc, Le Ponii-
4ctUde Nicolas II in Ret, dea Quest. Hitt., XL (1886). 341-402;
^0RM, Die Papeiwafd (Coloime, 1902), 24-8; Hkfeud, Concilief^
geuJiichte, IV (2nd ed., Freiburg. 1879). 798-850; Mann, LtM«
€tf the Popes, VI (St. Lowb. 1910), 226-60; Funk, tr. Cappa-
DXLTA. Church History, I (St. Louis, 1910). 263-4. 274. For bibli-
ooraphy of the election decree, see HSBOHNBOraBBrKiBacB,
KinimoeechiehU, II (Freiburg, 1904), 342^.
N. A. Weber.
NichoUl m, Pope (Giovanni Gaetani Obbini)}
b. at Rome, c. 1216; elected at Viterbo, 25 November,
1277: d. at Soriano, near Viterbo, 22 August, 1280.
His lather, Matteo Rosso, was of the illustrious Ro-
man fanuly of the Orsini, while his mother. Pema
Gaetana, belonged to the noble house
of the Gaetani. As senator Matteo
Rosso had defended Rome against
Frederick II and saved it to the
papacy. He was a friend of St.
Francis of Assisi and belonged to his
third order, facts not without influ-
ence on the son, for both as cardinal
and pope the latter was ever kindly
disposc^d towards the Franciscans.
We have no knowledge of his edu-
cation and early life. Innocent IV,
gratef\il for the services rendered to the Holy See by his
father, created the young Orsini (28 May, 1244) car-
dinal-deacon with the title of St. Nicholas in Carcere
Tulliano, and gave him benefices at York. Laon, and
Soissons. Probably at an earlier date the adminis-
tration of the Roman churches of San Lorenzo in
Damaso and of San Crisogono had been entrusted to
him. One of five cardinals, he accompanied Innocent
IV in his flight from Civile Vecchia to Genoa and
thence to Lyons (29 June, 1244). In 1252 he was dis-
patched on an unsuccessful mission of peace to the
warring Guelphs and Ghibellines of Florence. In 1258
Louis IX paid an eloquent tribute to his independence
and impartiality by suggesting his selection as equally
acceptable to England and to France for the solemn
Abms op
Nicholas III
ratification of the peace concluded between the two
countries. His integrity was likewise above reproach,
for he never accepted gifts for his services. So great
was his influence in the Sacred College that the elec-
tion of Urban IV (1261) was mainly due to his inter-
vention. Urban named him general inquisitor (1262)
and protector of the Franciscans (1263). Under
Clement IV (1265-68) he was a member of the delepa-
tion of four cardinals who invested Charles of Anjou
with the Kingdom of Naples (28 June, 1265). Later
he played a prominent part at the elections of Gr^ory
X^ho received the' tiara at his hands, and of John
XaI, whose counsellor he became and who named him
archpriest of St. Peter's. After a vacancy of six
months he succeeded John as Nicholas III.
True to his origin he endeavoured to free Rome
from all forei^ influence. His policy aimed not only
at the exclusion of the evei^troublesome imperial au-
thority, but also sought to check the growing influence
of Charles of Anjou in central Italy. At ms request
Rudolf of Habsburgrenounced (1278) all ri^ts to the
possession of the Komagna, a renunciation subse-
quently approved by the imperial princes. Nicholas
took possession of the province through his nephew,
Latino, whom he had shortly before (12 March, 1278)
raised to the cardinalate. He created Berthold, an-
other nephew. Count of the Roma^na, and on other
occasions remembered his relatives m the distribution
of honourable and lucrative places. He compelled
Charles of Anjou in 1278 to resign the regency of Tus-
cany and the dignity of Roman Senator. To insure
the freedom of papal elections, he ordained in a con-
stitution of 18 July, 1278, that thenceforward the
senatoriial power and all municipal ofiices were to be
reserved to Roman citizens to the exclusion of emperor,
kingj or other potentate.' In furtherance of more har-
momous relations with the Byzantine court, the pope
also aimed at restricting the power of the King of Naples
in the East. To his efforts was due the agreement
concluded in 1280 between Rudolf of Habsburg and
Charles of Anjou, by which the latter accepted Pro-
vence and Forcalquier as imperiial fiefs and secured the
betrothal of his grandson to Clementia, one of Ru-
dolfs daughters. The much-discussed plan of a new
division of the empire into four parts is not sufiBciently
attested to be attributed with certainty to Nicholas.
In this partition Germany, as hereditary monarchy,
was to fall to Rudolf, the Kingdom of Aries was to
devolve on lus son-in-law, Charles Martel of Anjou,
while the Kingdoms of Lombardy and Tuscany were
to be founded m Italy and bestowed on relatives of the
pope. Nicholas's efforts for the promotion of peace
Detween France and Castile remained fruitless. Un-
able to carry out his desire of personally appearing in
Hungary, where internal dissensions and the devasta-
tions of the Cumani endangered the very existence of
Christianity, he named, in the fall of 1278, Bishop
Philip of Fermo his legate to that country. A synod,
held at Buda in 1279 under the presidency of the papal
envoy, could not complete its deliberations owing to
the violent interference of the people. King Ladis-
laus IV, instigator of the trouble, was threatened in a
gapal letter with spiritual and temporal penalties if
e failed to reform his ways. The king temporarily
heeded this solemn admonition, and at a later date
suppressed the raids of the Cumani. The appoint-
ments of worthy incumbents to the Archbishoprics of
Gran and KalocssrBacs made under this pontificate
further helped to strengthen the cause of Christianity.
The task of Nicholas III in his dealings with the
Eastern Church was the practical realisation of the
union accepted by the Greeks at the Second Council of
Lyons (1274), for political reasons rather than out of
dogmatic persuasion. The instructions to the legates
whom he sent to Constantinople contained, among
other conditions, the renewal by the emperor of the
oath sworn to by his representatives at Lyons. The
muDtenance of the Greek Rite wu granted only in bo
far as papal authority did not consider it opposed t«
unity of faith; those of the clergy opposed to reunion
were required to obttun absolution of the incurred
censures from the Roman envoj^. These were more
riKorouB conditions than had been imposed by his pre-
decessors, but the failure of the negotiations for re-
union can hardly be attributed to them, for the Greek
nation was strongly opposed to eubmission to Rome
and the emperor pursued temporal advantages under
cover of dedre for ecclesisstical harmony. At the
request of Absf^a, Khan of the Tatars, the pope sent
him in 1278 five Franciscan missionarieB who were to
preach the Gospel first in Pcnua and then in China.
They encountered considerable obstacles in the former
country and it was not until the pontificate of Nicho-
las IV that their preachinK produced appreci^le re-
aults. The realization of the pope's desire for the
organization of a Crusade was frustrated by the dis-
tracted state of European poUtics. On 14 August,
1279, he issued the constitubon "Exiit qui seminat",
which is still fundamental for the interpretation of the
lUile of St. Francis and in which he approved the
stricter observance of poverty (see Francis, Rule of
Saint). While the Vatican liad been occupied from
Ume to time by some of his predecessors, Nicholas III
eetsblished there the papal residence, remodelled and
enlarged the palace, and secured in its neighbourhood
landed property, subsequently traneformed into the
Vatican gardens. He lies buried in the Chapel of St.
Nicholas, built by him in St. Peter's. He was an ec-
clesiastical ly-minded pontiff of great diplomatic ^ility
and, if we except his acta of nepotism, of unblemished
character.
-iT. La Swulru di Nitotat III (Ptiia. Ig9fr-1904); Por^
- ■■ laPonti/.Kc - "
in Cinlld (_ _. __
DnUEI. Awl Kitolata III (MDl
Kardinat Joliann Oatlan Orn'ni (1244-77) (Berlin, 190SJ ; Mis
Is TJk A'nc Sdtaff-Umiit Encydopidia, i. v.
N. A. Wbbeb.
M IV, Pope (Girolauq MAsa), b. at Ascoli
b the March of Ancona; d.inRome,4 April,]292. He
was of humble extraction, and at an early age entered
the Franciscan Order. In 1272 he was sent sa a dele-
gate to Constantinople to invite the participation of
the Greeks in the Second Council
of Lyons. Two years later he . _ .
ceeded St. Bonaventure in the gen-
eralship of his order. While he was
on a mission to France to promote
the restoration of peace between
that country and Castile, he
7 NICHOLU
efforts of Rudolf of Habsbui^E to receive the imperial
crown at the hands of the new pope were not success-
ful. His fMlure was partly due io the estrai^ement
consequent upon the attitude assumed by the pope
in the question of the Sicilian succession. As feudal
kingdom , N ich ola«
annulled the
treaty, concluded
in 1288 through
the mediation of
Edward I of Eng-
land, which con-
firmed James of
Aragon in the
possession of the
island. He lent
his support to the
rival claims of the
House of Anjou
Charles II King of
Sicily and Naples
at Rieti, 29 May,
1289, after the lat-
ter had expressly
acknowledged the
suzerainty of the
Apostolic See and
promised not to accept any municipal dignity ii
States of the Church. The action of the pope did not
end the armed struggle for the possession of Sicily nor
did it secure the kingdom permanently to the House
of Anjou. Rudolf of Habsburg also failed to obtain
from the pope the repeal of the authorization, granted
the French king, to levy tithes in certain German dis-
tricts for the proaecutjon of the war agunst the Houae
created canUnal-priest with the title
of Santa Pudenziana (1278) and in
1281 Martin IV appointed him Bish-
op of Palestrina. After the death
W1CHOI.A.IY of HonoriuB IV (3 April, 1287),
the conclave held at Rome was for a time hopelessly
divided in its selection of a successor. When fever
had carried off six of the electors, the otheis, with the
sole exception of Girolamo, left Rome. It was not
until the following year that they reassembled and on
16 February, 1288, unanimously elected him to the
papacy. Ooedlence and a second election however
(22 February) were alone capable of overeoming
bis reluctance to accept the supreme pontificals. He
was the first Franciscan pope, and in loving remem-
brance of Nicholas III he assumed the name of Nicho-
las IV.
The rei^ of the new pope was not characterized by
Bufiicient mdependence. The undue influence exer- Hohvhiht or Nicbolu IV
cised at Rome by the Colonna is especially noteworthy ^- Muy Maior'i, Roms
and was so apparent even during his lifetime that of Aragon. Whenhesppointedhisson Albert to sue--
□ wits represented him encased in a column — ceedLadislausIVof Hungary (31 August, 1290), Nich-
In 1291 the fal) of Ptolemois put an end to Christian
dominion in the E^t. Previous to this tra^c event,
Nicholas had in vain endeavoured to organize a cru-
sade. He now called upon all the GhriHtian princes
to take up arms against the Mussulman and instigated
the holding of councils to devise the means of sending
assistance to the Holy Land. These synods were to
discuss likewise the advisability of the union of the
Knights Templars and Knights of St. John, as the
dissensions among them had partly caused the loss of
Ptolemaia. The pope himself initiat«d the prepara'
tions for the crusade and fitted out twenty ships for
the war. His appeals and bis example remained un-
heeded, however, aod nothing of permanent value was
accomplished.
Nicholas IV sent missionaries, among them the
celebrated John of Montecorvino (q, v.), to the Bul-
garians, Ethiopians, TataiB, sjid Chinese. By his
constitution ol 18 July, 1289, the cardinals were
granted one half of Che revenues of (he Aixwtoiic See
and a share in the financial aJministr:ition. In 1290
he renewed the condenmation of the sect known as the
Apostolici (q. v.). Nicholas was piou3 and learned: he
contributed to the artistic beauty of Rome, building
particularly a palace beside Santa Maria Maggiore,
the church in which he was buried and where sixtus
V erected an imposing monument to his memory.
Lanoloib, Ut Rruiilrti di: Niaiiat IV IPara. 1888-031; PoTP-
BABT. Renata pmificum Affmansrum, II (Berlin, 1STS|, 1826-
1915; Raltehbrunneb, AtlintUUtt rur CacA. da QtuMlAni
Riidut unirr SudolJ' I und Albrrehl I (ViiamA. ISSS); Rllb
HOHT. Gacli. <ter Slodi Bom. II IBcrliu. 1867). SI 1-14: Scmrr,
Sivdien nir Oitck. FaptI NiiiAaju. IV (Berlin, 1897): MauI,
Niccaii TV (SinixscliH, 1905); Scimrp. hitttrv of l\e (7AruluM
Church. V, pt. iTNew York, 1907>, 207, 287, 410.
N. A. Wbbes.
Hlcholsi V, Pope (Toumaso Parentttcelli), a
name never to be mentioned without reverence by every
lover of letters, b. at Sarzana in Liguria, 15 November,
1397: d. in Rome, 24-5 March, 1455. While still a
youtn he lost his father, a poor but skilful physician,
and was thereby prevented from
impleting his stuaiss at Bologna,
e became tutor in the families of
the Stroisi and Albizai at Florence,
where he made the acquaintance of
the leading Humanist scholars of
the day. In 1419 he returned to
Bologna, and three years later took
his decree as master of theology.
The samtly bishop of Bologna, Nic-
colAAlbergati, now took him into his
f service. For more than twenty years
Parentucellt was the bishop's factotum, and m that
capacity was enabled to indulge iiis passion for build-
m^ ana that of collecting bool^. Unlike many biblio-
philes he was as well acquainted with the matter con-
tained within his volumes as with their bindings
and value. Some of them ore still preserved, and
contain many marginal notes in his beautiful writing.
His knowleoge was of the encyclopedic character
not unusual at a time when the learned undertook
to ai^e de omni re geUnli. His mind, however,
was receptive rather than productive. Neverthe-
less, he could make good use of what he had studied,
as was shown at the Council of Florence where his
familiarity with Patristic and Scholastic theology
gave him a prominent place in the discussions
with the Greek bishops. He accompanied Alber-
gati in various legatine missions, notably lo France.
and was always watchful for rare and beautiful
books. Eugene IV wished to attach such a bril-
liant scholar to his own person; but Parentucelli re-
mained faithful to his patron. On the death of the
latter he was appointed to succeed liim in the See of
Bologna, but was unable to take possession oning
to the troubled state of the city. This led to his be-
ing entrusted by Pope Eugene with important diplo-
a cardinal's hat (Dec., 1446). Early next year (23
Feb.) Eugene died, and Parentucelli was elected in bis
place, taking as his name Nicholas in memory of his
obligations to Niccol6 Albergati (6 March, 1447).
As soon as the new pontiff was firmly seated on hia
throne, it was felt that a new spirit had come into the
papacy. Now that there was no longer any danger
of a fresh outbreak of schism and the Council of Con-'
stance had lost all influence, Nicholas could devote
himself to the accomplishment of objects which were
the fum of bis life and bad been the means of rising
him to his present exalted position. He dengned to
make Rome the site of splendid monuments, the home
of Uterature and art, the bulwark of the papac}', and
the worthy capital of the Christian worla. His first
care was to strengthen the fortifications, and restore
the churches in which the stations were held. Next
he took in hand the cleansing and pavine of the
streets. Rome, once famous for the number and
msKnificence of its aqueducts, had become almost en-
tirely dependent for its water supply on the Tiber and
on welb and cisterns. The "Aqua Virgo", originally
constructed bv AKrippa, was restored by Nicholas,
and is to this aav the most prized by the Romans, un-
der the nameol "AcquaTrevi". But the works on
which he esfjeciallj' set his heart were the rebuilding
of the Leonine City, the Vatican, and the Basilica
of St. Peter. On tms spot, as in a centre, the glories
of the papacy were to be focused. We cannot here
enter into a description of the noble designs which he
entert^ned (see Pastor, "History of the Popes", II,
173 sqq., Eng. tr.). The basilica, the palace, and the
fortress of the popes are not now what he would have
made them; but their actual splendours are due in no
small measure to the lofty aspirations of Nicholas V.
He has been severely censured for pulling down a por-
tion of the old St. Peter's and planning the destruction
of the remainder. He defended hia action on the
ground that the buildings were on the verge of ruin
(Milnti, "Les ArtsllaCourdesPapes", p. 118); but
the almost equally ancient Basilica of San Paolo
tuori le Mora was preserved by judicious restorations
until it was destroj'ed by fire in 1823. The pontiff's
veneration for antiquity may have yielded to his de-
sire to construct an edifice more in harmony with the
classical taste of the Renaissance school, of which
he himself wss so ardent an adherent. Nothing but
praise, however, can be given to him for his work in
the Vatican Palace. Indeed it was he who first made
it the worthy residence of the popes. Some of hia
constructions still remain, notably the left side of the
court of St. Oamasus and the chapel of Saa Lorenio,
decorated with Fta AngeUco'- '
mOHOLAS 59 NICHOLAS
Though a patron of art in all its branchea, it was of money found their way into the treasury of the
literature that obtained his hic^est favours. His life- Church, thus enablinjg the pontiff to carry out his de-
long love of books and his deught in the compan^r of signs for the promotion of art and leammg» and the
scholajs could now be gratified to the full. His im- support of the poor. As the Jubilee was the proof
mediate predecessors had held the Humanists in sus- that Rome was me centre towards which all Ghnsten-
picion; Nicholas welcomed them to the Vatican as dom was drawn, so at its conclusion Nicholas sent
friends. Clurried away by his enthusiasm for the New forth his legates into the different countries to assert
Learning, he overlooked any irregularities in their his authority and to bring about the reform of abuses,
morals or opinions. He accepted the dedication of a Cardinal D^touteville was sent to France; Cardinal
work b^ Pogfldo, in which Eugene was assailed as a Nicholas of Cusa, one of the most devout and learned
hypocnte; Valla, the Voltaire of the Renaissance, was men of his day, was sent to North Germany and £ng-
inade an Apostolic notary. In spite of the demands land; and the heroic Franciscan, St. John Capistran,
on his resources for buildmg purposes, he was always to South Germany. They held provincial and other
generous to deserving scholars. If any of them mod- synods and assemblies of the regular clergy, in which
estly declined his bounty, he would say: ''Do not wholesome decrees were' made. Nicholas of Cusa
refuse; you will not always have a Nicholas among and St. John preached the word in season and out
you." He set up a vast establishment in the Vatican of season, thereby producing wonderful conversions
for translating the Greek classics, so that all might be- among both clergy and laity. If they did not succeed
come familiar with at least the matter of these masteiv in destroying the germs of the Protestant revolt, they
pieces. "No department of literature owes so much certainly postponed for a while the evil and nar-
to him as history. By him were introduced to the rowed the sphere of its influence. It should be noted
knowledge of western Europe two great and unrivalled that Cusa never reached England, and that D'Es-
models of historical composition^ the work of Hero- touteville initiated theprocess for the rehabilitation
dotus and the work of Thucydides. By him, too, of Bl. Joan of Arc. Tne restored authority of the
our ancestors were first made acquainted with the Holy See was further manifested by the coronation of
graceful and ludd simplicity of Xenophon and with Frederick III as Sovereign of the Holy Roman Empire
the manly good sense of Polybius (Macaulay, — the first of the House of Habsburg raised to that
Speech at Glasgow University). The crowning ^ory dignity, and the last of the emperors crowned in
of his pontificate was the foundation of the Vatican Rome (1452).
Library. No lay sovereigns had such opportunities of Meantime the pontiff's own subjects caused him
oollectmg books as the popes. Nicholases agents ran- great anxiety. Stefano Porcaro, an able scholar and
sacked t£e monasteries and palaces of every country politician, who had enjoyed the favour of Martin V
in Europe. Precious manuscripts, which would have and Eugene IV, made several attempts to set up a re-
been eaten by the moths or would have found their public in Rome. Twice he was pardoned and pen*
way to the furnace, were rescued from their ignorant sioned by the generous Nicholas, who would not sacri-
owners and sumptuously housed in the Vatican. In fice such an ornament of the New Learning. At last
this way he accumulated five thousand volumes at a he was seized on the eve of a third plot, and con-
oost of more thfltn forty thousand scudi, "It was his demned to death (Jan., 1453). A deep ^oom now
greatest joy to walk about his library arranging the settled down on the pontiff. His magnificent designs
books and glancing through their pages, admiring the for the glory of Rome and his mild government of nis
handsome bindings, and taking pleasure in contem- subjects had not been able to quell the spirit of re-
plating his own arms stamps on those that had beUion. He began to collect troops and never stirred
been aedicated to him, and dwelling in thought on the abroad without a strong guard. His health, too,
gratitude that future generations of scholars would began to suffer seriously, though he was by no means
entertain towards their benefactor. Thus he is to be an old man. And before the conspiracy was thor-
seendepictedinoneof the halls of the Vatican library, ou^hly stamped out a fresh blow struck him from
employed in settling his books" (Voigt, quoted by which he never recovered. We have seen what a
Pastor, II, 213). prominent part Parentucelli had taken in the Council
^ His devotion to art and literature did not prevent of Florence. The submission of the Greek bishops
him from the performance of his duties as Head of the had not been sincere. On their return to Constan-
Churoh. By the Concordat of Vienna (1448) he se- tinople most of them openly rejected the decrees of
cured the recognition of the papal rights concerning the council and declared for the continuance of the
bishoprics and oenefices. He also brought about the schism. Eugene IV vainly endeavoured to stir up
submission of the last of the antipopes, Felix V, and the Western nations against the ever-advancing
the dissolution of the S3rnod of Basle (1449). In ac- Turks. Some help was given by the Republics of
oordanoe with his general principle of impressing the Venice and Genoa; but Hungary and Poland, more
popular mind by outward and visible signs, he pro- nearly menaced, supplied the bulk of the forces. A
claimed a Jubilee which was the fitting symbol of the victory at Nish (1443) had been followed by two ter-
oessation of the schismfand the restoration of the au- rible defeats (Varna, 1444, and Kosovo, 1449). The
thority of the popes (1450). Vast multitudes flocked whole of the Balkan peninsula, except Constantinople,
to Rome in the nrst part of the year; but when the hot was now at the mercy of the infidels. The emperor,
weather began, the plague which had been ravaging Constantine XII, sent messages to Rome imploring
the countries north of the Alps wrought fearful havoc the pope to summon the Christian peoples to his aid.
among the pilgrims. Nicholas was seized with a Nicholas sternly reminded him of tne promises made
panic; he hurri^ away from the doomed city and fled at Florence, and insisted that the terms of the union
from castle to castle in the hope of escaping infection, should be observed. Nevertheless the fear that the
As soon as the pestilence abated he returned to Rome. Turks would attack Italy, if they succeeded in captur*
and received tne visits of many German princes ana ing the bulwark of the east, induced the pontiff to take
prelates who had long been upholders of the decrees of some action — especiidly as the emperor professed his
Constance and Basle. But another terrible calamity readiness to accept the decrees of the council. In
marred the general rejoicing. More than two hun- May, 1452, Cardinal Isidore, an enthusiastic Greek
dred pilflprinos lost their lives in a crush which occurred patriot, was sent as legate to Constantinople. A sol-
OQ the Dridge of Sant' Angelo a few days before emn function in honour of the union was celebrated
Christmas. Nicholas erected two chapels at the en- on 12 Dec., 1452, with prayers for the pope and for
trance of the bridge where Mass was to be said daily the patriarch, Gregorius. But the clergy and the
for the repose of the souls of the victims. populace cursed the Uniates and boasted that they
On this occaaon, as in previous Jubilees, vast sums would rather submit to the turban of the Turk than
NICHOLAS
60
MXCROLAS
to the tiara of the Roman Pontiff. After many ob-
stacles and delays a force of ten papal galleys and a
number of vessels furnished by Naples, Genoa, and
Venice set sail for the East, but before they reached
their destination the imperial city had fallen and the
Emperor Constantine was no more (29 May, 1453).
Whatever may have been the dilatoriness of Nicholas
up to this point — and it must be acknowledged that
he had good reason for not helping the Greeks — ^he
now lost no time. He addressed a Bull of Crusade
to the whole of Christendom. Every sort of induce-
ment, spiritual and temporal, was held out to those
who shoiild take part in the holy war. Princes were
exhorted to sink their differences and to unite against
the common foe. But the days of chivalry were gone :
most of the nations took no notice of the appeal : some
of them, such as Genoa and Venice, even solicited
the friendship of the infidels.
The gloom which had settled upon Nicholas after
Porcara s cons{)iracy grew deeper as he realized that
his warning voice had been unheeded. Gout, fever,
and other maladies warned him that his end was at
hand. Summoning the cardinals around him. he de-
livered to them the famous discourse in which he
set before them the objects for which he had laboured,
and enumerated with pardonable pride the noble
works which he had accomplished (Pastor, II, 311).
He died on the night between 24 and 25 of March,
1455, and was laid in St. Peter's by the side of Eusene
IV. His splendid tomb was taken down b}r Paul V,
and removed to the crypt, where some portions of it
may still be seen. His epitaph, the last By which any
pope was conmiemorated, was written by Mneas
Sylvius, afterwards Pius II.
Nicholas was small in stature and weakly in consti-
tution. His features were clear-cut; his complexion
pale; his eyes dark and piercing. In disposition he
was lively and impetuous. A scholar rather than a
man of action, he underrated difficulties, and was im-
patient when he was not instantly understood and
obeyed. At the same time he was obliging and cheer-
ful, and readily granted audience to his subjects.
He was a man of sincere piety, simple and temper-
ate in his habits. He was entirely free from the
bane of nepotism, and exercised great care in the
choice of cardinals. We may truly say that the lofty
aims, the scholarly and artistic tastes, and the noble
generosity of Nicholas form one of the bri^^test pages
m the history of the popes.
Platxna, LivM of the Popea (En^ liah translation, London) ; Vb»-
PABiANO DA BiBTicci, VtU dt ttomtnft iUu^H del aeeolo X V (Rome,
1839): SrORZA, Ricerche n* Niccold V (Lucca, 1884); MOnts,
Lm Arta d la eour de» papes pendant le xi^ et U xvi* eiicle
(Paris. 1878-9): PAaroR, History of the Popea, II, 1-314, very
complete and well documented (Ens. tr., London, 1891); Grb-
aoROviUB, Oeeeh. der Stadt Rom (Stuttgart, 1894) ; Rbum ont,
Oeach. der Stadt Rom, III (BerUn, 1867-70); Crxiqhton, Hietory
of the Papacy, III (London, 1897) ; Guiraud, Uigliae romaine et
Ua originea de la renaiaaanee (Paris, 1904); Miliian, Hiatory of
Latin ChriatianUy, VIII (London. 1867).
T. B. SCANNELL.
Nicholas JuBtinianl, Blessed, date of birth un-
known, became monk in the Benedictine monastery
of San Niccol6 del Lido at Venice in 1153. When, in
a military expedition of the Venetians in 1172, sJl the
other members of the family of the Justiniani per-
ished in the iGgean Sea near the Island of Chios, the
Republic of Venice mourned over this disaster to so
noble a family as over a public calamity. In order
that the entire family mieht not die out, the Venetian
Government sent Baron Morosin and Toma Falier as
delegates to Alexander III, with the request to dis-
pense Nicholas from his monastic vows. The dis-
pensation was granted, and Nicholas married Anna,
the daughter of Doge Michieli, becoming through her
the parent of five new lines of his family. Shortly
after 1 179 he returned to the monasteiv of San Niccold
del Lido, having previously founded[ a convent for
women on the Isbmd of Amano, where his wife took
the vdl. Both he and his wife died in the odour of
sanctity and were venerated by the people, though
neither was ever formally beatified.
Qrnnarx, Notiaie apetlanti al B. Niecolo Giuatiniani, monaoo di
8. Nicdo dd Lido (Padua, 1794; Venice. 1845); GiumnoAMO,
Bpiatola ad Polyoarpum, vtrum ctariaaimum in Q^a B. Nitholai
JvUiniani Veneti monachatua a fabulia vaniaqtu commeniia aaaeri"
tut (Trent, 1746); Muratori, Rerum Ilaliearum acriplorea, XII,
293 and XXII, 503 sq.
Michael Ott.
Nicholas of Clomangos. See Clemanoes,
Mathieu-Nicolas Poillevillain de.
Nicholas of Cusa, German cardinal, philosopher,
and administrator, b. at Cues on the Moselle, in
the Archdiocese ot Trier, 1400 or 1401 ; d. at Todi,
in Umbria, 11 August. 1464. His father, Johann
Cryfts (Krebs), a wealthy boatman (natUaf not a
"poor fisherman '')j died in 1450 or 1451, and his
mother, Catharina Roemers. in 1427. The legend
that Nicholas fled from the ill-treatment of his father
to Count Ulrich of Manderscheid is doubtfully re-
ported by Hartzheim (Vita N. de Cusa, Trier, 1730),
and has never been proved. Of his early educsr
tion in a school of Deventer nothing is known; but
in 1416 he was matriculated in the University of
Heidelberg, by Rector Nicholas of Bettenberg, as
"Nicolaus Cancer de Coesze, cler[icus] Trever[ensis]
diocfesLs]". A year later, 1417, he left for Padua,
where he graduated, in 1423, as doctor in canon law
(decretarum doctor) under the celebrated Giuliano
Cesarini. It is said that, in later years, he was hon-
oured with the doctorate in civil law by the Univer-
sity of Bologna. At Padua he became the friend of
Paolo ToscaneUL afterwards a celebrated physician
and scientist. He studied Latin, Greek, Hebrew, and,
in later years, Arabic, though, as his friend Johannes
Andn»Be, Bishop of Aleria. testifies, and as appears f roih
the style of his writings, ne was not a lover of rhetoric
and poetry. That the loss of a lawsuit at Mainz
should have decided his choice of the clerical state,
is not supported by his previous career. Aided b^
the Archbishop of Trier, he matriculated in the Uni-
versity of Cologne, for divinity, under the rectorship
of Petrus von Weiler, in 1425. His identity with the
''Nicolaus Trevirensis", who is mentioned as secre-
tary to Cardinal Orsim, and papal legate for Germany
in 1426, is not certain. After 1428, benefices at
Coblenz, Oberwesel. MUnstermaifeld, Dypurgh, St.
Wendel, and Li^ge tell to his lot, successively or si-
multaneously.
His public career began in 1431, at the Council of
Basle, which opened under the presidency of his for-
mer teacher. Giuliano Cesarini. The cause of Count
Ulrich of Manderscheid, which he defended, was lost
and the transactions with the Bohemians, in which he
represented the German nation, proved fruitless. His
main efforts at the council were for the reform of the
calendar and for the unity, political and religious, of
all Christendom. In 1437 the orthodox minority sent
him to Eugene IV, whom he stfongly supported. The
pope entrusted him with a mission to Constantinople,
where, in the course of two months, besides discover-
ing Greek manuscripts of St. Basil and St. John Dam-
ascene, he gained over for the Council of Florence,
the emperor, the patriarch, and twenty-eight arch-
bishops. After reporting tne result of his mission
to the pope at Ferrara, in 1438, he was createdpapal
legate to support the cause of Eugene IV. He did
so before the Diets of Mainz (1441), Frankfort (1442),
Nuremberg (1444), again of Frankfort (1446), and
even at the court of Charles VII of France, with such
force that iEneas Sylvius called him the Herc\iles of
the Eugenians. As a rewfurd Eugene IV nominated
him cardinal; but Nicholas declined the dignity. It
needed a command of the next pope, Nicholas V, to
bring him to Rome for the acceptance of this honour.
In 1449 he was proclaimed caroinal-priest of the title
of St. Peter ad Vincula.
mcHous
61
HICHOLU
His new diciity was fraught with labours and cardinal's own foundation. By mutual Bcreement
croBses. The Dioceae of Biixen, the see of which was with his eister Clare and his brother John, his entire
vacant, needed a reformer. The Cardinal of Cusa inheritance was made the basis of the foundation, and
was appointed (1430), but, owing to the opposition by the cardinal's laflt will his altar service, manuscript
of the imapt«r and of Sigmund, Duke of Austria and librarv, and scientific instruments were beoueathed to
Count of the Tyrol, coiud not take possession of the it. The extensive buildings with chapel, cloister, and
see until two years later. In the meantime the cardi- refectory, which were erected in 1461-58, stand t*i this
oal was sent by Nicholas V, as papal legate, to da^, and serve their original purpose of a home for
Northern Germany and the Netherlaode. He was to thirty-three old men, in honour of the thirty-three
preach the Jut^lee indulgence and to promote the years of Christ's earthly life. Another foundation of
crusade against the Turks; to visit, reform, and cor- the cardinal was a residence at Deventer, called .the
rect parishes, monasteries, hospitals; to endeavour to Bursa Cusana, where twenty poor clerical students
reunite the HusBites witn the Church; to end the were to be supported. Among bequests, a sum of 260
dissensions between the Duke of Cleve and the ducats was left to S. Maria dell' Anima in Rome, for
Archbishop of Cologne; and to treat with the Duke an infirmary. In the archives of this institution is
of Burgundy with a view to peace between England found the ori^al document of the cardinal's last will,
and France. He crossed the Breimer in January, The writings of Cardinal Nicholas may be classified
1451, held a provincial synod at Saliburg, visited under four heads: (1) juridical writings: "De concor-
Vienna, Munich, Ratisbon, and Nuremberg, held a dantia catholica" and "De auctoritate pnesidendi in
diocesan synod at Bamberg, presided over the pro- concilio generali " (1432-36), both writt^ on occasion
vincial chapter of the Benedictines at Wflrsburg, of the Council of Basle. The superiority of the general
and reformed the monasteries in the Dioceses ot councils over the pope is maintained; though, when
Erfurt, Thuringia, **• ■'■-'■■ "' •*•"
ajority of the
Magdeburg, HUdeL
heim, and Minden.
Through the Nethei^
lands he was accom-
Bmied bv his friend
enya the Carthu-
Ban, Inl4d2hecon-
cluded his visitations
by holding a provin-
cial synod at Co-
logne. Everywhere,
according to Abbot
"IVithemius, he had
appeared as an angel
01 light and peace,
but it was not to be
so in his own diocese.
The troubles began
with the Poor Clares
of Brixen and the
Benedictine nuns of
Sonnenburg, who
needed reformation,
but were shielded by Boms v wmcH CiaomiL Nicholu
Duke Sigmund. The mm, Cnw, OM«Minr
cardinalnad totake refuge in thestronghold of Andras, ignorantia" (1439-40),
at Buohenstein, and finallv. bv snecial authority re- The Theorv of Knowli
cdvcd from Pius II, pr . . , -— --, — ,-
the Countship of the Tyrol. In 1460 the duke made cially in the "Compendium" (1404). In his dkiemol-
it^ prisoner at Bumeck and extorted from him a ogy he calls the Creator the Pottett (posw-wl, the
treaty unfavourable U> the bishopric. Nicholas 9cd possible-actual), alluding to the argument: God is
to Pope Pius II, who excommunicated the duke and possible, therefore actual. Uiemicroccrmot in created
laid an interdict upon the diocese, to be enforced by things has some similarity with the "monads" and
the Archbishop of Salsburg. But the duke, himself the emanation " of Leibnii. (3) The theol<WcaI
an immoral man, and, further, instigated by the anti- treatises are dogmatic, ascetic, tAid mystic. De
papal humanist Heimburg, defied the pope and ap- cribratione slchorani" (1460) was occasioned by his
pealed to a general council. It needed the strona in- visit to Constantinople, and was written tor the con-
fluence of the emperor, Frederick III| to make him veisian of the Mohammedans. For the faithful were
finally (1464) submit to the Church. 'This took place written: "De qiuerendoDeum"(1445). "Defiliatione
e days after the cardinal's death. The account Dei" (1445), "DevisioneDei" (1453), ''Excitationum
ify drew from
these writing start-
ling conclusions un-
favourable to Pope
Eugene, the author
seems to have
changed his views,
as appears from his
action after 1437.
The political reforms
Rroposed were skil-
illy utilised by
Gftrres in 1814. (2)
In his philosophical
writinp, composed
after 1439, be set
aude the definitions
and methods of the
"Aristotelean Sect"
and replaced them
by deep speculations
and mystical forms
of his own. The best
known in his first
treatise, "De docta
the finite and the infinite.
itically examined in
an interdict upon the treatise "De conjecturis" (1440-44) and espe-
(aee Pastor, □
-p- ject c r — — .,.
infra, II). The cardinal, who had His concept of God has been much disputed, and has
, II to the Venetian fleet at Ancona, even been c^ed pantheistic. The context of his writ''
ma sent by the pope U> Leghorn to hasten the Genoese ings proves, however, that they are all strictly Chriaijan.
ousaders, but on the way succumbed to an illness, Scnarpfl calls bis theology a 'Thomas AKempis in phil-
the result of his ill-treatment at the hands of
mund, from which he had never fully recovered.
died at Todi, in the presence of hia friends, the phy-
b luui, ill LUC uivaKiivB ui uiB irmjIUB,
Toscanelli and Bishop Johannes And)
The bod^ of Nicholas of Cusa rests in his i
tar church in Rome, beneath an efiigy of him sculp-
tured in reUef, but his heart is deposited before the
osophical language. (4) The scientific wntinga con-
ustofadoien treatises, mostly short, of which the "Re-
paratio Calendarii" (1436), with a correction of the
Alphonsine Tables, is the most important. (For an ac-
count of its contents and its results, see Lilius, Aloi-
BiuB.) The shorter mathematical treatises are ex-
Kftstner's "History of Mathematics", 11.
altar in the hospital of Cues. This hoepit^ was the Among them is a claim for the exact quadnture « the
NIGHOLU
62
NICHOLAS
circle, which waa refuted by RegjomonlanuB [nee tended to ^ to a foreien eountry, but when he cams
MOlleb (Rboiomontanus), Johann). The astro- into the neighbourhood of Basle, a divine inspiratioi)
nomical views of the cardinal are scattered through ordered him to take up his abode in the Ranf t, a val-
hiH philosophical treatises. They evince complete ley alonatheMelcha, about an hour's walk from Sach-
indepeadesce of traditional doctrines, thou^ they are eeln. Here, knownas "Brother Klaus", he abodeover
based on symbolism of numbers, on combmationa of twenty years, without taking any bodily food or
letters, and on abstract speculations rather thuiobser- drink, as was established through a careful inveetiga-
vatJon, The earth is a star like-other stars, is not the tion, made by the civil as well as the ecclesiastical aa-
centre of the universe, is not at rest, nor are its pwlea thorities of his times. He wore neither shoes nor cap,
fixed. The celestial bodies are not strictly spherical, and even in winter was clad merely in a hermits
nor are their orbits circular. The difference oetween gown. In 1468 he saved the town t>l Samen from ft
theory and appearance is explained by relative motion, conflagration by his prayers and the sign of the croos.
Had Copernicus been aware of these assertions he God ^o favoured him with numerous visions and the
would probably have been encouraged by them t« gift of prophecy. Distinguished persona from nearly
publish his own monumental work. The collected every country of Europe came to him for counsel in
editions of Nicholas of Cuaa's works are: /ncunobuJd mattersof thetitmostimportance. At first he lived in
(before 1476) in 2 vols., incomplete; Paris (1514) in 3 anarrowhut, which he himself had built with branchea
vols.; Basle
DOi, Dtr deuUehe kardi-tal Nthi-
louj Km CuH und dU Kirrht m'ner
ZtH (Ratubon. 1S4TI: Cleuenb,
Giordana Bruno u. Nikalaui ton Cuta
^lonn. IS4T); Zihueuuhh. Drr
ordinal N. C. alt Varlau/tr Leibni-
WH in Siltuiitibn: PM. Kl.. VIII
(Vienna. 1S5Z) : JXoiib. Der Streil da
kardinaU" - " '
Hetel-
, Dv
Contiiitfigachi
ibuti, 1888): ScHAi... _ .
r.MTu. BitdW N. t. C. iTft-
lHDnD.18Tl):OKDiiB ia Hi^. Jalirb.
d. airrlt^ltlUxliall. I (1S§0). Dii
fiilMO-
laeZ); .l«nn>n. v«:iii:F><i< u« uciu-
jcAm VMa. I (Freiburg, 1897). 3-0,
tr. Cauani (Loadoo and Bt. Lauis,
1908): Pimm, atxhitlM dtr PapiU.
11 (IVeiburc, 19(H), Ir. .'
(St.Lo^, 1902); Mahx.I'
„n-HotpiioU ... , , .
leOT); VlLOtB.LaCriKrififfUuHdu
XV' nicle (Puia, 19091.
J. G. Haqbn.
nUa (Db Cabdihal Nichoi^ or Cm
.b.2r March, Portrait in the ho^uUl at Cue., which
the FlQeli, a fertile plateau near Sachsein, His feast
and leaves, and came daily ti
Mass cither at Sachsein or at
Kerns. Early in 1469 the
civil authorities built a cell
and a chapel for him, and on
29 April of the same vear the
chapel was dedicated by the
vicar-general of Constance,
Thomas, Bishop of Ascalon.
In 1479 a chaplain was put in
charge of the chapel, and
thenceforth Nicholas always
remained in the Ranft. When
in 1480 delegates of the Svia
confederates assembled at
fitans to settle their diSet^
ences, and civil war seemed
inevitable, Henry Imgrund,
priest returned to the
delegates with the hermit's
counsels and propodtions, and
civil war was averted. Nicho-
las was beatified by Pope
Clement IX in 1669. Numer-
ous pilgrimB visit the chapel
RnPE),
Canton Obwalden, Switzerland; d. 21 March, 1487'
as a recluse in a neighbouring ravine, called Ranft.
Hewas the oldest son of pious, well-to-do peasants and _.,
from his earliest youth was fond of prayer, practised fS:'^' ,^'
mortification, and conscientiously performed the "^''■'*'"'''-
■6 preserved)
founded where his relics a
celebrated on 21 March.
iliiK Nicolaui Kin Flat, lein Libm ind Wirlitn (t
ISai-TS); vohAb, Ou itligtn Sinrimdltn Nika-
iniltrtiiro Ltbm (Einnedsln, 1SS7); BAimiEBOn.
u Don Flat [Kempten and Munich, lOOfl); Ada
,„ h. 398-439; WmiL. Dtr uL Nikdaiu wm Flf
l^nnedeln. ISBT; Ravenabutc, 18ee) O. Into Italian. Mohdad
laui tm Flat m
lEinnedi
muin, :
1S88): I
labour of a peasant boy. At the age of 21 he entered Ww d'aiKreMt (Paris, 1889); Blake, a A(ro«/iA> si.... .
the army and took part in the battle of Ragai ia 1446. '«'«' ThtCaOaiieWotid. LXV <New York, 1897), asg-«73.
Probably he fought in the battJes near theEtzelin Michael Ott.
1439, nearBaarin the Canton of Zug in 1443, and as-
sisted in the capture of Zurich in 1444. He took up
arms again in the so-called Thurgau war against
Archduke Sigismund of Austria in 1400. It was due
to his influence that the Dominican Convent
NlchoUa of Gorran (or Gorhain), medieval
preacher, and scriptural commentator; b. in 1232 at
Gorron, France; d. about 1295. He entered the Do-
minican Order in the convent of his native h
Katharinental, whither many Austrians had fled after became one of its most illustrious alumni. His tal-
the capture of Dieasenhofen, was not destroyed b^ ents singled him out for special educational opportuni-
the Swiss confederates. Heeding the advice of his ties.andhewassentaccordiqgly to thefamousconvent
parents he married, about the age of twenty-five, a of St. James in Paris. In this convent he subse-
pious girl from Sachsein, named Dorothy Wyeelin^, quentl^ served several terms as prior. His piety and '
who bore him five sons and five daughters. His sound judgment attracted the attention of Philip IV
youngest son, Nicholas, bom in 1467, became a priest of France, whom he served in the double capacitj; of
and a doctor of theology. Though averse to worldly confessor and adviser. In most of his ecclesiastical
dignities, he was electedcantonal councillor and judge, studiesbedoesnot seem to have, excelled notably; but
The fact that in 1462 he was one of five arbiters ap- in preaching and in the interpretation of the Scrip-
pointed to settle a dirouto between the parish of Stans tures he was unsurpassed by any of his contompo-
and the monasteiv of^Engelberg, shows the esteem in raries. His scriptural writings treat of all the books of
which he was held. After living about twenty-five the Old and the New Testament, and possess more
years in wedlock he listened to an inspiration of God than ordinary merit. Indeed, in such hi^h eeteem
and with the consent of his wife left his family on were they held by the doctora of the University of
16 October, 1467, to Uve as a hermit. At first he in- Paris that the latter were wont to demgnato th^ ftu-
iboraBexedUiupo*t>daloT. Thecomnieptarieflonthe of inn^tuig, m the present work, upon the hteral
_, ■eat times
beeo ascribed to a different authorship. His commen-
tary on the Epistles of St. Paul is remarkably well
doD^ and hia gloss on the Apocalypse was deemed
worthy of the highest commendation. Besides his
ScripturaJ writings he commented on the Lombfird's
Book of Sentences and on the Book of Distinctions.
His coinmentariee on the Gospels were published
pretationa, _. _ .
fully mastered the Hebrew and drew copiously from
the valuable commentaries of the Jewish exegetes,
especially of the celebrated Talmudist Rashi. The
"Pugio Fidei" of Raymond Martini and the com-
mentkriea of St. Thomas Aquinas were laid Under con-
tribution. His exposition is lucid and concise; hia
observations are judicious and sound, and always
original. The **POBtillEe" o**"" Kwmmi* tht» fnvm^nta
His commentaries manual of exegesis.
Paul were published
at Cologne (1478);
HagenBU(I502);Paris
(1621); Antwerp
(1617).
QoBTir • EcuBD. SS.
OrS. Prmi., V. Lajird,
Buteln tin. dt Fraria. XX
^uig, 1M2), 324-56:
CkartuJorium E/ni'i. Pan-
titn., II (Pbtu. 1891).
John B. 0'C!onnob.
Hlcbolu of Lyra
(Docti/r plonua et uti-
lit), exeget«, b. at
Lvra in Normandy,
ll70;d.at Paris. 1340.
The leport that he
was of Jewish descent
dates only from the
fifteenth century. He
took the Franciscan
habitat Verneuil,
Studied theology, re-
ceived the doctor'ade-
gree in Paria and was
appointed professor
at the Sorbonne. In
the famous eontro-
versy on the Beatific
Virion he took sides
with the professors
against John XXII.
He laboured very
successfully, both in
preaching and writ-
ing, for the conversion
oftheJewB. Heisthe ^- Nicho^ab of m.b. (ob <
author of numerous Bonvicmo (ii Mor.ti.
theological works, some of which are yet unpublished.
It was to exegesis that Nicholas of Lyra devoted lus
beet years. In the second prologue to his monumental
work,"Po8til!B perpetute in universamS. Scripturam",
after stating that the literal sense of Sacred Scripture
is the foundation of all mystical expositions, and that
it alone has demonstrative force, as St. Augustine
teaches, he deplores the state of Biblical studies in
his lime. The literal sense, he avers, is much ob-
scured, owing partly to the careleesness of the copy-
ists, partly to the unskilfulness of some of the coi^
rectors, and ()artly also to our own translation (the
Vulgate), which not infrequently departs from the
origmal Hebrew. He holds with St. Jerome that
the text must be corrected from the Hebrew codices,
except of course the prophecies concerning the Divin-
iUr of Christ. Another reason for this obscurity,
Nicholas goes on to say, is the attachment of scholars
to the method of interpretation handed down by
others who, though they have said many things well,
have yet touched but aparingly on the literalsense,
and have so multiplied the mystical senses as nearly to
intercept and choke it. Moreover, the text has been
distorted by a multiplicity of arbitrary divisions and
ooneordancea. Hereupon he decUres his intention
o became the favourite
B the first Biblical com-
mentary printed. The
solid learning of Nich-
olas commanded the
respect of both Jews
and Christians.
Luther owes much
to Nicholas of Lyra,
but how widely the
principles of Nicholas
differed essentially
from Luther's views IB
best seen from Nicho-
las's own words; "I
protest that I do not
intend to assert or
determine anything
that has not been
manifestly detet^
mined by Sacred
Scripture or by the
authority of the
Church Where-
fore I submit all I have
said or shall say to
the correction of Holy
Mother Church and
of all learned men ... "
(Prol. secund. in Pos-
tillas., ed. 1498).
Nicholas taught no
new doctrine. The
early Fathers and the
great schoolmen had
repeatedly laid down
the same sound exe-
getical principles, but,
owing to adverse ten-
dencies of the times,
their efforts had partly
fmled. Nicholas car-
ried out these principles effectively, and in this lies
his chief merit — one which ranks him among the fore-
most exegetea of all times.
WiDDTHO, AnnoZo (Roms. 1733). V, 204-7; VI, 237-0; Idem,
Btriplora (Rome. 1906). ■. v.: Sbasalii, SuppJcmtnlum (Rome.
ISOe), ■. v.; FtiuciD*. BM. Int. at inj. laiinilaiii, V (Hamburt,
1736). Itl aqq.: Haih. Siptrimum. bild. (PaHi, 182fl-38), l v.;
CoFiHQiB. SupvI'mmt to Ham'i Riptrt. bibl. (LoadoD, ISSS-
1902). 1. v.: Dmhitlb ahs Cutii.um, CliariLi. Unittrrit, Fori,.
II {Ptiia, lBai),p»iBm;F*MXT, La faaiUi di Uiiot. di Parit tl tu
diKUur, If pliu eOibtit. Ill (Puii. lS»4-»e), 331-9; Simdh. Hiit.
'^ -I- ccmmBitairiM d. V. T. (RatUrdun, 1683); Idu. Hi^.
prtnctp. (onmenlnlflirt d. N. T. (Rotterdun. 1693J;
, Duan lUtituM linmo Mir. habveninl CAristuni mtd.
OoUia (Nmcy, lS93).CoKn»l.Y,HM_^<tmi.J>Urod.v ■
«, Quam n.
_ JaUia (Nmcy,
Ttlt. lifcru H<TH. I
llu dudu oflht Scn'plii
laadthiilaHd'aiMi
in /tinu<lu«udu;i.iHi, XXVI (1893),
230iqq.;M*B " '' -' '
I (Piru, 1885), eeo-2
l>iurH^ewVorL).4H
.; N'luiiiHii, /n/lH-
rlapotlitlade Lyra
^ a. .. I. in i
11893).
_ .. _ .. . im»cA^.XI(1801). a«8
_„., Suvr. d trHETH dc N. I. L. ill Bludu /randKainH,
XVI (1906). 383 aqq.; XVII 11907). 489 mn., G93 Kiq.; XIX
(1908). 41 Hq.. 153 aqq., 368 wq.: Bihl, Hat S. t. L. in Sr/urt
dotifrlf in ZfiUchr, d. Ytreint /. thUrini " • - .. .
XXVI (1908). 320 aqq.; b«s ■J»,s pspsr a
L, Hat'kt
F. Oh(A. u. ^ItcrtuiH.,
„, _ ,_,,_ _n Nicholu ol Lyr» by
Amiairt di I'lmiHrnM aUh. de Lovnfn (1910),
Thom4B Plasbuann.
NICHOLAS
64
NICHOLAS
he is one of the most popular saints in the Greek as
well as the I^atin Church, there is scarcely an3rthing
historically certiun about him except that he was
Bishop of Myra in the fourth century. Some of the
main points in his l^end are as follows : He was bom
at Parara, a city of Lycia in Asia Minor; in his youth
he made a pilgnma^e to E^mt and Palestine; shortly
after his return he became Bishop of Myra; cast into
prison during the persecution of Diocletian, he was
released after the accession of Constantine, and was
present at the Council of Nicsea. In 1087 Italian
merchants stole his body at Myra, bringing it to Bari
in Italy.
The numerous miracles St. Nicholas is said to have
wrought, both before and after his death, are out-
growths of a long tradition. There is reason to doubt
his presence at NicsBa, since his name is not mentioned
in any of the old lists of bishops that attended this
council. His cult in the Greek Church is old and e&-
peciidly popular in Russia. As early as the sixth cen-
tury Emperor Justinian I built a church in his honour
at Constantinople, and his name occurs in the liturgy
ascribed to St. Chrysostom. In Italv his cult seems to
have begun with the translation of his relics to Bari,
but in Germany it b^an already under Otto II,
probably because his wife Theophano was a Grecian.
Bishop Reginald of Eichstadt (d. Q91) is known to
have written a metric, "Vita S. Nicholai". The
course of centuries has not lessened his popularity.
The following places honour him as patron: Greece,
Russia, the Kingdom of Naples, Sicily, Lorraine, the
Diocese of Liege; many cities in Italy, Germany, Aus-
tria, and Belgium; Campen in the Netherlands; Corfu
in Greece; Freiburg in Switzerland; and Moscow in
Russia. He is patron of mariners, merchants, bakers,
travellers, children etc. His representations in art
are as various as his alleged miracles. In Germany,
Switzerland, and the Netherlands they have the cus-
tom of making him the secret purveyor of gifts to chil-
dren on 6 December, the da^on which the Church cele-
brates his feast; in the United States and some other
countries St. Nicholas has become Identified with the
popular Santa Claus who distributes gifts to children
on Christmas eve. His relics are still preserved in the
church of San Nicola in Bari; up to the present day an
oily substance, known as Manna di S. Nicola^ which is
highly valued for its medicinal powers, is said to flow
from them.
The traditionary legends of St. Nicholas were first ooUeoted and
written in Greek by Mbtaphrastkb in the tenth century. They
are printed in P. &., CXVI sq. A Latin translation by Giusn-
NiANX (Venice, 1502 and 1513) is printed in Surius, De probatU
tanctorum hiatoriist 6 December. There is an immense amount
of ancient and modem literature. The followin|; modem authori-
ties are noteworthy: Gabta, S. Nicold di Ban, vfcovo di Mira
(Naples, 1904); Bertani, Vita di «. Nicold, tfcovo di Mira
(Monsa, 1900) ; Gbmma, La oapaeUa delle rdiquie di t. Nicold di
Bari in Basaarione, X (Rome, 1906). 317-328; Schnbll, 3i.
Nickolaua der heil. Bischof u. Kinderfreund (BrQnn, 1883-5, and
Ravensburg, 1886) ; Praxmarbr, Der h. Nikolaua u, «e»ne Vereh"
rung (MQnster, 1894); Laroche, Vie de t. Nicholas, Mque de
Myre, patron de la Lorraine (Paris, 1886, 1893) ; Idem, La manne de
t. Nicholae in Revue Suieee Calholitfue, XXI (Freiburg, 1890), 5&-
68, 122-137; Katata, Monoffraphxe die Vlgliee grecque de Maraeille
€i vie dee. Nicholae de Myre (MarseUles. 1901).
Michael Ott.
Nicholas of Osixno (Auximanus), celebrated
Ereacher and author, b. at Osimo, Italy, in the second
idf of the fourteenth century; d. at Rome, 1453.
After having studied law, and taken the degree of
doctor at Bologna, he joined the Friars Minor of the
Observants in the convent of San Paolo. Conspicuous
for zeal, learning, and preaching, as companion of St.
James of the Marches in Bosnia, and as Vicar-Provin-
cial of Apulia (1439), Nicholas greatly contributed to
the prosperity of the Observants for whom (1440) he
obtainea complete independence from the Conven-
tuals, a privilege shortly after revoked according to
the aesire of St. Bemardine. He was also appointed
Visitator and afterwards Superior, of the Holy Land,
but many difficulties seem to have hindered himi from
the discharge of these offices. Nicholas wrote both in
Latin and Italian a number of treatises on moral theol-
ogy the spiritual life, and on the Rule of St. Friin-
cis. We mention the following: (1) '^Supplementum
Sunmise Ma^tratis seu PisaneUse'^ a revised and
increased edition of the '^Summa" of Bartholomew
of San Concordio (or of Pisa), O.P., completed at
Milan, 1444, with many editions before the end of
the fifteenth century: Venice, 1473 sqq.; Genoa,
1474; Milan, 1479; Reutlingen, 1483 : Nuremb^^
1494. (2) "Quadriga Spirituale", m Italian, treats
in a popular way what the author considers the
four principal means of salvation, viz. faith, good
works, confession, and prayer. These are like the
four wheels of a chariot, whence the name. The work
was printed at Jesi, 1475, and under the name of St.
Bernardine of Siena in 1494.
Wadding, Seriploree Ord. Min. (Rome, 1806). 179 (Rome. 1906),
176; Idbm, Annalee Minorum ad an, 1497, n. 13-16, 2nd ed., X
(Rome, 1734), 119-30; ad an. I4S8, n. 21-23, XI (Rome. 1734).
39-46; ad an. 1440, n. 29, XI (Rome, 1734), 111 passim; Sbaralba.
Supplementum (Rome, 1806), 650; Spbbi, Tre Operette toloari di
Frate Niccolo da Oaimo, teeli di lingua inediii traUi da' codici Volt-
eani (Rome, 1865), preface; Luiax da Fabriano, Cenni cronolo-
gico-biografiei deUa Oeeervanie Proeincia Picena (Quaraeohl, 1886).
161, 221; Hain, Repertorium Bibliogtxtphicum (Paris, 1826), I.
i, n. 2149^75; von Schulte, Dm Oeechichte der Queilen und Literor
tur dee Canonieehen Rechtee von OnUian bie auf die Oegenvart, I
(Stuttgart, 1877), 435-37; Diettbbud, Die Summa Confeeeorum
in ZeiUchriftfUr Kirchengeechichte, ed. Brisgbb. XXVII (Gotha.
1906). 183-88.
LrvARiUB Oliger.
Nicholas of StrMburff. mystic, flourished early in
the fourteenth century. Educated at Paris, he was later
on lector at the Dominican convent, Cologne. Ap-
pointed by John XXII^ he made a canonical visitation
of the German Domimcan province, where great dis-
cord prevailed. Relying on two papal briefs dated 1
August. 1325, it appears that the sole commission re-
ceived trom the pontiff was to reform the province in
its head and members, and to act as visitor to the sis-
ters. Nicholas, however, assumed the office of in-
quisitor as well, and closed a process alreadv begun by
Archbishop Heinrich (Cologne) against Master Eck-
hart, O.P., for his teachings on mysticism, in favour
of the latter (1326). In January, 1327, the arch-
bishop renewed the cause and arraigned Nicholas as a
patron of his confrere's errors. Almost simultane-
ously, Hermann von Hdchst, a discontented religious
on whom Nicholas had imposed a well-merited pen-
alty, took revenge by having him excommunicated.
Nicholas, however, was soon released from this sen-
tence by Pope John, that he might appear as definitor
at the general chapter of his order convened at Pex-
pignan. May 31, 1327. He is last heard of after the
settlement of the process against Eckhart as vicar of
the German Dominicans, 1329. Thirteen extant ser-
mons show him to have been of a rather practical turn
of mind.
Having realized the inherent necessity of solid piety
being based upon the principles of sound theology, he
urges in clear, pregnant, and forceful style the sacred
importance of good works, penitential practices and
indulgences, confession ana tne Holy Eucharist. Onlv
by the use of these means can the love of God be well-
regulated and that perfect conversion of the heart at-
tained which is indispensable for a complete remission
of guilt. Built up on so firm a groundwork, there is noth-
ing to censure but much to commend in his allegorical
interpretations of Sacred Scripture, which are other-
wise consistent with his fondness for parable and ani-
mated illustration. " De Adventu Christi ", formerly
attributed to Nicholas, came originally from the pen
of John of Paris.
Pbeqbr, Meieier Bekhart und die TnqiUeUion (Munich. 1869);
Idcm, Oeach. der deutech. Myatik im MittelaUer, II (Leipsig, 1881);
Deniplb, ActenatUcke tu Meiater Eckharia Proteaa in Zeiiachr, f.
deutaehee Altertum u. deutache Literatur, XXIX (XVII) (1885);
Idkm, Der PlagiatOTt Nich, ten Straeab, in Archivf, lAt. «, Kir^m-
NICHOLAS
65
NICHOLS
0Mdk..IV(1888):
(Leipug. 1845).
DeutMchs MyaUkw deu I4. Jahrh,» I
Thos. a. K. Reillt.
Nicholas of Tolontino, Saint, b. at Sant' Angelo,
near Fermo, in the March of Ancona, about 1246; d.
10 September, 1306. He is depicted in the black
habit of tiie Hermits of St. Augustine — a star above
him or on his breast, a lily, or a crucifix garlanded with
lilies, in his hand. Sometimes, instead of the lily, he
holds a vial filled with money or bread. His oarents^
said to have been called Compagnonus de Guarutti
and Amata de Guidiani (these surnames may merely
indicate tiieir birt^-places), were pious folk, perhaps
fentle bom, living content with a small substance.
Nicholas was bom in response to prayer, his mother
being advanced in years. From his childhood he was
a model of holiness. He excelled so much in his
studies that even before they were over he was made
a canon of St. Saviour's church; but hearing a sermon
by a hermit of St. Augustine upon the text: ''Nolite
diligere mundum, nee ea qu» sunt in mundo, quia
mundus transit et concupiscentia ejus", he felt a call
to embrace the religious life. He besought the hermit
for admittance into his order. His parents gave a
joyful consent. Even before his ordination he was
sent to different monasteries of his order, at Recanati,
Macerata etc^ as a model of generous striving after
perfection, ae made his profession before he was
nineteen. After his ordination he preached with
wonderful success, notably at Tolentino, where he
spent his last thirty years and gave a discourse nearly
every day. Towards the end diseases tried his pa-
tience, but he kept up his mortifications almost to the
hour of death. He possessed an angelic meekness,
a guileless simplicity, and a tender love of virginity,
wmch he never stained^ guarding it by prayer and ex-
traordinary mortifications. He was canonised by
Eugene IV in 1446; his feast b celebrated on 10
September. His tomb, at Tolentino, is held in ven- '
eration by the faithful.
Acta SS., Sept.. Ill, 636; Bxttudb, LtM* of the SainU, III (Baiti-
more), 440; HJLoblb in Kirehenlex.^ s. v.
Edwabd F. Garebch£.
s
Nicholas Pieck (also spelled Pick), Saint, Friar
Minor andf martyr^b. at Gorkum, Holland, 29 August.
1534: d. at Briel, Holland, 9 July, 1572. He came of
an old and honourable family. His parents. John
Pieck and Henrica Clavitf, were deeply attached to
the Catholic faith, and the former on several oc-
casions distinguished himself by his zeal against the
innovations of Calvinism. Nicholas was sent to
college at Bois-le-Duc ('S Hertogenbosch), and as
soon as he had completed his classical studies he
received the habit of the Friars Minor at the convent
in that town. After his profession he was sent to
the convent at Louvain to follow the course of study
at the celebrated universitv there. Nicholas was or-
dained priest in 1558 and tnenceforth devoted himself
to the apostolic ministry. He evan^lized the prin-
cipal towns of Holland and Belgium, combating
heresy everywhere, strengthening Catholics in their
faith, and distinguishing himself by his singular
humihty, modesty, charity, and zeal for the honour
of God and the salvation of souls. He was of an open
disposition, gay and genial, and his whole bearing
inspired affection and respect. His superiors, ap-
preciating his fine Qualities, appointed him guardian
of the convent at Gorkum, his native town.
When this place was threatened by the Calvinists,
Nicholas delivered several discourses to his fellow-
townsmen, forewarning them against the dangerous
errors of Calvinism. In particular, he proved by un-
answerable arguments the dogma of tne Real Pres-
ence, showing it to be a marvellous extension of the
Incarnation, and he left nothing undone to bring his
two brothers back to the true foM. When the citadel
XI.
of Gorkum was taken by the Watergeuzen, the heretics
detained the priests and religious, and confined them
in a dark and foul dungeon. (See Gorkum. Thb
Marttrs of.) DuHng tne first night the Calvin-
ists vented their rage particularlv against Nicholas.
Tying about his neck the cord, which girded his
loinsj they first suspended him from a beam and then
let him fall heavily to the groimd. This torture was
prolonged till the cord broke, and the martyr, seem-
ingly lifeless, fell to the floor. They then applied a
burning torch to his ears, forehead, and chin, and
forced open his mouth to bum his tongue and palate,
either to find out whether he was still alive or in
order to torture him. Meanwhile, the two brothers
of Nicholas were busy taking steps to obtain the
deliverance of the captives. This was promised them
only on condition that the prisoners would renounce
the authority of the pope, and, as nothing could make
Nicholas and his companions waver in their faith,
they were taken to BneL where they all gained the
crown of martyrdom. Nicholas and his companions
were beatified by Clement X, 24 November, 1675,
and canonized by Pius IX, 29 June, 1867.
CI4A.RT, Livft of ike SainU and Bleaaed of the Three Ordert of
Saint Francit, II (Taunton, 1886), 467-65; Skdvuus, Hietoria
Serajihiea (Antwerp, 1613), 671 sq.; Bchoutbnb, Maiii/rclogium
Minoritico-Belgieum (Antwerp, 1901), 114-15; Esnus, Hieiorim
Martyrum Qoreomieneium in Ada SS., II, July (ed. 1867), 804r-
808; Waodxno. Annalet Minorutn, XX, 381-41& (For further
bibliography aee QoBKim, Ths Maiittbb or.)
Ferdinand Hsckmann.
Nichols (or NicoLLs). Gbobgb, Vbnsrabub, Eng-
lish martyr, b. at Oxford about 1550: executed at Ox-
ford, 19 October, 1589. He entered Brasenoee Col-
lege in 1564 or 1565, and was readmitted 20 August,
1567, and supplicated for his B.A. degree in 1570-1.
He subsequently became an usher at St. Paul's School.
London. He arrived at Reims with Thomas Pilchard
(q. v.), 20 Nov., 1581; but went on to Rome, whence
he returned 21 July. 1582. Ordained subdeacon and
deacon at Laon (probably by Bishop Valentine Doug-
las, O.S.B.) in April, 1583^ and pnest at Reims (by
Cardinal Archbisnop Loms de Uuise) 24 Sept., he
was sent on the mission the same year. Having con-
verted many, notably a convicted highwa3nnan m Ox-
ford Castle^ he was arrested at the Catherine Wheel
Inn, opposite the east end of St. Mary Magdalen's
Church, Oxford, together with Humphrey Fnchard,
a Welsh servant at the inn, Thomas Belson (q. v.),
and Richard Yaxley. This last was a son (probably
the third, certainly not the sixth) of William Yaxley of
Boston, Lincolnshire, by Rose, daughter of John Lang-
ton of Northolme. Arriving at Reims 29 August,
1582, he received the tonsure and minor orders 23
Sept., 1583, and the subdiaconate 5 or 6 April, 1585,
from the cardinal archbishop. Probably the same
hand conferred the diaconate on 20 April. The priest-
hood was conferred at Reims by Louis de J3rea6,
Bishop of Meaux, 21 Sept., 1585. Yaxley left Reims
for England 28 January, 1585-6. All four prisoners
were sent from Oxford to the Bridewell prison in Lon-
don, where the two priests were hanged up for five hours
to make them betray their hosts, but without avail.
Yaxley was sent to the Tower as a close prisoner 25
May, 1589, and appears to have been racked fre-
quently. Belson was sent to the Gatehouse. The
other two remained in Bridewell, Nichols being put
into " a deep dungeon full of venomoue vermin " . On
30 June all four were ordered back to Oxford to take
their trial. All were condemned, the priests for trea-
son, the la3rmen for felony. Nichols suffered first, then
Yaxley, then Belson, and last Prichard. The priests'
heads were set up on the castle, and their quarters on
the four city gates.
Challonbr, Memoira of Miaeionary Prietta, I, no«. 73-6*. PoL-
LBN, Catholie Record Society, V (London, 1008), paenm; Dabbnt.
Acta of the Pnvy Council, XVII (London, 1800-1907), 208, 320;
Knox, Pirat and Second Diariea of^Bngliah CaUegt, Dottai (London,
1878), pMsim; Harleian Society PtMioationa, Ul (London, 1004),
inCHOLSON
66
nicolaI
1124; Oziord HitUmeai Society Pvblieaiiont, XXXIX (Oxford.
1899), 109. 110; LV (Oxford. 1910). 33.
John B. Wainewrioht.
m
Nicholson, Francis, a controversial writer; b. at
ManchesteTi 1650 (baptized 27 Oct.) ; d. at LiBbon, 13
Aug., 1731. The son of Henry or Thomas Nicholson,
a Manchester citizen, when sixteen he entered Univer^
si ty College, Oxford, as a servitor, and took his degrees
as bachelor of Arts (18 June, 1069) and Master of Arts
(4 June, 1673). Ordained an Anglican clergyman, he
officiated, first about Oxford, afterwards near Canter-
bury, where he gained some success in reconciling
Nonconformists to the Church of England. A ser-
mon preached at St. Mary's, Oxford, on 20 Jime, 1680,
l^d to his being charged with unorthodox doctrine
and the fact taaX he nad been a pupil of Obadiah
Walker caused him to be suspected of Catholic tend-
encies. The actual date of his reception into the
Church is unknown, but during the reign of James II
(1685-88) he was a professed Catholic and busied him-
self in the king's interests. At this time he wrote the
appendix on the doctrine of the Church of England
concerning the Real Presence, and the ''Vindication
of two recent discourses'' on tne same subject, added
to Abraham Woodhead's ''Compendious Eoscourse on
the Eucharist", published in 1688. After the revolu-
tion he joined the Carthusians at Nieuport in Flanders,
but his health was imequal to this austere life, and in
1692 he returned to England. There he entered the
service of the Queen Dowager, Catharine of Braganza,
whom he accompanied back to Portugal. For some
years he resided at the Portuguese Cburt and then
retired to an estate which he had bou^t at Pera, half
a league south of the Tagus, and not, as the writer
in the " Dictionary of National Biography " oddly as-
serts^ the "suburb of (Constantinople'^. He spent a
considerable period there in devotion and studvj until
reaching his seventieth year he made over all his real
and personal property to the En^h College at
Lisbon, subject to the discharge of his debts, the pro-
vision of board and lodging for the remainder of his
life, and a small annuity. Three vears before his
death at the college he sent back to the Catholic anti-
quary. Dr. Cuthbert Constable, all the surviving
MSS. of Abraham Woodhead. which had passed into
his bands as executor of Obadiah Waller. With
them also he sent his MS. life of Constable, published
with additions in his edition of that author s "Third
Part of a Brief Account of Church Government".
Amthont a Wood, Athtna Oxonienae»t II. reprinted from
DoDD. Church Hutoru, III. 462; Catholie Maaatine, VI (May.
1835), 208; FoaxBR. Alumni OxonienMea (Oxford. 1891); Gillow.
BM. Diet. Bng. Cath., b. v. NiehoUon and ConaiabU; Sutton in
t>%ti, Nat. Biog.; Cboit. Kirk't Hittorical Aoeouni o/Li$b<m CoUege
(London. 1902).
Edwin Bubton.
NicodomuB, a prominent Jew of the time of Christ,
mentioned only in the Fourth Gospel. The name is of
Greek origin, but at that epoch such names were
occasionally Sorrowed by the Jews, and according to
Josephus (Ant. of the Jews, XIV, iii, 2) Nicodemus
was the name of one of the ambassadors sent by Aris-
tobulus to Pompey. A Hebrew form of the name
(rnonpo, Naqdimdn) is found in the Talmud.
Nicodemus was a Pharisee, and in his capacity of
sanhedrist (John, vii, 50) was a leader of the Jews.
Christ, in the interview when Nicodemus came to him
by night, calls him a master in Israel. Judging from
John, xix, 39, Nicodemus must have been a man of
means, and it is probable that he wielded a certidn
influence in the Sanhedrim. Some writers coniecture
from his question: "How can a man be bom when he
is old?", that he was already advanced in years, but
the words are too general to warrant such a conclusion.
He appears in this interview as a learned *and intelli-
gent Deliever, but timid and not easily initiated into
the m3rBterie0 of the new faith. He next appeara
(John, vii, 50, 51) in the Sanhedrim offering a word
in defence of the accused Galilean; and we may infer
from this passage that he embraced the truth as soon
as it was fully made known to him. He is mentioned
finally in John, xix, 39, where he is shown co-operating
with Joseph of Arimathea in the embalimng and
burial of Jesus. His name occurs later in some of the
apocryphal writings, e. s. in the so-called "Acta
Pilati'', a heterogeneous document which in the six-
teenth century was published imder the title "Evan-
gjeliUm Nicodemi" (Gospel of Nicodemus). The
time of his death is unknown. The Roman Mart3rrol-
o^ commemorates the finding of his relics, together
with those of Sts. Stephen, Gamaliel, and Abibo, on
3 August.
CoNTBEABB. Studia BiUiea, IV (Oxford. 1896). 69-132; La
Camus. Laviede N.S. J*9ua-Chri$t (Paris, 1883). I, 261 sqq.; II,
24 sqq.. 577 sqq.. tr. Hickbt (3 vols., New York. 1906-08).
James F. Dribcoll.
NicodemuB, Gospel of. See Acta Pilati.
NicolaI, Jean, celebrated Dominican theolonan
and controversialist, b. in 1594 at Mouzay in the Dio-
cese of Verdun, France; d. 7 May, 1673, at Paris. En-
tering the order at the age of twelve, he made his
religious profession in 1612, studied pnilosophy and
theology in the convent of St. James at Paris, obtained
(1632) the doctorate in theology at the Sorbonne, and
taught these branches with distinction in various
houses of the order. He was highly esteemed for
strict observance of the rule, prudence, rare erudition,
and power of penetration. Besides Latin and Greek
he was conversant with Italian, Spanish, and He-
brew. He was a member of the commission appointed
to examine the works and teachings of the
Jansenists and to prevent the further dissemina-
tion of their doctnne in the Sorbonne. In the
disputes on grace between the Thomists and Mo-
linists, which the teaching of Jansenius revived, he ad-
hered strictly to the Thomistic doctrine. His numer-
ous works fall into three classes: (a) new editions of
older theologians which he supplied with commen-
taries and explanatory notes; (o) his own theological
works; (c) his poetical and political writing. The
most important of the first class are '^Rainen de Pisis
[1351] ord. Fr. Pred. Pantheolo^a sive universa the-
ologia ordine alphabetico per vanos titulos distributa''
(Lyons, 1670): to each of the three volumes of this
work he added a dissertation against Uie Jansenists;
^'S. Thonue Aq. ExposiMo continua super quatuor
evangelistas'' (Lyons, 1670); "S.Thoms Aq. commen-
taria in quatuor libros sententiarum P. Lombard!"
(Lyons, 1659): ^'Commentarius posterior super libros
sententiarum'' (Lvons, 1660); ''S. Thome Aq. qu»-
stionesquodUbetales" (Lyons, 1660); '^S. ThomsAq.
Summa theologica innumeris Patrum, Conciliorum,
scripturarum ac decretorum testimoniis ad materias
controversas vel ad monilem disciplinam pertinenti-
bus. . . illustrata" (Lyons, 1663); ''S. Thoms Aq.
explanatio in omnes d. Pauli Ap. epistolas commen-
taria" (Lyons, 1689). His important theologica]
works are: ^'Judicium seu censorium suffragiuin de
propositione Ant. Amaldi sorbonici doctoris et socii ad
ousestionem juris pertinente" (Paris, 1656): "Theses
tneologice de gratia seu theses molinistic» tnomisticis
notis expunctae" (Paris, 1656); "Apologia natune
et gratis" (Bordeaux, 1665). Af^ainst Launoy, the
champion of the "Gallican Liberties", he wrote: "De
iejunii christian! et christians abstinentis vero ac legit-
imoritu" (Paris, 1667); "De Concilio plenario, qucxi
contra Donatistas baptism! qusestionem ex Augustin!
sensu definivit" (Paris, 1667); "De plenarii Condlii
et baptismatis hereticorum assertione dissertatio pos-
terior anteriorem firmans" (Paris, 1668): "De bapK ,
tismi antiquo usu ab Ecclesia instituto, dissertatio"
(Paris, 1668) ; "De Constantini baptismo, ubi, quando
et a quibus fuerit celebratus historica dissertatio"
(Paris, 1680). The purpose of his poetical and politi-
NICOLAITES
67
NICOLAS
cal writings seems to have been to extol the dignity
and glory of France and her kings. Thus, he delivered
in Rome in 1628 a panegvric in honour of the victory
of Louis XIII at La Rochelle and in 1661 composed a
poem in honour of the son of Louis XIV. He was highly
esteemed at the royal court and received a pension of
600 francs. He was buried in the chapel of the con-
vent of St. James in Paris, and a marble stone beside
the grave bears a lone inscription recounting his vir-
tues, his learning, ana his services to his country.
Qtmnr-EcHARO, 0iS. Ord. Prod,, II, 047; Journal dea Sawanit,
II. 340. 482.
Joseph Schroeder.
Nicolaites (Nicolaitanb), a sect mentioned in the
ApoccJypse (ii, 6, 15) as existing in Ephesus, Perga-
mus, and other cities of Asia Minor, about the charac-
ter and existence of which there is little certainty.
Irenseus (Adv. Hser., I, xxvi, 3; HI. xi, 1) discusses
them but adds nothing to the Apocalypse except that
"they lead lives of unrestrained indulgence". Ter-
tullian refers to them, but apparently knows only
what is found in St. John (De Prsescrip. xxxiii ; Adv.
Marc., I, xxix; De Pud., xvii). Hippolvtus based his
narrative on Irenseus, though he states that the deacon
Nicholas was the author of the heresy and the sect
(Philosoph., VII, xxvi). Clement of Alexandria
(Strom., Ill, iv) exonerates Nicholas, and attributes
the doctrine of promiscuity, which the sect claimed to
have derived from him, to a malicious distortion of
words harmless in themselves. With the exception of
the statement in Eusebius (H. E., Ill, xxix) that the
sect was short-lived, none of the references in Epi-
phanius, Theodoret etc. deserve mention, as they are
taken from Irenseus. The common statement, that
the Nicolaites held the antinomian heresy of Corinth,
has not been proved.. Another opinion, favoured by
a number of authors, is that, because of the allegorical
character of the Apocalypse, the reference to the
Nicolaitans is merely a symbolic manner of reference,
based on the identical meaning of the names, to the
Bileamites or Balaamites (Apoc., ii, 14) who are
mentioned just before them as professing the same
doctrines.
HiLOBNPCLB, KeUerqMchichte dea UrehrUterUuma (Leipsii^.
1884) ; Sbbsbman, Die Nikolaiten. Bin Beitrag zur aUeren Hdreti^
oloffie in TheoL Siudien und Kritiken (1803).
P. J. Healt.
Nicolmi, ARifBLLA, popularly known as "La
bonne Armelle", a saintly French serving-maid held
in high veneration among the people, though never
canonised by the Church, b. at Campendac in Brit-
tanny, 9 September, 1606, of poor peasants, George
Nicolas and Francisca JN^^ant; d. 24 October, 1671.
Her early years were spent in the pious, simple life of
the haixi-working country folk. Wnen she was
twenty-two years of age her parents wished her to
marry, but she chose rather to enter service in the
neighbouring town of Plodrmel, where she found more
opportunity for her pious works and for satisfying her
spiritual needs. After a few years she went to the
larger town of Vannes, where she served in several
families, and for a year and a half was portress &t the
Ursuline monastery. She here formed a special
friendship with a certain sister, Jeanne de la Nat)vit6,
to whom she told from time to time many details of
her spiritual life, and who noted down these com-
munications, and afterwards wrote the life of Armella,
who could herself neither read nor write. Even the
lowly work at the convent did not satisf v her craving
for toil and humiliation, and she returned to one of her
former employers, where she remained to the end of her
life. To her severe trials and temptations she added
many works of penance and was rewarded by the
growth of her inner life and her intimate union with
God. During the last years of her life a broken leg
caused her great suffenng, patiently borne. Many
recommended themselves to her prayers and her
death-bed was surrounded by a great number of per-
sons who held her in special veneration. Her heart
was preserved in the Jesuit churchy and her body
was buried in the church of the Ursuhnes. Near her
grave was erected a tablet to "La bonne Armelle";
her tomb is a place of pilgrimage. Armella has been
claimed, but without good grounds, as an exponent of
Quietism (q. v.). If some of her expressions seemed
tinged with Quietist thought, it is because the con-
troversy which cleared and defined many notipns con-
cerning Quietism had not yet arisen. On the other
hand her simple, laborious life and practical piety
make any sucii aberrations very unlikely.
JuNGMANN in Kirehenlexikont a. v. Nicoiaa; Stolti, Legende der
HeUigen, £4 October; Bubbon, Vm d'Armelle NieoUu etc, (Pftria,
1844) ; Tbii0ts£obn, SeUd Livea of Holy Soula, I, 2nd ed. (1754).
Edward F. Garesch^.
Nicolmi» AuGnsTB, French apologist, b. at Bor-
deaux, 6 Jan., 1807; d. at Versailles 18 Jan.. 1888.
He first studied law, was admitted as an aavocate
and entered the magistracy. From 1841-49 he was
t'ustice of the peace at Bordeaux; as early as 1842 he
»egan the puolication of his apologetical writings
which soon made his name known among Catholics.
When in 1849 M. de Falloux became minister of pub-
lic worship he summoned Nicolas to assist him as
head of the department for the administration of the
temporal interests of ecclesiastical districte. He held
this office until 1854 when he became general inspector
of libraries. In 1860 he was appointed judge of the
tribunal of the Seine and finally councillor at the
Paris court of appeals.
Nicolas employed his leisure and later his retirement
to write works in defence of Christiani^ taken as a
whole or in ite most important do^as. He showed his
accurate conception oi apologetics by adapting them
to the dispositions and the needs of the minds of his
time, but he lived in a period when Traditionalism
still dominated many French Catholics, and this is re-
flected in his works. He aimed no doubt at defending
religion by means of philosophy, sood sense, ana
arguments from authonty; but he also often appeals
to the traditions and the ^ping moral sense oi man-
kind at large. The testimonies, however, which he
cites, are oiten apocryphal, and frequently also he
interprete them uncritically and ascribes to them
a meaning or a scope which they do not possess. Be-
sides, his apologetics speedily grew out-of-date when
ecclesiastical and critical studies were revived in
France and elsewhere. His writings also betray at
times the layman lacking in the learning and pre-
cision of the theologian, and some of his books were
in danger of being placea on the Index. Some bishops,
however, among them Cardinals Donnet and Pie, m-
tervenecl in his behalf and certified to the upri^tness
of his intentions. Otherwise the author addressed
himself to the general public and especially to the
middle classes which were still penetrated with Vol-
tairian incredulity, and he succeeded in reaching
them. His books were very successful in France ana
some of them even in Germany, where they were
translated. Among his works may be mentioned:
''Etudes philosophiques sur le Christianisme" (Paris,
1841-45), a philosophical apology for the chief Chris-
tian dogmas, which reached a twenty-sixth edition
before the death of the author; ''La Vier^e Marie et
le plan divin, nouvelles etudes philosophiques sur le
Christianisme" (4 vols.. Paris. 1852, 1853^ 1861), in
which is explained the r61e of tne Blessed Virgin in the
plan of Redemption, and which was translated into
German, and reached the eighth edition during the
author's lifetime; " Du protestantisme et de toutes lee
h^r^es dans leur rapport avec le socialisme" (Paris,
1852, 2 vols., 8 editions) ; "L'Art de croire, ou prepa-
ration philosophiqueau Christianisme'' (Paris, 1866-
67), translatea into (xerman; "La Divinity de J68Ȥ-
NICOLAUS
68
NICOLE
Christ, demonstration nouvelle " (1864) : " J^stis Christ
introduction k I'Evangile 6tu6i6 et medit6 k I'usase
des temps nouveaux'' (Paris, 1875). As semi-reli-
eious and semi-political mav be mentioned: "La
Monarchic et la question du drapeau" (Paris, 1873);
''La Revolution et I'orde chr^tien" (Paris, 1874);
"L'Etat contre Dieu" (Paris, 1879); "Rome et la
Papaute^' (Paris, 1883); and finally the works in his-
ton co-philosophic vein: "Etude sur Maine de Biran''
(Paris, 1858); "Etude sur Eugenie de Gu6rin''
(Paris, 1863); "M^moires d'un pire sur la vie et la
mort de son nls'' (Paris, 1869); "Etude historique et
critique sur le P^ Lacordaire" (Toulouse, 1886).
Lapbtrb, Augu^ Nicolat, $a vie et ae$ atuvrea (Vapr^ tee MS-
moiree irUdile, eee papiere ei ea eorreepondanee (Paris, 1892).
Antoinb Degbrt.
NicoIauB OerxnanuB (often called "Donis" from a
misapprehension of the title " Donnus" or "Donus" an
abbreviated form of "Dominus''). a fifteenth-century
cartographer, place of birth, ana date of birth and
death unknown. The first allusion to him of authentic
date is an injimction of Duke Borso d'Este (15 March,
1466) to his referendary and privy counsellor, Ludo-
yico Casella, at Ferrara, to have the " Cosmographia
of Don Nicold'' thoroughly examined and then to de-
termine a recompense tor it. The duke, on the thir-
tieth of the same month, called upon his treasurers for
100 florins in gold "to remit as a mark of his apprecia-
tion to Donnuis Nicolaus Germanus for his excellent
book entitled ^(Dosmo^aphia' ". On 8 April, 1466,
the duke again drew thirty golden florins to present to
the Rev. Nicolaus, who "in addition to that excellent
Cosmography" (iiltra illud excellens Cosmographie
opus) had dedicated to the duke a calendar made to
cover many years to come ("librum tacuini multorum
annorum''). The "Cosmographia" as preserved in
the Bibliotheca Estensis at Modena comprises a Latin
translation of the Geographer of Ptolemy with maps.
The version of the geographical text is substantially
the same as that dedicated in 1410 to Pope Alexander
V bv Jacopo Angelo, a Florentine. la the execution
of the maps, however, Nicolaus, instead of adhering to
the flat projection of Ptolemy, chose what is known as
the "Donis-proiection", because first worked out
by him, in wnich the parallels of latitude are equi-
distant, but the meridians are made to converge to-
wards the pole. He likewise introduced new modes
in delineating the outlines of countries and oceans,
mountains and lakes, as well as in the choice of carto-
graphic proportions. He reduced the awkward size
to one wnich was convenient for use; the obscure and
often imattractive mode of presentation he replaced
by one both tasteful and easily intelligible; ne en-
deavoured to revise obsolete maps in accordance with
later information and to supplement them with new
maps. While his first recension embraced only the
twenty-seven maps of Ptolemy (one map of the world,
ten special maps of Europe, four of Africa, twelve of
Asia), the second comprised thirty (including in ad-
dition modem maps of Spain, Italv, and the Northern
countries: Sweden, Norway, ana Greenland). The
last-named enlarged recension he dedicated as priest
to Pope Paul II (1464r-71). He dedicated to the
same pontiff his third recension, containing thirty-
two maps, adding modem maps of France and the
Holy Land. The works of the German cartographer
were of great value in diffusing the knowledges of
Ptolemy^ Geography. The first recension, probably
the very copy in the Lenox Library (New Vork)^ is
the basis of the Roman editions of Ptolemy bearmg
the dates 1478, 1490, and 1507; on the third, certainly
the copy preserved in Wolfegg Castle, are based the
IJlm editions of 1482 and 1486. By combining the
Roman and Ulm editions Waldseemtdler produced the
maps of Ptolemy in the Strasburg edition of 1513,
- which was frequently copied. The modem map of the
Northem countries, made by Claudius Clavus, which
Nicolaus embodied in his second recension of Ptolemy,
was perhaps the source of the Zeni map which had such
far-reaching influence, and likewise of the maritime
charts of the Canerio and Cantino type. The revised
map of the Northem countries ia the third recension of
Nicolaus, which placed Greenland north of the Scan-
dinavian Peninsula, was a powerful factor in cartog-
raphy for a century, especially as Waldseemtiller gave
the preference to this representation in his world and
wall map of 1507, "the baptismal certificate of Amer-
Because of these and other services to geog-
ica
raphy and cartoeraphy. as for example, by the re-
vision of Buondelmonte's "Insularium", it would be
desirable to have it established whether Nicolaus
was really, as 'I conjecture, a Benedictine father of
the Badia at Florence.
FxscHEB, Nieolaue Oermanue in Bntdeekungen der Normannen
in Amerika (Freiburg, 1902), 75-00, 113 aqq. (Eng. tr., tiondon.
1903), 72-86. 108 aqq.
Joseph Fischer. •
Nicole, Pierre, theologian and controversialist,
b. 19 October, 1625, at Chartres; d. 16 November,
1695, at Paris. He studied at Paris, became Master
of Arts, 1644, and followed courses in theology, 1645-
46. Under Sainte-Beuve's direction he applied him-
self earnestly to the study of St. Augustme and St.
Thomas, devoting part of his time to teaching in the
schools of Port-Royal. In 1649 he received the de-
free of Bachelor of Theology^ and then withdrew to
'ort-Royal des Champs, where he fell in with the Jan-
senistic leaders, especially Antoine Amauld, who
found in him a willing ally. He returned to Paris in
1654 imder the assumed name of M. de Rosny. Four
years later, during a tour in Germany, be translated
Pascal's "Provinciales" into classic Latin, adding
notes of his own and publishing the whole as the
work of William Wendrock. In 1676 he soudbt ad-
mission to Holy orders, but was refused by the Bishop
of Chartres and never got beyond tonsure. A letter,
which he wrote (1677) to Innocent XI in favour of the
Bishops of Saint-Pons and Arras, involved him in dif-
ficulties that obliged him to ouit the capital. In 1679
he went to Belgium and lived for a time with Amauld
in Brussels, Liege, and other cities. About 1683 de
Harlay, Archbishop of Paris, to whom he had sent a
sort of retractation, authorized Nicole to return to
Chartres, then to Paris. Here he took part in two cele-
brated controversies, the one involving Quietism in
which he upheld Bossuet's views, the other relating
to monastic studies in which he sided with MabiUon
against the Abb^ de Rancey . His last years were sad-
dened by painful infirmities and his death came after a
series of apoplectic attacks.
Pierre Nicole was a distinguished writer and a vig-
orous controversialist and, together with Pascal, con-
tributed much to the formation of French prose. As
a controversialist, he too frequently placed his talent
at the service of a sect ; however, many are of the opin-
ion that he did not wholly share the errors of the ma-
jority of the Jansenists. At any rate, we generally
find m him only a mitigated expression of these errors
clothed in great reserve. On the other hand, he started
the resistance fund knownr as "la botte k Perrette".
(See Jansenius.) Niceron (M^moires, XXIX, Paris,
1783) enumerates no less than eighty-eight of his
works, several of which were, however, very short.
The principal works of Nicole relating either to Prot-
estantism or Jansenism are: "Les imaginaires et les
visionnaires'' or "I^ttres sur Fh^r^sie imasinaire",
namely, that of the Jansenists (Li^e, 1667) ; ^' La per-
p6tuit^ de la foi catholique touchant TEucharistie",
published under Amaula's name, but the first three
volumes of which (Paris, 166^76) are by Nicole,
the fourth and fifth (Paris, 1711-13) by the Abb^
Renaudot ; " Pr^jug^s legitimes contre les Calvinistes"
(Paris, 1671); "La defense de rEglise" (Cologne,
NXCOUT 69
1689), being a reply to the "D^fenae de la Rdformar in chaige of sbtera, 28; students, 1800; nonnal school
tion" written by the minister, Claude, against the . for young ladies, 1; parochial schools, 500; children at-
"Pr^jug^i l^times''; ''Essais de morale" (Paris, tending parochial schools, 20,000; orphan asylums, 1;
1671-78); ''Lee pr^tendus R6form69 convaincus de orphans, 120; hospitals, 3; population: Catholic
schisme^' (Paris, 1684); "De Tunit^ de TEglise" or French Canadians, 90,000; Inah Canadians, 600;
"Refutation du nouveau syst^me de M. Jurieu" Protestants, 1800; total population, 92,400.
(Paris, 1687), a condensed and decisive criticism of the J.^S.-GLerman Bbxtnauut.
theory of the "fundamental «licl«;;; "R^fu^^ ^^^^ ^, Tudeschl ("abbas modemus" or "re-
des pnncipales erreurs des Qmdtistes" (Pans, 1695); *™*'f," TTuu ^^_:?«™»> II ««a^,i«l»»\^
"Initructlons thdologiques et morales sur le^ sacre^ ^^^ / ^^"^^ S'T'^ rS^^u^^nn^^^i^i*
ments" (Paris, 1706), ''sur le Symbole" (Paris, 1706), fen^ct^^e canonist, b. at Catam* iWit.'^^JfSSi
"sur roUson dominicale, la sSStation angdlique, la L^^^^^l^o^/ «e3^^^^^^^
171^^' oontAininir all that Nimlp W written at ^^ taught successively at Parma (1412-18), Siena
dSS^t ti^o^KWce- '^^^ (141^0), and Bologmi (1431-32). Meanwhile in
omerent tunes on grace, ii-aite ae i usure irans, ^^^^ ^^ ^^ ^^^^ ^^^^^ ^^ ^^^ monastery of Man-
Oouim, HiBtoire delavieeidea outngn dt NicoU (Pam, 1733) ; iacio. near Messina, whence his name " Abbaa " , to
BuoioNK. Vie <u Nicole in the HiHoire de Pari-Royai, V; (Both which has been added "modemus ' or "recentior"
of thewj authora are JansemBts and write ae such.) an anonymoua (in order to distinguish him from " Abbas antiquus",
Btoffrapky of Nicole in the Conixnttation de* eetaie de morale (Lux- 'i i.u;«i.„^«*u ^^^4>,.TLr ».«^««:«4- m^v.,*^ M,^ aU^«.4 i oqqn •
embuii. 1732) ; Cwiv»au. L'eepnt de NicoU (Paris. 1765) ; k«»- ? tlurteenth centuTV canomst who died about 1288; ,
■AJf. Peneiee de Nicole (Paris, 1806); Floos in Kirehenlex,, a. v.; he 18 also known as " Abbas SlCUlus" on acCOUnt of his
HuBTEB, Nomendator, u. Sicilian origin. In 1433 he went to Rome where he
J. HoBGET. exercised the functions of auditor of the Rota and
Nicolet, DiocESEOF(NicoLETANA),mtheProvince ;?;«?S^^\^T^^;h I?^^
of Quebec Canada, suffragan of Quebec. It com- Qjushed these offices and placed ^mseK at the serw^
nriflM thrmuntififl of Nioolet YamMka Arthabiwka ®^ Alfonso of Castile. King of Sicily, obtammg the
pnses tne counties oi XNicoiet, lamasKa, Artnaoasica, g^ ^ Palermo in 1435. whence his name "Panor-
Drummond, and a small part of Shefford and Bagot. iTu "„„>r i^, Jt^IuI ♦^^ ♦i^^rTj^J,
The see tak« its name from the town of Nicolet (^o- ?2^f,/ i,,^S^^Sa .f^W
ulation 3915), situated on the south bank of theSt ^'^^**® r°*u^"^®^^lX! ?"^i!^ ** ^* ^?v^^ ^u
T r^r-^Jl «^rwJ;*o T'T^ia-n;^A,^ paTty of this pontiff but subsequently alhed himself
r^^ ;,^^n JXK^; 11 T„lv iw« hv with the anti^e Felix V whoTin 1440, named him
It was erected mto a^bishopnc on 11 July, 1885, by ^,^;„„, j^^^ ''T,««faf«o a\. «««^iiS/i Roono«r,« "
separation from
first occupant o
He was bom on
Richelieu. Queb
1885, and died;
^Snisf i?f';KJf^ ™7Z S'^^^A^Q.rS^n^ gi^at^auti^rity; hr&o^'w;;te'"'%)'^iir"r"Qu';is:
occupant oi the see, was oom at bt-JLiavia, Quebec, on ?;^«^m ury^jrAui^^^n «rk;«,*..*„*;«-.*- !4:a^»4>»
10 jMuary, 1857; Educated at the eemini^ of nIco- ^^^ A .iwSf^nl'^^.iH '%^^tri^.il?^-^
let and tfie CaniLliaii CoUege. Rome; ordained, 29 i*°<?„*!!SiS>^*?S?^ '^f„Z^^JJ vS1,^7m
June im Hajd^minijte^twoyeai^inthecaih^ ^^4tB^^TedUtoL^A^Xl61^:
dral of St. Hyacinth and taught formany veani in the. ^8 (vS 'in 1^ foUo voiumi b e^aUy notable,
seminary of Nicolet, first as professor of hterature, "a^^ j6^oiiJ^ iJr (juX, "l«. d^nonicken BmM*,.
and then of theology, he was named coadjutor to Mgr ii (Stuttcut, 1877), 812-313; Sabbaoihi, Aoria documntata
Gravel and consecrated titular Bishop of Tubuna, 27 *^ ««i^ ?'»•»»•*» ^ Cofemia (C»toU. iSM), lo aq. Bbahdi-
^«ember, 1899jand succeeded as fiShop of Nioolet, ^^ S2^ "^ST^jJI^J^tS'to'^^^S^
28 January, 1904. The semmary of Nicolet was Bologna, 1 (Bologna, 1909), 1. 18-21.
founded in October, 1803, and affiliated to the Laval A. Van Hovb.
^Sfalr^l^iiSu^Sliiti^'StSli;?^ , ''?'?'T»"'ili^k^^b*'''^^^Si>"^^
The i^riouflln the diocese are as foUows: SoBurs de 5?"^ ^ inutators place the feast on this date. The
r AssomptSn de la Saintt^Vierge, teachers, founded at S,'rSS!i?n-'fS^-*M!S: ^TtJ^'^Z^H J^ n!Zn^
St-Gi^ire (Nioolet) m 1863, EaUs eighte^ housesin ^^.S^^Jh^ «M^^nT;«nr^L,SStn?M^^ ^S^
the di^sese; Soniis Crises (de Nicollo, hospitallers, S\i^!.Si^)^i'^„^* ^P^f*?^*, SnirSS
three houses; Congregation de Notre-D^e (of Mont^ . Martyrologium HieronymiMum , but was Jnsertwi
real), teachek, at^abaskaville, and Victoriaville; Si'^*^rTWhT„ri5?5^^4 lC"^^r h^^
Soeius de la Pr^ntation de la Bieni^eureuse Vieige Mai °? ??^ •R"''^T \i . ^™' }^,tli^}L3^K.3.
rie, teachers, at St-David and Drtumnondvilter&Euni «>•** >« without doubt a martyr of the ftoman Church.
Crises de u'Croix (of Ottawa), teachen and 'nurses, ?* T„''i^!lr.e,5,*i^?'' ^J^ ^.^TZ^
with academy and school of hoilse-keeping at St-Pran- ?5" *'^^. «^^ ?' that name Three seventh Mntuw
9oisduLac,iadaschoolatPierreville(^blnakiIndian SJ^"^!?,,^?^* A*'*,u':fZ^ tt'n^H! mt
^lage); Religieus« hospitaJiiies de St- Joseph (of S*"^ ^^w" ^ ^*?'«* <*«,?•'""'' ^l***^^ »l5,ut
Montreil), ho^itallers, at Arthabaskaville: So^s du ^l, ???** 8<>tt«™n«»^ - ^i J^fr/®)' „A *'*^"
Pr6cieux-Sang,'andSoei^dekSainte.FamifaeatNico- t3^\?i S??""' "Sw""!* v*5!!.S^^ **v^^„I1!
let; the F^ des Eooles Chr«iennes have schools at dedicated to him (Wu/m. S. Ifl^otn^). Nothmg w
Niiolet, ArthabaskaviUe, La Baie, and St^i^goire; the ^^^^ °^ the circunwtoncM of hw d^th. The 1^
FWree ^e Ui Charit6 ar^ at Druiunondville; and the 5^ *•»« martyrdom of Sts. Nereus and AohiUeus intro-
Prfties du Sacr^-CcBur teach at ArthabaskaViUe, and ^^rJ^'Sti^^t?'Z^?^'^i,?i^'t^^^^^l' ^l
VictoriaviUe. <?«i«raiStatM<tM.-Secular priests, 140; *^1?L*''* ^«* '^*'^li ^^'"^'•k^^^*.^ J^f
brothere, 120; sisten, 400; churches wfth resident 5"^7^°i? "t^*' ^"^^^^ ■"^^^^^^^If.Si
priests, ^; mi^on, 1 ; theolJ«icaI seminary, 1 ; coUege fA Y ^"P*"" Maximianus (begummg of the
j«nin«nr, 1 ; commeraal coffeges, and academies for '°!tS'ssTs^Z V, 8 «>q.: AnaUcia BM„M,na. XI. 2e8-ea;
boys, 11; students, 1500; acadenues for young ladies MomBmin, 5aiM<i«in«(tn, ll. iflo^i; BMMuea hatiatnrkiea
mCOMEDXA
70
moopoLZs
laiMta, ed. Bouanduts. II, 901-02; Ditvoitboq. Let Gmta Mar-
itftum romavM, I (Paru. 1900), 209-10; Mabdocbi, Le» eataeombea
nmainet (Rome. 1900). 254-56.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Nieomedia, titular see of Bithynia Prima, founded
by King Zipoetes. About 264 b. c. his son Nioodemes
I dedicated the cit^ aneWj gave it his name, made it
his capital, and aoomed it with ma^niificent monu-
ments. At his court the vanquished Hannibal sought
refuge. When Bithynia became a Roman province
Nicomedia remdned its capital. Pliny the Youneer
mentions, in his letters to Trajan, several public
edifices of the city, — a senate house, an aqueduct
which he had built, a forum, the temple of Cybele, etc.
He also proposed to join the Black Sea with the Sea of
Marmora by a canal which should follow the river
Sangarius and empty the waters of the Lake of
Sabandja into the Gulf of Astacus. A fire then almost
destroyed the town. From Nioomedia perhaps,
he wrote to Trajan his famous letter concerning tne
Christians. Under Marcus Aurelius, Dionysius,
Bishop of Corinth, addressed a letter to his commu-
nitv warning them against the Marcionites (Eusebius,
"Hist. EccT.", IV, xxiu). Bishop Evander, who
opposed the sect of the Ophites (P. L., LIII, 592),
seems to have lived at the same time. Nicomedia
was the favourite residence of Diocletian, who built
there a palace, a hippodrome, a mint, and an ar-
senal. In 303 the edict of the tenth persecution
caused rivers of blood to flow through the empire,
especially in Nicomedia^ where the Bishop Antiumus
and a great manv Christians were martyred. The
city was then half Christian, the palace itself being
filled with them. In 303, in the vast plain east 3
Nicomedia, Diocletian renounced the empire in favour
of Galerius. In 311 Lucian, a priest of Antioch, de-
livered a discourse in the presence of the judge before
he was executed. Other martyrs of the city are
numbered by hundreds. Nicomedia suffered greatly
during the fourth century from an invasion of the
Goths and from an earthquake (24 Aug., 354), which
overthrew all the public and private monuments: fire
completed the caUistrophe. The city was rebuilt, on
a snialler scale. In the reign of Justinian new public
buildings were erected, which were destroyed m the
following century by the Shah Chosroes. Pope Con-
stantino I visited the city in 711. In 1073 John
Comnenus was there proclaimed emperor and shortly
afterwards was compelled to abdicate. In 1328 it
was captured by the Sultan Orkhan, who restored its
ramparts, parts of which are still preserved.
Le Quien (Oriens Christ., I, 581-98) has drawn up
a list of fifty metropolitans, which may easily be com-
pleted, for Nicomedia has never ceased to be a met-
ropolitan see. Some Latin archbishops are also
mentioned by Le Quien (III, 1017) and by Eubel
(Hierarchia Catholica medii sevi, 1, 381 ) . As early as
the eighth century the metropolitan See of Nicomedia
had eight suffragan sees which disappeared by degrees.
Among its bishops, apart from tnose already men-
tioned, were: the three Arians, Eusebius, Eudoxius,
and Demophilus, who exchanged their see for that of
Constantinople; St. Theophylactus, martyred by the
Iconoclasts m the ninth century; George, a great
preacher and a friend of Photius^ Philotheus Bryen-
nios, the present titular, who discovered and pub-
lished AtJttx^ tQv 6i,vovTh\uv, To-day Nicomedia is
called Ismidt. the chief town of a sanjak directly de-
pendent on Constantinople. It has about 25,000 in-
nabitants, who are very poor, for the German port
of Haldar Pacha has completely ruined its commerce.
Since 1891 the Augustinians of the Assumption have
a mission and school, and the Oblates of the Assump-
tion, a school and a dispensary. The Latin Catholics
number about 250 in the region of the mission, seventy
of them living in the city. The Armenian Catholic
parish numbers 120.
TBxm. ii«M Minmtt (Pwu. 1862), 60-68; Cuniar, La Tur^
flttie d^Ane (Paiu). IV, 856-64.
S. Vailh£.
Nieopolifl, a titular see, suffragan ot Seba^teia, in
Armenia Prima. . Founded by Pompey after his de-
cisive victory over Mithridates, it was inhabited by
veterans of his army and by members of the neigh-
bouring peasantry, and was deli^tfully situated in a
beautiful, well-watered plain lymg at the base of a
thickly-wooded mountain. All the Roman highways
intersecting that portion of the country and leering to
Comana, Polemonium, Neocsesarea, Sebasteia, etc..
radiated from Nioopons which, even in the time of
Strabo (XII, iii, 28). boasted quite a large population.
Given to Polemon by Anthony, in 36 b. c, Nioopolis
was governed from a. d. 54, by Aristobulus of Chal-
cis and definitively annexed to the Roman Empire by
Nero, A. D. 64. It then became the metropolis of
Lesser Armenia and the seat of the provincial diet
which elected the Armeniarch. Besides the altar of
the Augusti, it raised temples to Zeus Nicephorus and
to Victory. Christianity reached Nioopolis at an early
date and, under Licinius, about 319, forty-five of the
city's inhabitants were martyred; the Church vener-
ates them on 10 July. St. Basil (P. G., XXXII, 896)
calls the priests of Nioopolis the sons of confessors and
mart3rr8, and their church (P. G., XXXII, 834) the
mother of that of Colonia. About 472, St. John the
Silent, who had sold his worldly goods, erected a
church there to the Blessed Virgin.
In 499 Nioopolis was destroyed by an earthquake,
none save the bishop and his two secretaries escaping
death (Bull. Acad, de Belgique, 1905, 557). This dis-
aster was irreparable, and although Justinian rebuilt
the walls and erected a monastery in memonr of the
Forty-five Mart3rr8 (Procopius, " Efe iEdificiis ' , III, 4),
Nioopolis never reguned its former splendour. Under
Heraclius it was captured by Chosroes (Sebeos, '' Hi»-
toire d'Heraclius'', tr. Macler, p. 62) and thenceforth
was only a mediocre dty^ a simple see and a suffragan
of Sebasteia in Lesser Armema, remaining sudi at
least until the eleventh century, as may be seen from
the various "Notitis episcopatuum". To^ay the
site of ancient Nioopolis is occupied by the Aircienian
village of Purkh, which has a population of 200 fami-
lies and is near the city of Enderes, in the saniak
of Kara-Hissar and the vilayet of Sivas. Notable
among the eight bishops mentioned by Le Quien is St.
Gregory who. in the eleventh centiiry, resigned his
bishopric and retired to Pithiviers in France. The
Church venerates him on 14 March.
Lb Quikn. Orien* ehrittianu* (Paris, 1740), I. 427-30; Ada
Sanetorumt July, III, 34-45; Cuiiont, Siudiea PonHca (Bruaaela,
1906). 304-14.
S. VAILHfi.
NicopoliB, Diocese of (Nioopoutana), in Bul-
garia. The city of Nioopolis (Thrace or Moesia), sit-
uated at the junction of the latrus with the Danube,
was built by Trajan in commemoration of his victory
over the Dacians (Ammianus Marcellinus, XXXI, 5;
Jomand^, "De rebus geticis", ed. Savagner, 218).
Ptolemy (III, xi. 7) places it in Thrace and Hierocles
in Moesia near the HsBmus or Balkans. In the ''Ec-
thesis" of pseudo-Epiphanius (Gelzer, "Ungedruckte
. . . Texte der Notitise episcopatuum'', 535), Nioo-
polis figures as an autocepnalous archbishopric about
640, and then disappears from the episcopal lists,
owing to the fact that the country fell into tne hands
of the Bulgarians. Le Quien (Oriens christianus, I,
1233) has preserved the names of two ancient bishops:
Marcellus in 458, and Amantius in 518. A list of the
Latin titulars (1354-1413) may be found in Eubel
(Hierarchia catholica medii sevi, Mttnster. I, 381).
The city is chiefly noted for the defeat of tne French
and Hungarian armies (25 September, 1396) which
made the Turics masters of the Balkan peninsula.
mcopous
71
NICOSIA
The Latin mission of Bulgaria, subject during the six-
teenth century to the Archbishops of Antivari, after-
wards received Franciscan missionaries from Bosnia,
and in 1624 formed an independent province callea
" custodia Bulgarise ". In 1763 it was confided to the
Baptistines of Genoa and in 1781 , to the Passionists
who have no canonical residences in the country, sim-
pW parishes. One of them is usually appointed
Bishop of Nicopolis. The Franciscan bishops for-
merly resided at Tchiprovetz, destroyed by the Turks
in 1688, but after the war and the pestilence of 1812,
the bishop established himself at (jioplea, a Catholic
village wnich the Bulgarians had just founded near
Bucharest and where his successors resided until 1883,
when the Holy See created the Archbishopric of Bu-
charest. The Bishop of Nicopolis, ceasing then to be
apostolic administrator of Wallachia, chose Roust-
cnouk as his residence and still lives there. In the
diocese there are 13,000 Catholics; 24 priests, 5 of
whom are seculars; 17 Passionists and 2 Assumption-
ists; 15 churches, and 3 chapels. The Assumptionists
have a school at Varna, the Oblates of the Assumption
a boarding-school in the same city, and the Sisters of
Our Lady of Sion a boarding-school at Roustchouk.
Ptolemy, ed. MOllbr, I (Paris), &1; Lb Roulx, La France en
Orient au XIV' aikcU, I (Paria. 1886). 211-99; Bchoe cTOrient,
YII (Paria). 207-9; Mieeitmee oaiholiea (Rome, 1907).
S. VailhA.
Nicopoli8> a titular see and metropolis in ancient
Epirus. Augustus founded the city (b. c. 31) on a
promontory in the Gulf of Ambracia, in commemora-
tion of his victory over Anthony and Cleopatra at
Actium. At Nicopolis the emperor instituted the
famous ouinquenmal Actian games in honour of
Apollo. The city was peopled chieflv by settlers from
the neighbouring municipiaf of which it was the head
(Strabo III, xiii, 3; VII, vii, 6; X, ii, 2). According
to Pliny the Elder (IV, 2) it was a free city. St. Paul
intended going there (Tit., iii, 12) and it b possible
that even then it numbered some Christians among
its population: Origen sojourned there for a while
(Eusebius, "Hist. eccl. ", VI, 16). Laid waste by the
Croths at the besinninff of the fif tii century (Procopius,
"Bell, goth.", IV, 22), restored by Justinian (Idem.
. "De iEdificiis", IV, 2), in the sixth centuiy it was still
the capital of Epirus (Hierocles, "Synecaemus'', ed.
Burchhardt^ 651, 4). The province of ancient Epirus
of which Nicopolis was the metropolis, constituted a
portion of the western patriarchate, curectly subject
to the jurisdiction of the pope; but, about 732, Leo
the Isaurian incorporated it into the Patriarchate of
Constantinople. Of the eleven metropolitans men-
tioned by Le Quien (Oriens christianus, II. 133-38)
the most celebrated was Alcison who, early in the
sixth century, oi)po8ed the Monophysite policy of
Emperor Anastasius. The last known of these bish-
ops was Anastasius, who attended the (Ecumenical
Council in 787, and soon afterwards, owing to the
decadence into which Nicopolis fell, the metropolitan
see was transferred to Naupactus which subsequently
figured in the Notitis episcopatuum. Quite exten-
sive ruins of Nicopolis are found three miles to the
north of Prevesa and are called Palaio-Prevesa.
Smith, Diet. Greek and Roman Oeographif, II (London, 1870),
426; LsAKS, Northern Greece, I, 185; WoLrs, Journal of Geo-
graphical Society, III, 92 aq.
S. Vailh^.
Nieofda, a city of the Province of Catania, in Sicily,
situated at a height of about 2800 feet above the level
of the sea. In its neighbourhood are salt mines and
sulphur springs. The town is believed to stand on the
site of the ancient Otterbita, which was destrojred by
the Arabs. It has a fine cathedral, with a magnificent
portal and paintings by Velasquez. Santa Maria
Maggiore, also, is a beautiful church. The episcopal
see was erected in 1818, its first prelate being Mgr
Cajetan M. Avema. Nicosia was the birthplace of
the Blessed Felix of Nicosia, a Capuchin lay brother.
Within the diocese is the ancient city of Triona, which
was an episcopal see from 1087 to 1090. Nicosia is a
suffragan of Messina, from the territory of which that
of Nicosia was taken; it has 23 parishes, with 60,250
inhabitants, 4 religious houses^f men, and 5 of women,
and 3 schools for girls.
Cappbllbtti, Le Ckieee d* Italia, XXI (Venice. 1857).
U. Benigni.
Nlcofda, TrruLAR Archdiocese of, in the Province
of Cyprus. It is now agreed (Oberhummer, "Aus
Cypem" in "Zeitschrift der Gesellschaft fttr Erd-
kunde", 1890, 212-14), that Ledra, Leucotheon,
Leucopolis, Leucosia^ and Nicosia are the same city,
at least the same episcopal see. Ledra is first men-
tioned by Sozomen (H. E., 1, 11) in Qonnexion with its
bishop, St. Triphyllius, who lived under Constantine
and whom St. Jerome (De scriptoribus ecclesiasticis),
pronounced the most eloquent of his time. Mention
IS made also of one of his disciples, St. Diomedes, ven-
erated on 28 October. Under the name of Leucosia
the city appears for the first time in the sixth century,
in the "Synecdemus'' of Hierocles (ed. Burckharcft,
707-8). It was certainly subsequent to the eighth
century that Leucosia or Nicosia replaced Constantia
as the metropolis of C3rprus, for at the (Ecumenical
Council of 787 one Constantine signed as Bishop of Con-
stantia; in any case at the conouest of the island in
1191 by Richard Cceur de Lion Nicosia was the capi-
tal. At that time Cyprus was sold to the Templars
who established themselves in the castle of Nicosia,
but not being able to overcome the hostility of the
people of the city, massacred the majority of the
inhabitants and sold Cyprus to Guy de Lusignan, who
founded a dvnasty there, of which there were fifteen
titulars, and did much towards the prosperity of the
capital. Nicosia was then made a Latin metropolitan
see with three suffragans, Paphos, limassol. and Fa-
magusta. The Greeks who had previously haa as man v
OB fourteen titulars were obliged to be content with
four bishops bearing the same titles as the Latins but
residing in different towns. The list of thirty-one Latin
archbiwops from 1196 to 1502 may be seen in Eubel,
''Hierarchia catholica medii sivV'^ I, 382; II, 224.
Quarrels between Greeks and Latins were frequent
and prolonged, especially at Nicosia, where the two
councils of 1313-60 ended in bloodshed: but in
spite of eversrthing the island prospered. Tnere were
man^r beautiful churches in the possession of the
Dominicans, Franciscans, Augustimans, Carmelites,
Benedictines, and Carthusians. Other churches be-
longed to the Greeks, Armenians, Jacobites, Maro-
nites, Nestorians etc. In 1489 Cyprus fell under the
dominion of Venice and on 9 November, 1570, Nicosia
fell into the power of the Turks, who committed atro-
cious cruelties. Nor was this the last time, for on 9
July, 1821, during the revolt of the Greeks in the Ot-
toman Empire, mey strangled many of the people
of Nicasia, among them the four Greek bishops of the
island. Since 4 June, 1878, C3rpru8 has been under
the dominion of England. Previously Nicosia was
the residence of the Mutessarif of the sandjak which
dep>ended on the vilayet of the Archipelago. Since
the Turkish occupation of 1571 Nicosia has been the
permanent residence of the Greek archbishop who
governs the autonomous church of Cyprus^ The
city has 13,000 inhabitants. The Franciscans admin-
ister the Catholic mission which is dependent on the
Latin Patriarchate of Jerusalem, and has a school for
bovs. The Sisters of St. Joseph have a school for
girls.
Lb QursN, Oriens ehriatianue, II (ParU, 1740), 1076; Ada
Sanctorum, III Junii, 174-78; Analecla BoUandiana (Brunels,
1907), 212-20; Mas Latub, Hietoire dee Archet4quee latine de
Vtle de Chypre (Genoa. 1^2) ; Hackbtt, A History of the Orthodox
Church of Cyprus (London, 1001), paaaim; Phranooudbb, Cyprus
(Athena, 1890), in Greek; Cbambbblatnb, Lacrim4B Nicosienses
(Paria. 1894). g. VaILHA.
iticoTxfiA
^2
knooterm and Tropea, Diocesb of (Nicotsren-
BiB ST Tbopeiensis), suffragaxi of Reggio di Calabria.
Nicotera, the ancient Medama, is a city of the Province
of Catanxaro. in Calabria, Itahr; it was destroyed by
the earthquake of 1783. Its m*st known bishop was
Proculus, to whom, with others, a letter of St. Gregory
the Great was written in 599. With the exception of
Sergius (787), none of its bishops is known earlier
than 1392. Under Bishop Charles Pinti, the city was
pillaged by the Turks. In 181 8, it was united on equal
terms {cpque principaliter) with the Diocese of Tropea.
This city is situated on a reef, in the gulf of St. Euphe-
mia connected with the mainland bv a narrow strip.
It is the birthplace of the painter Span6, the anato-
mists Pietro and Paolo Voiani, and the philosopher
Pasquale Galluppi. It has a beautiful cathedral, re-
stored after its destruction by the earthquake of 1783.
Here the Greek Rite was formerly used. Only three
bishops before the Norman conquest are known; the
first, Joannes, is referred to the year 649; among its
other prelates was Nicol6 Acciapori (1410). an emi-
nent statesman. The diocese has 72 parishes, with
78,000 inhabitants, a Franciscan nouse, and a house
of the Sisters of Charity.
CAPPXLLrm, Le Chit— d^ Italia, XXI.
U. Benigni.
Nicth«roy, Diocesb of. See Petbopolib.
Nlder, John, theologian, b. 1380 in SVabia; d. 13
August, 1438, at Colmar. He entered the Order of
Preachers at Colmar and after proiiession was sent to
Vienna for his philosophical studies, which he finished
at Colof^e where he was ordained. He gained a wide
reputation in Germany as a preacher and was active
at the Council of Constance. After making a study
of the convents of his order of strict observance in
Italy he returned to the Universitv of Vienna where in
1425 he began teaching as Master of Theology.
Elected prior of the Dominican convent at Nurem-
berg in 1427, he successively served as socius to his
master general and vicar of the reformed convents of
the German province. In this capacity he main-
tained his early reputation of reformer and in 1431 he
was chosen prior of the convent of strict observance at
Basle. He became identified with the Council of
Basle as theologian and legate, making several em-
bassies to the Hussites at the command of Cardinal
Julian. Sent as legate of the Council to the Bohe-
mians he succeeded in pacifying them. He joume^^ed
to Ratisbon (1434) to efifect a further reconciliation
with the Bohemians and then proceeded to Vienna to
continue his work of reforming the convents there.
During the discussion that followed the dissolution
of the Council of Basle by Eugene IV, he joined the
party in favour of continuing the Council in Germany,
abandoning them, however, when the pop>e' remained
firm in his decision. He resumed his theological lec-
tures at Vienna in 1436 and was twice electea dean of
the university before his death. As reformer he was
foremost in Germany and welcomed as such both by
his own order and by the Fathers of the Council of
Basle. As a theologian his adherence to the princi-
ples of St. Thomas and his practical methods made
nim distinguished among his contemporaries. The
most important among his many writings is the '' For-
micarius^' (5 vols.^ Douai, 1602) a treatise on the phil-
osophical^ theological, and social questions of his day.
Among his theological works are the following: '^Com-
mentarius in IV libros Sententiarum'' (no longer ex-
tant); "PrsBceptorum divine legis" (Douai, 1612,
seventeen other editions before 1500); '^Tractatus de
contractibus mercatorum" (Paris, 1514, eight edi-
tions before 1500); ''Consolatorium timoratse consci-
entiffi" (Rome, 1604); "De Morali lepra" (Regia,
1830) ; " Manuale ad instructionem spiritualium Pas-
torum" (Rome, 1513); "Alphabetum Divini Amoris"
(Antwerp, 1705, in works of Geison); "De modo bene
Vivendi" (commonly atttributed to St. Bernard) ; "De
Reformatione Religiosorum Libri Tres" (Paris, 1512;
Antwerp, 1611). Besides these there are several letters
written to the Bohemians and to the Fathers of Uie
Council of Basle, printed in "Monum. Concil. Gen-
eral., ssc. XV, Concil. Basil. Scrip.", I (Vienna, 1857).
QtriTiP-EcHABO. Scrijdore* O. P., I. 792 sqq.; II, 822; Touron.
Histoiredtt Hommet iUtuire* de Fordre de St. Dominique^ III, 218-
76; ScHiSLBB in Kirchenlez, q. v. Nider; Ck>LVENSSzuB, J. Nider
Pormieariiu (Douai, 1602); Btsill, Ord. Prod. Bphemeridee
Domineano-Mcra, II (Dilling, 1692), 230; Schiblkb, Mogitttr
Johannee Nider^ aiu dem Orden der Predioer-BrHder (MainB,
1885); AnrUe Daminieaine, VII (1896). 731-46; Hain. Rep. Bibl.,
Ill (1831); BBumB, Predigercrden in Wien (1867); Chbvauks,
Ripertoire dee Scurcee hietoriquee du Moyen Age, II, 3360.
Ignatiub Smith.
Ntoreniberff y Otin, Juan Eubebio, noted theolo-
gian and polygraphist, b. of German parents at Mad-
rid, 1595; d. there, 1658. Having studied the classics
at the Court, he went to Alcaic for the sciences and
from there to Salamanca for canon law, where he en-
tered the Society of Jesus in 1614, much against the
wishes of his father who finally obliged him to leave
the novitiate of Villagarcfa. He remained firm in his
resolution and was permitted to return to Madrid to
finish his probation. He studied Greek and Hebrew
at the Colegio de Huete, arts and theology at Alcald,
and was ordained in 1623, making his profession in
1633. At the Colegio Imperial of Madrid he taught
humanities and natural history for sixteen years and
Sacred Scripture for three. As a director of souls he
was much soueht^being appointed by royal command
confessor to the Duchess of Mantua, granddaughter
of Philip II. Remarkable for his exemplary Ufe, and
the heights of prayer to which he attained, he was an
indefatigable worker, and one of the most prolific
writers of his time. Sevent^r-three printed and eleven
manuscript works are attributed to him; of these,
twenty-four at least are in Latin. Though his works
are distinguished for their erudition, those in Spanish
being characterized according to Capmani, by nobil-
ity and purity of diction, terse, well-knit phrases, for-
cible metaphors, and vivid imagenr, certain defects
mar his style, at times inelegant and mariced by a cer-
tain disregard for the rules of grammar and a too pro-
nounced use of antithesis, paronomasia, and other
plays upon words. Lack ot a true critical faculty *
often detracts from the learning. The Spanish Acad-
emy includes his name in the '' Diccionario de
Autoridades". His principal works are: (1) "Del
Aprecio y Estima de la Divina Gracia'' (Madrid,
1638), editions of which have been issued at Sara-
gossa, Barcelona. Seville, Majorca, also a second edi-
tion of the Maorid edition; it has been translated
into Italian, French. Latin, German, Panayano, and
condensed into English (New York, 1866, 1891): (2)
"De la Diferencia entre lo Temporal y Etemo" (Ma-
drid, 1640), of which there are fifty-four Spanish edi-
tions, and translations into Latin, Arabic, Italian,
French, German, Flemish, and English (1672, 1684,
1884), Portuguese, Mexican, Guaranian, Chiquito,
Panayano; (3) "Opera Parthenica" (Lyons, 1659), in
which he defends the Immaculate Conception of the
Blessed Virgin, basing it upon new, althou(;h not al-
ways absolutely reliable, documents; (4) "Historiana-
tur» maxime peregrins Libris XVI, distincta" (Ant-
werp, 1635); (5) "De la afici6n y amor de Jestis . . .
Idem de Maria" (Madrid, 1630), of which there are
five Spanish editions and translations into Latin,
Arabic, German, Flemish. French, Italian, Portu-
guese, and an English translation of the first edition
(1849, 1880); one edition of (6) "Obras Christianas
espirituales y filos6fica8" (Madrid, 1651, fol. 3 vols.),
and one of (7) "Obras Christianas" (Madrid, 1665,
fol. 2 vols.), are still extant. It was customanr in
many of the Spanish churches to read selections from
these books every Sunday.
Andradb, Varonee iluetree de la Compalkia de JeeiU, VIII (2na
e(L, Bilbao (1891), 691^766; Capmani t om Momtpalav. Teatro
NDBSUNBIBOIB
73
mOBBU
Biat&rieo erUieo de la Bloeu^neia MptMoia, V (Baroelona, 1848),
271; R. P. Joannia Buatbii Nxerembergii « SocietaU Jetu Opera
PoAhenioa. . . . Vita Ven, PatrU. . . . ColUata ex hU qua Am-
panioe §crip$erunt PP. Alphon»u$ de Andrade et Joannee de Yoarza
eiua. 8oe. (LyooB, 1669) ; Sommbrvoobz*, Bibliot., V, 1725; Quil-
KCBifT. MhtMoae de la Compagnie de Jieue, Aeeietance d^Bepagne,
pt. I (Paris. 1902).
Antonio P^bez Gotbna.
Niossenberger, Hans, an architect of the latter
part of the Middle Ages, whose name is mentioned
with comparative frequency in contemporaneous lit-
erature. But information about his personality and
. his works is somewhat more difficult to find. It seems
however, that he was bom in Gratz, Styria (''Seckauer
Kirchenschmuck", 1880, p. 56). He worked on the
choir of the Freiburg cathedral from 1471 to 1480; in
the latter year he was compelled to leave the tadk of
building and to swear that he would not trv to revenge
himself for this. In 1480 he worked on the church of
St. Leonhard at Basle; in 1482, on the cathedral at
Strasburg; and in the following year he probably was
engaged on the ^at cathedralof Milan with a yearly
Ba&Tv of 180 guilders — ^at least there is a "Johannes
of Graz" mentioned as architect in Ricci, ''Storia
dell' archit. italiana"^ II, 388. The choir at Freiburg
was turned over to him in 1471; the contract is inter-
esting and instructive, showing as it do^ the manner
in which buildings of this kind were erected during the
latter part of the Middle Ages, and how the working
hours, wages, etc., were determined upon (Schreiber,
"Miinster zu Freiburg", Appendix, 15 sq.). The
choir possesses great beauty, but it also manifests the
peculiarities of Late Gothic. It is long^ like the main
church, with the nave higher, the side aisles lower and
somewhat narrower than in tne front, and surrounded
by twelve chapels, enclosed on two sides by fluted
columns. The arched roof, supported by beautifully
carved columns, forms a network. The windows are
characteristically Late Gothic, and the arches are
wonderfully dehcate. The whole is the work of a
master,
ScHRSXBBR, op. cU.; KuQUBR, Oetch. dor Baukunat, II (1859);
Orra, Kuna^ArckOolooie (6th ed., 1884) ; Kbmpv, Dae MUnater tu
Freilntrg im Breiegau (Freiburg, 1898).
G. Gibtmann.
Nigwr (NiGRi. Ger. Schwariz), Peter George,
Dominican theologian, preacher and controversialist,
b. 1434 at Kaaden in Bohemia; d. between 1481 and
1484. He studied at different universities (Sala-
manca, Montpellier, etc.), entered the order in 1452
at Eichstatt, Bavaria, and after his religious pro- frontier of Sierra Leone and Liberia, enters Nigeria
fession took up philosophy and theology at Leip- above Ilo, receives the Sokoto River at Gomba, and
zig, where he also produced his first literary work liie Benue at Lokodja, the chief tributaries in English
''De modo prtsdicandi" (1457). In 1459 he defended territory. Though the establishment of the English
publicly in Freiburg a series of theses so success- dates only from 1879, numerous explorers had long be-
fully that the provincial chapter then in session fore reconnoitred the river and the neighbouring coun-
there sent Mm to the University of Bologna for ad- try. .^jmong the most famous were Mungo Park
vanced courses in theology and canon law. Recalled (1795-1805), Clapperton (1822), Ren6 Caill6 (1825),
after two years, he was made lector of theology and Lander^ Barth, Mage, and recently the French officers
engaged in teaching and preaching. In 1465 he Gallium, Mizon, Hourst, and Lenf ant. In 1879, on the
taught philosophy and was regent of studies in Co- initiative of Sir Geoi|;e Goldie, the English societies
logne; in 1467 taught theology at Ulm; in 1469 or established in the region purchased all the French and
1470 was elected pnor in Eichst&tt; on 31 May, 1473^ foreign trading stations of Lower Ni^er and in 1885
obtiJned a royal charter which constituted them the
"Royal Company of the Niger". The Royal Com-
pany developed rapidly and acquired immense terri-
tories, often at the cost of bloodshed. The monopoly
of navigation which it claimed to exercise, contrary to
the stipulations of the General Act of Berlin, its opi)o-
Corvinus, King of, Hungary, he became rector of his sition to the undertakings of France and Germany, ite
newly-erected Academy of philosophy, theology, and encroachments on neighbouring territories, aroused
Sacred Scripture at Buda, in gratitude for which numerous diplomatic quarrels which finally brought
honour he dedicated to his royal friend his "Cly- about the revocation of its privileges (1 Jan., 19()0).
peus Thomistarum adversus omnes doctrime doctoris ' It then became a simple commercial company with
angelid obtrectatores" (Venice, 1481), in which he enormous territorial possessions; the conqueredlands,
defends the teaching of St. Thomas against the reunited to the old jProtectorate of the Niger 0)ast
Scotists and Nominalists. Niger ranks among the organized in 1884, constituted the British colony of
most eminent theologians and preachdtB of the latter
half of the fifteenth century. He was a keen disciple
of St. Thomas, zealous for the integrity of his teach-
ings and adhering strictly to the traditions of his
school. In his few theoloocal works he limits him-
self almost entirely to the discussion of abstract ques-
tions of logic and psychology. He devoted most of
his time to preachmg to the Jews. He had learned
their language and become familiar with their liter-
ature at Salamanca and Montpellier by associating
with Jewish children and attendms the lectures of the
rabbis. At Ratisbon, Worms, and Frankfort-on-the-
Main he preached in German, Latin, and Hebrew,
frequently challenging the rabbis to a disputation.
He wrote two anti-Jewish works, one in Latin,
''Tractatus contra Perfidos Judffios'' (Esslingen,
1475). which is probably tlie earliest printed anti-
Jewian work, ana in which he severely attacked the
Jews and the Talmud. The other, written in German,
is entitled "Stem des Messias'^ (Esslingen, 1477).
Reuchlin in his ''Augenspiegel" declared them ab-
surd. Both works are furnished with appendices
giving the Hebrew alphabet in Hebrew and Latin
tvpe, rules of grammar and for reading Hebrew, the
Decalogue in Hebrew, some Messiamc texts from
the Old Testament, etc. They are among the earli-
est specimens of Hebrew printing in Germany, and
the first attempt at Hebrew grammar in that country
by a Christian scholar. They were afterwards pub-
lished separately as '^Conunentatio de primis lingusD
Hebraicffi elementis'' (Altdorf, 1764). Peter Teuto,
O.P. (Qu6tif, I, 855). and Peter Eystettensis (Eck,
"Chrysopassus Cent. , XLIX) are most probably to
be identified with Peter Niser.
Qnitir-EcHABD, SS. Ord. Proa,, I, 861 aqq.; Toubon, Horn.
lU. de Vcrdre de S. Dom., III. 632-31; Rbusch. AUg. d. Biogr.,
XXXIII, 247 sq.; Jocher, AUg. Odehrienlexikon, b. v.; Pkantl,
Oeeeh. der Logik im Abendl. (Leipiig. 1870). 221 sq.; KalhoUk, I
(1891). 574; II (1902), 310; AnaUda Ord.'Prad,, 11. 367; WoLr,
BihlioUieca Hebraica (Hamburg. 1721). II, 17, 1037. 1110 sqq.;
IV, 525 sqq.
Joseph Schrobdbr.
Nigeria, Upper and Lower, a colony of British
East Africa extending from the Gulf of Guinea to
Lake Chad (from 4** 30' to 7° N. lat., and from 5^ 30'
to 8° 30' E. long.), is bounded on the north and west
by French Sudan, on the south-west by the Ekiglish
colony of Lagos, on the south by the Atlantic, on the
east b]^ German Kamerun. It derives its name from
the luver Niger, flowing throu^ it. The Niger,
French from its source in the Gumean Sudan to the
the newly founded University of Ingolstadt conferred
on him the degree of Doctor of theology; in 1474 he
taught theology in the convent at Ratisbon and in
1478 became professor of Old-Testament exegesis in
the University of Ingolstadt. Shortly after, upon
the invitation of the patron of learmng, Matthias
mHIUSM
74
Nigeria. France, however, retained two colonies at
Baajibo-Arenberg and at Forcados; navigation was
free to all.
Politically Nigeria is divided into two provinces,
Southern or Lower Nigeria, Northern or Upper Ni-
feria, separated by the parallel which passes through
da. Each division is governed by a high commissioner
named directly by the Crown. Northern Nigeria with
an area of over 123,400 square miles is as yet only
?artly settled, and has mne constituted provinces,
'he ancient capital, Gebha, is now replaced oy Wush-
ishi on the Kaduna. The chief cities are Lokodja. Ilo,
Yola, Gando, Sokoto, Kano, etc. Kano, situatea two
hundred miles to the north, is a remarkable city and
one of the largest markets of the whole world. For
more than a thousand years the metropolis of East
Africa, Kano contains about fifty thousand inhab-
itants, is surrounded by walls buUt of hardened clay
from twenty to thirty ft. high and fifteen miles in
circiunference. Every year more than two million
natives go to Kano to exchange their agricultural
products or their merchandise. The chief articles
of commerce are camels, cattle, ivory, sugar, ostrich
plumes, and kola nuts. Kano is also a great indus-
trial centre, renowned for its hides and its cotton
materials; sorghum and many kinds of vegetables and
cereals are cultivated. The natives are very good
workmen, especially in the cultivation of the fields.
Although nominally subject to England, some chiefs,
or sultans, have remained almost independent, for in-
stance those of Sokoto and Nupe. English money,
however, has circulated everywhere and three-penny
f)ieces are very popular. Northern Nigeria has a popu-
ation of about fifteen million inhabitants, divided into
several tribes, each speaking its own tongue, the chief
of which are the Yorubas, the Nupes, the Haussas,
and the Igbiras. English is the official language of the
administration.
Constantly pressing to the south, Islam has pene-
trated as far as the markets of the Lower Niger, and
carries on a vigorous proselytism, aided by the repre-
sentatives of the English Government. Mussulman
chiefs and instructors are often appointed for the
fetishistic population. Powerful English I^testant
missions have unsuccessfully endeavoured to gain a
foothold. Catholic missionaries explored a portion of
these same regions as early as 1883, out only now have
they undertaken permanent establishments. Nigeria
is divided into two prefectures AfMstolic; that of the
Upper Niger is confided to the Society of African Mis-
sions of Lyons (1884), and that of the Lower Niger to
the Fathers of the Holy Ghost (1889). The first com-
prises all the territory west of the Niger from For-
cados and north of the Benue to Yola. Its limits were
only definitively constituted by the decrees of 15 Janu-
ary and 10 May, 1894. The prefect Apostolic resides
at Lokodja. The mission is chiefly develooied in the
more accessible part of Southern Nigeria, where Islam
is still almost a stranger. Its chief posts, besides Lo-
kodja, are Assaba, Ila, Ibs^l^, Ibi, Idu, etc. The
twenty missionaries are assi:>ted by the Religious of
the Queen of the Apostles (Lyons) ; in 1910 there were
about 1500 Catholics and an equal number of catechu-
mens. The Prefecture Apostolic of the Lower Niger
comprises all the country situated between the Niger,
the Benue, and the western frontier of German Kam-
erun. Less extensive than that of the Upper Niger^ its
population is much more dense, almost wholly fetish-
istic, and even cannibal. Towns of five, ten, and
twenty thousand inhabitants are not rare ; the popula-
tion is chiefly agricultural, cultivating the banana and
the yam. In the delta and on Cross River the palm
oil harvest is the object of an active commerce. Sev-
eral tribes are crowded into these fertile districts; the
Ibo, Nri, Munchis, Ibibio^ Ibani, Ibeno, Efik, Akwa,
Aro, ete. Their religion is fetishism, with ridiculous
and cruel practices often admitting of human sacri-
fices, exacted by the ju-ju (a corruption of the native
word egugu)f a fetish which is supposed to contain the
spirit of an ancestor; but purer religious elements are
found beneath all these superstitions, belief in God.
the survival of the soul, distinction between good ana
evil, ete.
The Mussulmans are located in important centres
such as the market of Oniteha. Moreover, wherever
the English Government employs Haussas as militia
the latter carry on an active propaganda, and where
they araa movement towaros Islam is discernible.
This is the case at Calabar, Lagos, Freetown, and nu-
merous points in the interior and on the coast. Eng>
lish Protestant missions have long since penetrat<Ml
into this country and have expended, not without
results, enormous sums for propaganda. Native
churches with pastors and bishops have even been or*
ganized on the Niger, constituting what is called the
native pastorate. At Calabar the United Presbyte-
rian Church dates from 1846, strongly established
throu^out the country. In 1885 the Catholic mis-
sionaries of Gabon established themselves at Oniteha,
the centre of the Ibo country and a city of twenty
thousand inhabitants. Several native kings, among
them the Kine of Oniteha, have been converted, nu-
merous schoob have been oiganized^ towns ana vil-
lages everywhere have asked for missionaries, or lack-
ing them, for catechists. Until 1903 no establishment
could be made at Calabar, the seat of the Government
and the most important commercial centre of South-
em Nigeria, but once founded the Catholic mission
became very popular, adherents came in crowds, the
schools were filled to overflowing. There is need of
labourers and resources for the immense harvest.
The Fathers of the Holy Ghost are seconded in their
efforts by the Sisters of St. Joseph of Cluny. The
progress of evangelization seems to necessitate in the
near future the division of the mission into two pre-
fectures, one of which will have its centre at Oniteha,
the other at Calabar.
MtMuma catholique* au XIX* tiMfi; Aficnofu d'Afrigue (Pftrit,
1902); Miwonet CatholiccB (Rome, 1907).
A. Le Rot.
Nihilism. — ^The term was first used by Turgeniev in
hisnovel, "Fathers and Sons" (in "Russkij V&tnik",
Feb., 1862) : a Nihilist is one who bows to no authority
and accepts no doctrine, however widespread, that is
not supported by proof. The nihilist theory was for-
mulated bv Cemysevskij in his novel "Cto delat"
(What shall be done, 1862-64), which forecasts a new
social order constructed on the ruins of the old. But
essentially. Nihilism was a reaction against the abuses
of Russian absolutism; it originated with the first
secret political society in Russia founded by Pestel
(1817), and its first effort was the miUtary revolt of
the Decembrists (14 Dec, 1825). Nicholas I crushed
the uprising, sent its leaders to the scafifold and one
hundred and sixteen participants to Siberia. The
spread (1830) of certain philosophical doctrines (He-
gel, Saint-Simon, Fourier) brought numerous recruits
to Nihilism, especially in the universities; and, in
many of the cities, societies were organized to com-
bat absolutism and introduce constitutional govern-
ment.
Theoretical Nihilism. — Its apostles were Alexan-
der Herzen (1812-70) and Michael Bakunin (1814-
76), both of noble birth. The fonner, arrested (1832)
as a partisan of liberal ideas, was imprisoned for eight
months, deported, pardoned (1840), resided in Mos-
cow till 1847 when he migrated to London and there
founded (1857) the weekly periodical, "Kolokol"
(Bell), and later "The Polar Star". The "Kolokol"
published Russian political secrets and denunciations
of the Government; and, in spite of the police, made ite
way into Russia to spread revolutionary ideas. Her-
zen, inspired by Hegel and Feurbach, proclaimed the
destruction of the existing order; but he did not advo-
NIHILISM
75
NIHILISM
cate violent measures. Hence his younger followers
wearied of him; and on the other hand his defense of
the Poles during the insurrection of 1863 alienated
many of his Russian sjrmpathizers. The "Kolokol"
went out of existence in 1868 and Herzen died two
years later. BsJcunin was extreme in his revolution-
ary theories. In the first number of "L' Alliance In-
ternationale de la Dtoocratie Socialiste'^ founded by
him in 1869, he openly professed Atheism and called
for the abolition of marriage, property, and of all so-
cial and religious institutions. His advice, given in
bis ''Revolutionary Catechism", was: ''Be severe to
yourself and severe to others. Suppress the senti-
ments of relationship, friendship, love, and gratitude.
Have only one pleasure, one joy, one rewarff—the tri-
umph of the revolution. Night and day, have only
one thought, the destruction of everything without
pity. Be ready to die and ready to kill any one who
opposes the triumph of your revolt." Bakunin thus
opened the way to nihilistic terrorism.
Propaganda (1867-77). — It began with the forma-
tion (1861-62) of secret societies, the members of
which devoted their lives and fortunes to the dissemi-
nation of revolutionary ideas. Many of these agita-
tors, educated at Zurich. Switzerland, returned to
Russia and gave Nihilism tne support of trained intelli-
gence. Prominent among them were Sergius Ne6aev,
master of a parochial school in St. Petersburg, who was
in constant communication with nihilist centers in
various cities, and Serous Koyalin who established
thirteen associations m Cemigor. These societies
took their names from their founders — ^the Malikovcy,
Ijavrists, Bi^msts, etc. They enrolled seminarists,
univerraty students, and young women. Among the
working men the propaganda was conducted in part
through free schools. The promoters engagea in
humble trades as weavers, blacksmiths, and carpenters,
and in their shops inculcated nihilist doctrine. The
peasantry was reached by writings, speeches, schools,
and personal intercourse. Even the nobles shared in
this work, e. g.. Prince Peter Krapotkin, who, under the
pseudonym of Borodin, held conferences with work-
ingmen. As secondary centres, taverns and shops
served as meeting-places, depositories of prohibited
books, and, in case of need, as places of refuge. Though
without a central Organization the movement spread
throughout Russia, notably in the region of the Volga
and in that of the Dnieper where it gained adherents
among the Cossacks. The women in particular dis-
played energy and self-sacrifice in their zeal for the
cause. Many were highly cultured and some belonged
to the nobitity or higher classes, e. g., Natalia Armfeld,
Barbara BatiuSkova, Sofia von Herzfeld, Sofia Pero-
vakaja. They oo-operated more especially through
the schools.
The propaganda of the press was at first conducted
from foreign parts: London, Geneva, Zurich. In thb
latter city there were two printing-offices, established
in 1873, where the students published the works of
Lavrov and of Bakunin. The first secret printing-
office in Russia, founded at St. Petersburg in 1861,
published four numbers of the Velikoruss. At the
same time there came to Russia, from London, copies
of the "Proclamation to the New Generation" (Kmo-
lodomu pokolSniju), and "Young Russia" (Molodaja
Rosija), which was published in the following year.
In 1862, another secret printing-office, establiSied at
Moscow, published the recital of the revolt of 14 De-
cember, 1825, written by Ogarev. In 1862. another
secret press at St. Petersbura published revolutionary
proclamations for officers of the army; and in 1863,
there were published in the same city a few copies of
the daily papers, "Svoboda" (Liberty) and "Zemlja
i Volja'^ (The Earth and Liberty); the latter contin-
ued to be published in 1878 and 1879, under the edi-
torship, at first, of Marco Natanson, and later of the
student, Alexander Mihailov, one of the ablest or-
ganizers of Nihitism. In 1866, a student of Kazan,
Elpidin, published two numbers of the "Podpolnoe
Slovo", which was succeeded by the daily paper, the
"Sovremennost" (The Contemporary), and later, by
the "Narodnoe D^lo" (The National Interest), which
was published (1868-70), to disseminate the ideas of
Bakunin. Two numbers of the "Narodnaja Ras-
prava" (The Tribunal of Reason) were published in
1870, at St. Petersburg and at Moscow. In 1673,
appeared the "Vpred" (ForwardI), one of the most
esteemed periodicals of Nihilism, having salient social-
istic tendencies. A volume of it appeared each year.
In 1875-76, there was connected with the "Vpred",
a small bi-monthly supplement, which was under the
direction of Lavrov until 1876. when it passed under
the editorship of Smironv, ana went out of existence
in the same year'. It attacked theolo^cal and reli-
gious ideas, proclaiming the equafity of n^ts, freedom
of association, and justice for the proletariat. At Gre-
neva,'in 1875 and 1876, the "Rabotnik" (The Work-
man) was published, which was edited in the style
of the people; the "Nabat" (The Tocsin) appeared
in 1875, directed by Tha6cv; the "Narodnaja Volja"
(The Will of the People), in 1879, and the "Cemyi
Peredgl", in 1880, were published in St. Petersburg.
There was no fixed date for any of these pi4)erB, and
their contents consisted, more especially, of proclama-
tions, of letters from revolutionists, and at times, of
sentences of the Executive Committees. These prmt-
ing offices also produced books and pamphlets and
Russian translations of the works of Lassalle, Marx,
Proudhon, and BUchner. A government stienogra-
pher, M3r§kin. in 1870, established a printing-office,
through whicn several of Lassalle's works were pub-
lished; while many pamphlets were published by the
Zemlja i Volja Committee and by tne Free Russian
Printmg-Office. Some of the pamphlets were pub-
lished under titles like those of tne books for chilaren,
for example, "DSdudka Egor" (Grandfather Esor),
"Mitiu&ka", Stories for the Workingmen, and others,
in which the exploitation of the people was deplored,
and the immunity of capitalists assailed. Again,
some publications were printed in popular, as well as
in cultured, language; and, in order to allure the peas-
ants, these_painphlets appeared at times, under such
titles as "The Satiate and the Hungry": "How Our
Country Is. No Longer Chirs". But all this propa-
ganda, which required considerable energy and sacri-
ce, did not produce satisfactory results. Nihilism
did not penetrate the masses; its enthusiastic apostles
committed acts of imprudence that drew upon them
the ferocious reprisals of the Government; the peasants
had not faith in the preachings of those teachers,
whom, at times, they regarded as government spies,
and wnom, at times, they denounced. The books ana
pamphlets that were distributed among the country
people often fell into the hands of the Hnovniki (gov-
ernment employees), or of the popes. Very few ofthe
Eeasants knew how to read. Accordingly, Nihilism
ad true adherents onlv among students of the uni-
versities and higher schools, and among the middle
classes. The peasants and workmen did not under-
stand its ideals of destruction knd of social revolution.
NiHiUBT Terrorism. — Propagation of ideas was
soon followed by violence: 4 April, 1866. Tsar Alex-
ander II narrowly escaped the shot fired bv Deme-
trius Karakozov, and in consequence took severe
measures (rescript of 23 Ma^, 1866) against the revo-
lution, making the universities and the press objects
of special vigiumce. To avoid detection and sparing,
the Nihilists formed a Central Executive Committee
whose sentences of death were executed by "punish-
er8'\ Sub-committees of from five to ten members
were also organized and statutes (12 articles) drawn
up. The applicant for admission was required to con-
secrate his life to the cause, sever ties of family and
friendship, and observe absolute secrecy. Disobedi'^
Hmro 76
ence to the head of the association was punishable {Hiatary of Touno R^una] (Moooow, 1908); Rudolv Ubba, Dm
with death. The Government, in turn, enacted ««o'«<^ »» ^^•^^J^. ^oi*-. P."«^i9(g); Loonk- aw
^,4*i»<>nf ltt«r« «»«;•«<>* .<w.,w,^ <»L:^^:^ ««Ji uZ!««i.* Silbbb, Terronetet H polteters (Pans. 1909); Byloe {The Pa$l),
Stringent laws against secret societies and brought j.xil (Paris. 19(»-9). review oonduoted by Bouoerv, oontaiu
hundreds before the tnbunals. A notable instance document* bearing on the history of Nihilism.
was the trial, at St. Petersburg in Octob^. 1877, of A. Palmieri.
193 persons: 94 went free, 36 were sent to Sioeria; the
others received light sentences. One of the accused. NihUB, Babthold, convert and controversialist, b.
M3rskin by name, who in addressing the judges had at Holtoif in Hanover, 7 February, 1590 (according to
characterized the procedure as ''an abominable com- other sources in 15S4 or 1589, at Wolpe in Bruns-
edy ", was condemned to ten years of penal servitude, wick) : d. at Erfurt, 10 March^ 1657. He came from a
Another sensational trial (April, 1878) was that of poor rrotestant family, obtamed his early education
Vera Sassulio, who had attempted to murder General at Verden and C^roslar, and from 1607 studied philoso-
Frepov, chief of police of St. Petersburg. Her ac- phy and medicine at the University of Helmstedt,
quittal was frantically applauded and she found a ref- where, on account of his poverty, he was the famulus
uge in Switzerland. Among the deeds of violence of Cornelius Martini, professor of philosophy. Hav-
committed by Nihilists may be mentioned the assassi- ing become master of philosophy in 1612, his inclina-
nation of General Mezencev (4 Aug., 1878) and Prince tions then led him to studv Protestant theology. Con-
Krapotkin (1879). These events were followed by new tentions among the professors at Helmstedt made
repressive measures on the part of the Government further stay there unpleasant, and when two students
and by numerous executions. The Nihilists, however, of noble family went m 1616 to the University of Jena,
continued their work, held a congress at Lipeck in he accompanied them as preceptor. Later he became
1879, and (26 Aug.) condemned Alexander II to death, instructor of the voung princes of Saxe- Weimar.
An attempt to wreck the train on which the Tsar was among whom was the subsequently famous Bemhara
returning to St. Petersburg proved abortive. Another of Saxe- Weimar. The inability of the Protestant
attack on his life was made by Halturin, 5 Feb., 1880. theologians to agree upon vital questions caused him
He was slain on 1 March, 1881, by a bomb, thrown by first to doubt and then to renounce Protestantism. He
Grineveckij. Six conspirators, among them Sofia went to Cologne in 1622, and entered the House of
Perovskaja, were tried and executed. On 14 March, Proselytes founded by the Brotherhood of the Holy
the Zemlja i Volja society issued a proclamation incit- Cross; in the same year he accepted the Catholic
ing the peasants to rise, while the Executive Committee Faith and, after due preparation, was ordained priest,
wrote to Alexander III denouncing the abuses of the Chosen director of the House of Proselytes, and in
bureaucracy and demanding political amnesty, na- 1627 provost of the nunnery of the Cistercians at Alt-
tional representation, and civil hberty. haldensleben near Magdeburg, two years later he be-
The reign of Alexander III was guided by the die- came abbot of the monastery of the Premonstraten-
tates of a reaction, due in great measure to the coun- sians, from which he was en>elied after the battle of
sels of Constantine Pob^onoscev, procurator general Breitenfeld in 1631. He fled to Hildesheim where he
of the Holy Synod. And Nihilism, which seemed to became canon of the church of the Holy Cross, thence
reach its apogee in the death of Alexander II, saw its to Holland where he came into close relation with (jrer-
ecUpse. Its theories were too radical to gain prose- hard Johann Vossius. In 1645 Nihus was called to
lytes among the people. Its assaults were repeated; MOnster by the papal nuncio, Fabio Chigi (later Alex-
on 20 March, 1882, General Strfilnikov was assassi- ander VII), then in Mttnster attending the Westpha-
nated at Odessa; and Colonel SudeSkin on the 28th of h^^ Peace Congress. A few years later he was in-
December, 1883; in 1887, an attempt against the life duced to come to Mayence by Johann Philip von
of the tsar was unsuccessful; in 1890, a conspiracy Schdnbom, Archbishop of Mayence. at whose request
against the tsar was discovered at Paris; but these he went to Ingolstadt in 1654 to obtain information
crimes were the work of the revolution in Russia, regarding the Welt-Priester-Institut of Bartholomew
rather than of the Nihilists. The crimes that reddened Holzhauser, and to report to the archbishop. Schon-
the soil of Russia with blood in constitutional times horn, in 1655, appointed him his suffragan bishop for
are due to the revolution of 1905-07. But the Ni- Saxony and Thunngia, with residence in Erf urt, where
hilism, that, as a doctrinal system, proclaimed the he died.
destruction of the old Russia, to estabfish the founda- After his conversion Nihus had sent to the Helm-
tions of a new Russia, may be said to have disap- stedt professors, Calixtus and Homeius, a letter in
peared; it became' fused with Anarchism and SociaUsm, which he presented his reasons for embracing Catho-
and therefore, the history of the crimes that were mul- hcism; his chief motive was that the Church needs a
tipUed from 1905 on are a chapter in the history of fiving, supreme judge to explain the Bible and to settle
political upheavals in Russia, and not in the history disputes and difficulties. Calixtus attacked him first
of Nihilism. i^ ^ lectures and later in lys writings, whence origi-
IsKANDBB (the pseud, of Hbrebk), Du dheloppement dM ydu» "^f^ a bitter controversy between Nihus and the
xHolyixionrMirt* 9n Btutie (Paris, 1861) ; Schbdo-Fbbboti. Etttdei Helmstedt professors The most important of Nihus
tor Vavenir d« la Rusne (Berlin, 1867) ; Auaati, Le* nihiluUet ou numerous writings are: (1) " Ars nova, dicto S. Scrip-
2m damea nuteM imanapiea (London, 1867); Max Nbttlau, ♦,,-«» „«;«-. i.,™«<,i: ^ ibJ«*:fi«:;„ «i„l:^«„ :« .^«-*!l.
Life of Michael Bakunin (3 vols., London); Golovin, Der ru^ i^ ^^^^ lucrandl e PontlficilS plunmOS m partes
tUeha Nihilitmu* (Leipsig, 1880); Layionb, Introd, d I'hist. du Lutheranorum, detecta non nihil et suggesta Theolo-
Mhiium* en BiujtU (Paris. 1880); Lubomibsiu, Le nihiUtme en gig Helmstetensibus, Georgio Calixto pr«sertim et
Riuate (Pans, 1879) ; Abmando, Ilmhtlismo (Turin, 1879); Idem, ruT»,.o/J-rx Tl-rx»««;^'» /Ti;i^^T>«;«» i aqq\. /"ON « a,.^!^
Waeistder l^ihaiemue t (Leipsig. 1881) ; GbrbutwKaklowitsch, ^nrado Homejo (Hildesheim. 1633) ; (2) Apolo-
Die Attentau-Period in Ruasiand (Heilbronn, 1881) ; Gallt- geticus pro arte nova contra Andabatam Helmsteten-
BoDTTBviLiJB. TMritme et nihaienu (Paris. 1881); Lirot- sem" (Cologne, 1640), in answer to the response of
Bbauubu, L'emptre dee tMara et lee rueaee^ II (Pans, 1882), M4- r««i;*^«« ♦^ ♦k^ <?•«♦ ,>«t««,^v.1»4^ . "n:«^«««:« A^ JT^^ ^^„^
66; &rBPNiAK (pseud.). La Rueeia sotterran^ (Milan, 1882) ; Cahxtusto the first pamphlet: Digressio de arte nova
Lee nihilietee et to rHolution en Rueeie (Paris, 1882) ; Der Caaren^ COntra Nlhusium , (3) ''Hvpodlgma, qUO dlluuntur
nurd am iS-Mdre i««/ (Dresden. 1882); BouaARD, Le» nihi- nonnulla oontra Catholicos disputata in Comelii Mar-
Itetee rueate {Zuncht 1881); Taus, Oeech. der revoliUxondren Bewe- 4.1 • ♦--,«♦«♦„ j« «„«!,.«: i^^^^n /'o«,l«.«««, taAQ\ a«
qungen in Ruesland (Leipsig. 1883). tr. Polish (London, 1893), ^^ tractatu de an^ysi lomca (Colome, 1648). As-
Rufldan (Moscow, 1905) ; Schxrr, Die Nihilieten (Leipsig, 1885) ; sisted bv his fnend Leo Allatius (q. V.) he devoted con-
lB«oBoy, Auaden Myetenen dee ruee. NihUiemusJUiiMg, 1885); siderable time to researches pertaining to the "Com-
Btbpniak, Le tMoneme el la rHwutxon (Pans, 1866); Thomirov, «r»i,»»;rx« »» a«%^ i-Ua <<'\vr;«ao «vJnfiAnr.4^;fi^4^«.i«» >' ,^t 4^i«a
CmeviraUure et patriciene (Paris. 1887) ; FRin*, L^ Ruaeie et U DJUnion ^d the MlSSa prffisanctlficatorum of the
nihiUeme (Paris, 1887); OLOBNBBRa, Der ruee. Nihiliemue eon Greeks, and also tOOK charge of the editing and pub-
Minen Anfdngm hie twrQeomwaH (Leipsig, 1888) ; Milinbov, Ushing of several WOrks of Allatius, SOme of which — aS
i?.:ri^<Sr2f-4S2ir'^.^-i."i'^?8^^^^ the '^De Ecdesl* occidentals et orientalis perpe;
Ruadand im XX, Jahrh. (Berlin, 1908); Istorja molodoi Roeeii tua consensione" (Cologne, 1648) and "Symmicta"
KZX0X.AU8 77 NIKON
(Cologne, 1653)— he provided with valuable addictions a nun and he entered the Solovetski monastery on the
and footnotes. White Sea, according to Orthodox custom, chang-
Koch. Du Brfurur WeihbUchAft in Zeiuehrifi /Or thurinffUehs ing his name to Nikon. In accordance also with a
»i^ ^'Sl^S^-i^- ^'?i.'^-?^r^^^i^^^ common eu-^m he next became a hermit on an id-
KirehmUex, s. v.; Iobm in AUg, deuuehs Biog., XXIII, 609 aq. and near by, dependent on the monastery. But a dis-
Fbubdrich Lauchebt. agreement about the alleged misuse of some alma
caused him to break with the Solovetski monks and
NikolauB von Dinkelsblihl, theologiazi.b.c. 1360, join the Kojeozenski community in the same neigh-
at Dinkelsbuhl; d. 17 March, 1433, at Mariazell in bourhood, of which he became hegumen in 1643.
Styria. He studied at the University of Vienna, Later he made a great impression on the emperor,
where he is mentioned as baccalaureus m the faculty Alexis, who made him Arclumandrite of the Novo»-
of Arts in 1385. Master in 1390, he lectured on paski Laura at Moscow in 1646, and in 1649 Metro-
philosophy, mathematics, and physics until 1397, and politan of Novgorod. Here he fdunded almshouses,
from 1402 to 1405. From 1397 he was dean of the distinguii^ed hunself by his many good works, ana
faculty; he studied theology, lecturing until 1402 on succe^ed in putting down a dangerous revolt in
theological subjects, first as cursor biSlicus, and later 1650. Meanwmle he was in constant correspon-
on the '^ Sentences" of Peter Lombard. In 1405 he be- dence with the Tsar, at whose court he spent part of
came bachelor of Divinity, in 1408 licentiate, and in each year. Already during this time he began to
1409 doctor and member of the theolo^cal faculty, prepare for a revision of the Slavonic Bible and Ser-
Rector of the university, 1405-6, he declined the hon- vice books. In 1652 the Patriarch of Moscow died
our of a re-election in 1409. From 1405 he was also and Nikon was appointed his successor,
canon at the cathedral of St. Stephen. The supposition As head of the Church of Russia Nikon set about
of Several earlv authors that he was a member of the many important reforms. One of the first questions
Order of the Hermits of St. Augustine is incorrect, for that engaged his attention was the reunion of the
he could not have been rector of the university had he Ruthenians (Little Russians) with the Orthodox
been a member of any order. Eminent as teacher and Church. When Poland held Little Russia, the Synod
pulpit orator, Nikolaus possessed great business acu- of Brest (1596) had brou^t about union between its
men, and was frequently chosen as ambassador both inhabitants and Rome. Under Alexis, however, the
by the university and the reigning prince. He repre- tide turned; many Ruthenians arose against Poland
sented Duke Albert V of Austria at the Councu of and united with Russia (1653). A result of this was
Constance (1414-18), and the University of Vienna in that the Russians were able without much difiicult>[ to
the trial of Thiem, dean of the Passau cathedral, undo the work of the Synod of Brest, and to brin^
When Emperor Sigismund came to Constance, Niko- the Metropolitan of Kief with the majority of his
laus delivered an address on the abolition of the schism clergy back to tihe Orthodox Church. This greatly
("Sermo de unione Ecclesise in Concilium Constan- increased the extent of the Russian patriarch's juris-
tiense,'' II, 7, Frankfort, 1697, 182-7). He took part diction. Nikon was able to entitle himself patnarch
in the election of Martin V, and delivered an address of Great, Little, and White Russia. During the reign
to the new pope (Sommerfeldt, '^Historisches Jahr- of Alexis, Nikon built three monasteries, one of which,
buch*', XX VL 1905, 323-7). Together with John, made after the model of the Anastasis and called
Patriarch of Constantinople, he was charged with the ''New Jerusalem," is numbered among the famous
examination of witnesses in the proceedmm against Lauras of Russia.
Hieronymus of Prague. Returning to Vienna in The chief event of Nikon's reign was the reform of
1418, he again took up his duties as teacher at the uni- the service books. The Bible and books used in
versity, and in 1423 directed the theological promo- church iu Russia are translated from Greek into old
tions as representative of the chancellor. Duke Al- Slavonic. But gradually many mistranslations and
bert V having chosen him as his confessor in 1425, corruptions of the text had crept in. There were also
wished to make him Bishop of Passau, but Nikolaus details of ritual in which the Russian Church had for-
declined the appointment. During the preparations saken the custom of Constantinople. Nikon's work
for the Council of Basle, he was one of the committee was to restore all these points to exact conformity
to draw up the reform proposals which were to be pre- with the Greek original. This reform had been di»-
sented to the council. His name does not appear cussed before his time. In the sixteenth century the
thereafter in the records of the university. Greeks had reproached the Russians for their altera-
His published works include '' Postilla cum sermoni- tions, but a Russian synod in 1551 had sanctioned
bus evan^eliorum dominicalium" (Strasburg, 1496), them. In Nikon's time there was more intercourse
and a collection of ''Sermones" with tracts (Stras- with Greeks than ever before, and in this way he con-
burg, 1516). Aniong his numerous unpublished ceived the necessity of restoring purer forms. While
works, the manuscripts of which are chiefly kept in the Metropolitan of Novgorod he caused a committee of
Court librai^ at Vienna and in the Court and State scholars to discuss the question, in spite of the patri-
library at Munich, are to be mentioned his commen- arch Joseph. In 1650 a Russian theolo^an was sent
taries on the Psalms, Isaias, the Gospel of St. Mat- to Constantinople to inquire about vanous doubtful
thew, some of the Epistles of St. Paul, the "Sen- points. One detail that made much trouble was that
tences" of Peter Lombard, and, "Questiones Sen- the Russians had learned to make the sign of the cross
tentiarum"; a commentary on the ''Physics" of with two fingers instead of three, as the Greeks did.
Aristotle, numerous sermons, lectures, moral and As soon as he became patriarch, Nikon published an
ascetic tracts. order introducing some of these reforms, which im-
AacHBACH, Ouch, der Wiener UniveraitdLl (Vienn*. 1885), mediately called forth angry Opposition. In 1654
430-40: Stamonik in AOg, deut. Bxog., XXIII (1886), 622 aq.; onH Ifi^'f hp aiimmnnAH .^vnorlfi whiph nnnfinupd th«
Emm in Kireheniex., b. v. Nieoiaua ton DinkeUbufU; Hubtbb, *°^, 1000 ne summonea oynoos wnicn conunueu ine
Nomen., II (Innsbruck, 1906), 830-32. work. Makanos, Patnarch of Antioch, who came
Fribdrich Lauchbrt. to Russia at that time was able to help, and there was
continual correspondence with the Patriarch of Con-
Nikon, Patriarch of Moscow (1652-1658; d. 1681). stantinople. At last, with the approval of the Greek
He was of peasant origin, bom in the district of Nish- patriarchs. Nikon published the reformed service
ni-Novgorod in 1605, and in early life was known as books ana made laws insisting on conformity with
Nikita. Educated in a monastery, he married, be- Greek custom in all points of ntuaJ (1655-1658). A
came a secular priest, and for a time had a parish new Synod in 1656 confirmed this, excommunicated
in Moscow. After ten years of married life, his every one who made the sign of the cross except with
children having died, he persuaded his wife to become three fingers, and forbade the rebaptizing of Latin con-
HIU
78
MILLI8
verts (still a peculiarity of the Russian Church). This
aroused a strong party of opposition. The patriarch
was accused of anti-national sentiments, of trying to
Hellenize the Russian Church, of corrupting the old
faith. Nikon's strong will wouJd have crushed the op-
position, had he not, in some way not yet clearly ex-
plained, fallen foul of the tsar. It is generally said
that part of his ideas of reform was to secure that the
Church should be independeiit of the state and that
this aroused the tsar's anger. In any case in the year
1658 Nikon suddenly fell. He ofifered his resignation
to the tsar and it was accepted. He hadoften
threatened to resigft before; it seems that this time,
too, he did not mean his offer to be taken seriously.
However, he had to retire and went to his New Jeru-
salem monast^. A i)ersonal interview with Alexis
was refused. The patriarchate remained vacant and
Nikon, in spite of his resignation, attempted to regun
his former place. Meanwhile the opposition to nim
became stronger. It was led by a Greek, Paisios
Ligarides, Metropolitan of Gasa (unlawfully absent
from his see), who insisted on the appointment of a
successor at Moscow. All Nikon's friended seem to
have forsaken him at this junctiue. Ligarides caused
an appeal to be made to the Greek patriarchs and their
verdict was against Nikon. In 1664 he tried to force
the situation by appearing suddenlv in the patriarchal
church at Moscow and occup3ring his place as if noth-
ing had happened. But he did not succeed, and in
1667 a great synod was summoned to try him. The
Patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch came to Russia
expressly for this synod; a great number of Russian
and Greek metropohtans sat as judges. The tsar
himself appeared as accuser of his former friend.
Nikon was summoned and appeared before the synod
in his patriarch's robes. He was accused of neglecting
his duties since 1658, of having betrayed his Church
in a certain letter he had written to the Patriarch of
Constantinople (in which he had complained of the
Russian clergy), of harsh and unjust conduct in his
treatment of the bishops. Nikon defended himself
abl^r; the ^od lasted a week; but at last in its eighth
session it declared him deposed from the patriarchate,
suK)ended from all offices but those of a simple monk,
and sentenced him to confinement in a monastery
(Therapontof ) on the White Sea. The archimandrite
of the Trinity Laura at Moscow, Joasaph, was elected
his successor (Joasaph II, 1667-72). Joasaph con-
firmed Nikon's reform of the Service books and rites.
The party that opposed it formed the beginning of the
Russian dissenting sects (the Raskolniks).
For a time Nikon's imprisonment was very severe.
In 1675 he was taken to another monastery (of St.
Cyril) and his treatment was lightened. Alexis to-
wards the end of his life repenteid of his harsh treat-
ment of the former patriaron, and from his death-bed
(1676) sent to ask nis forgiveness. The next tsar,
Feodor II (1676-82) allowed him to return to his
New Jerusalem monastery. On the way thither
Nikon died (17 August, 1681). He was buried with
the honours of a patriarch, and all decrees against him
were revoked after his death. His tomb is in the
Cathedral church of Moscow. Nikon's fall, the ani-
mosity of the tsar, and of the synod that deposed
him remain mjrsterious. The cause was not his re-
form of the Service books, for that was maintained by
his successor. It has been explained as a successful
intriipe of his personal enemies at the court. He
certainly had made enemies during his rei^ by his
severit]^, his harsh manner, the uncompromising way
he carried out his reforms regardless of the intensely
conservative instinct of his people. Or, it has been
said, Nikon brought about his disgrace by a premature
attempt to free the Russian Church from the shackles
of the stat«. His attitude represented an opposition
to the growing Erastianism that culminated soon after
his time in the laws of Peter the Great (1689-1725).
This js no doubt true. There are sufficient indications
that Alexis' quarrel with Nikon was based on jealousy.
Nikon wanted to be too independent ol the tsar, and
this independence was concerned, naturally, with
ecclesiastical matters. Some writers have thought
that the root of the whole matter was that he b^same
at the end of his reign a Latinizer, that he wanted to
bring ^x>ut reunion with Rome and saw in that re-
union the only safe protection for the Church against
the secular government. It has even been said that
he became a Catholic (Gerebtzoff, ** Essai ", II, 514).
The theory is not impossible. Since the Svnod of
Brest the idea of reumon was in the air; Nikon had
had much to do with Ruthenians; he may at last have
been partly convinced by them. Ana one of the
accusations against him at his trial was that of Latin-
iiine. A story is told of his conversion by a miracle
worked by Samt Josaphat, the great martyr for the
union. In any case the real reason of Nikon's fall
remains one of the difficulties of Russian Church
history. He was undoubtedly the greatest bishop
Russia has yet produced. A few ascetical worlos
of no special importance were written by him.
Palicbb, The Palriareh and the T»ar (6 yols., London, 1871-
76) ; SuBBOTiN. The Trial of Nikon, in Riusian (Moooow, 1802) ;
Makariob, The Patriarch Nikon, Riusian (Moscow, 1881);
Philabct, GeediichU der Kirehe Rueelande, German tr. by Blu-
lOUCTHAL (Frankfort, 1872); MouBAViBrF, A HieUtry of the Chvreh
of AuMtd, English tr. by Blackmorb (Oxford, 1842); Nikon in
Livea of BminerU Rueeian PrekUee (no author) (London, 1854) ;
GBRBBTiorF, Bteai eur Vhiataire de la eitiUeation en Riieeie (Paris,
1858).
Adrian Fobtbscus.
Nil«, VicABiATB Apostouc OF THE XJpFER. See
Upper Nile, Vicariate Apostolic of the.
NilleSy NiKOLAX78, b. 21 June, 1828, of a wealthy
peasant family of Rippweiler, Luxemburg; d. 31
Januaiy. 1907. After completing bis gvmnasium
studies brilliantly, he went to Home where from
1847 to 1853, as a student of the Collegium Ger^
manicum, he laid the foundation of his ascetic life
and. as a pupil of the Gregorian University, under the
Kuiaance of distinguished scholars (Ballerini. Franxe-
fin, Passaglia, Perrone, Patrizi, Schrader, Tarquini),
prepared tne way for ms subsequent scholarly career.
When he left l(ome in 1853, he took with him, in
addition to the double doctorate of theology and
canon law, two mementoes which lasted throughout
his life: his grey hair and a disease of the heart, the
result of the terrors which he had encountered in
Rome in the revolutionary year 1848-9. From 1853
to 1858 he laboured in his own country as chap-
lain and parish priest,and during this time made his
first literary attempts. In March, 1858. he entered
the Austrian Province of the Societv of .Jesus and, in
the autumn of 1859, was summoned by his superiors to
Innsbruck to fill the chair of canon law in the theo-
logical faculty, which Emperor Francis Joseph I
hcui shortly before entrusted to the Austrian Jesuits.
Nilles lectured throughout his life — ^after 1898 usually
to the North American theolop;ians, to whom he gave
special instructions on canomcal conditions in their
country, for which task no one was better quaUfied
than he. His ''Commentaria in Concilium Balti-
morense tertium'' (1884-90) and his short essay,
"Tolerari potest", gained him a wide reputation.
His literary achievements in the fields of canon
law, ascetics, and Uturgy were abundant and fruitful.
Martin Blum enumerates in his by no means complete
bibliography fifty-seven works, of which the two
principal are: ''De rationibus festorum sacratissimi
Cordis Jesu et purissimi Cordis Marise libri quatuor"
(2 vols., 5th ed., Innsbruck, 1885) and "Kalenda-
rium manuale utriusque Ecclesise orientalis et occiden-
talis'' (2 vols., 2nd ed., Innsbruck, 1896). Through
the latter work he biecame widely known in the
world of scholars. In particular Protestants and
Orthodox Russians expressed themselves in terms of
NILOPOUS 79 NILUS
the highest praise for the Kalendarium or Heorto- While St. John Chrysostom was patriarch, before
logion. Professor Hamack of Berlin wrote of it in his first exile (398-403), he directed Niliis in the studv
the "Theologische Literaturzeitung'' (XXI, 1896, of Scripture and in works of piety (Nikephoros Kal-
350-2): "I have . . . frequently made use of the listos ''Hist. Eccl.". XIV, 53, 54). About the year
work . . . and it has always proved a reliable guide, 390 (Tillemont, "Memoires", XIV, 190-91) or per-
whose information was derived from original sources, haps 404 (Leo AUatius, ''De Nilis'', 11-14), Nilus left
There is scarcely another scholar as well versed as the his wife and one son and took the other, Theodulos.
author in the feasts of Catholicism. His knowledge with him- to Mount Sinai to be a monk. They Uvea
is based not only on his own observations, but on here till about the year 410 (Tillemont, ib., p. 405)
books, periodicals, papers, and calendars of the past when the Saracens, invading the monastery, took
and present. The Feasts of Catholicism I The title Theodulos prisoner. The Saracens intended to sacri«
is self-explanatory; yet, though the basis of these ordi- fice him to their gods, but eventually sold him as a
nances is uniform, the details are of infinite variety, slave, so that he came into the posse^on of the Bishop
since the work treats not only of the Latin but also of of Eleusa in Palestine. The Bishop received Theo-
the Eastern Rites. The latter, it is well known, are dulos among his clergy and made him door-keeper of
divided into Greek, Syriac, Coptic, Armenian . . J* the church. Meanwhile Nilus, having left his monaa-
Of the second volume Hamack wrote (ibid., XXXIII, terv to find his son, at last met him at Eleusa. The
1898, 112 sq.): ''Facts which elsewhere would have bishop then ordained them both priests and allowed
to be sought under difficulties are here marshalled in them to return to Sinai. The mother and the other
lucid order^ and a very carefully arranged index facil- son had also embraced the religious life in Eg^rpt. St.
itates inquury. Apart from the principal aim of the Nilus was certainly alive till Uie year 430. It is un-
work, it offers valuable information concerning recent certain how soon after that he died. Some writers
Eastern Catholic ecclesiastical history, also authori- believe him to have lived till 451 (Leo Allatius. op.
ties and literature useful to the historian of liturgy cit., 8-14). The Byzantine Menolog^ for his least
and creeds. . . . His arduous and disinterested toil (12 November) supposes this. On the other hand,
will be rewarded by the general gratitude, and his none of his works mentions the Council of Ephesus
work will long prove useful not only to every theo- (431) and he seems to know only the beginning of the
losian 'utriusque', but also 'cuiusque ecclesis'". Nestorian troubles; so we have no evidence of his life
The Roumanian Academy at Bucharest awarded a later than about 430.
prise to this work. Soon after the appearance of From his monastery at Sinai Nilus was a well-
the second edition of the "Kalendarium ' , the Russian known person throughout the Eastern Church ; by his
Holy Synod issued from the synodal printing office writings and correspondence he played an important
at Moscow a "Festbilderatlas" intended to a certain part in the history of his time. He was known as a
extent as the official Orthodox illustrations for Uie theologian, Biblical scholar and ascetic writer, so peo-
work. Nilles was not only a distinguished university pie of all kinds, from the emperor down, wrote to
professor, but also a meritorious director of ecclesiasti- consult him. His numerous works, including a mul-
cal students. For fifteen years (1860-75) he presided titude of letters, consist of denimciations of heresy,
over the theological seminary of Innsbruck, an inter- paganism, abuses of discipline and crimes, of rules ana
national institution where young men from all parts principles of asceticism, especially maxims about the
of Europe and the United States are trained for the religious life. He warns and threatens people in high
priesthood. places, abbots and bishops, governors and princes,
BuTM, Dat CoUegium Oennanieum tu Rom u. teiru Zoglingt aut even tne emperor himself, without fear. He kept up a
wli'aS&^QO^/^^^^^ com»pondence with Gaina. a leader of . the GotL,
f<r-0«b«to-Kernn, XLI (innsbnick), 37 sqq. endeavounng to convert him from Anamsm (Book I
M. HoFMANN. of his letters, nos. 70, 79, 114, 115, 116, 205, 206, 286);
_,, ,, . , , i» I. ^® denounced vigorously the persecution of St. Jolm
NilopollB, a titular see and a suffragan of Oxyryn- Chrysostomboth to the Emperor Arcadius (ib.,II,265;
chos, m E^ypt. According to Ptolemv (IV, v, 26) the m, 279) and to his courtiers (I, 309; III, 199).
city was situated on an island of the Nile m the Her- Nilus must be counted as one of the leading ascetic
aclean nome. Eusebius ("Hist, eccl.'/, VI, xli) states writers of the fifth century. His feast is kept on 12
that It had a bishop, Cheremon, during the persecu- November in the Byzantine Calendar; he is commem-
tion of Deems; others are mentioned a little later, orated also in the Roman martyrology on the same
"The Chronicle of John of Nikiou" (559) alludes to date. The Armenians remember him, with other
this city in connexion with the occupation of Egypt Egyptian fathers, on the Thursday after the third
by the Mussulmans, and it is also referred to by Ara- Sunday of their Adveht (Nilles, "Kalendarium Man-
bian medieval geographers under its original name of uale", Innsbruck, 1897, II, 624).
Delas. In the fourteenth century it paid 20,000 di- The writings of St. Nilus of Sinai were first edited
nars in taxes, which hidicates a place of some impor- by Possinus (Paris. 1639); in 1673 Suarea published
tance. At present, Delas forms a part of the moudi- a supplement at Rome; his letters were collected
rieh of Beni-Suef in ihe district of El-Zaouiet, and has by Possinus (Paris, 1657), a larger collection was made
about 2500 inhabitants of whom nearly 1000 are by Leo Allatius (Rome, 1668). All these editions are
nomadic Bedouins. It is situated on the left bank of uged in P. G., LXXIX. The works are divided by
the Nile about forty-seven miles from Memphis. Fessler-Jungmann into four classes:— (1) Works
l-'i5^Ji^,SJSJ^«?-S;J!i2S^(pISl! »bout Tirtu« and vic« in general :-"PeriBteria"
f- wm,^ ,^ ,^y g Vailh4. (P' ^'t LXXIX, 811-968), a treatise m three parte
addressed to a monk Agathios: "On Prayer" {rtpl
Nilus, Saint (NcTXot), the elder, of Sinai (d.c. 430). rpoawx^, ib., 1165-1200); ''Of the eight spirits of
was one of the many disciples and tervent defender^ 01 wickedness" (ircpi rQv eWpevfiinov ri^s voptiplat^ ib.,
St, John Chrysostom. We know him first as a lay- 1145-64); "Of the vice opposed to virtues" (rtpl r^
man, married, wiUi two sons. At this time he was an dmipSyovt tQv d^prnrQv naKiat^ ib., 1 140-44) ; '' Of various
officer at the Court of Constantinople, and is said to bad thoughts" {rtpl itwffhfwv TowripQv Xoyirijuavj ib.,
have been one of the Praetorian Prefects, who, accord- 1200-1 234) ; ' ' On the word of the Gospel of Luke ' * , xxii,
ing to Diocletian and Constantine's arrangement, 36 (ib., 1263-1280). (2) " Works about the monastic
were the chief functionaries and heads of sJl other life : — Concerning the slaughter of monks on Mount
governors for the four main divisions of the empire. Sinai, in seven parts, telling the story of the author's
Thdr authority, however, had already begun to de- life at Sinai, the invasion of the Saracens, captivity
dine by the endf of the fourth century. of his son, etc. (ib., 590-694) ; Concerning Albianos,
HILUS
80
NniBU8
a Nitrian monk whofie life is held up as an example
(ib., 695-712); "Of Asceticism" (A67of d<r«|Tiic6f,
about the monastic ideal, ib., 719-810); "Of volun-
tary poverty" (vtpl d«Ti;Au»<rtfi^t, ib., 968-1060); "Of
the superiority of monks" (ib., 1061-1094); "To
Eulogios the monk?' (ib., 1093-1140). (3) "Admoni-
tions^' (TvQ/uu) or "Chapters" (we^dXoui), about 200
precepts drawn up in short maxims (ib., 1239-62).
These are probabhr made by his disciples from his
discourses. (4) "Letters".' — Possinus published 355,
Allatius 1061 letters, divided into four books (P. G..
LXXIX, 81-585). Many are not complete, several
overlap, or are not really letters but excerpts from
Nilus' works; some are spurious. Fessler-Jungmann
divides them into classes, as dogmatic, exe^etical.
moral, and ascetic. Certain works wron^y attributea
to Nilus are named in Fessler-Jungmann, pp. 125-^.
NxKBPHOBOB Kalustos. H%^. Bcd., AlV, zliv; Lbo Allatius,
DicUriba de NUia et eorum acriptia in his edition of the letters
(Rome, 1668): Tillbmont, Mtmoire* pour aervir d thiatoire
teeUaiaalivue, XIV (Paris, 1603-1713), 189-218; Fabkicids-
Hablbs, Bihliotheoa fp-aca, X (Hamburg, 1700-1809}, 3-17;
Cbxlubb, UiaUnre ohUrale dea auieura focr^, XIII (Pans, 1720-
1763), iii; FBmLBB-JuNOMAKN, InalUutumea Palrologia^ II (Inns-
bruok, 1896), ii, 108-128.
Adman Fortescue.
r
Niluf the Younger, of Rossano, in Calabria;
b. in 910; d. 27 December, 1005. For a time he was
married (or lived unlawfully); he had a daughter.
Sickness Drought about his conversion, however, and
from that time he became a monk and a propagator
of the rule of St. Basil in Italy. He was known for
his ascetic life, his virtues, and theological leaminjs.
For a time he lived as a hermit, later he spent certain
periods of his life at various monasteries which he
either founded or restored. He was for some time at
Monte Cassino, and again at the Alexius monastery
at Rome. When Gregory V (966-999) was driven out
of Rome, Nilus opposed the usurpation of Fhilogatos
(John) of Piacenza as anti-pope. Later when Fhilo-
gatos was tortured and mutilated he reproached
Gregory and the Emperor Otto III (993-1002) for
this crime. Nilus' chief work was the foundation of
the famous Greek monastery of Grottaferrata, near
Frascati, of which he is counted the first abbot. He
spent the end of his life partly there and piui;ly in a
hermitage at Valleluce near Gaeta. His feast is kept
on 26 September, both in the Byzantine Calendar and
the Roman martyrology.
ViU8. Nili abbatia CrypUB Femta, probably by Babtholoiibw,
Abbot of Grottaf errato (d. 1065) . in the ileto Sanctorum^ VII, Sept.,
283-343; P. L., LXXI. 509-688; P. (7., IV. 616-618; Minasi,
S. NUo di Calabria (Naples, 1892) ; Kbumbacbbr, ByzarUintaehe
LUterattar (2nd ed., Mumch, 1897), 196, 198.
Adrian Fortebcue.
Nimbuf (Lat., related to NeMdUf w^A^ properly
vapour, cloud), in art and archseologv sisTiines a shin-
ing light implying great dignity. Closely related are
the halo, glory, and aureole.
In Nature. — ^All such symbols originate in natural
phenomena, seientifically accoimted for in textbooks
on physics (MtUler-Peter, '^Lehrbuch der kosmischen
Physik": Pemter, " Meteorologische Optik"). There
are circular phenomena of light in drops or bubbles of
water and in ice crystals which by tne refraction of
light reveal in greater or less degree the spectral col-
ours. Of the accompanying phenomena the hori-
zontal and vertical diameters, tne "colunm of light '^
may be mentioned. The curious rings of light or colour
sinular to the above, which often form themselves be-
fore the iris of the eye even in candle light, are more
S>rgeous on the moimtain mist (Pilatus, Rigi, and
rocken), if the beholder has the sun behind him;
they surround his shadow as it is projects upon the
clouds. The dewdrops in a meadow can proauce an
i^>pearanoe of light around a shadow, without, how-
ever, forming distinct circles. Occasionally one even
sees the planet Venus veiled by a disc of light. The
phenomena of discs and broad rings are more usual in
the sun and moon. The Babylonians studied them
diligently (Kugler. ''Stemkunde und Stemdienst in
Baber', Hi !)• Tne terminology of these phenomena
is vague. The disc or circle around the sun can be cor-
rectly called ''anthelia", and the rin^ around the
moon ''halo". A more usual name is "aureole",
which in a restricted sense means an oval or ellipitical
ray of light like a medallion. If the brightness is
merely a luminous glow without definitely forming
ring, circle, or ellipse, it is usually spoken of as a
"poTv ", The types in nature in which rays or beuns
of light with or without colour challenge attention,
suggested the symbolical use of the nimbus to denote
high dignity or powej*. It is thus that Divine charac-
teristics and the loftiest types of l^umanity were de-
noted by the nimbus.
In Poetrt, this symbol of li^t is chiefly used in the
form of rays and flames or a diffused glow. Holy Writ
presents the best example: God is Light. The Son of
God, the Brightness of His Father's glory (Hebr., i,
3). An emerald light surrounds God and His throne
(Apoc., iv^ 3), and the Son of Man seems to the prophet
a name of wre (Apoc., i, 14 sq.). So also He appeared
in His Transfiguration on Tabor. On Sinai, God ap-
peared in a cloud which at once concealed and revealed
Him (Ex., xxiv, 16, sq.) and even the countenance of
Moses shone with a marvellous light in the presence
of God (Ex., xxxiv, 20, sq.). Such descriptions may
have influenced Christian artists to distinguish God
and the saints by means of a halo, especiaUy around
the head. They were also familiar with the descrip-
tions of the classical poets whose gods appeared veiled
by a cloud; e. g. according to Virail. divinity appears
''nimbo circumdata, succincta, enulgens" (bauiedin
light and shining through a cloud).
In Art. — In the plastic arts (painting and sculp-
ture) the s3rmbolism of the nimbus was early in use
among the pagans who determined its form. In the
monuments of Hellenic and Roman art, the heads
of the gods, heroes, and other distinguished persons
are often found with a disc-shaped halo, a circle of
light, or a rayed-fillet. They are, therefore, associ-
ated especially with gods ana creatures of light such
as the rhoenix. The disc of light is likewise used in
the Pompeian wall paintings to typify gods and demi-
gods only, but later, in profane art it was extended to
cherubs or even simple personifications, and is simply
a reminder that the ngures so depicted are not human.
In the miniatures of the oldest Virgil manuscript all
the great personages wear a nimbus (BeisseL "Vati-
kanische Miniaturen **). The custom of the Egyptian
and Syrian kings of having themselves representedwith
a rayed crown to indicate the status of demi-gods,
spread throughout the East and the West. In Rome
tne hslo was nrst used only for deceased emperors as a
sign of celestial bliss, but afterwards living rulers also
were given the rayed crown, and after the third
century J although not first by (jonstantine, theBimple
rayed mmbus. Under Constantine the rayed crown
appears only in exceptional cases on the coin, and was
first adopted emblematically by Julian the Apostate.
Henceforth the nimbus appears without rays, as the
emperors now wished themselves considered worthy
of great honour, but no longer as divine beings. In
early Christian art, the ray^ nimbus, as well as the
rayless disc were adopted in accordance with tradi-
tion. The sun and the Phcenix received, as in pagan
art, a wreath or a rayed crown, also the simple halo.
The latter was reserved not only for emperors but
for men of genius and personifications of all kinds, al-
though boUi in ecclesiastical and profane art, this
emblem was usually omitted in ideal ngures. In other
cases the influence of ancient art tradition must not
be denied.
The Middle Ages scarcely rocognised such influence,
and were satisfiea to refer to Holy Writ as an example
NIMBUS 81 NDDUB
for wreath and crown or shield shaped discs as marks until towards the end of the sixth century the use of
of honour to holy personages. Durandus writes: symbols in the Christian Church became as general
"Sic omnes sancti pinguntur coronati, quasi dicerunt. as it had formerly been in pagan art.
Fili» Jerusalem^ venite et videte martyres cum ooronis Miniature psdnting in its cvcle represents all the
quibus coronavit eas Dominus. Et m Libro Sapien- most important personages with haloes, just as did the
tue: Justi accipient regnum decoris et diadema speciei Vir^l codex, so that the continuity of the secular and
-de manu Domini. Corona autem huiusmodi deping- Christian styles is obvious. This connexion is defi-
itur in forma scutirotundi, quia sancti Dei protectione nitively revealed when royal persons, e. g. Herod,
divinafruuntur, unde cantant gratulabimdi: Domine receive a nimbus. Very soon the Blessed Virgin
ut Bcuto bonsB voluntatis tuss coronasti nos'' (Thus Mary always, and mart3rr8 and saints usually, were
all the saints are depicted, crowned, as if they would crowned with a halo. More rarely the beloved dead
say: O Daughters of Jerusalem, pome and see the or some person conspicuous for his position or dignity,
martyrs with the crowns with which the Lord has were so honoured. Saints were so represented if they
crowned them. And in the Book of Wisdom: The constituted the central figure or needed to be difr-
Just shall receive a kinedom of glory, and a crown of tinguished from the surrounding personages. The
beauty at the hands of the Lord. And a crown of nimbus was used arbitraril>[ in personification, Gospel
this kmd is shown in the form of a round shield, be- tvpes, and the like. Official representations clearly
cause they enjoy the divine protection of the Holy show a fixed system, but outside of these there was
God, whence they sins rejoicingly: O Lord, Thou hast great variety. Works of art may be distinctly differ-
crownedusaswith a shield of Thv good-will.) (Ration- entiated according to their birthplace. The nimbus
ale divin. offic, I, 3, 19, sq.). Furthermore the Mid- in the Orient seems to have been in general use at an
die A^ea are almost exclusively accredited with the early period, but whether it was fi»t adopted from
extension of symbolism inasmuch as they traced, ecclesiastical art is uncertain. In general the customs
sometimes felicitously, allusions to Christian truths of the East and West are parallel; for instance, in the
in existing symbols, of which they sought no other West the personifications appear with a nimbus as
origin. Durandus adds to the passage quoted above, early as the third century and Christ enthroned no
the nimbus containing a cross, usual in the figures of later than in the East (in the time of Constantine).
Christ, signifying redemption throu^ the Cross, and Their nature m^es it apparent that in every depart-
the square nimbus whicn was occasionally combined ment of plastic art the nimbus is more rarely used
with it in living persons, to typifv the four cardinal than in painting.
virtues. Judging by the principal monuments, how- Form and Colour. — The form of the symbol was
ever, the square nimbus appears to be onl^ a variant first definitely determined by Gregory the Great,
of the round halo used to preserve a distinction and who (about 600) permitted himself to be painted with
thus guard against placing living persons on a par a square nimhita, Johannus Diaconus in his life of
with the saints. The idea of the cardinal virtues, the th^ pope, gives the treason : '' circa verticem tabulse sim-^
firmness of a squared stone, or the imperfection of ilitudinem, quod viventis insigne est, prsferens, non'
a square figure as contrasted with a roimd one was ooronam'' (bearing around his head the likeness of
merely a later development. In the cross nimbus the a square, which is the sign for a living person, and
association of the nimbus with ap annexed cross must not a crown.) (Migne, '^P. L.", 75, 231). ,It appears
be conceded historical ; but that this cross is a "lignum to have already been customary to use the round nim-
Christi crucifixi " Durandus probably interprets cor- bus for saints. In any event the few extant examples
rectly. from the following centuries show that, almost with-
Origin. — ^As stated above the nin^bus was in use out exception, only the living, principally ecclesiastics,
long before the Christian era. According to the ex- but also the laity and even women and children, were
haustive researches of Stephani it was an mvention of represented with a square nimbus. The aweolef that
the Hellenic epoch. In early Christian art the nimbus is the halo which surrounds an entire figure, naturally
certainly is not found on images of God and celestial takes the shape of an oval, though if it is used for a
beings, but only on figures borrowed from profane bust, it readily resumes the circular form. Theradia-
art, and in Biblical scenes; in place of the simple nim- tion of light from a centre is essential and we must
bus, rays or an aureole (with the nimbus) were made recognize the circle of light of the sun-god in ancient
to portray heavenhr glory. Hence it follows that art as one of the prototjrpes of the aureole. The medal-
Holy Writ furnished no example for the bestowal of a Uon form was for a long time in use among the ancient
halo upon individual saintly personages. As a matter Romans for the /ma{^ne« c2t2>eato. The Kradations of
of fact the nimbus, as an inheritance from ancient colour inthe aureole reveal tne influence of Apoc.,iv, 3,
art tradition, was readily adopted and ultimately where a rainbow was round about the throne of God.
found the widest application because the symbol of Indeed, in very early times the aureole was only used
light for all divine, saintly ideals is offered by nature in representations of God as the Dove or Hand, or
and not infrequently used in Scripture. In contem- of Christ when the divinity was to be emphatically
porary pagan art, the nimbus as a symbol of Divin- expressed.
ity had become so indefinite, that it must have been In early Christian times (as now) the round nim-
accepted as something quite new. The nimbus of bus was by far the most usual designation of Christ
early Christian art manifests only in a few particular and the saints. The broad circle is often replaced
drawings, its relationship with tliat of late antiquity, by the ring of lig^t or a coloured disc, especially
In the first half of the fourth century, Christ received on fabrics and miniatures. In pictures without
a nimbus only when portrayed seated upon a throne, colour the nimbus is shown b^ an engraved line
or in an exalted and princely character; out it had al- or a nused circlet, often b}r a disc in relief. In the
ready been used since Constantine, in pictures of the aureole blue indicates celestial glory, and it is used in
emperors, and was emblematic, not so much of divine the nimbus to fill in the surface, as are yellow, gray,
as of human dignity and gjreatness. In other scenes, and other colours while the margins are sharply de-
however, Christ at that time was represented with- fined in different tints. In many haloes the inner part
out this emblem. The ''exaltation" of Christ as in- is white. In mosaics, since the fifth and sixth cen-
dicated by the nimbus, refers to His dignity as a turies, blue has been replaced by gold. From this
teacher and king rather than to His Godhead. Before period also, the frescoes show a corresponding yelloW»
long the nimbus became a fixed symbol of Christ and as seen for instance, in paintings in the catacombs,
later (in the fourth century), of an angel or a lamb Gold or yellow prevails in miniatures, but there is a
when used as the type of Christ. The number of great deal of variety in illustrated books. Blue as a '
personages who were given a halo increased rapidly, symbol of heaven lias the preference, but gold, which
XI.-
NIMBUS
82
NUDUB
later became the rule, gives a more obvious impression
of light. The explanation of the cross nimbus variety
is obvious. Since the sixth century it has character-
ized Christ and the Lamb of Gop, but occasionally
it is given to the other Persons of the Trinity. In
connexion with it, in the fourth and fifth centuries,
there was a monogram nimbus. The cross and the
monogram of Chnst were beside or above the head
of Clmst and the Lamb. In the fifth century they
were brought to the upper edge of the nimbus and
finally both were concentrically combined with it.
In more recent times the monogram and the mono-
gram nimbus have become more rare. The letters
A and Q for Christ and M and A for Mary, were in-
tended for monograms and frequently accompanied
the nimbus.
Development. — In order to understand the nimbus
and its history, it is necessaiy to trace it through the
different branches of art. The frescoes in the cata-
combs have a peculiar significance inasmuch as they
determine the period when the nimbus was admitted
into Christian art. The numerous figures lacking
this svmbol (Christ, Mary, and the Apostles) show
that before Constantine, representations of specifi-
cally Christian character were not influenced by art
traditions. Only pictures of the sim, the seasons, and
a few ornamental heads carried a nimbus at that date.
The sinde exception is found in a figure over the well-
known '^'Ship in a Storm'' of one of the Sacrament
chapels. But it is to be observed that in this case we
are not dealing with a representation of God, but
merely with a personification of heavenly aid, which
marked a transition from personifications to direct
representations of holy {>ersonages. The figure
seems to be copied from pictures, of the sun god.
On the other hand, several pictures of Christ in the
catacombs, dating from the fourth century, indicate
the period when the nimbus was first used in the
way familiar to us. Besides the Roman catacombs,
others, especially that of El Baghaouat in the great
oasis of the Libyan desert, must be taken into account.
For the period succeeding Constantine, mosaics fur-
nish important evidence since they present not only
very numerous and usually definite examples of the
nimbus, but have a more official character and give
intelligent portrayals of religious axioms. Although
allowance must be made for later restorations, a con-
stant development is a]}parent in this field. The
treatment of the nimbus, in the illuminating and illus-
trating of books, was influenced by the caprices of the
individual artist and the tradition of different schools.
In textiles and embroidery the most extensive use was
made of the nimbus, and a rich colour scheme was de-
veloped, to which these technical arts are by nature
adapted. Unfortunately the examples which have
been preserved are only imperfectly known and the
dates are often difficult to determine.
Sculpture presents little opportunity for the use of
the nimbus. In some few instances, indeed, the nim-
bus is painted on ivory or wood carving, but more
often we find it engraved or raised in rehet. Figures
with this emblem are rare. On the sarcophagi we
find that Christ and the Lamb (apart from the sun)
alone appear with a circle or disc, the Apostles and
Mary, never. In ivory neither Mary nor Christ is
so distinguished.
In the course of centuries the Christian idea that
God, according to Holy Scripture the Source of Light
and Divine thmgs, must sJways be given a halo, be-
came more pronounced. This appBed to the three
Divine Persons and their emblems, as the Cross,
Lamb, Dove, Eye, and Hand; and since, according to
Scripture, saints are children of Light (Luke, xvi, 8;
John, xii, 36), as such they should share the honour.
Preference was shown for the garland or crown (corona
et gloritB corona) of Christ which was also bestowed by
God as a reward upon the saints, either spiritually in
this life or in the Kingdom of Heaven (Ps. xx, 4;
Heb., ii, 7 sq.). Garlands and crowns of glory are
frequently mentioned in Holy Writ (I Peter, v, 4;
Apoc, iv 4, etc.). The nimbus also takes the form
of a shield to emphasize the idea of Divine protection
(Ps. V, 13). A truly classic authority for the explana-
tion of the nimbus may be found in Wis., v, 17: the
Just shall "receive a kingdom of dory, ana a crown of
beauty at the hands of the Lord : for with His ri^t
hand He wiU cover them, and with His holy arm He
will defend them." (In Greek, ''Holds the shield
over ihem *\) Whereas in pagan art, the rayless nim-
bus signifiea neither holinesai nor Divine protection,
but merely majesty and power, in Christian art it was
more and more definitely maae the emblem of such
virtue and grace, which, emanating from God, ex-
tends over the saints only. Urban VIII formally
prohibited giving the nimbus to persons who were not
beatified. Since the eighteentn centuiy the word
''halo" has been incorporated into the German lan-
guage. In Western countries John the Baptist is the
only saint of the Old Testament who is given a halo,
doubtless because before his time the grace of Christ
had not yet been bestowed in its fullness.
We have already found that the aureole may be con-
sidered exclusively a device of Christian art, especially
as it was reservea at first for the Divinity, and later
extended only to the Blessed Virgin. Instead of sim-
ple beams it often consists of pointed flames or is
shaded off into the colours of the rainbow. This form
as well as the simple nimbus, by the omission of the
circumference, may be transposed into a garland of
rays or a "glory . A glory imitating the sun^ rays was
very popular for the monstrances; in other respects
the lunula suggests the nimbus only because the cost-
liness of the material enhances the lustre. The aure-
ole obtained the Italian name of mandorla from its
almond shape. In Germany the fiish was agreed upon
for the symbol of Christ, or a fish bladder ifit had the
shape o& a figure 8. God the Father is typified in later
pictures by an equilateral triangle, or two interlaced
triangles, also by a hexagon to suggest the Trinity. If
there is no circle around the cross nimbus, the three
visible arms of the cross give the same effect. Oc-
casionally the mandorla is found composed of seven
doves (tjrpe of the Seven Gifts of the Holy Ghost), or
of ansels. The latter are used in large pictures of the
Last Judgment or heaven, for instance in the "glories"
of Italian domes. In painting, haloes of cloud are
sometimes used for deucate angel heads, as in Ra-
EhaePs works. Angels also form a nimbus around the
ead of the Mother of God. She is also given the
twelve stars of Apoc, xii, 1. Saint John Nepomucene
has five or seven stars because of the great light which
hovered over his body when he was drowned in the
Moldau by order of King Wenceslaus. Artists have
developed many varieties of the nimbus and aureole.
Since tne Renaissance it has been fashioned more and
more lightly and delicately and sometimes entirely
omitted, as the artists thought they could suggest the
characteristics of the personage by the painting. It is
true that the nimbus is not intrinsically a part of the
figure and at times even appears heavy ana intrusive.
A distinguishing symbol may not, however, be readily
dispensed with and with the omission of tnis one the
images of the saints have often degenerated into mere
genre pictures and worldly types. A delicate circlet
of light shining or floating over the head does not
lessen the artistic impression, and even if the charac-
ter of Christ or the Madonna is sufliiciently indicated
in the drawing, yet it must be conceded that the
nimbus, like a crown, not only characterizes and dif-
ferentiates a figure but distinguishes and exalts it as
well.
Stkphani. Ueher den Nirnbtu v. StrcJUenkranz %n den Werken der
OUeren Kunat in Mhnoire* de VAcadimie de St.-PHertibourg (1859);
KrCcke, Der Nimb%L9 u. verwandie AUrihvie in der frtlehrisU.
KunU (Straaburg, 1905); Mendblsohn, HeilioeneekeiH in der
G. GlBTMANN.
Nlmni DiocVEB or (NEMAOBiNeis), auffrogan of
Avi^on, comprises the civil Dep&rtmeDt of Gard.
By the Concordat of 1801 its t«mtory was united with
the Diocese of Avignon. It waa re-estftblighed as a
separate diocese in 1821, and a Brief of 27 April, 1S77,
grants to its bishops the right to add Alois and Uzis to
their episcopal style, these two dioceses being now com-
bined with that of Ntmes.
That Ntmes (Nemausua) was an important city in
Roman antiquity is shown bv the admirable MaUon
Carrie, the remaiiiB of a supem amphitheatre, and the
Portl an Qard, four and a naif leagues from the city.
I.ate and rather contradictoiy traditions attribute the
foundation of the Church of Ntmes cither to Celido-
nius, the man "who was blind from his birth" of the
Gospel, or to St. Honeetua, the apostle of Navarre,
said to have been sent to southern France by St.
Peter, with St. Satuminus (Semin), the apostle of
Toulouse. The true apostle of Ntmes was St. Bau-
dilus, whose martyrdom is placed by some at the end
<rf the third century, and, with less reason, by othe:s at
the end of the fourth. Many writers affirm that a cer-
tain St. Felix martyred by the Vandals about 407,
was Bishop of NImes, but Duchesne questions this.
There was a see at Ntmes as early as 396, for in that
year a synodtcsl letter was sent by a Council of Ntmes
to the bishops of Gaul. The firstoishop whose date is
positively known is SedaCua, present at the Council of
Asde in 506. Other noteworthy bishops are: St. John
(aLout 511, before 626); St. Remeaaarius (633-40);
Bertrand of Languisael (1280-1324), f^thful to Boni-
face VIII, and for that reason driven from his see for a
ye&r by Philip the Fair; Cardinal Guillaume d'E».
toutevule (1441—19); Caidinal Guillaume Brigonnet
(1496-1514) ; the famous pulpit orator Flftchier (1687-
1710); the distinguished polemist Plantier (1855-75)
whose pastoral letter (1873) calledforth a protest from
Bismarck; the preacher Besson (1875-88). Urban II
coming t« France to preach the crusade, consecratea
the cathedral of Ntmes in 1090 and presided over a
council. Alexander III visited Ntmes m 1162. Clem-
ent IV (1265-68), bom at S^nt Gllles, in this diocese,
Kranted the monaaterv of that town numerous favours.
St. Louis, who embarlced at Aigues-Mortes for his two
crusades, surroimded Ntmes with walls. In 1305,
Clement V passed through the city on his way to
Lyons to be crowned. In consequence of disputes
about the sale of grapes to the papal household, Inno*
cent VI lud an interdict on Ntmee in 1358. The dio-
cese was greatly disturbed by the Relioous Wars: on
29 Sept., 1567, five yeam before the Massacre of St.
Bortholemew, the Protestants of Ntmes, actuated by
fanaticism, perpetrated the massacre of Catholics
known in French history as the Michelade. Louis
XIII at Ntmes issued the decree of religious pacifi-
cation known as the Peace of Ntmes.
The first Bishop of Uide historically known is Con-
stantiua, present at the Council of Vaison in 442.
Other bishops were St. Firminus (541-53) and St. Fer-
rtol (553-81). In the sixteenth century. Bishop Jean
de Saint Gelais (1531-60) became a Calvinist. The
eelebratod missionary Bridaine (1701^7) was a na-
tive of the Diocese of Viis, This little city wasfor
seventy days the enforced residence of Cardinal Pacca,
•fter his confinement at Fenestrelles (1812). The
town of Pont Stunt Esprit, on the Rhdne, owes its
luunee to a bridge built there between 1265 and 1309
with the proceeds of a general collection made by the
About 570, Sigebert, King of Austrada, created a
see at Alisitum (Alais), taking fifteen parishes from the
Diooeee of Ntmes. In the eighth century, when S^i-
mania was annexed to the Frankish Empire, tJie Dio-
cese of Alius was suppressed and its territory returned
to the Diocese of Ntmes. At the request of Louis XIV,
a see was aeain created at Alus by Innocent XII, in
1694. The future Cardinal deBaus9et,Bos6uet's biog-
rapher, was Bishop of Alius from 1784 to 1790. After
the Edict of Nantes, Alais was one of the -piixeet de
tureU given to the Huguenots (see HtrauBNora, fftt-
tory). Louis XIII took back the town in 1629, and
the Convention of Alais, signed 29 June of that year,
suppressed the political privileges of the Protestants.
The chief pilgrimages of the present Diocese of
Ntmes are: Notre Dame de Grftoe, Rochefort, dating
CoDKented 1^ Ucbui II in 1093
from Charlemagne, and commemorating a victoiy
over the Saracens. Louis XIV and his mother, Anna
Alais, dating from not later than 900. Notre Dame
de Bon Secouts de Prime Combe, Fontan^, since 887.
Notre Dame de Bonheur, founded 1045 on the moun-
tain of I'AijRiua] in the vicinity of Valleraugucs. Notre
Dame de Belveiet, a shrine of the eleventh century,
on Mont Andavu. Notre Dame de Vauvert, whither
the converted Albigenses were sent, often visited by
St. Louis, Clement V, and Francis I, The shrine of
St. Vfr^ime, a hermit who died Archbishop of Avi-
gnon, and of the martyr St. Baudilus, at Trois Fon-
tunes and at Valsainte near Ntmes. The following
Saints are especially venerated in the present Diocese
of Ntmes: St. Castor, Bishop of Apt (fourth to fifth
century), a native of Ntmes; the priest St. Theodoritus,
martyr, patron s«nt of the town of Uite; the Athe-
nian St. Giles (£gidius, sixth cent.), living as a recluse
near Uzfe when he was accidentally wounded by King
Ohilderic, later abbot of the monastery built by Chil-
deric in reparation for this accident, venerated also in
England; Blessed Peter of Luxemburg who made a
sojourn in the diocese, at Villeneuve-lez-Avignon
(1369-87).
Prior to the Associations Iaw of 1901 the diocese
had Augustiniana of the Aasumption (a congregation
which originated in the city of Ntmes), CarUku^ans,
Trappists, Jesuits, Missionaries of the Company of
mUBOD
84
Mary, Fra&dflcan Fathers, Marists, Laiarists, Sul-
pioians, and various orders of teaching brothers. The
Oblates of the Assumption, for teaching and foreign
missions^ also founded here, and the Besan^n Sisters
of Chanty, teachers and nurses^ have their mother-
houses at Ntmes. At the besinnmg of the century the
religious congregations conducted in this diocese: 3
cr^hes, 53 day nurseries, 6 boys' orphanages, 20 girls'
orphanages, 1 employment agency for females, 1 house
of refuge for pemtent women, 6 houses of mercy, 20
hospitius or asylums, 11 houses of visitins nurses, 3
houses of retreat, 1 home for incurables. In 1005 the
Diocese of Ntmes contained 420,836 inhabitants, 45
I>arishes, 239 succursal parishes, 52 vicariates subven-
tioned by the State.
GaUia dhruiiana Nova, VI (1739), 426-516; 606-^, 1118-1121.
1123, and JntirumerUa, 165-226. 203-312; Duchesns, FatUa Bpu-
copaux, I (1900), 299-302; Gbrmain. Huioire de FiglUe de Nlmet
(Paris, 1838-42); Qoifion, CaUdogue analytique det Mqusa de
MmM (1879) ; Dubakd, Nemautiana, I (Ntmee, 1905) ; Boulbn-
aSB. Le* protettanU d Nltne$ au tempt de Vidii de NanUa (Paris,
1903) ; Roux, Ntmee (Paris. 1908) ; Durand. L*igliee SU Marie, ou
Notre Dame de Ntmee, baeilioue eathidraU (Ntmes. 1906); Cha&-
V ST, Cataloffue dee fviquee d* Ua^ in Mhfunree tt ComvUe vendue
de la SocUU Scientifique d'Alaie, II (1870), 12^69; Taulbllb,
L'abbaye d*Ala%e: kuioire de 8. Julien de Valgalgue (Toulouse,
1805). Geobqes Gotau.
Nimrod. See Nembod.
Nlnlan. Saint (Niniab, Nmns, Dinan, Rinqan,
RiNGEN), bishop and confessor, date of birth unknown ;
d. about 432; the first Apostle of Christianity in Scot-
land. The earliest account of him is in Bede (Hist.
Eccles., Ill, 4): "the southern Picts received the true
faith by the preaching of Bishop Ninias, a most rever-
end and holy man of the British nation, who had been
regularly instructed at Rome in the faith and myster-
ies of the truth; whose episcopal see, named after St.
Martin the Bishop, and famous for a church dedicated
to him (wherein Niniafi himself and many other saints
rest in the body), is now in the possession of the Eng-
lish nation. The place belongs to the province of the
Bemicians and is commonly called the White House
[Candida Caaa], because he there built a church of
stone, which was not usual amongst the Britons''.
The facts given in this passage form practically all we
know of St. Ninian's me and work.
The most important later life, compiled in the
twelfth century By St. Aelred, professes to give a de-
tailed account founded oh Bede and also on a "liber
de vita et miraculis eius" {8c, Niniani) "barbarice
Bcriptus'', but the legendary element is largely evi-
dent. He states, however, that while engaged in
building his church at Candida Casa, Ninian heard
of the oeath of St. Martin and decided to dedicate the
building to him. Now St. Martin died about 397, so
that the mission of Ninian to the southern Picts must
have begun towards the end of the fourth century.
St. Ninian founded at Whithorn a monastery which
became famous as a school of monasticism within a
century of his death; his work among the southern
Picts seems to have had but a short-lived success.
St. Patrick, in his epistle to Coroticus, terms the Picts
" apostates '', and references to Ninian's converts hav-
ing abandoned Christianity are found in the lives of
Sts. C}olumba and Kentigem. The 1x>dy of St. Ninian
was buried in the church at Whithorn (Wigtown-
shire), but no reUcB are now known to exist. The
"Clogrinny", or bell of St. Ringan, of very rough
workmanship, is in the Antiquarian Museum at
Edinburgh.
Bbds, uiet. Bcdeej^ tr. Sbuar, III (London, 1907), 4; Asurbd,
Vita 8, Niniani in Forbes, Hietoriane of 8eoaand, V; Acta 88.,
Sept., V, 321-28; Caporatb, Noea Legenda Anglia (London,
1516) ; O Conor. Rerum Uibemiearum 8criptoree (Dublin, 1825) ;
CoLOAN, Ada 88. Hibem. (Louvain, 1647). 438; Challoner.
Brttannia 8anda, II (London, 1745). 130; Stanton, Menology of
England and Walee (London. 1887). 448. 669; MacKinnon,
Ninian und aeinBinfiuae auf die Autbreitung dee Chri^enthunu in
NordrBritannien (Heidelberg, 1891), this \b the most authorita-
tive work on the subject; see also Idem. Culture in Barly 8cotland;
Analecta BoUandiana, XII. 82; Revue Binidietine, IX. 526.
G. Roger Hudleston.
Ninive (Ninbveh). See Asstbia.
Nirschl, Joseph, theologian and writer, b. at
Durohfurth, Lower Bavaria, 24 February, 1823; d.
at WQrzburg, 17 January, 1904. He was orduned in
1851 and graduated as doctor of theology in 1854
at Munich. He was appointed teacher ot Christian
doctrine at Passau in 1855 and in 1862 professor of
church history and patrology. In 1879 he became
professor of church history at Wiirzburg, and was ap-
pointed dean of the cathedral in 1892. Of his numer-
ous works, mostly on patristics, the most important
are: ''Lehrbuch der Patrologie und Patristik'' (3 vols.,
Mainz, 1881-5): "Ursprung und Wesen des Bosen
nach der Lehre des hi. Augustinus'' (Ratisbon, 1854):
"Das Dogma der unbefleckten Empf&ngnis Maria
(Ratisbon, 1855); ''Todesjahr des nl. Ignatius von
Antiochien" (Passau, 1869); ''Die Theologie des hi.
Ignatius von Antiochien" (rassau, 1869, and Mains,
1880); Das Haus und Grab der m. Jungfrau Maria
(Mainz, 1900) . He translated into German the letters
and the martyrium of St. Ignatius of Antioch (Kemp-
ten, 1870) and the Catecheses of St. Cyril of Jerusalem
(Kempten, 1871). He defended the genuineness of
pseudo-Dionysius and of the apocryphal letter of King
Abgar of Edessa to Jesus.
Lauchbbt in Biogr. Jahrb. und deutecher Nekrolog (ViennA«
1004). 169 sq.
Michael Ott.
NlsibiSy titular Archdiocese of Mesopotamia, situ-
ated on the Mygdonius at the foot of Mt. Masius. It
is so old that its original name is unknown. In any
case it is not the Achsui (Accad) of Genesis, x, 10. a^has
been asserted. When the Greeks came to Mesopo-
tamia with Alexander the^ called it Antiochia Myg-
donia, under which name it appears for the first time
on the occasion of the march of Antiochus against the
Molon (Polybius, V, 51). Subsequently the subject
of constant disputes between the Romans and the
Parthians, it was captured b}r Luculhis after a long
siege from the brotner of Ti^ranes (Dion Cassius,
XaXV, 6, 7); and by Trajan m 115, which won for
him the name of Parthicus (ibid., LXVIII, 23). Re-
captured by the Osrhoenians in 194, it wss asain con-
quered by Septimius Severus who made it his head-
quarters and establbhed a colony there (ibid., LXXV,
23). In 297, by the treaty with Nars€». the province
of Nisibis was acquired by the Roman Empire: in 363
it was ceded to the Persians on the defeat of Julian the
Apostate. The See of Nisibis was founded in 300 by
Babu (d. 309). His successor, the celebrated St.
James, defended the citv by his prayers during the
siege of Sapor II. At the time ot its cession to the
Persians, Nisibis was a Christian centre important
enough to become the ecclesiastical metropolis of the
Provmce of Beit-Arbave. In 410 it had six suffragan
sees and as early as the middle of the fifth century
was the most important episcopal see of the Peraan
Church after Seleucia-Ctesiphon. A great many of its
Nestorian or Jacobite titulars are mentioned in Cha-
bot ("Synodicon orientale", Paris, 1902, 678) and Le
Quien (Oriens christ., II, 995, 1195-1204) and several
of them, e. g. Barsumas, Osee, Narses, Jesusyab,
Ebed-Jesus, etc., acquired deserved celebrity in the
world of letters. Near Nisibis on 25 June, 1839,
Ibrahim Pasha, son of Mehemet Ali, Vicerov of Egvnt, '
won a great victory over the troops of Mahmud il.
To-day Nezib is a town of 3000 inhabitants in the
sandjak of Orfa and the vilayet of Aleppo. Its oil b
considered very fine.
The first theological school of Nisibis, founded at
the introduction of Christianity into the town, was
closed when the province was ceded to the Persians,
great persecutors of Christianity. St. Ephraem re-
established it on Roman soil at Edessa, whither
flocked all the studious youth of Persia. In the fifth
century the school became a centre of Nestorianiam.
NXTHABD 85 KOAILLEB
Archbishop Cynia in 489 closed it and e3q>elled mas- rerum Gennanicarum in usum Scholarum" (Hanover,
ters and pupils, who withdrew to Nisibis. They were 1830, reprinted 1907). German translations by Jas-
welcomed by Barsumas, a former pupil of Eklessa. mund appeared at Berlin, 1859; third edition, by Wat-
The school was at once re-opened at Nisibis under the tenbach, Leipzig, 1889. ,
direction of Narses, called the harp of the Holy Ghost, ^^^i™'^^^' ^^^f^^J"** ??fi*'A^'*^''VSa Ifl?®'^' ^®^^'
The latter dictated the statutes of the new"^ school. ^33-37; PoTmAw. B^f>l^oiheca, II (Berh^ J8?«). ^^^^
Those which have been discovered and published be- j,q^ g„ ^oe ^atricitjs hchlaqbb.
long to Osee, the successor of Barsumas in the See of
Nisibis, and bear the date 496; they must be substan- Noailles, LoniB-Ainx)iNB de, cardinal and bishop,
tially the same as those of 489. In 590 they were b. at the Ch&teau of Teyssi^re in Auvenme, France. 27
again modified. The school, a sort of Catholic uni- May, 1651; d. at Paris, 4 May, 1729. fiis father^ nrst
versity, was established in a monastery and directed Due de Noailles, was captain-general of Roussillon;
by a superior called RaJbban, a title also given to the his mother, Louise Boyer, had been lady-in-waiting to
instructors. The administration was confided to a Queen Anne of Austria. Louis de Noailles stuofied
majordomo, who was steward, i>refect of discipline, and theology at Paris in the Coll^ du Plessis, where
librarian, but under the supervision of a council. Un- F^nelon was his fellow-student and friend, and ob-
like the Jacobite schools^ devoted chiefly to profane tained his doctorate at the Sorbonne, 14 March, 1676.
studies, the school of Nisibis was above all a school of Already provided with the Abbey of Aubrac (Diocese
theology. The two chief masters were the instructors in of Rodes), he was, in March, 1679, appointed to the
reading and in the interpretation of Holy Scripture, Bishopric of Cahors, and in 1680 transferred to CYA-
explained chiefly with the aid of Theodore of Mopsues- lons-sur-Mame, to which see a peerage was attached,
tia. The course of studies lasted three years and was He accepted this rapid removal only at the formal
entirely gratuitous; but the students provided for command of Innocent XI. In this ofiice he showed
their own support. During their sojourn at the uni- himself a true bishop, occupying himself in all kinds of
versity, masters and students led a monastic life under good works. He confided ms theological seminary to
somewhat special conditions. The school had a tri- the Lajsarists, and founded a TpelU Uminaire,
bunal and enjoyed a civil personality, being able to The regularity of his conduct, his family standing,
acquire and possess all sorts of property. Its rich 11- and the support of Mme de Maintenon induced Louis
brary possessed a most beautifm collection of Nesto- XIV to make him Archbishop of Paris, 19 August,
rian works; from its remains Ebed-Jesus, Metropolitan 1695. At Paris he was what he had been at Chilons.
of Nisibis in the fourteenth century, composed his LackinginbriUiantoualities, he was possessed of piety,
celebrated catalogue of ecclesiastical writers. The zeal^ and activity. He was simple in manners and ao-
disorders and dissensions^ which arose in the sixth cen- cessible to poor and rich alike. In 1709 he sold his sil-
tury in the school of Nisibis, favoured the develop- ver plate to provide food for the famine-stricken. His
men t of its rivals, especially that of Seleucia; how- generosity towards churches was also remarkable, and
ever, it did not really begin to decline until after the he spent large sums from his private fortune in deco-
foundation of the School of Bagdad (832). Among its rating and improving Notre-Dame. The decorum of
literary celebrities mention should be made of its public worship and the good conduct of the clergy
founder Narses; Abraham, his nephew and successor; were the particular objects of his care. Inspired more
Abraham of iCashgar, the restorer of monastic life; by customs prevalent m France than by the prescrip-
John; Babai the Elder; three ccUholicoi named Jesus- tions of the Council of Trent, hecausea the Breviary,
yab. Missal, and other liturgical books of Paris already
, cS}SF^\P*^**^^^/- ^.^.^'^,?^^ ,^««?~P>y/ .^ (London, published by his predecessor de Harlay, to be reprinted.
'^^st^'^^iJS'l^: iT*i^^5;'cH'lT^.^'iSr£ To these, he added the Rituale, the (Wmoniale, and
Niaibe. Sim hittoire, m« ttattUa (Paris. 1896) ; Labourt, Le ehria- a collection of CanonS for the USe of his Chureh. By
tianitme dans V empire p«rM (Paria. 1904), «M«m; Duval, La decrees issued on his acccssion (June, 1696) he im-
^!uu!ai (?2?r269.™' ^' '^•*"''' ""' '^^ P08«i for the first time on aspirants to the ecclesiasti-
g, Vailh£. ^ state the obligation of residing in seminaries for
several months beifore ordination. He organized eo-
mthard, Prankish historian, son of Angilbert and clesiastical conferences throughout his diocese and
Bertha, daughter of Charlemagne; d. about 843 or 844 conferences in moral theology once a week at Paris;
in the wars against the Normans. Little is known priests were obliged to make an annual retreat, wise
about his early life, but in the quarrels between the rules were drawn up for the good conduct and repu-
8ons of Louis the Pious he proved a zealous adherent of larity of all ecclesiastics, the iJdvine service, the assist-
Charles the Bald, by whose command he went as am- ance of the sick, and the primary schools. Seminaries
bassador to Lothair in 840, though without success, for poor clerics were encouraged and supported, and
At the battle of Fontenoy, in 841, he fought bravely one was founded which served as a shelter for poor,
at the side of Charles, and afterwards wrote, at the old, or infirm priests.
request of that prince, the history of the period in or- While still Bishop of Ch&lons he took part in the
der to establish the right of Charles the Bald. This conferences held at issy to examine the works of Mme
workj which usually bears the title: ^'De dissensioni- Guyon (a. v.). His part was only secondary, but he
bus nliorum Ludovici Pii ad annum U8(|ue 843, seu succeedea in having the accused's entire defence
Historiarum libri quattuor 841-843 '\ recites in rather heard. Shortly afterwiurtds he became involved in a
uncouth language the causes of the quarrels and de- controversy with F6nelon (q. *v.) concerning the lat-
flcribes, minutely and clearly, the imjust behaviour of ter's '^ Maximes des Saints, which was condemned by
liothair, sometimes a little partially, but» with under- the Bishops of Meaux, Chartres, and de Noailles him-
Standing and a clear insight into the conditions. He self. In 17(X) he was made a cardinal by Innocent
was the only layman of his tinbe who devoted himself XII. Several months later de Noailles presided at the
to the writing of a history, and he reported earnestly General Assembly of the French clergy. This assem-
and tnithf ully what he himself had seen and heard, bly exerted great influence on the teaching of moral
It is very probable that he was lay abbot of St. theology in France, and after Bossuet no one had so
Riquier. His body was buried there, and when it great a share as de Noailles in its decisions. He be-
was found, in the eleventh century, Mico, the poet came prior of Navarre in 1704, head of the Sorbonne
of the abbey, composed a lengthy rhymed epitaph, in 1710, and honorary dean of the faculty of law. Ex-
Nithard's historical work has been published by cept for his attitude towards Jansenism the cardinal's
Migne, in " P. L.", CXVI, 45-76; aJso m the "Mon. career would be deserving only of praise. He always
Genn. Hist.: Script.", II, 649-72, and in ''Scriptores denied being a Jansenist, and condemned the five
NOBIU 86 NOCIB4
propositions constituting the essence of Jansenism, to retire to Mylapore. (For an account of his mission-
but he always inclined, both in dogma and morals, to ary methods see Malabar Rites.) De' Nobili trans-
opinions savouring of Jansenism; he favoured its par- lated into Sanskrit or composed therein many prayers
tisans and was ever hostile to the Jesuits and the ad- and several longer works, especially an abridlkment of
versaries of the Jansenists. Shortly before his eleva- Christian Doctrine and a life of Our Lady, in Sanskrit
tion to the See of Paris he had approved (June, 1695) verse. Nearly all these productions were lost durine
the ''Reflexions morales'' of P^re Quesnel, an Orato- his imprisonment in Madura (1639-41). His principu
rian already known for his ardent attachment to work in Tamil is his ''Larger Catechism", in four books,
Jansenism and destined soon to be its leader. He ear- printed after his death (partly reprinted, Trichinopoly,
nestly recommended it to his priests. This approba- 1891-1906). It is a course of theolory adapted to
tion was the source of all the cardinal's troubles. the needs of the country. In addition ne wrote: "A
Believingthemselves thenceforth certain of his sym- Treatise on the Eternal Life", "A Dialogue on the
pathy the Jansenists, on de Noailles' elevation to the Faith", "A Disproof of Transmigration", "A Man-
See of Paris, published a posthumous work of de Bar- ual of Rules of Perfection", numerous hynms and
COB (q. v.), entitled "Exposition de la foy", really the several instructions not yet edited, two small cate-
explanation and defence of the Jansenistic doctrine of chisms still in actual use, "The Science of the Soul",
grace alreadv condemned by Rome. De Noailles con- and many prayers. He translated into Telugu several
demned the book (20 August, 1696), at least in the first of his Tamil works, among them the two small cate-
part of his instruction, but in the second he set forth a chisms. In Tamil and Telugu he enriched the vocabu-
theory on grace and predestination closely resembling lary with appropriate Christian terms,
that of de Baroos. No one was satisfied: the ordinance ^ Bbbtband, La MUnon du Madwi (Pftris. 1847) ; LtUrea id%-
displeased both the Janseniste and the J^^^ The ST-pSSSTedf S^;J^* I^'hS^^^
former did not fail to caLL attention to the OOntradlC- 1818). 35; pseudo-Vedaa Mem dearly a Don-Chriotian productioD;
tory attitudes of the Bishop of Ch&lons, who approved {?"■ cuatribee on de* Nobili, aee D'Obsat. Portuguese D%»coterU$
Quesnel, and the Archbishop of Paris, who coiflemned ^^"^""^ i^^^* 264-58.
deBarcos. An anonymous pamphlet published under ^abtbts.
thetitle"Probl^meeccIdsia8tique'', placed side by side Noble, Danibl, physician, b. 14 Jan., 1810: d. at
twenty-nine identical propositions which had been Manchester, 12 Jan., 1885. He was the son of Mary
approved in the Quesnel's work and condenmed in de Dewhurst and Edward Noble of Preston, a descendant
Barcos'. Parliament condemned the lampoon to be of an old Yorkshire Catholic family. Apprenticed to
burned; six months later it was put on the Index (2 & Preston surgeon named Thomas Moore, Noble was
June, 1699) and proscribed by the Holy Office. in time. admitted a member of the Royal College of
The controversies occasioned by the pubUcation of Surgeons and a licentiate of Apothecaries Hall. In
the "Cas de (Conscience" and Quesnel's "Reflexions 1^4 he began to practise in Manchester, and soon
morales'' (for which see Jansenius, in Vol. VIII, showed the sp^ial interest in mental disease which
291-2) involved de Noailles deeply in the Jansenist afterwards distinguished his career. In the following
quarrel. In spite of repeated papal decisions of the year he published his first work, ''An Essay of the
Holy See, the cardinal, for many ^ears, would not ac- Means, physical and moral, of estimating Human
cept the Bull "Unigenitus". Finally he yielded in Character' , the tendency of which is indicated by the
May, 1728, and on 11 October following publiBhed his fact that he is described as President of the Manches-
unconditioned acceptance of the Bull. He afterwards ter Phrenological Society. His practise increased,
retracted various writing, which seemed to cast and in 1840 he married Frances Mary Louisa Ward, of
doubt on the sincerity of his submission; he restored to Dublin; they had eijsht children, one of them Frances,
the Jesuits the faculties of which he had deprived them the novelist. Cardinal Wiseman stood sponsor to his
thirteen years before. He died two months later, aged eldest child. From the University of St. Andrews he
78. regarded by all with respect and esteem. His weak received the degrees of M .D. and M .A., and in 1867 he
Jmgemtus .
diBcemment in the choice of his confidants; he bore a life'| (London, 1843); ''The Brain and its Physiolo^,
great name, and played an important part in his time, & critical disquisition of the methods of determining
Xi-mBAXTBAiJLMY.Le Card.de NoaiuMd^aju^aaeorrtapondance Three Lectures on the (Correlation of Psychology
istSv* n^,^.StS^3iJ^trjK^ ^mm*. and Physiology" (London, 1854); "The Human Mind
yon, lo^o;; i^s nor, ua r ranee es aome ae i iuu a iiio ^rans, i. ^ loerVx. iir\ al /i x x* • xi. i ^l
1892); CRou8iJ,F<n«ton««BM«u«< (Paris. 1895). Chester, 1859); "On the fluctuations m the death-
Antoinb Degert. rate " (Manchester, 1863) ; " Evanescent Protestantism
and Nascent Atheism, the modem reli^ous problem"
Nobili, Robert de*, b. at Montepulciano, Tus- (London, 1877); "On causes reducing the effects
cany, September, 1577; d. at Mylapore, India, in of sanitary reform" (Manchester, 1878) and several
1656. He entered the Society of Jesus in 1597. at contributions to various medical journals, the best-
Naples, and after a brilliant course of studies sailed for known of which was a paper called " Mesmerism True
the Indian mission in October, 1604, arriving at Goa, —Mesmerism False", which was translated into Ge>
20 May, 1605. After a short stay at Ck)chin and the man and Dutch.
Fishery Coast, he was sent in November, 1606, to Gi"^w. BiW. Dxa, Sng, Cath,, V. 181.
Madura to study Tamil. Within a year he had ac- -^^^^ Burton.
r' red a complete mastery of Tamil, Telugu, and San- Nocera, Diocese of (Nucerinensis), in Peru-
t. In his zeal to convert the Brahmins he adopted gia, Umbria, Italy, near the sources of the Tina,
their mode of life and so had to cut himself off com- famous for its mineral waters, especially the Fonte
Sletely from intercourse with his fellow missionaries. Angelica. According to a legend^ the first Bishop of
[e worked in Madura, Mysore, and the Kamatic till Nocera was St. Crispoldus, a disciple of the Apostles,
old age and almost complete blindness compelled him but his Germanic name renders tms doubtful; more
87
MOOTUKHd
credible b the traditioD of the martyrdom of SS. Felix,
CoDstuice, and Felicienmiu. The Bishops Felix, to
whom Pope Innocent addressed a. letter m 402, and
Ccelius LaurentiuB, the competitor of Pope Svmmai-
chuB {498), were not Umbrian prelates, but, bishops of
Nocera, near Naples (Savio, ''Qv. Cattol.", 1907).
The first authentic Bishop was Liutardus (824); other
prelates were Blessed lUnkldo d'Antienano (1258) and
Blemed Filippo Oderiu (1285), monks of Fonte Avel-
Una; Blessea Alessandro Vincioli, O.M. (1363); An-
tonio Botognjni (1438) restored the cathedral; Varino
FavortQo(r514),anotedhumaniBt;GerolanoMaunelli
(1545), founder of the seminary; Mario Battaglini
(1890), diocesan historian; Francesco Luiei Piervisani
(1800), psiled in 1809 because he refused the oath ot
allegiance to Napoleon. It is immediately dependent
on Rome, with 82 paiiahea; 59,731 inhabitants; 7 re-
iJKious houses of men and 9 of women.
Cimufm. Li CAi*w d-/laJia, VI. XJ. BENIONI.
Nocan doi Pac»nl (of thb pagans), Diocbsh of
(Ndcbrin Paqanorum), in Salerno, Italy, at the foot
of Mt. Albinio, on the Samo River; it is the Nuceria
Alfatema of the Nuvkrinum coins, captured by Fa-
bius MaximuB in the Samnite War (307), and sacked
. ^Hannibal (215).
I "nte appellation "of
the paxana" dates
probably from the
ninth century, be-
cause of a Saracen
colony established
there with the con-
n i V a D c e of the
t)ukes of Naples. In
1132 King Roger
nearly destroyed
the town because it
took part with In-
nocent II, and in
1382 Charles of Du-
raiBO besieeed
there Urban VI.
Nocera is the birth-
place of Hugo de
Paganis (Payus),
one of the founders
oftheTBmplarB;8t.
Ludovipo, Bishop of
PWIVS IfJVIVS
wt±_
Toloi
1 of
Charles II of An-
jou; Tontmaso de Aoemo, historian of Urban VI;
and the pwnter Francesco Solimena. St. Alphonsus
Liguori founded his order there. At Nocera is the
sanctuary of Maler Domini, which contiuns the tomb
of Charles I of Anjou; the ancient church was rebuilt
in the eleventh century, and given (o some hernubi;
Urban VIII gave it to the Baeilians, and when these
were driven away is 1809 and 1829, it came into the
hands of the Franciscans. Among its bishops were
St. Priscus, the first bishop, not St, PriscuB of Nola;
and Ccelius Laurentius, competitor of Svmmachus
(4BS). In 1260 the assassination of the bishop caused
the suiyjreBsion of the diocese, but Urban VI restored
it in 1386, Later bishops were Giovanni Cerretani
(1498), a jurist; the historian Paul JoviuH (1528), suc-
ceeded by his nephew Julius and his n'eat-n^hew
Paul, who rebuilt the episcopal palace j SimoneLuna-
doro (1602), diocesan historian. United to the See
of Cava in 1818, it was re-established in 1834. A
suffragan of Salerno, it has 28 parishes; 60,350 inhab-
itants; 4 religious houses of men, and 11 of women; a
■chool for boys, and 5 for girls.
CArruum, La Chit— ^lUUta, XX. IJ. Benioni.
NoOtnnu (Noetumi or ffociuma), a very old tenn
^iplied to night Offices. Tertullian speaks of noc-
turnal gatherings (Ad. Uxor., II, iv)j St. Cyprian, of
the no^umal hours, "nulla sint hone noctumis pre-
cum damna, nulla orationum pigra et ignava dispen-
dia" (De orat., vxix). In the life of Melania the
Younger is found the expression "noctunue horffi",
"noctuma temporti" (Anal, BoUand., VIIIj 1888, pp.
40 sq.). In these passages the term signifies night
prayer in general, and seems synonymous with the
word oigilia. It is not accurate, then, to assume that
the present division of Matins into three Noctums rep-
resents three distinct Offices recited during the night
in the early ages of the Church. Durandus of Mende
(Ration^e,in,n. 17) and others who follow him assert
that the early Christians rose thrice in the night to
pray; hence the present division into three Noctums
(cf, Beleth, Rupert, and other authors cited in the
bibliography). Some early Christian writers speak of
three vigils in the night, aa Methodius or St. Jerome
(Methodius, "Symposion", V, ii, in P. C, XVIII,
100) ; but the first was evening prayer, or prayer at
nightfall, corresponding practically to our Vespers or
Complines: the second, midnight prayer, specifically
called Vipl; the third, a prayer at dawn, correspond-
ing to the Office of Ijauas. As a matt^ of fact the
Office of the Vigils, and consequently of the Noctums,
was a single Office, recited without interruption at
midnight. AH the old texts alluding to this Office (see
Matins; Viqil) testify to this. Moreover, it does
not seem practical to assume that anyone, considering
the length of the Office in those days^ could have risen
to pray at three different times dunng the night, be-
sides joining m the two Offices of eventide and dawn.
If it is not yet possible to assign exactly the date of
the origin of the three Noctums, or to account for the
sigmficance of the division, some more or less probable
conjectures may be made. In the earliest period there
was as yet no <iueetion of a division in the Office, liie
oldest Vigils, in as far as they signify an Office, com-
prised c^lain psalms, chanted or sung either as re-
sponses or as antiphons, intermingled with prayers
recited aloud, or interrupted by a few moments' medi-
tation and readings from the Old or the New Testa-
ment. On certain days the Vigil included the celebra-
tion of Mass.
It was during the second period, probably in the
fourth century, that to break the monotony of this
long night prayer the custom of dividing it into three
parts was introduced. Cassian in speaking of the sol-
emn Vigils mentions three divisions of this Office (De
ccenob. instit., Ill, viii, in P, L., XLIX, 144). We
have here, we think, the origin of the Noctums; or at
least it is the earliest mention of them we possess. In
the "Per^rinatio ad Iocs sancta", the Office of the
Vigils, eitherforweek-daysorforSundays, is a:
Paris, 1895, pp, 37 and 53), A little later St. Benedict
speaks with greater detail of this division of the VigilB
into two Noctums for ordinary days, and three for
Sundays and feast-days with six psalms and leeeons
for the first two Noctums, three canticles and lessons
for the third; this is exactly the stmcture of the Noc-
tums in the Benedictine Office to-day, and practically
in the Roman Office (Re^ula ix x, xi). The very ex-
pression "Noctum",tosigni{y theni^tOffice, is used
by him twice {xv, xvi). He also uses the term AToc-
lurna laut in meaking of the Office of the Vigils. The
proof which E. Warren tries to draw from the "An-
tiphonary of Bangor" to show that in the Celtic
Church, according to a custom older than the Bene-
dictino-Roman practice, there were three separate
Noctums or Vinls, is based on a confusion of the
three Offices, ''Initium noctis", "Noctuma", and
"Matutina", which are not the three Noctums, but
the Office of Eventide, of the Vigil, and of Lauds {cf.
The Tablet, 16 Dec., 1893, p. 972; and B&umer-
Biron, ittfra, 1, 263, 264).
NOl
88
NOl
The division of the Vigils into two or three Noc-
tums in the Roman Chiutjh dates back at least to the
fifth century. We may conjecture that St. Benedict,
who, in the composition of the monastic cursust fol-
lovra the arrangement of the Roman Office so closely,
must have been inspired equally by the Roman cus-
toms in the composition of his Office. Whatever
doubt there may be as to priority, it is certain that the
Roman system bears a strong analogy to that of the
Noctums in the Benedictine Office even at the present
time, and the differences subsisting are almost en-
tirely the result of transformations or additions, which
the Roman Office has been subjected to in the course
of time. On Sunda3rs and feast-days there are three
Noctums, as in the Benedictine Office. Each Noo-
tum comprises three psalms, and the first Noctum of
Sundav has three groups of four psalms each. The
ferial days have only one Noctum consisting of twelve
psalms; each^Noctum has, as usual, three lessons. For
the variations which have occurred in the course of
time in the composition of the Noctums^ and for the
different usaees see Matins. These different usages
are recorded By Dom Mart^ne. For the terms, " Noc-
tumales Libri^', "Noctumae", see Du Cange, "Glos-
sarium infimse latinitatis'', s. w.
See Matikb; Viqxl; Casbxan, Deecmcb. in^U.^ II, z; Bblbtb,
Rationale, xx; Liber Diumut, P. L., CV, 71; Durandus of
Mbndb, RaliontUe, III, n. 7; Rupert, De div. officiia, I, z; Mab-
TtNB, De antiquie Monaeh, fit.. IV, 4 eq. ; Zaccaria. OnomaHxeon,
£0, 51; BAuMBB-BiBON, HitUnre du BrMaire, I (PBiis. 1905), 74
eq.. 78. 09, 263, 358-361. etc.
F. Cabrol.
N06 [Heb. Hi (N6at), "rest"; Gr. K&; Lat.
Noe], the ninth patriarch of the Sethite line, ^andson
of Mathusala and son of Lamech, who with his family
was saved from the Deluge and thus became the sec-
ond father of the human race (Gen., v, 25— ix, 29).
The name Nda^ was given to him because of his fa-
ther's expectation regarding him. ' ' This same ' ' , said
Lamech on naming him, ''shall comfort us from ^e
works and labours of our hands on [or more correctly
"from", i. e. which come from] the earth, which the
Lord hath cursed." Most commentators consider
Lamech's words as the expression of a hope, or as a
prophecy, that the child would in some way be instru-
mental in removing the curse pronounced against
Adiun (Gen., iii, 17 sqq.). Others rather fancifully
fie« in them a reference to Noe's future discovery of
wine, which cheers the heart of man; whilst others
again, with ereater probability, take them as ex-
pressing merely a natural hope on the part of Lamech
that his son would become the support and comfort of
his parents, and enable them to enjoy rest and peace
in their later years. Amid the general corruption
which resulted from the marriages of- "the sons of
€rod" with "the daughters of men" (Gen., vi, 2 soq.),
that is of the Sethites with Cainite women, "r^oe
was a just and perfect man in his generations" and
"walked with uod" (vi, 9). Hence, when God de-
creed to destroy men from the face of the earth, he
"found grace before the Lord". According to the
common interpretation of Gen., vi, 3, Noe first re-
ceived divine warning of the impencmig destruction
one hundred and twenty years before it occurred, and
therefore when he was four hundred and eighty years
old (cf. vii, 11); he does not seem, however, to have
received at this time any details as to the nature of
the catastrophe. After he reached the age of five
hundred years three sons, Sem, Cham, and Japheth,
were bom to him (vi, 10). These had grown to man-
hood and had taken wives, when Noe was informed
of God's intention to destroy men by a flood, and re-
ceived directions to build an ark in which he and his
wife, his sons and their wives, and representatives,
male and female, of the various kinds of animals ana
birds, were to be saved (vi, 13-21). How lon^ before
the Deluge this revelation was imparted to him, it is
impossible to say; it can hardly have been more than
seventy-five years (cf. vii, 11), and probably was con-
siderably less.
Noe had annoimced the impending judgment and
had exhorted to repentance (II Pet., ii, 5), but no
heed was given to nis words (Matt., xxiv, 37 sqq.;
Luke xvii, 26, 27; I Pet., iii, 20), and, when the fatol
time arrived, no one except Noe's immediate family
found refuge in the ark. Seven days before the waters
began to cover the earth. Noe was commanded to
enter the ark with his wile, his three sons and their
wives, and to take with him seven pairs of all clean,
and two pairs of all unclean animals and birds (vii,
1-4). It has been obiected that, even though the
most liberal value is allowed for the cubit, tEe ark
would have been too small to lodp^ at least two pairs
of every species of animal and bird. But there can
be no difficulty if, as is now genendly admitted, the
Deluge was not geographically universal (see Deluge :
Ark). After leaving the ark Noe built an altar, and
taking of all clean animals and birds^ offered holo-
causts upon it. God accepted the sacrifice, and made
a covenant with Noe, and through him with all man-
kind, that He would not waste Uie earth or destroy
man by another deluge, l^e rainbow would for all
times oe a sign and a reminder of this covenant.
He further renewed the blessing which He had pro-
nounced on Adam (Gen., i. 28), and confirmed the
dominion over animals which He had granted to man.
In virtue of this dominion man may use animals for
food, but the flesh may not be eaten with the blood
(viii, 20-ix, 17). Noe now gave himself to agricul-
ture, and planted a vineyard. Bein^ unacquainted
with the effects of fermented grape-juice, he druik
of it too freely and was made drunk. Cham found his
father Iving naked in his tent, and made a jest of
his condition before his brothers; these reverently
covered him with a mantle. On hearing of the oc-
currence Noe cursed Chanaan, as Cham s heir, and
blessed Sem and Japheth. He lived three hundred
and fifty years after the Deluge, and died at the age of
nine hundred and fifty years (ix, 20-29). In the uiter
books of Scripture Noe is represented as the model of
the just man (Ecclus., xliv, 17^aech.^ xiv, 14, 20),
and as an exemplar of faith (Heb., xi, 7). In t^e
Fathers and tradition he is considered as the type
and figure of the Saviour, because through him tne
human race was saved from destruction and recon-
ciled with God <Ecclus., xliv, 17, 18) . Moreover, as he
built the ark. the only means of salvation from the
Deluge, so Christ established the Church, the only
means of salvation in the spiritual order.
The Babylonian account of the Deluge in many
points closely resembles that of the Bible. Four cune-
iform recensions of it have been discovered, of which,
however, three are only short fragments. The com-
plete story is found in the Gilgamesh epic (Tablet xi)
discovered by G. Smith among the ruins of the libraiy
of Assurbampal in 1872. Another version is given
by Berosus. In the Gilgamesh poem the hero of the
story is Ut-napishtim (or $it-napishti, as some read
it), sumamed Atra-hasis "the very clever"; in two
of the fragments he is simply styled Atra-^asis, which
name is also found in Berosus under t^e Greek form
Xisuthros. The story in brief is as follows: A council
of the gods having decreed to destroy men by a flood,
the fpi. Ea warns Ut-napishtim. and bids mm buila
a ship in which to save himself and the seed of all
kinds of Ufe. Ut-napishtim builds the ship (of which,
according to one version, Ea traces the plan on the
ground), and places in it his family, his dependents,
artisans, and domestic as well as wild animals, after
which he shuts the door. The storm lasts six days;
on the seventh the flood begins to subside. The ship
steered by the helmsman Puzur-Bel lands on Mt.
Ni^ir. After seven days Ut-napishtim sends forth a
dove and a swallow, which, findine no resting-place
for their feet return to the ark, and then araveii, which
NOIL 89 NOLA
feeds on dead bodies and does not return . On leaving of the Templars by announcing the plans for a new em-
the ship, Ut-napistim offers a sacrifice to the gods, sade, the expenses of which were to oe defrayed by the
who smell the goodly odour and gather like flies over confiscated goods of the Order. In this IJatin docu-
the sacrificer. He and his wife are then admitted ment, addrrased to Clement V, the author attributes
among the gods. The story as given by Berosus the failure of the crusades to the Templars and de-
comes somewhat nearer to the Biblical narrative, clares that Philip the Fair alone ooula direct them
Because of the striking resemblances between the successfully, provided that he obtained the help of
two many maintain that the Biblical account is de- all the Christian princes to secure the funds requued
rived from the Babylonian. But the differences for the expedition; all the property of the Templara
are so many and so important that this view must be should be given to the king, likewise all legacies left
pronounced untenable. The Scriptural story is a for the crusades and all the benefices in Christendom
parallel and independent form of a common tradition, should be taxed. The other militwy orders, the ab-
dS'SS^"^^ ro&r ^"SS-IISJi^! 32;igS^ ^tl'^ churches should refaun only the property
biU. Getch. (Freiburg. 1910), 200 sqq.; Skxnxeb, Critie. and ficcessary for theuT support, the surplus should be
iffM0. Comin, on Qen, (New York, 1910), 133 aqq.; Dxlliiakn. Gm- given for the Crusade. No one took this document
Si:^ii,^^^i9^^^^%^V^^J^,SS1n^ ?r'>"«'X. ?t y« probably intended «a.80lenm hoax.
dScouv. mod., I (6th ©d., Paris, 1896), 309 sqq. ; Schradbb. Die Wo^aret s influence may be seen in the tnal for sorcery
Knlinsekrift. u. daa A. T. (2Dd ed.. Gieflsen, 1882), 55 sqq.: Jsn- against Guichard, bishop of Troyes (1308). A zealous
SiSJ?^^^^^'^*JS^'^LfSSS*^ * ®~^J bu* unscrupulous royal partisan, a fierce and bitter
228 sqq.; VioouBOUX, Dtd. as la BwU, s. w. Ararat, Arche, and ^_^ xt j. j* j l /^ -nt-'f xt. t^ ^^ x Vt
NoiiHitnxcBT, The earlietttersum of the Batyloniondduoe story epemyi Nogaret died before Philip the Fair, at the
(Philadelphia, 1910). time when the regime he had devoted himself to
F. Bechtbl. establishing was beginning to be attacked on all sides.
Noel Alexandre. See Ai^xanbeb Natalis. ^^i^,'^^^^^^^^
NoetUB and Noetianism. See Monabchianb. f'J^'^ ^Sli^^'^Sr aST, S^'^s^': ^^^^^c ^Ifu
Nogaiet, GuiLLAUME de, b. about the middle of Si'Ju''ifiS!^J*wW^*^/*^^^
the t&rteeith century at St. Felix-en-Laura^ais; d. ^™' ^^^^^'^■' ^'^' ^^' ^' ^ '^~*' Xxyi.XXyil.&ioAui/r.
1314; he was one of the chief counsellors of Philip the
Fan-, of France (1285-1314), said to be descended from P^JS^J^^^L ^?^' *5l."** ^yvWt^ISSLT
an Albigensian family and was a protig^ of the lawyer, "* *^' ^"*- '^- * ^ ^"^^ ^^^' ^ms BrAhiuh
Pierre Flotte. He studied law, winning a doctorate iwi'injun.
and a professorship, and was appointed, in 1294, royal Nola, Diocese of (Nolaxa), suffragan of Naples,
judge of the seneschars court of Beaucaire. In 1299 The city of Nola in the Italian Province of Caserta, in
the title of knight was conferred on him by Philip the Campania, is said to have been founded by the Etnis^
Fair. Imbue(r from his study of Roman law, with cans or bjr Chalcideans from Cum®. On the most
the doctrine of the absolute supremacy of the king, ancient coins it is called Nuvlana. In the Samnite
no scruple restrained Nogaret when the royal power W&r (311 b. c.) the town was taken by the Romans,
was in question, and his influence was apparent m the in the Pimic War it was twice besieged by Hannibal
stru^e between Philip and Boniface \ail. In 1300 (215 and 214), and on both occasions splendidl^r de-
Phihp sent him as ambassador to the Holy See to ex- fended by Marcellus. In the war with the Marsi, the
cuse his alliance with Albert of Austria, usurper of lattertookNola, in 90 b. c, but, notwithstanding their
the Empire. Nogaret, according to his own account, brilliant defence of the city, it was retaken from them in
remonstrated with the pope, who replied in vigorous the year 89, and its recapture put an end to that war.
language. After the oeath of Pierre Flotte at the The city was sacked by Spartacus^ for which reason
the battle of Courtrai (1302), Nogaret became chief Augustus and Vespasian sent colonies there. In a. d.
adviser and evil genius of the king. On the publica- 410 it was sacked by Alaric. in 453 by the Vandals, in
tion of the Bull "Unam Sanctam" he was charged 806 and again in 904 by the Saracens. From the time of
with directing the conflict against the Holy See (Feb- Charles I of Anjou to the middle of the fifteenth cen-
ruary. 1303). At the Assembly of the Louvre (12 tury. Nola was a feudal possession of the Orsini. The
Marcn, 1303), he bitterly attacked the pope, and later, battle of Nola (1459) is famous for the clever stratagem
allying himself with the pope's Italian enemies (the bv which John of Anjou defeated Alfonso of Ara^on.
Florentine banker, Musciatto de Franzesi, and Nola furnished a considerable portion of the antiquities
Sdarra Colonna, the head of the Ghibelline party), in the museum of Naples, especially beautiful Gredc
he surprised Boniface in his palace at Anagni and vases. In the seminary there is a collection of ancient
arrested him after subjecting him to outrageous treat- inscriptions, among which are some Oscan tablets,
ment (7 September). But the inhabitants rescued The ruins of an amphitheatre and other ancient re-
the pope, whose death (11 October), saved Nogaret mains are yet to be seen in this city, where the Em-
from severe retribution. Early in 1304, at Langue- peror Augustus, who died there, had a famous temple,
doc, he explained his actions to the king, and received Nola was the birthplace of Giordano Bruno, of Luigi
considerable property as recompense. Philip even Tausillo, the philosopher and poet, of the sculptor
sent him with an embassy to the new pope, Benedict Giovanni MerUano, whose work is well represented in
XI, who refused to absolve him from the excommuni- the cathedral, and of the physician Ambrogio Leo.
cation he had incurred. Clement V, however, ab- The ancient Christian memories of Nola are con-
solved him in 1311. nected with the neighbouring Cimitile, the name of
Noearet played a decisive part in the trial of the which recalls the site of an ancient cemetery. There
Templars. On 22 September, 1307, at Maubuisson, is the basilica of St. Felix, the martsrr. built, and poet-
Philip made him keeper of the seal and the same ically described by St. raulinus, bisnop of the city,
day the Royal Council issued a warrant for the arrest who shows that no sanctuary, £Uter the tombs of the
of the Templars^ which was executed on 12 October; Holy Apostles Peter and Paul, was visited by as many
Nogaret himseli arrested the Knights of the Temple pilgrims as came to this shrine. St. Felix, who lived
in Paris and drew up the proclamation justif3ring the between the middle of the second century and the mid-
crime. It was he who directed all the measures die of the third, was the first Bishop of Nola. The city
that ended in the execution of Jacques de Molai has several other martyrs, among them, Sts. Repara-
and the principal Templars (1314). The same year tus, Faustillus, and Acacius, companions of St. Janu-
Nogaret, who displayea untiring energy in drawing arius, besides St. Felix, confessor. Other bishops of
up the documents by which he sought to ruin his Nola were St. Marinus (a^ut the year 300) ; St. Pri»-
aaversaries, undertook to justify the condemnation cus, who died in 328 or, according to Mommaen, in
NOLA
90
NOMINALISM
523: St. Quodvultdeus, who died in 387 and was suc-
ceeded by St. Paulinus. The body of the last-named
saint was taken to Benevento in 839, and in the year
1000 was given to Otho III by the people of Bene-
vento in exchange for the body of St. Bartholomew; in
1909 it was restored to Nola. In the fifth century the
archpresbyter St. Adeodatus flouri&hed at Nola; his
metrical epitaph has been preserved. In 484 Joannes
Taloias, Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria, having
been driven from his diocese, was made Bishop of
Nola. It was St. Paulinus III (c. 505) who became a
slave to free a widow's son; this heroic deed was after-
wards attributed to St. Paulinus I. Bishop Lupicinus
(786) restored several sacred buildings. Francis Scac-
ciani (1370) erected the Gothic cathedral, which was
finished by Bishop Gian Antonio Boccarelli (1469).
Antonio Scarampi (1549) founded the seminary and
introduced the reforms of the C]k)uncil of Trent. Fa-
brizio Gallo (1585) founded several charitable institu-
tions^* G. B. Lancellotti (1615-56), who was Apostolic
nuncio to Poland from 1622 to 1627, did much for the
diocese; Francis M. Carafa (1704), a Theatine, was
zealous for the education of the clergy; Traiano Ca-
racciolo (1 738) constructed the new seminary.
The diocese is a suffragan of Naples; has 86 par-
ishes, with 200,000 inhabitants, 9 reli^ous houses of
men, and 19 of women, several educational establish-
ments and asylums, and four monthly and bi-monthly
periodicals.
Cappslletti, Le Chitie d* Italia, XXI; Rbmondiki, Storia della
citid « dioeen di Nola (Naples, 1747-57).
U. Beniqni.
Nola, Giovanni Marliano da, sculptor and archi-
tect, b., it is said, of a leather merchant named Giu-
seppe, at Nola, near Naples, 1488; d. 1558 (?). He
studied under Agnolo Aniello Fibre and then went
to Rome, being attracted bv the fame of Michel-
angelo, wnose work he studied closely. On his return
to Naples he was employed in churches, palaces,
and piazze. Among his works may be mentioned the
monument of Galeazzo Pandono in S. Domenico
(1514) ; the tombs of the three youths Jacopo, Ascanio,
and Sigismondo (who died of poison) in their family
church of S. Severino (1516) ; various sculptures in the
church of Monte Oliveto (1524), notably a fine group
of the Mother and Child with infant St. John and, in
the choir, tombs of Alphonsus II and Guerrero Origlia;
in the church of S. Chiara, the simple and touching
recumbent figure of the girl Antonia Gandino (1530).
Outside of Italy the noble monument of the Spanish
Duke of Cardona (about 1532) in the Franciscan
church of Belpuch is among the best known. The
decorations made by Nola for the reception of Empe-
ror Charles V in Naples (1535) are stiU to be seen on
the Porta Capuana. In 1537 he carved a beautiful
standing Madonna and two Saints for the church of
S. Domenico Maggiore. In 1553 the Spanish viceroy,
Peter of Toledo, caused him to erect the mausoleum
to himself and his wife in the church of S. Giacomo
degli Spagnuoli. Further works of Nola's, also in
Naples, are the Piet& and tomb of a child, Andrea
CHcara, in the church of S. Severino; a Madoima della
Misericordia in S. Pietro ad Aram; an altar-piece
at S. Aniello, representing the Mother and Child
seated on a crescent moon; and a fine set of wooden
bas-reliefs depicting the life of Christ, in the sacristy
of the Annunziata. Nola is one of the most justly
lauded representatives of a rather poor school of
Renaissance sculpture in Naples.
CicooNARA, Storia deUa teuUura (Venice, 1813 — ); Pebkins,
Italian 8culptor§ (London, 1868) ; LObkb, Hiatcry of Sculpture, tr.
BiTBNXTT (London, 1872).
M. L. Handlet.
Noli. See Savona and Nou, Diocese of.
NoUet, Jean-Antoinb. physicist, b. at Pimpr6,
Oise, France, 19 November, 1700; d. at Paris, 25
April, 1770. His peasant parents sent him to study
at Clermont and Beauvais. He went later to Paris to
prepare for the priesthood. In 1728 he received the
deaconship and appUed immediatdy for permission to
preach, soon love of science became uppermost and
together with Duf ay and Reaumur he devoted him-
self to the stud3r of physics and especially to research
work in electricity. Abb4 Nollet was the first to
recognize the importance of sharp points on the
conductors in the discharge of electricity. This was
later applied practically m the construction of the
lightning-rod. He also studied the conduction of
electricity in tubes, in smoke, vapours, steam, the in-
fluence of electric charges on evaporation, ve^tation,
and animal life. His discovery of the osmosis of wa^
ter through a bladder into alcohol was the starting-
point of that branch of physics.
In 1734 Nollet went to London and was admitted
into the Royal Society. In 1735 he started in Paris,
at his own expense, a course in experimentalphysics
which he continued until 1760. In 1738 Cardinal
Fleury created a public chur of experimental physics
for Nollet. In 1739 he entered the Academy of
Sciences, becoming associate member in 1742, and
pensionary in 1758. In April, 1739 the King of Sar-
dinia called him to Turin to instruct the Duke of
Savoy, and to furnish the instruments needed for the
new chair of physics at the universitv. After lecturing
a short time at Bordeaux, he was caUed to Versailles to
instruct the dauphin in experimental science. He was
appointed professor of experimental physics at the
Royal Collie of Navarre, in 1753. In 1761 he taught
at the school of artillery at M^zi^res. Nollet was also
a member of the Institute of Bologna and of the
Academy of Sciences of Erfurt. He was calm and sim-
ple in manner, and his letters and papers showed that
ne had been devoted and generous to his family and his
native village. Nollet contributed to the '* Recueil de
r Academic des Sciences" (1740^7) and the ''Philo-
sophical Transactions of the Royal Society''; his
larger works include amon^ others: — ''Programme
d'un cours de physique exp^nmentale'' (Paris, 1738);
"Lemons de pnysique exp^rimentale " (Paris. 1743);
"Recherches sur les causes particuli^res aes phd-
nom^nes ^lectriques'' (Paris, 1749); "L'art des experi-
ences" (Paris, 1770).
Grandjkan db FoncHY, Bloge de J.- A. NMdt; Hietoire de
VAeadhnie Royale dee Seieneee (Paria. 1773), 121-36.
William Fox.
NominaliBm, BamUsm, GonoeptualiBm. —These
terms are used to designate the theories that have
been proposed as solutions of one of the most impor-
tant questions in philosophy, often referred to as the
problem of universals, wnich, while it was a favourite
subject for discussion in ancient times, and especially
in the Middle Ages, is still prominent in modem and
contemporary philosophy. We propose to discuss in
this article: I. The Nature of the Problem and the
Suggested Solutions; II. The Principal Historic Forms
of Nominalism, Realism, and Conceptualism; III.
The Claims of Moderate Realism.
I. The Problem and the Suoobsted Solutigns. —
The problem of universals is the problem of the cor-
respondence of our intellectual concepts to things ex-
isting outside our intellect. Whereas external objects
are determinate, individual, formally exclusive of all
multiplicity, our concepts or mentiu representations
offer us the realities independent of all particular de-
termination; they are abstract and universal. The
question, therd'ore^ is to discover to what extent the
concepts of the mmd correspond to the things they
represent; how the flower we conceive represents the
flower existing in nature; in a word, whether our ideas
are faithful and have an objective reality. Four solu-
tions of the problem have been offered. It is neces-
sary to describe them carefully, as writers do not
always use the terms in tiie same sense.
NaMIMALISM 91 NOBIIMALISM
A. Exaggerated Realiem holds that there are univer^ tioxiB (double, triple), and even negations and noth-
sal concepts in the mind and universal thines in na- ingness have a corresponding idea in the suprasensible
ture. There is, therefore, a strict parallelismDetween world. " What makes one and one two, is a participa-
the being in nature and the being in thought, since the tion of the dyad (ddat), and what makes one one is a
external object is clothed with the same character of participation of the monad (M^vat) in unity" (Fhsedo,
universality that we discover in the concept. This is a Ixix). The exaggerated Realism of Plato, investing
flimpie solution, but one that runs counter to the die- the real being with the attributes of the being in
tat^ of common sense. thou^t, is the principal doctrine of his metaphysics.
B. Nominaiiem. — ^Exaggerated Realism invents a Anstotle broke away from these exaggerated views
world of reality corresponding exactly to the attri- of his master and formulated the main doctrines of
butes of the world of thought. Nominalism, on the Moderate Realism. The real is not, as Plato says,
contrary, models the concept on the external object, some vague entity of wl^ch the sensible world is only
which it nolds to be individual and particular. Nom- the shadow j it dwells m the midst of the sensible
inaiism consequently denies the existence of abstract world. Individual substance (this man, that horse)
and universal concepts, and refuses to admit that the alone has reality; it alone can exist. The universal is
intellect has the power of engendering them. What not a thing in itoelf ; it is immanent in individuals and
are called general ideas are only names, mere verbal is multiplied in all the repr^ntatives of a class. As
designations, serving as labels for a collection of totheformofuniversalitv of our concepts (man, just),
things or a series of particular events. Hence the it is a product of our subjective consideration. The
term Nominalism. Neither Exaggerated Realism objects of our generic and specific representafions can
nor Nominalism finds any difficult in establishing certainly be called substances (o^/ac), when they
a correspondence between the thing in thought designate the fundamental realitv (man) with the ac-
and tiie thing existing in nature, since, in di£ferent cidental determinations (just, big); but these are
ways, they both postulate perfect harmony between d€6r€pai oiffUu (second substances), and by that Aris-
the two. The real difficulty appears when we assign totle means precisely that this attribute of universal-
different attributes to the thing in nature and to the ity which affects the substance as in thought does not
thing in thought^ if we hold that the one is individual belong to the substance (thing in itself) ; it is the out-
and the other universal. An antinomy then arises be- come of our subjective elaboration. This theorem of
tween the world of reality and the world as repre- Aristotle, which completes the metaphysics of Hera-
sented in the mind, and we are led to inquire how the clitus (denial of the permanent) by means of that of
general notion of flower conceived by the mind is ap- Parmenides (denial of chang^e), is the antithesis of
plicable to the particular and determinate flowers of Platonism, and may be considered one of the finest
nature. ^ pronouncements of Peripateticism. It was through
C. Conceptualiem admits the existence within us of this wise doctrine that the Stagyrite exercised his as-
abstract and universal concepts (whence its name), cendency over all later thought.
but it holds that we do not know whether or not the After Aristotle Greek philosophy formulated a
mental objects have any foundation outside our minds third answer to the problem of umversals, Conceptu-
or whether in nature the individual objects possess alism. This solution appears in the teaching of the
distributively and each by itself the realities which we Stoics, which, as is known, ranks with Platonism and
conceive as realized in each of them. The concepts Aristoteleanism among the three original systems of
have an ideal value; they have no real value, or at the great philosophic age of the Greeks. Sensation is the
least we do not know whether they have a real value. principle of all knowledge, and thought is only a coUec-
D. Moderate Realism, finally^ declares that there are tive sensation. Zeno compared sensation to an open
universal concepts representing faithfully realities hand with the fingers separated; experience or multi-
that are not universal. '' How can there be harmony pie sensation to the open hand with the fingers bent :
between the former and the latter? The latter are the general concept bom of experience to the closed
particular, but we have the power of representing fist. Now, concepts, reduced to general sensations,
them to purselves abstractly. Now the abetraet type, have as their object, not the corporeal and external
when the intellect considers it reflectively and con- thing reached by the senses (t&yx*^'')j but the \€kt6p
trasts it with the particular subjects in which it is or the reality conceived; whether this has any real
realised or capable of being realized, is attributable value we do not know. The Aristotelean School
indifferently to any and all of them. This applicabil- adopted Aristotelean Realism, but the neo-Platonists
ity of the abstract type to the individuals is its univer- subscribed to the Platonic theory of ideas which they
saiity" (Mercier, "Crit^riologie", Louvain, 1906, p. transformed into an emanationistic and monistic con-
343). ception of the universe.
II. The Principal Historical Forms of Nomi- B. In the Philosophy of the Middle Ages. — For a long
NALiBM, Realism, and Conceftu alism. — A. In Greek time it was thougnt that the problem of universals
Philosophy . — The conciliation of the one and the monopolized the attention of the philosophers df the
many, the changing and the ]3ermanent, was a favour^ Middle Ages, and that the dispute of the P^ominalists
ite problem with the Greeks; it leads to the problem of and Real^ts absorbed all their energies. In reality
universals. The t3rpical affirmation of Exaggerated that question, although prominent in the Middle
Realism, the most outspoken ever made, api)ears in Ages, was far from being the only one dealt with by
Plato's philosophy; the real must possess the attri- these philosophers.
butes of necessity, universality, unity, and immutabil- (1) From the commencement of the Middle Ages
ity which are found in our intellectual representations, till the end of the 12th century. — It is impossible to
And as the sensible world contains only the contin- classify the philosophers of the beginning of the Mid-
gent, the particular, the unstable, it foflows that the die Ages exactly as Nominalists, Moderate and Exag-
real exists outside and above the sensible world, perated Realists, or Conceptualists. And the reason
Plato calls it cTSot, idea. The idea is absolutel^^ stable is that the problem of the Universals is verv complex,
and exists by itself (fivrw 69\ a^d ica0* a^d), isolated It not merdy involves the metaphysics of the individ-
(x»p««[Td) from the phenomenal world, distinct from ual and of the universal, but also raises important
the Divine and the human intellect. Following logic- questions in ideology — questions about the genesis
ally the directive principles of his Realism, Plato and validitv of Imowledge. But the earlier Scholas-
makes an idea-entity correspond to each of our ab- tics, unskilled in such delicate matters, did not per-
stract , representations. Not only natural species ceive these various aspects of the problem. It did not
(man, horse) but artificial products (bed), not only grow up siK>ntaneouslv in the Miadle Ages; it was be-
substances (man) but properties (white, just), rela- queathed in a text of Porphyry's "Isagoge", a text
NOBIIMAUBM 92 NOBIIMAUSM
that seemed ample and imiooent, though somewhat inalism could exist at all in the Middle Ages, as it is
obscure, but one which force of circumstances made possible only in a sensist philosophy that denies all nat-
the necejasary starting-point of the earliest medievid ural distinction between sensation and the intellect-
speculations about the Universals. ual concept. Furthermore there is little evidence of
Porphyry divides the problem into three parts: (1) Sensism in the Middle Ages^ and, as Sen^sm and Scho-
Do genera and species exist in nature, or do they con- lasticism, so also Nominalism and Scholasticism are
sist m mere products of the intellect? (2) If they are mutually exclusive. The different anti-Realist sys-
things apart from the mind, are they corporeal or in- tems anterior to the thirteenth century are in fact
corporeal things? (3) Do they exist outside the (in- only more or less imperfect forms of the Moderate
dividual) things of sense, or are thev realized in the Realism towards which the efforts of the first period
Jatter? *| Mox de generibus et speciebus illud quidem were tending, phases through which the same idea
sive subsistant sive in nudis intellectibus posita sint, passed in its organic evolution. These stages are nu-
sive subsistentia corporalia sint an incorporidia, et merous, and several have been studied in recent mon-
utrum separata a sensibilibus an in sensibilibus posita ographs (e. g. the doctrine of Ad^lard of Bath, of
et circa hasc subsistentia, dicere recusabo." Histori- Uauthier de Mortagne. Indifferentism, and the theorv
cally, the first of those questions was discussed prior to of the coUectio) . The aecisi ve stage is marked by Ab&-
the others: the latter could have arisen onlv in the lard (1079-1142), who points out clearly the r61e of
event of denying an exclusively subjective character abstraction, and how we represent to ourselves ele-
to universal realities. Now the first question was ments common to different things^ capable of realiza-
whether genera and species are objective realities or tion in an indefinite number of individuals of the same
not: sive subsistant. sive in nudis intellectibus posita species, while the individual alone exists. From that
sint? In other words, the sole point in debate was the to Moderate Realism there is but a step ; it was suffi-
absolute reality of the universals: their truth^ their re- cient to show that a real fundamentum allows us to
lation to the understanding, was not in question. The attribute the general representation to the individual
text from Porphyry, apart from the solutions he else- thing. It is impossible to say who was the first in the
where proposed m works unknown to the early Scho- twelith century to develop the theory in its entirety,
lastics, is an inadequate statement of the question; for Moderate Realism appears fully in the writings of
it takes account only of the objective aspect and neg- John of Salisbiuy.
lects the psychological standpoint which alone can C. From the Thirteenth Century, — ^In the thirteenth
give the key to the true solution. Moreover^ Por- century all the great Scholastics solved the problem of
phyry, after proposing his triple interrogation m the the universals oy the theory of Moderate Realism
''Isagoge'', reuses to offer an answer (dicere recti«a6o). (Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventure, Duns Scotus), and
BoSthius, in his two commentaries, gives replies that are thus in accord with Averroes and Avicenna, the
are vague and scarcely consistent. In the second com- • great Arab commentators of Aristotle, whose works
mentary, which is the more important one, he holds had recently passed into circulation by means of trans-
that genera and epeciee are both avbsietentia and intel- lations. St. Thomas formulates the doctrine of Mod-
lecla (1st question), the similarity of things being the erate Realism in precise language, and for that reason
basis (stAjectum) both of their individuality in nature alone we can give the name of Thomistic Realism to
and their universality in the mind; that genera and this doctrine (see below). With William of Occam
species are incorporeal not by nature but by abstrac- and the Terminist School appear the strictly concept-
ion (2nd question)^ and that they exist both inside ualist solutions of the problem. The abstract and uni-
and outside the thin^ of sense (3rd question). versal concept is a sign {8ignum)t also called a term
This was not sufficiently clear for beginners, though {terminus: hence the name Terminism given to the
we can see in it the basis of the Aristotdean solution of system), but it has no real value, for the abstract and
the problem. The early Scholastics faced the problem the universal do not exist in any way in nature and
as proposed by Porphyiy : limiting the controversy to have no fundamentum outside the mind. The univer-
genera and specieSf ana its solutions to the alternatives sal concept (intentio secunda) has as its object internal
suggested by the first question : Do the objects of our representations, formed by the understanding, to which
concepts (i. e., genera and species) exbt in nature {sub- nothing external corresponding can be attributed.
sislentia), or are they mere abstractions {nuda intel- The r6le of the universals is to serve as a label, to hold
leda)? Are they, or are they not, things? Those who the place {suppanere) in the mind of the multitude of
replied in the affirmative got the name of Reals or things to which it can be attributed. Occam's C]k>n-
Realists; the others that of Nominals or Nominalists, ceptualism would be frankly subjectivistic, if, t>ogether
The former, or the Realists, more numerous in the with the abstract concept, ne did not admit within us
early Middle Ages (Fredugisus, R^my d'Auxerre, and intuitive concepts which reach the individual thing, as
John Scotus Eriugena in the ninth century, Gerbert it exists in nature.
and Odo of Toumai in the tenth, and William of D. In Modem and Contemporary Philosophy. — We
Champeaux in the twelfth) attribute to each genus find an unequivocal afiirmation of Nominalism in
and each species a universal essence {subsistentia), Positivism. For Hume, Stuart Mill, Spencer, and
to which all the subordinate individusJs are tribu- Taine there is strictlv speaking no imiveraal concept,
tary. The notion, to which we lend universality, is only a
The Nominalists, who should be called rather the collection of individual perceptions, a collective sen-
anti-Realists, assert on the contrary that the individ- sation, ''un nom compris'' (Taine), "a term in habit-
ual alone exists, and that the universals are not things ual association with many other particular ideas"
realized in the universal state in nature, or subsistentia. (Hume), " un savoir potentiel emmagasin^" (Ribot).
And as th^y adopt the alternative of Porphyry, they The problem of the correspondence of the concept to
conclude that the universals are nuda intetlecta (that reality is thus at once solved, or rather it is suppressed
is, purely intellectual representations). and replaced by the psychological question: \y hat is
It may be that RosceUn of Compi^gne did not go the origin of the illusion that induces us to attribute a
beyond these energetic protests against ReaJism, distinct nature to the general concept, though the lat-
and that he is not a Nominalist in the exact sense we ter is only an elaborated sensation? Kant distinctly
have attributed to the word above, for we have to de- affirms the exbtence within us of abstract and general
pend on others for an expression oi his views, as there notions and the distinction between them and sensa-
IS extant no text of his which would justify us in say- tions, but these doctrines are joined with a character-
ing that he denied the intellect the power of forming istic Phenomenalism which constitutes the most orig-
general concepts, distinct in their nature from sensa- inal form of modem Conceptualism. Universal and
uon. Indeed, it is difficult to compi^ehend how Nom- necessary representations have no contact with ex-
NOBflMATION
93
NOBflMATION
temal things, since they are produced exclusively by
the structural functions (a pnori forms) of our mind.
Time and space, in which we frame all sensible im-
pressions, cannot be obtained from experience, which
IS individual and contingent; they are schemata which
arise from our mental organization. Consequently,
we have no warrant for establishing a real coirespond-
ence between the world of our ideas and the world of
reality. Science, which is onl^ an elaboration of the
data of sense in accordance with other structural de-
terminations of the mind (the categories), becomes a
subjective poem^ which has a value only for us and not
for a world outside us. A modem form of Platonic or
Exaggerated Realism is foimd in the ontologist doc-
trinedef ended by certain Catholic philosophers in the
middle of the nineteenth century, and which consists
in identifying the objects of umversal ideas with the
Divine ideas or the archetypes on which the world was
fashioned. As to Moderate Realism, it remains the
doctrine of all those who have returned to Aristotele-
anism or adopted the neo-Scholastic philosophy.
III. The Claims of Moderate Reausm. — ^This
system reconciles the characteristics of external ob-
jects (particularity) with those of our intellectual
representations (universality), and explains why sci-
ence, though made up of abstract notions, is valid
for the world 6f reality. To understand this it suffices
to grasp the real meaning of abstraction. When the
mind apprehends the essence of a thing (quod ^uid
est; r6 tI Ijp c7mu), the external object is perceived
without the particular notes which attach to it in na-
ture {esse in singularHms), and it is not yet marked
with the attribute of ^nerality which r^ection will
bestow on it {es»e in intellectu). The abstract reality
is apprehended with perfect indifference as regarcts
both the individual state without and the universal
state within: abstrahit ab utroque esse, secundum
quam considerationem oonsideratur natura lapidis vel
eujus cumque alterius, quantum ad ea tantum quad
Eer se oompetunt illi natures (St. Thomas, " Quod-
beta '^ Q. 1, a. 1). Now, what is thus conceived in
the absolute state (absolute considerando) is nothing
else than the reality incarnate in any given individual :
in truthj the reahty, represented in my concept of
man, is m Socrates or in Plate. There is nothing in
the abstract concept that is not applicable to every
individual; if the abstract concept is inadequate, be-
cause it does not contain the singular notes of each
being, it is none the less faithful, or at least its ab-
stract character does not prevent it from correspond-
ing faithfully to the objects existing in nature. As to
the univeraal form of the concept, a moment's consid-
eration shows that it is subsequent to the abstraction
and is the fruit of reflection: "ratio speciei accidit na-
turae humans '\ Whence it follows that the univer-
salitv of the concept as such is the work purely of the
inteUect: "unde intellectus est qui facit universalita-
tem in rebus" (St. Thomas, " De cnte et essentia", iv).
Concerning Nominalism, Conceptualism, and Ex-
aggerated Realism, a few general considerations must
suttice. Nominalism, which is irreconcilable with a
spiritualistic philosophy and for that very reason with
Scholasticism as well, presupposes the ideological
theory that the abstract concept does not differ essen-
tially from sensation^ of which it is only a transforma-
tion. The Nominalism of Hume, Stuart Mill, Spen-
cer, Huxley, and Taine is of no greater value than
their ideology. They confound essentially distinct
logical operations — the simple decomposition of sen-
sible or empirical representations with abstraction
properly so called and sensible analogy with the pro-
cess of universalization. The Aristoteleans recognize
both of these mental operations, but they distinguish
carefully between them. As to Kant, lul the TOnds
that might connect the concept witn the external
world are destroyed in his Phenomenalism. Kant is
unable to explain why one and the same sensible im-
pression starts or sets in operation now this, now that
category; his a priori forms are unintelligible accord-
ing to his own principles, since they are beyond experi-
ence. Moreover, he confuses rsaJ time and space,
limited like the things they develop, with idcAl or
abstract time and space, which alone are general and
without limit. For^ in truth we do not create whole-
sale the object of our knowledge, but we beget it within
us under the causal influence of the obiect that reveals
itself to us. Ontolofpsm, which is akin to Platonic
Realism, arbitrarily identifies the ideal types in our
intellect, which come to us from the sensible world by
means of abstraction, with the ideal tsrpes consubstan-
tial with the essence of God. Now, when we form our
first abstract ideas we do not yet know God. We are
so ignorant of Him that we must employ these first
ideas to prove a posteriori His existence. Ontologism
has lived its life, and our age so enamoured of obser-
vation and experiment wm scarcely return to the
dreams of Plato.
ZsLLBR, D%9 Philoaophie der Qrieehen (5 vols., 5th ed.. Tabiiunn,
1003), tr. CosTELLOB AND MviBRKAD^AritMU and th» earlier Peri'
patetica (2 Tola., London and New York, 1897); Piat, AriaMe
(Paris, 1903} ; Brochabd. Sur la logique dee ^eUctene in Archit far
Oeaeh. der Philoe. (1892) ; LoBwa, Der Kamp/tto, dem Realiemue «.
Nominaliemua im MiUelalter in Abhandl. d. k. bOhm, GeeeUeehaft d,
Wieeeneehaft. VIII (1876); Db Wult. Hiat. of Medieval Philoe.,
tr. Corrmr (New York and London, 1909) ; Idem, Le probUme
dee unieereaux dane son ivolvUion hielorique du IX* au XIII*
ei^de in Arehiv fUr Oeech. d, Philoe., IX, iv (1896) ; Tubneb. Hiel,
of Philoe. (Boston, 1903); Reinbbs. Der arietotel. Realiemiu in
d. PrUhecholaetik (Aachen, 1907); Idbii, Der Nominaliemue in d,
FrUhecholaetik in Beitrdge «wr Qeeeh. d. Philoe., VIII, v (Manster,
1910) ; Si<^CKL, Hiet. of Philoe., tr. Fxnlat (Dublin, 1003) ; De-
BOTE, Qui vraeipui fuerint labenU XII eoeddo ante introduetam
ardbum phitoaophiam tetnperati realiami anteeeeeoree (Lille, 1908) ;
Mbbcibb, CriUrioiogie ghUrale (Louvain, 1905).
M. Db Wulf.
Nomination. — ^The various methods of designating
persons for ecclesiastical benefices or offices have been
described under Benefice* Bishop; Election; In-
stitution, Canonical. All these methods are more
or less included in the ordinary sense of the term nom-
ination; but in its strict canonical sense, nomination
is defined as the designation of a person for an ecclesi-
astical benefice or office made by the competent civil
authority and conferring on the person named the
right to be canonically instituted by the ecclesiastical
superior. It follows the rules of patronal presentation,
bemg based on the same grounds as the right of pat-
ronage, vis. the endowment of churches or benefices
by kings, princes, or communities. Its method of ac-
tion is designed to keep the prerogatives of the two
powers clearly separated, the mtervention of the secu-
uu: power takmg effect in the free choice of a fit person,
the spiritual jurisdiction being reserved intact to the
ecclesiastical superior, who alone can give canonical
institution. At the present time appointments to ben-
efices by right of nomination, especially to bishop-
rics, is generally settled by n^tiation and previous
understanding between the two powers. Under the
old re^;ime the nominated person himself applied for
canomcal institution; the superior made inquiry as to
the applicant and, unless tne inquiry disclosed un-
worthmess or unfitness, granted canonical institution
according to the customary forms — ^most often by con-
sistoriai preconization. Whatever procedure may be
followed, the person named by the civil power has no
spiritual jurisdiction until he has been canonically in-
stituted; and if he should dare to intrude in the acunin-
istration of the diocese with no other title than his
nomination by the secular authority, not only would
all his acts be null and void , but he, and with him those
who should have consented to his acts, would incur
excommunication and other penalties; moreover, he
would forfeit the right resulting from nis nomination
(Const. ''Romanus pontifex'', 28 Aug., 1873, and the
texts there cited. Cf. Excommunication, vol. V, p.
691, col. 1).
The most important application of the right of nom«
NOMOGANON 94 NOMOGANON
ination by princes is, without doubt, that which relates immemorial contained the words: "We name him [the
to the major, or consistorial, benefices, especially bish- candidate] and present him to Your Holiness, that it
oprics. Without ^oing back to the intrusions of may please Your Holiness, upon our nomination and
Toyal power in episcopal elections in the barbarian presentation, to provide for the said bishopric", etc.
kingdoms, or in the Carlovingian Empire, or the By- The Vatican nevertheless declared that it did not de-
zantine, it must be remember^ that the Concordat of sire to refuse any satisfactory revision; various form-
Worms (1121), which ended the Conflict of Investi- ulse were proposed on either side, without success; at
tures (q. v.), included an initial measure for the separa- last the Holy See consented to suppress the word nobis
tion of the parts and prerogatives of the two powers in in the Bulls, contenting itself with the Govenmient's
the choice of bishops. The emperor recognized the emplo]pngtne usual formula in drafting letters patent,
freedom of episcopal elections' and consecrations; the (On this conflict see the '' livre Blanc du Saint Si^ge " ;
pope, on his side, agreed that elections should be held ''La separation de I'Eglise et TEtat en France", ch.
m the emperor's presence, without simonv or restraint, vi, in ''^Acta S. Sedis", 15 Jan., 1906.) This conces-
that the emperor should decide in case of dispute, that sion, as we know, did not delay the separation which
he should give temporal investiture, by the sceptre, the French Government was determined to have at
to the bishop-elect, while investiture by rine and any price. (See Benefice; Bishop; Concordat;
crosier, symbolic of ecclesiastical jurisdiction, ^ould. Election; Institution.)
be combined with the consecration. The custom of CanoniflU on the tiUe De pr^>endU, III, v; HiwcouBT. LaU
election of bishops by chapters, which WM the com- ecdUtiaetici, ll (Rome, 1906), 13, 256; 8*vmtiw, Uhietoii-e, u
mon law of the thirteenth century, left, officially, no teMe et la deetinSe du Coneardal de 1801 (Paris, 1005) ; Vbbixo,
opening for royal interference, but princes none the ^"'i**!*'^ (Freib™ imBr^i893). « 86; SaomOlleb. Lehrlpueh
liTendeavbui^d to have thiir candidates elected. «^ *<^.it»rcW«.«**^ (Freiburg. I909).^7|^
This became more difficult for them when, bv succes-
sive reservations, the po{)es had made themselves mas- Noxnooanon (from the Greek i^/Mt, law, and
ters of all episcopal elections, thus occasioning serious /rdrwr, a rule), a collection of ecclesiastical law, the ele-
inconveniences. While in Germany the Concordat of ments of which are borrowed from secular and canon
1448 re-established capitular elections, in France, on law. When we recall the important place given to
the contrary, after the difficulties consequent upon ecclesiasticai discipline in the imperial laws such as the
the Pragmatic Sanction of Bourges (1438), the quarrel Hieodosian Code, the Justinian collections, and the
ended with the Concordat of 1516. In this instru- subsequent '* Novelise", and "Basilica'', the utility
ment we find the right of nomination guaranteed to of comparing laws and canons relating to the same
the kines of France for consistorial benefices, bishop- subjects will be readily recognized. Collections of
rics, abbacies^ and priorates; and thence the arrange- this kind are found only in Extern law. The GrecJc
ment passed mto most of the subsequent concordats. Church has two principal collections. The first, dat-
includmg that of 1801 (cf. Nussi, "Quinquaginta con- ing from t^e end of the sixth century, is ascribed,
ventiones", Rome, 1869, tit. v). The royal ordinance though without certainty, to John Scholasticus (q. v.),
of Francis I promulgating the Bull of Leo X says: whose canons it utilizes and completes. Hehadarawn
"Such vacancy occurring, the King of France shall be up (about 550) a purely canonical compilation in fifty
bound to present and name [the Bull says only nobis titles, and later composed an extract from the "No-
nomtnobt^J a master
months .
nominate another witnin three months; if not, the seven chapters, JPitra, "Juris ecclesiastic! Grsecorum
pope can himself appoint. The same right of nomi- historia et monumenta'', Rome, 1864, II, 385). To
nation is extended to abbacies and priorates, with each of the fifty titles were added the texts of the im-
some exceptions. The (Concordat of 1801 (articles perial laws on the same subject, with twenty-one ad-
4 and 5) accords to the First Consul the same right ditional chapters nearly all borrowed from John's
of nomination, but only for bishoprics, and without eighty-seven (Voellus and Justellus, op. cit., II, GOS).
fixing a limit of time for its exercise. In other coun- In its earliest form this collection dates from the rei^
tries (e. g. Spain) the right of the temporal ruler in- of Emperor Heraclius (610-40), at which time Latm
eludes other benefices besides bishoprics. was replaced by Greek as the official language of the
Such being the nature of the. very definite right of imperial laws. Its two sections include uie ecclesias-
nomination, nothing but malicious provocation can tical canons and the imperial laws, the latter in four-
be discerned in the conflict brought on by M. Combes, teen titles.
when Prime Minister of France (1902-5), in regsurd to This collection was long held in esteem and passed
the nobis nominamtf the expression which figured in the into the Russian Church, but was by degrees sup-
Bulls for French bishops. By a note dated 21 Dec., planted by that of Photius. The first part of Pho-
1902, the French Government demanded the suppres- tius's collection contains the conciliar canons and
sion of the nobiSf as if to make it appear that the nead the decisions of the Fathers. It is in substance the
of the State nominated bishops absolutely, like gov- Greek collection of 692, as it is described by canon
emment officials. The Vatican explained the true ii of the Trullan Council (see Law, Canon), with
nature of the nomination as the designation of a per- the addition of 102 canons of that council, 17 canons
son by the head of the State, the latter indicating to of the Council of Constantinople of 861 (against Ig-
the pope the cleric whom he desires as head of such a natius), and of 3 canons substituted by Photius for
diocese, the pope accordingly creating that candidate those of the oecumenical council of 869. The nomo-
bishop by canonical institution. The fact was pointed canon in fourteen titles was completed by additions
out that the word nobis is found in the episcopal Bulls from the more recent imperial laws. This whole col-
of all nations which have by concordat the right of lection was commentated about 1170 by Theodore
nomination; also that, with very rare exceptions, it Balsamon, Greek Patriarch of Antioch rending at
appears in all the Bulls for France under the Conoor- Constantinople (Nomocanon with Balsamon's com-
dat of 1516 as under that of 1801; that previously, in mentary in Voellus and Justellus, II, 815; P. G., CIV,,
1871, the French Government having obtained with- 441). Supplemented by this commentary the col-
out any difficulty the suppression of Uie word prtEsen- lection of Pnotius has become a part of the "Pidalion"
tavitf had, upon representations made by Rome, with- (w7i8d\tov^ rudder), a sort of Corpus Juris of the
drawn its demana for the suppression of the nobis; Orthodox Church, printed in 1800 fey Patriarch Neo-
above all, it was insisted on that the letters patent of phytus VIII. In the eleventh century it had been
the French Government to the pope had from time also translated into Slavonic for the Russian Church;
NONANTOUk
95
NONGONFOBMI8TS
tt is retained in the law of the Orthodox Church of
Greece, and included in the ''S3mtagma'' published
by Rhallis and Potlis (Athens, 1852-9). Though
called the '' Syntagma '^ the collection of ecclesiastical
law of Matthew filastares (c. 1339) is a real nomoca-
non, in which the texts of the canons and of the laws are
arranged in alohabetical order (P. G., loc. dt.; Bev-
eridge, "Synoaicon", Oxford, 1672). A remarkable
nomocanon was composed by John Barhebrseus (1226-
86) for the Syrian Church of Antioch (L^tin version
by Assemani m Mai, '^ Script, vet. nova collectio'', X,
3 sqq.). Several Russian manuals published at Kiev
and Moscow in the seventeenth century were idso
nomocanons.
Vbbxno, Lehrh. de» KirehenreelUa (Freiburg. 1893), M 17-19;
ScHNBiDBB, Die Lehre wtn den KircKenreekUquttUen (Rktiabon,
188C2), 50, 199; also bibliographies of Law, Canon; Jobn 8cbola»-
ncns; PHonns, etc.
A. BOUDIXHON.
Nonantolay a former Benedictine monastery and
prelature nvUiu8y six miles north-east of Modena.
founded in 752 by St. Anselm, Duke of Friuli, ana
richlv endowed by Aistulph, King of the Longobards.
Stephen II appointed Anselm its first abbot, and pre-
sented the relics of St. Sylvester to the abbey, named
in consequence S. Sylvester de Nonantula. After the
death of Aistulph (756), Anselm was banished to
Monte Cassino by the new king, Desiderius, but was
restored by Charlemagne after seven years. In 883
it was chosen as the place of a conference between
Charles the Fat and Marinus I. Up to 1083 it was an
imperial monastery, and its discipline often suffered
severely on account of imperial interference in the elec-
tion of abbots. In the oeginning of the Conflict of
Investitures it sided with the emperor, until forced to
submit to the pope by Mathilda of Tuscany in 1(^.
It finally declared itself openly for the pope in 1111.
In that year the famous monk Placidus of Nonantola
wrote his ^'De honore Ecclesiae", one of the most
able and important defences of the papal position
that were wntten during the Conflict of Investitures.
It is printed in Pez, "Thesaurus Anecdot. noviss."
(Augsburg, 1721), II, ii, 73 sq. The decline of the
monastery began in 1419, when it came under the juris-
diction of commendatory abbots. In 1514 it came into
the possession of the Cistercians, but continued to de-
cline imtil it was finally suppressed by Clement XIII
in 1768. Pius VII restored it 23 Jan., 1821. with the
provision that the prelature nuUiua attached to it
should belong to the Arehbishop of Modena. In 1909
the exempt mstrict comprised 42,980 inhabitants, 31
parishes, 91 churches and chapels, 62 secular priests
and three religious congregations for women. The
monastei^ itself was appropriated by the Italian Gov-
ernment m 1866.
TiBABOSCHi, Storia delT augueta badia di S. Silveetro di Nonan-
tola (2 vols., Modena, 1784-5) ; Gaudbnii in Bull delT IstUuio
ttor, Hal,, XXII (1901). 77-214; Cobbadi. NonanUAa, oibaWa
imperiale in Riviaia Sloriea BenedeUina, IV (Rome. 1909). 181-9;
MvBATOBi, Rer. IlaL Serifi., I, ii, 189-196; Noiitia eodtcum mo-
naaierii Nonanltdani ann% 1186 in Mai, Spicilegium Romanum
(Rome, 1839-44), V, i, 218-221; Bbckxb, CaUOogi hibHoOieeanim
aniiaui (Bonn. 1885), 220 sq.; Gioboi in Ruiaia delle Biblioteehe e
degltarehivi, VI (Florence, 1896). 54 sq.
Michael Ott.
NoncoilformigtB, a name which, in its most gen-
eral acceptation^ denotes those renising to conform
with the authorised formularies and rites of the Es-
tablished Chureh of England. The application of
the term has varied somewhat with the successive
phases of Andean history. From the accession of
Elizabeth, to tne middle of the seventeenth century
it had not oome into use as the name of a religious
party^ but the word "conform", and the appellatives
ooniorming'' and ''nonconforming", were oeooming
more and more common expressions to designate
tiiose members of the Puritan party who, disapproving
of certain of the Anglican rites (namely, the use of the
BurplicCj of the sign of the cross at baptism, of the ring
in marriage, of the attitude of kneeling at the reception
of the sacrament) and of the episcopal order of Cnureh
government, either resigned themselves to these usages
because enjoined, or stood out against them at all
costs. However from 1662, when the Fourth Act of
Uniformity had the effect of ejecting from tJieir ben-
efices, acquired during the Commonwealth, a large
number of ministers of Puritan proclivities, and of
constraining them to organize themselves as separatist
sects, the term ''Nonconformist" crystallized mto the
technical name for such sects.
History. — ^The history of this cleavage in the ranks
of English Protestantism goes back to the reign of
Mary Tudor, when the Protestant leaders who were
victorious under Edward VI retired to Frankfort,
Zurich, and other Protestant centres on the continent,
and quarrelled among themselves, some inclining to
the more moderate Lutheran or Zwin^lian positions,
others developing into uncompromising Ualvinists.
When the accession of Elizabeth attracted them back
to Enj^land, the Calvinist section, which soon acquired
the mckname of Puritans, was the more fiery, the
lar|;er in numbers and the most in favour with the ma-
jonty of the Protestant laity. Elizabeth, however,
who had very little personal religion, preferred an
episcopal to a presbyterian system as more in har-
mony with monarehism, and besides she had some
taste for the ornate in public worship. Accordingly
she caused the religious settlement, destined to last
into our own times, to be made on the basis of episco-
psucYt yAih. the retention of the points of ritual above
specified; and her favour was bespoken for prelates
like Parker, who were prepared to aid her in carrying
out this programme. For those who held Puritan
views she had a natural dislike, to which she some-
times gave forcible expression, but on the whole she
saw the expediency of showing them some considera-
tion, lest she should lose their support in her campaign
against Catholicism.
These were the determining factors of the initial
situation, out of which the subsequent history of Eng-
lish Protestantism has pown by a natural develop-
ment. The result during Elizabeth's reign was a
stat« of oscillation between phases of repression and
Shases of indulgence^ in meeting the persistent en-
eavours of the Puntans to make their own ideas
dominant in the national Church. In 1559 the third
Act of Uniformity was passed, by which the new edi-
tion of the Prayer Book was enjoined under severe
penalities on all ministering as clergy in the country.
In 1566, feeling that some concession to the strength
of the Puritan opposition was necessary, Arehbishop
Parker, on an understanding with the queen, pub-
lished certain Advertisements addressed to the clerp^y,
requiring them to conform at least as regards wearing
the surplice, kneeling at communion, using the font
for baptism, and covering the communion table with a
proper cloth. These Advertisements were partially en-
forced in some dioceses, and led to some deprivations,
but that their effect was small is clear from the bold-
ness with which the Puritans took up a more advanced
position a few years later, and demanded the substi-
tution of a Presbyterian regime. This was the de-
mand of Thomas Cartwright in his First and Second
Admonitions, published in 1572, and followed in 1580
by his Book of Discipline, in which he collaborated
with Thomas* Travers. In this latter book he pro-
pounded an ingenious theorv of classesy or boaros of
clercyr for each district, to which the episcopal powers
shoiud be transferred, to be exercised by them on pres-
byterian principles, to the bishops oeing reserved
only the purely mechanical ceremony of ordination.
So great was the influence of the Puritans in the coun-
try that they were ^le to introduce for a time this
strange system in one or two places.
In 1588 the Marprelate tracts were published, and
NONCONFORMISTS
96
NONCONFORMISTS
by the violence of their lanmiage against the queen
and the bishops stirred up the queen to take drastic
measures. Perry and Udal. authors of the tracts,
were tried and executed, ana Cartwright was impris-
oned; whilst in 1503 an act was passed inflicting the
punishment of imprisonment, to be followed by exile
m case of a second offence, on all who refused to at-
tend the parish church, or held separatist meetings.
This caused a division in the party; as many, though
secretly retaining their beliefs, preferred outward con-
formity to the loss of their benefices, whilst the ex-
tremists of the party left the country and settled in
Holland. Here they were for a time called Brownists,
after one who had bieen their leader in separation, but
later they took the name of Independents, as inducat-
ing their peculiar theory of the governmental inde-
Smdence of each separate congr^ation. From these
rownists came the "Pilgrim Fathers" ^o. on 6
December, 1620, sailed from Plymouth in the "May-
flower", and settled in New England.
With the death of Elizabeth the hopes of the Puri-
tans revived. Their ssrstem of doctrme and govern-
ment was dominant in Scotland, and they hoped that
the Scottish King James might be induced to extend it
to England. So they met him on his way to London
with their Millenary Petition, so called though the
si^patories numbered only about eight hundrra. In
this document they were prudent enough not to raise
the question of episcopal government, but contented
themselves for the time with a request that the ritual
customs which they disliked might be discontinued in
the State Church. James promised them a confer-
ence which met the next year at Hampton Court to
consider their mevances, and in which they were
represented by four of their leaders. These had some
sharp encounters with the bishops and chief Anglican
divines, but, whilst the Puritans were set more on
domination than toleration, the king was wholly on
the side of the Anglicans, who in this nour of their tri-
umph were in no mood for concessions. Accordingly
the conference proved abortive, and the very same
year Archbishop Bancroft, with the king's sanction,
carried through Convocation and at once enforced the
canons known as those of 1604. The purpose of this
campai^p was to restore the use of the rites in ques-
tion, which, in defiance of the existing law, the Puritan
incumbents had succeeded in putting down in a great
number of parishes. This result was effected to some
extent for the time, but a quarter of a century later,
when Laud began his campaign for the restoration of
decency and order, in other words, for the enforce-
ment of the customs to which the Puritans objected,
he was met by an opposition so widespread and deep-
rooted that, though ultimately it had lasting results,
the immediate effect was to brine about his own fall
and contribute largely to the outbreak of the Rebel-
lion, the authors of which were approximately co-
extensive with the Puritan party.
During the Civil War and the Commonwealth the
Puritan mobs wrecked the churches, the bishops were
imprisoned and the primate beheaded^ the supremacy
over the Church was transferred from the Crown to
the Parliament, the Solemn League and Covenant was
accepted for the whole nation, and the Westminster
Assembly, almost entirely composed of Puritans, was
appoint^ as a permanent committee for the reform of
the Church. Next the Anglican clergy were turned
out of their benefices to make way for Puritans, in
whose behalf the Presbyterian form of government
was introduced by Parliament. But though this was
now the authorized settlement, it was found impossi-
ble to check the vagaries of individual opinion. A re-
ligious frenzy seizM the coimtry, and sects holding
the most extravagant doctrines sprane up and built
themselves conventicles. There was licence for all,
save for popery and prelacj^Lwhich were now perse-
cuted with equal severity. When Cromwell attained
to power a struggle set in between the Parliament
which was predominantly Presbyterian, and the army
which was predominantly Independent. The disgust
of all sober minds with the resulting pandemomum
had much to do with creating the desire for the Res-
toration, and when this was accomplished in 1660
measures were at once taken to imdo the work of
the interregnum. The bishops were restored to their
sees, and Uie vacancies filled. The Savoy Confer-
ence was held in accordance with the precedence of
Hampton Court Conference of 1604, but proved sim-
ilarly abortive. The Convocation in 1662 revised the
Prayer Book in an anti-Puritan direction, and, the
Declaration of Breda notwithstanding, it was at once
enforced. All holding benefices in the coimtry were
to use this revised Prayer Book on and after the Feast
of St. Bartholomew of that year. It was through
this crisis that the term Nonconformist obtained its
technical meaning. When the feast came roimd a
lar^e number who refused to conform were evicted.
It is in dispute between Nonconformist and Anglican
writ^piB how many these were, and what were their
characters: the Nonconformist writers (see Calamy,
''Life of Baxter") maintain that they exceeded 2000,
while Kennett and others reduce that number consi^'
erably, contending that in the majority of cases the
hardship was not so grave. At least it must be ac-
knowleaged that the victims were suffering only what
they, in the days of their power, had inflicted on their
opponents, for many of whom the ejection of the
Puritans meant a return to their own. The fact that
they organized themselves outside the Established
Church under the name of Nonconformists, naturally
made them the more offensive to the authorities of
Church and State, and, during the remainder of the
reign of Charles II, they were the victims of several
oppressive measures, in 1661 the Corporation Act
incapacitated from holdinjp; ofiice in any corporation
all who did not first miali^by taking the' sacrament
according to the Anglican Rite; in 1664 the Conven-
ticle Act inflicted the gravest penalties on all w^o took
part in any private religious service at which more
than five persons, in addition to the family, were
present; in 1665 the Five Mile Act made liable to
imprisonment any Nonconformist minister who, not
having; taken an oath of non-resistance, came within
five miles of a town without obtaining leave; and in
1673 the scope of the Corporation Act was extended
by the Test Act.
In 1672 Charles II attempted to mitigate the lot of
the Nonconformists by publishing a Declaration of
Indulgence in which he used in their favour the dis-
Ssnsing power, till then recognized as vested in the
rown. But Parliament, meeting the next year,
forced him to withdraw this Declaration, and in re-
turnpassed the Test Act, which extended the scope of
the Con>oration Act. James II, though despotic and
tactless in his methods Uke all the Stuarts, was, what-
ever prejudiced historians have said to the contrary, a
serious believer in religious toleration for all, and was,
in fact, the first who sought to impress that ideal on
the legislature of his country. Bjyr his two Declara-
tions of Indulgence, in 1687-88, he dispensed Non-
conformists just as much as Catholics from their
religious disabilities, and his act was received by tiie
former with a spontaneous outburst of gratitude. It
was not to their credit that shortly after they should
have been induced to cast in their lot with the Revolu-
tion on the assurance that it would pve them all the
liberties promised by King James without the neces-
sity of sharing them with the Catholics. This prom-
ise was, however, only imperfectly carried out by the
Toleration Act of 1689, which permitted the free exer-
cise of their religion to all Trinitarian Protestante, but
did not relieve them of their civil disabilities. Some,
accordingly, of their number practised what was
called Occasional Conformity^ that is, reoeiyed tbo
" * '^NONS 97 NONS
Anglican sacrament ]ufit once so as to qualify. This Fourth to the Seventh Century; III. None in the
caused much controvert and led eventuaOy in 1710 Roman and Other liturgies from the Seventh Cen-
to the Occasional Conformity Act, which was devised tury; IV. Meanins and Symbolism of None,
to check it. This Act was repealed in 1718, but many 1. Origin of None. — ^According to an ancient
of the Nonconformists themselves disapproved of the Greek and Roman custom, the day was, like the night,
practice on conscientious grounds, and, though it was divided into four parts, each consisting of three hours,
often resorted to and caused grave scandals, those As the last hour of each division gave its name to the
who resorted to it cannot be f turlv taken as represen- respective quarter of the day, the third division (from
tatives of their sects. Th6 Test Act was not repealed 12 to about 3) was called the None (Lat. nontM, ntma,
till 1828, the year before the Catholic Emancipation ninth). For this explanation, which is open to objeo-
Act was passea; the Catholics and the Nonconformists tion, but is the oniy probable one, see Francolinus,
combined their forces to obtain both objects. "De temper, horar. canonicar.'', Rome, 1571, xxi;
Although by the passing of the Toleration Act of Bona, ''De divina psalmodia". III (see also Matins
1689 the condition of the Nonconformists was so much and ViGiifi). This division of the day was in vogue
ameliorated, they lapsed in the second quuter of the also among the Jews, from whom the Church bor-
eighteenth century into the prevailing reu^ous toipor, rowed it (see Jerome, "In Daniel," vi, 10). The fol-
and seemed to be on the verge of extinction. Tney lowing texts, moreover, favour this view: "Now
were rescued from this state by the outbreak of the Peter and John went up into the t^nple at the ninth
great Methodist movement, which resulted both in hour of prayer'' (Acts, iii. 1); "And C]k>melius said:
arousing the existing Dissenting sects to a new vigour. Four days ago, unto this hour, I was praying in my
and in adding another which exceeded them SH in house, at the ninth hour, and behold a man stood be-
numbers and enthusiasm. fore me" (Acts, x, 30); Peter went up to the higher
Prssent Condition. — ^At the present day the parts of the house to pray, about the sixth hour"
Nonconformists in England, the only country to which (Acts, x, 9). The most ancient testimony refers to
this name with its implications applies, are very nu- this custom of Terce. Sext, and None, for instance
merous and constitute a powerful relinous, social, TertulUan, Clement of Alexandria, the Canons of Hip-
and political influence. As they have effectuallv re- poljrtus, and even the "Teaching of the Apostles •
sisted the taking of a religious census by the State The last-mentioned prescribed prayer thrice each day.
Census department, it is impossible to ascertain their without, however, fixing the hours (Ac^ax^ tQp 'Airoo^
numbers accurately, for their own statistics are sus- roXwr, n. viii).
gicted of exaggeration. According to Mr. Howard Clement of Alexandria and likewise TertuUian,
vans's statistics (as given in the Daily Mail "Year as early as the end of the second century, expressly
Book of ^e Churches^' for 1908), the Baptists then mention the hours of Terce, Sext, and None, as
reckoned 405,755 communicants, the C]k>n|p^ational- specially set apart for prayer (Clement, "Strom.",
ists 459,983. and the various denominations of Meth- VII^ vu, in P. G., IX, 455-8). TertuUian says ex-
odists 1,174,462 — ^to which figures are to be added plicitly that we must always pray, and that there is no
those of the highly indeterminate number of "adher- time prescribed for prayer; he adds, nevertheless, these
ents" who are not accepted as communicants. It significant words: As regards the time, there should
will be seen from this list that the Methodists are by be no lax observation of certain hours — I mean of
far the larger of these three principal denominations, those common hours which have long marked the di-
but they are likewise the most subdivided. It will be visions of the day, the third, the sixth, and the ninth,
noticed, too, tihat the Presbyterians, once so numerous and which we may observe in Scripture to be more
in the country, have no place among the larger sects, solemn than the rest" ("De Oratione", xxiii, xxv, in
The Society of Friends, commonlv called Queers, are P. L., I, 1191-3).
allotted 17,767 communicants by Evans. Besides Clement and Tertullian in these passages refer only
these there are innumerable small sects, of which the to private prayer at these hours. The Canons of Hip-
Plymouth Brethren and the Swedenborgians are the poly tus also speak of Terce, Sext, and None, as suitidtlle
most conspicuous. (For the separate denominations hours for private prayer: however, on the two station
see the special articles, Baptists; CoNGRBOATioNAii- days, Wednesday and Friday, when the faithful a»-
ism; Methodism; Prbbbttebianibm; Fbiends, Soci- sembled in the church, and perhaps on Sundays, those
BTY OF.) hours were recited successively in public (can. xx, xxvi) .
Nbal, hul of the PuriianM, or ProUttatd Noneonfonmau, 1617- St. Cyprian mentions the same hours as having been
iSSifii *Si^^ yftJl^^ 'iSSSJi^u^ly^ mfS observed under the Old Law, and adduces reasons for
vote., London!!l8S)TBooiTE akd Bbnnwt. Hi9t,^l>u»€nUrB. the Christians observing them also ("De Oratione",
1688-1808 U vols.. London, 1808) ; Bbmnvit. Hiai. cf DiasenUrt, xxxiv, in P. L., IV, 541). In the fourth century there
1S2^ teS '(f?J JT'SSSorisSSf; ""^iS^f^ " evidence to show that the p«cti«» h^become obU-
Church and the PiiritaiM. 1670-1860 in CuiamoN. Bpoeha of gatoiv, at least for the monks (see the text Of the Apos-
Church Hietory (London, 1887) ; Ovurrox, Life in the Bnijlieh telic Constitutions, St. Ephraem, St. Basil, the author
Cfctje*. i«o-/7/y Ijndon, 1885^ of the "De virginitate'*^ in Battmer-Biron, op. cit.
Bngheh Chyrehin the BwhteenUi Century (Loodont 1878); Skmatb . iL'^f i.,.. iia ioi lOO lOo 1QA^ Tk«.
AND MiAix, Hiat. of the Free Churehea of Bngland, 1688-1861 m blbhography, pp. 116, 121j 123, 129, 186). The
(London. 1801) ; Rbss, Hiai. ofProteakmi Nonconformity in Walea, prayer OtPnme, at SIX 6 clock m the mormng, was not
1833-1861 (London, 1861); BhraMiKOTOK tfirf. o/^^ WeaA^ ^^^ ^jH ^ later date, but Vespers goes back to the
mtiuter AaaenMy of Dxwnee (Edinburgh, 1878); Gould, Dotu- "^«f« /•*" •• x^l*^ ^^ i.-«^ ^^La «;„^ «-.. '^T^f^-^
mmde rdoHng to the Settlement of the Church of Bnoland by the Act earliest days. The textS We have Cited give no infor-
o/ Uniformity of 1668 (2 toIs., London, 1862); CALAirr. Ahridff- mation as to what these praycTS consbtcd of. Evi-
iMfU of Mr, B<uur;a HiaLof hu Life and Timea.with anocamni Gently they contained the same elements as all other
of many . . . mvMaAera ^aho wtre eiedLtd . . . and a canlxnuainon ^^^^ J f . . ._^ .^„«i^„ ««^:i.,>j «« *i»«,»4.«^ <.o,«4;
elf their hietory tia the year 1691 (London. 1702); The Nonconform- prayers of that tune— psahns recited or chanted, cantl-
Mf*« Memorial, bein{f an account of the Miniatera who vera ^eeted clcs Or hymns, dther pnvately COmpOSCd OS drawn
2rfSs:is^Js«2iSftS alSi^^ ^Ta^"^^ ^"*' '^ ^**°*" "p^y"" p"p«*>y «»■
attempt towarda reeoverino an account of the numbera and aufferinqa Callea.
of the derqyc/the Church of Bngland. , . inthelaU timea of the II. NONE FROM THE FOUBTH TO THE SEVENTH CEN-
. . . containing matter <^ fact, with notea and referencea towarda die- dicea (between 343 and 381) orders that t^ same
eoaerino and eonnectwQ the true hiatory of Bngland from the Reatora- prayers be always said at None and Vespers. But it IS
Ifon <C*oriet // (London, 1728), a oarefnl eritieiraa of Calamy's ^^^ ^i^^^ ^^j^^ meanmg is to be attached to the WOrds
•••*'"*^ Sydney F. Smith. Xeirov^ta T<Dr f^flr, used in the canon. It is likely
Nona.— This subject will be treated under the fol- ittet reference is made to the famous litanies, in which
lowing heads: I. Origin of None; II. None from the prayer was offered for the catechumens, sinners, the
.—7 - -
HON KXnDIT
98
NOH XXnDIT
faithful, and generally for all the wants of the Churdi.
Sosomen (in a passage, however, which is not consid-
ered very authentic) q>eaks of three psalms which the
monks recited at None. In any case, this number be-
came traditional at an eariyperiod (Sosomen, "Hist.
eccL", III, xiv, in P. G., lJ:vlI, 1076-7; cf. Baumer-
Biion, op. cit., I, 136). Three psalms were recited
at Teroe, six at Sext, and nine at None, as Cassian
informs us, though he remarits that the most common
Kractice was to recite three psalms at each of these
ouis (Cassian, "De ccenob. mstit.", Ill, iii, in P. L.,
XUX, 116). St. Ambrose apeaka of three hours of
prayer, and, if with many critics we attribute to him
the three hymns " Jam surgit hora tertia", " Bis temas
horas ezphcas", and "Ter boras trina solvitur", we
shall have a new constitutive element of the Little
Hours in the fourth century in the Church of Milan
(Ambrose, "De virginibus , III, iv, in P. L., XVI,
225).
In the ''Peregrinatio ad loca sancta" of Etheria
(end of fourth centuiy), there is a more .detailed
description of the OfBce of None. It resembles
that of Sext, and is celebrated in the basilica of the
Anastads. It is composed of psalms and antiphons;
then the bishop arrives, enters the grotto of the Ilesur-
rection, recites a prayer thraie, and blesses the faithful
("Percpinatio", p. 46; cf. Cabrol, ''Etude but la Per-
egrinatio Sylvise , 45). During Lent, None is cele-
brated in the church of Sion ' on Sundays the office is
not celebrated; it is omittea also on Holy Saturday,
but on Good Friday it is celebrated with special sol-
emnity (Peregrinatio, pp. 53, 66, etc.). But it is
only in the succeeding age that we find a complete
description of None, as of the other offices of the
day.
III. NONS IN THE RoifAN AND OtHSB LmTBGIES
VBOM TH« Seventh Cbntubt. — In the Rule of St.
Benedict the four Little Hours of the day (Prime to
None) are conceived on the same plan, the formuLse
alone varying. The office begins with Deus in ad-
jtUorium, like all the Hours; then follows a hymn,
special to None; three psalms, which do not change
(Ps. cxxv, cxxvi, cxxvii). except on Sundays and Mon-
days when they are replaced oy three groups of eight
verses from Ps. cxviii; then the capitulum, a versicle,
the Kyrie, the Pater, the oratio, and the conducing
Srayers (Regula S. P. Benedicti, xvii). In the Roman
iturgy the office of None is likewise constructed after
the model of the Little Hours of the day ; it is composed
of the same elements as In the Rule of St. Benedict,
with this difference, that, instead of the three psalms,
cxxv-vii, the three ^ups of ei^t verses from Ps.
cxviii are always recited. There is nothingelse char-
acteristic of this office in this liturgy. The hymn,
which was added later , is the one already in use in the
Benedictine Office — "Rerum Deus teiiax vigor". In
the monastic rules prior to the tenth century certain
variations are found. Thus in the Rule of Lerins, as
in that of St. dJaesarius, six psahns are recited at None,
as at Terce and Sext, with antiphon, hymn, and capi-
tulum.
St. Aurelian follows the same tradition in his
Rule ''Ad virgines'', but he imposes twelve psalms
at each hour on the monks, ot. Columbanus, St.
Fructuosus, and St. Isidore adopt the system of three
psalms (cf. Mart^ne, ''De antiq. monach. rit.", IV,
27). Like St. Benedict, most of these authors include
hymns, the capitulum or short lesson, a versicle, and
an oratio (cf. Mart^ne, loc. cit.). In the ninth and
tenth centuries we find some additions made to the
Office of None, in particular litanies, collects, etc.
(Mart^ne, op. cit., iV, 28).
IV. Meaning and Stmbousm of None. — Among
the ancients the hour of None was regarded as the
close of the day's business and the time for the baths
and supper (Martial. '^Epigrams'', IV, viii; Horace,
**Epifltles", I, vii, 70). At an early date mystical rea-
sons for the division of the day were sought. St. Cyp-
rian sees in the hours of Terce, Sext and None, wmch
oome after a lapse of three hours, an allusion to the
Trinity. He adds that these hours already conse-
crated to prayer under the Old Dispensation, have
been sanctified in the New Testament by great mys-
teries— ^Terce bv the descent of the Holy Ghost on the
Apostles; Sext by the prayers of St. Peter, the recep-
tion of the G^ntdes into the Church, or yet again by
the crucifixion of Our Lord; None by the death of
Christ ("De oratione", xxxiv, in P. L., IV, 541). St.
Basil merely recalls that it was at the ninth hour that
the Apostles Peter and John were wont toro^to the
Temple to prayC* Regulae fusius tract.", XXaVII, n.
3, In P. G., XXXI, 1013 so.). Cassian. who adopts
the Cyprian interpretation tor Terce ana Sext, sees in
the Hour of None the descent of Christ into hell (De
coenob. instit., Ill, iii). But, as a rule, it is the death
of Christ that is oonmiemorated at the Hour of
None.
The writers of the Middle Ages have sought for
other mystical explanations of the Hour of None.
Amalarius (III, vi) explains at length, how, like the
sun which sinks on the horizon at the Hour of None,
man's spirit tends to lower itself also, he is more open
to temptation, and it is the time the demon selects to
try him. For the texts of the Fathers on this subject
it will suffice to refer the reader to the above-men-
tioned work of Cardinal Bona (c. ix). The same writ-
ers do not fail to remark that the number nine was
considered by the ancients an imperfect number, an
incomplete number, ten bein|; considered perfection
and the complete number. Nine was also the number
of mourning. Among the ancients the ninth day was
a day of expiation and funeral service — naoemdiale
sacrum, the origin doubtless of the novena for the
d^id.
As for the ninth hour, some persons believe that it
is the hour at which our first parents were driven from
the Garden of Paradise (Bona, op. cit., ix, § 2). In
conclusion, it is necessary to call attention to a prac-
tice which emphasised the Hour of None — it was the
hour of fasting. At first, the hour of fasting was pro-
longed to Vespers, that is to say, food was taken only
in the evening or at the end of the day. Mitigation of
this rigorous practice was soon introduced. Tertul-
lian's famous pamphlet "De jejimio", rails at length
against the Psychics (i. e. the Catholics) who end
their fast on station days at the Hour of None, while
he, Tertullian, claims that he is faithful to the ancient
custom. The practice of breaking the fast at None
caused that hour to be selected for Mass and Com-
munion, which were the signs of the close of the day.
The distinction between the rigorous fast, which was
prolonged to Vespers, and the mitigated fast, ending
at None, is met with in a large number of ancient docu-
ments (see Fast).
FBAKCOLiirns, De temp, karar. eanoniear, (Rome, 1571), zzi;
Amalarius, De eedee, ojficiie, IV, vi; DniiAin>us, Rationale, V, i
aq.; Bona, De divirta pealmodia, iz; Dd Cakob. GbMarium infimm
Latiniialxe, b, v. Hctcb eanoniea; Idbm, Gloeearium medim OrtBcita-
IM, 8. y.'OjMc; MABETifeNB, De numaeh. rit., lY, 12, 27, 28, ete.;
Habftbn, iHequieit. Monaatiea, tract, ii, ix, eto.; PiRoaar, Brtwier
u. Brenergebet (Tabiosen. 1868). 22 etc.; BaOmxb-Bibon, Hi$t,
du BrMaire, I, 63, 73, 116, etc.; Cabbol and Lbclkbcq. Monmn.
lAturg. (Paris, 1002), sives the texts from the Fathers to the
fourth century; Talhofbb, Handbueh der kathoL lAturg., II
(1893). 458..
F. Cabbol.
Hon Ezpedit (It is not expedient). — Words with
which the Holv See enjoined upon Italian Catholics
the policy of abstention from the polls in parliamen-
tary elections. This policy was adopted after a period
of uncertainty and of controversy which followed the
promulgation of the Constitution of the Kingdom of
Italy (1861), and which was intensified by laws hos-
tile to the Church and, especially, to the relisioua
orders (1865-66). To this uncertainty the Holy
Penitentiary put an end by its decree of 29 F^ruaiyi
NON-JUBOaS
99
NONNOTTE
1868, in which, in the above words, it sanctioned the
motto: "Neither elector nor elected". Until then
there had been in the Italian ParUiEtment a few
eminent representatives of CathoUc interests — Vito
d'Ondes Reggio, Augusto Conti, Cesare CantCl, and
others. The principal motive of this decree was
that the oath taken by deputies might be interpreted
as an approval of the spoliation of the Holy See, as
Pius IX declared in an audience of 11 OctoBer, 1874.
A practical reason for it, also, was that, in view of the
electoral law of that day, by which the electorate was
reduced to 650^000, and as the Government manipu-
lated the elections to suit its own purposes, it would
have been hopeless to attempt to prevent the passage
of anti-Catholic laws. On tne other hand, the masses
seemed imprepared for parliamentary government,
and as, in the greater portion of Italy (Parma, Mo-
dena, Tuscanv, the Pontifical States, and the King-
dom of Naples), nearly all sincere Catholics were
partizans of the dispossessed princes, they were liable
to be denounced as enemies of Italy; they would also
have been at variance with the Catholics of Piedmont
and of the provinces wrested from Austria, and this
division would have further weakened the Catholic
Parliamentary group.
As mi^ht be expected, this measure did not meet
with universal approval: the soncalled Moderates
accused the Catholics of failing in their duty to
society and to their country. In 1882, the suffrage
having been extended, Leo XIII took into serious
consideration the partial abolition of the restrictions
established by the Non Expedite but nothing was
actually done (cf. ** Archiv fiir katnol. Kirchenrecht",
1904, p. 396). On the contrary, as many people
came to the conclusion that the decree Non Ex'pedit
was not intended to be absolute, but was only an
admonition made to apply upon one particular
occasion, the Holy Office declared (30 Dec., 1886)
that the rule in question implied a grave precept,
and emphasis was given to this fact on sevend subse-
Quent occasions (Letter of Leo XIII to the Cardinal
Secretary of State, 14 May, 1895; Congr^ation of
Extraordinary Affairs, 27 January, 1902; Pius X,
Motuproprio, 18 Dec., 1903). Later, Pius X, by his
encycucal ''II fermo proposito" (11 June, 1905)
modified the Non Expeait, declaring that, when there
was question of preventing the election of a ''subver-
sive candidate, the bishops could ask for a sus-
pension of the rule, and invite the Catholics to hold
themselves in readiness to go to the polls. (See Mar-
GOm. GlACOMOj
CinUd Caitoliea (Rome), aer. VIII, IV, 652; VI, 61; VIII. 653;
VIII, 362; QuetHoni polUictHreligioM (Rome, 1905).
U. Benigni.
Non-JurorSy the name given to the Anglican
Churchmen who in 1689 refused to take the oath of
allegiance to William and Mary, and their successors
under the Protestant Succession Act of that year.
Their leaders on the episcopal bench (William San-
croft, Archbishopof Canterbury, and Bishops Francis
Turner of Ely. William Lloyd of Norwich, Thomas
White of Peteroorough, William Thomas of Worcester,
Thomas Ken of Bath and Wells, John Lake of Chi-
chester, and Thomas Cartwright of Chester) were re-
quired to take the oath before 1 August, under pain
ol suspension, to be followed, if it were not taken
by 1 Feb., by total derivation. Two of them died
before this last date, but the rest, persisting in their
rrfusal, were deprived. Their example was followed
bv a multitude of the clergy and laity, the number
of the former being estimated at about four hun-
dred, conapicuous among whom were (jreone Hickes,
Dean of Worcester, Jeremy Collier, John Kettlewell,
and Robert Nelson. A list of these Non-jurors is
given in Hickes'4s "Memoirs of Bishop Kettlewell",
and one further completed in Overton's " Non-jurors".
The ori^nal Non-jurors were not friendly towards
James II; indeed five of these bishops had been amons
the seven whose resistance to his Declaration of Induf
^ence earlier in the same year had contributed to the
mvitation which caused the Prince of Orange to come
over. But desiring William and Mary as regents
they distinguished between this and accepting them as
sovereigns, regarding the latter as inconsistent with
the oath taken to James. Deprived of their benefices
the bishops fell into great poverty, and suffered occa-
sional though not systematic persecution. That they
were truly conscientious men is attested by sacrifices
courageously made for their convictions. Their lives
were edifying, some consenting to attend, as laym^,
the services m the parish churches. Still, when cir-
cumstances permitted, they held secret services of
their own, for they firmly believed that they had the
true Anglican succession which it was their duty to
preserve. Hence they felt, after some hesitation, that
it was incumbent on them to consecrate others who
should succeed them. The first who were thus conse-
crated, on 24 Feb., 1693, were George Hickes and John
Wagstaffe. On 29 May, 1713, the other Non-juring
bishops being all dead, Hickes consecrated Jeremy
Collier, Samuel Hawes, and Nathaniel Spinkes. When
James II died in 1701, a crisis arose for these separat-
ists. Some of them then rejoined the main body of
their co-religionists, whilst others held out on the
ground that their oath had been both to James and to
his rightful heirs. These latter afterwards disagreed
among themselves over a question of rites. The
death of Charles Edward in 1788 took away the raison
d*Hre for the schism, but a few lingered on till the end
of the eighteenth century. In Scotland in 1689 the
whole body of Bishops refused the oath and became
Non-jurors, but the resulting situation was somewhat
different. As soon as the Revolution broke out the
Presbvterians ousted the Episcopalians and became
the Established Kirk of Scotland. Thus the Non-
jurors were left without rivals of their own commun-
ion, though they had at times to suffer penidties for
celebrating unlawful worship. Their dimculties ter-
minated in 1788, when on the death of Charles Ed-
ward th^ saw no further reason for withholding the
oath to (jreorge IIL
Hickes, Memorials of tA« Lift of John KMewXL (London,
X718) ; Lathbvrt, A hutory of tke Non-juron, their eorUnneraiee,
and wrUinge (London, 1845): Grub, An EccUeiaetical History of
Scotland (4 vok.. Edinbursh, 1861): Oyebton, WiUiam Law,
Non-juror and Myttic (London, 1881) ; Plttmptbbb, Life of Thomae
Ken (2 vols., London, 1888) ; Cabisr, Life and Timee cf John
KetUeweU (London. 1895) ; Ovbbton, The Non-juror; their Lipee,
Princijdee, and Writings (London, 19GK2).
Sydney F* Smith.
Nozma, Saint. See Gregory of Nazianzus, Saint.
Nozmotte, Claude- Adrien, controversialist; b. in
Be8an9on, 29 July, 1711; d. there, 3 September, 1793.
At nineteen he entered the ScKsietv of Jesus and
preached at Amiens, Versailles, and Turin. He is
chiefly known for his writing against Voltaire. When
the latter began to issue his ''Essai sur les moeurs"
(1754), an attack on Christianity, Nonnotte published,
anonymously, the " Examen critimie ou Refutation du
livre des mceurs"; and when Voltaire finished his
Eublication (1758), Nonnotte revised his book, which
e published at Avignon (2 vols., 1762). He treated,
simply, calmlv, and dispassionately, all the historical
ana doctrin^ errors contained in Voltaire's work.
Nonnotte's work reached the sixth edition in 1774.
Voltaire, exasperated, retorted in his "Eclaircisse^
ments historiques'', and for twent^^ years continued to
attack Nonnotte with sarcasm, insult, or calumny.
Nevertheless Nonnotte's publication continued to
circulate, and was translated into Italian, German,
Polish, and Portuguese. After the suppression of the
Jesuits, Nonnotte withdrew to Besan9on and in 1779
added a third volume to the "Erreurs de Voltaire",
nameljr, "L'esprit de Voltaire dans ses ^rits", for
which it was impossible to obtain the approval of the
HONNUS
100
HOBBBBT
Paris censor. Against the ''Dictionnaire philoso-
phique", in which Voltaire had recapitulatec^ under
a popular form, all his attacks on Christianity,
Nonnotte published the ''Dictionnaire philosophique
de la religion'' (Avignon, 1772), in which he rephed
to all the objections then broiLKht against religion.
The work was translated into Italian and German.
Towards the end of his life Nonnotte published "Les
philosophes des trois premiers sidles" (Paris, 1789),
m which he contrasted the ancient and tibe modem
philosophers. The work was translated into German.
Be also wrote "Lettre k un ami sur les honn^tet^
litt^raires *' (Paris, 1766), and ''R^ponse aux £clair-
cissements historiques et aux additions de Voltaire"
(Paris, 1774). These publications obtained for their
author a eulogistic Bnef from Clement XIII (1768),
and the congratulations of St. Alphonsus laguori,
who declared that he had always at nand his ''golden
works" in which the chief truths of the Faith were de-
fended with learning and propriety against the objec-
tions of Voltaire and lus friends. Nonnotte was also
the author of ''L'emploideTargent" (Avignon, 1787),
translated from Manei; "Le gouvemement des pa-
roisses" (posthumous, Paris, 1802). All were published
under the title"(Euvre8deNonnotte"(Be8anoon,1819).
L*ami de la reUgion, XXV, 385; Sabatzxb db Castbbb, Lm
Irow nieUa de la litUraiure Jrancaiee (The Hague, 1781) ; SoMiim-
YOOBU Bib, delaCde Jiaue (Paris, 1894), V, 1803-7; IX. 722.
Antoinb Degbrt.
Honnufl, of Panopolis in Upper Egypt (c. 400), the
reputed author of two poems in hexameters; one,
Atowvataxdf about the m3r8teries of Bacchus, and the
other the ''Paraphrase of the Fourth Gospel".
Draseke proposes Apollinaris of Laodicea (Theolog.
Litteraturzeitung, 1891, 332), and a fourteenth-cen-
tury MS. suggests Ammonius as the author of the
''Paraphrase , but the similarity of style makes it
very probable that the two poems have the same au-
thor. Nonnus would then seem to have been a pagan
when he wrote the first, and afterwards to have be-
come a Christian. Notning else is known of his life.
The "Paraphrase'' is not completely extant; 3750
lines of it, now divided into twenty-one chapters, are
known. It has some importance as evidence of tiie
text its author used, and has been studied as a source
of textual criticism (Blass. "Evang. sec. loh. cum
varis lectionis delectu", Leipzig, 1902; Janssen in
"Texte u. Untersuchungen", XXIII, 4, Leipzig,
1903). Otherwise it has Tittle interest or merit. It
18 merely a repetition of the Gospel, verse by verse,
inflated with fantastic epithets and the adcution of
imaginary details. The '' Paraphrase " was first pub-
lished by the Aldine Press in 1501. The edition of
Heinsius (Leyden, 1627) is reprinted in P. G., XLIII,
749-1228. The best modem edition is by Scheindler:
''Nonni Panopolitani paraphrasis s. evang. loannei"
(Leipzig, 1881).
Fabricii7b>Hablu, BiH,araea, VIII (Hambms, 1802), 601-12;
KoBCHLT, Opueeulaj^Uolofficat I (LeipBis. 1881), 421-46; Kinkxu
Dm Ueberlieferung der Paraphraae dee et. Ion. von Nonnoa, I
(Zurioh, 1870); Tibokb, Nonniana (Berlin, 1883).
Adrian Fobtbscub.
Norbart, Saint, b. at Xanten on the left bank of the
Rhine, near Wesel, c. 1080; d. at Magdeburg, 6 June,
1134. His father, Heribert, Count of Gennep, was
related to the imperial house of German v, and his
mother, Hadwigis, was a descendant of the ancient
house of Lorraine. A stately bearing, a penetrating
intellect, a tender, earnest heart, marked the future
apostle. Ordained subdeacon, Norbert was ap-
pointed to a canonry at Xanten. Soon after he was
summoned to the Court of Frederick, Prince-Bishop of
Cologne, and later to that of Heniy V, Emperor of
Germany, whose almoner be became. The Bishopric
of Cambray was offered to him^ but refused. Nor-
bert allowed himself to be so earned away by pleasure
that nothing short of a miracle of grace could make
him lead the life of an earnest cleric. One day, while
riding to Vieden, a village near Xanten, he was over-
taken by a storm. A thunderbolt fell at his horse's
feet; the frightened animal threw its rider, and for
nearly an hour he la;y like one dead. Thus numbled,
Norbiert became a smcere penitent. Renouncing his
appointment at Court, he retired to Xanten to laid a
life of penance.
Understanding, however, that he stood in need of
guidance, he placed himself under the direction of
Cono, Aobot of Siegburg. In gratitude to Cono.
Nori)ert founded the Abbey of FQrstenberg, endowed
it with a portion of his property, and made it over to
Cono ana his Benedictme successors. Norbert was
then in his thirty-fifth year. Feeline that he was
called to the priesthood, he presented himself to the
Bishop of Cologne, from whose hands he received
Holy Orders. After a forty da3r8' retreat at Siegbure
Abbev, he celebrated his first Mass at Xanten and
preached an earnest discourse on the transitory char-
acter of this world's pleasures and on man's duties
towards God. The insults of some youns clerics, one
of whom even spat in his face, he bore with wonderful
Satience on that occasion. Norbert often went to
iesburg Abbey to confer with Cono, or to the cell of
Ludolph. a holy and learned hermit-priest, or to the
Abbey ot Klosterrath near Rolduc. Accused as an in-
novator at the Council of Fritzlar, he resigned all his
ecclesiastical preferments^ disposed of his estate, and
gave all to the poor, reserving for himself only what was
needed for the celebration of Holy Mass. Barefooted
and beting his bread, he journeyed as far as St. Giles,
in Languedoc, to confer with Pope Gelasius concerning
his future life. Unable to keep Norbert at his court,
Gelasius granted luun faculties to preach wherever
he judged proper. At Valenciennes Nori)ert met
(March, 1119) Burchard, Bishop of Cambray, whose
chaplain joined him in his apostolic journeys in France
and Belgium. After the oeath of Pope Gelasius (29
January, 1119) Nori)ert wished to confer with his
successor, Calixtus II. at the Council of Reims (Oct.,
1119). The pope ana Bartholomew^ Bishop of Laon,
reciuested Norbert to found a religious order in the
Diocese of Laon, so that his work might be per-
petuated after his death. Norbert chose a lonely,
marshy valley, shaped in the form of a cross, in the
Forest of Coucy, about ten miles from Laon, and
named Pr6montr6. Hu^ of Fosses, Evermode of
Cambray, Anthony of Nivelles, seven students of the
celebrated school of Anselm, and Ralph at Laon were
his first disciples. The young community at first
lived in huts of wood and clay, arranged like a camp
around the chapel of St. John the Baptist, but they
soon built a larger church and a monastery for the
religious who joined them in increasing numbers.
Going to Cologne to obtain relics for their church,
Norbert discovered, through a vision, the spot where
those of St. Ursula and her companions, of St. Gereon,
and of other martyrs lay hidden.
Women also wislied to become members of the new
religious order. Blessed Bicwera, widow of Count
Raymond of Clastres, was St. Norbert's first spiritual
daughter, and her example was followed by women of
the best families of France and Germany. Soon after
this, Norbert returned to Germany and preached in
Westphalia, when Godfrey, Count of Kappenberg,
offered himself and ^ave three of his castles to be made
into abbeys. On his return from Germany, Norbert
was met ov Theobald, Count of Champagne, who
widied to become a member of the order; out Nor-
bert insisted that God wished Theobald to marry
and do good in the world. Theobald agreed to
this, but begged Norbert to prescribe a rule of life.
Norbert prescribed a few rules and invested Theobald
with the white scapular of the order, and thus, in
1122, the Third Order of St. Norbert was instituted.
The saint was soon requested by the Bishop of Cam-
NOBBBBTDIXS
101
NOBTOLX
brai to 90 and combat the infamous beresies which
Tanchehn had propagated, and which had their cen-
tre at Antwerp. As a result of his preaching the
people of the Low Countries abjured their heresies,
andTmany brought back to him the Sacred Species
which they had stolen and profaned. In commem-
oration of this, St. Norbert has been proclaimed the
Apostle of Antwerp, and the feast of his triumph over
the Sacramentarian heresy is celebrated in the Arch-
diocese of Mechlin on 11 July.
The rapid growth of the order was marvellous, and
bishops entreated Norbert to found new houses in
their dioceses. Floreffe, Viviers, St-Josse^ Ardenne,
Cuiflsy, Laon, Li^e, Antwerp, Varlar, Kappenberg
and others were founded during the first five vears of
the order's existence. Though the order haa already
been approved by the pope^s legates, Norbert, ac-
companied by three disciples, journeyed to Rome, in
1125, to obtain its confirmation by the new pope,
Honorius II. The Bull of Confirmation is dated 27
Fdbniary, 1126. Passins through WQrzburg on his
return to Pr6montr6, Norbert restored sight to a blind
woman: the inhabitants were so full of admiration
for him that they spoke of electing him successor to
their bishop who had just died, but Norbert and his
companions fled secretly. Soon after this, on his way
to Ratisbon, he passed through Spier, where Lothair.
King of the Romans, was holding a diet, the papal
legate being present. Deputies from Magdeburg had
alio come to solicit a successor to their late archbishop,
Rudger.
The papal legate and Lothair used their authority,
and obliged Nozbert to accept the vacant see.
On taking possession of it, he was grieved to find that
much property belonging to the Church and the poor
had been usurped by powerful men, and that many
of the clergy led scandalous lives. He succeeded in
converting some of the transgressors, but others only
became more obstinate, and three attempts were made
on his Ufe. He resisted Pietro di Leoni, who, as anti-
pope, had assumed the name of Anacletus and was
master in Rome, exerting himself at the Council of
Reims to attach the German Emperor and the Ger^
man bishops and princes more firmly to the cause of
Pope Innocent II.
Though his health was increasingly delicate, Nor-
bert accompanied Lothair and his army to Rome to
gut t^e riffhtful pope on the Chair of St. Peter, and
e resisted the pope's concession of the investiture to
the emperor. Norbert, whose health was now much
impaired, accompanied the Emperor Lothair back to
Germany and for some time remained with lum, as-
sisting mm as his chancellor and adviser. In March.
1134, Norbert had become so feeble that he had
to be carried to Magdebuig where he died on the
Wednesdav after Pentecost. By order of the em-
peror, his body was laid at rest in the Norbertine
Abbey of St. Mary, at Magdeburg. His tomb be-
came glorious by the numerous miracles wrought
there. Tlie BoUandists say that there is no docu-
ment to prove that he was canonised by Innocent
III. His canonisation was by Gregory XlII in 1582,
and his cultus was extended to the whole church
by Clement X.
On 2 May, 1627, the saint's body was trans-
lated from Niagdeburg, then in the hands of Protes-
tants, to the Abbev ofStrahov, a suburb of Prague in
Bohemia. The Cnancery of Prague preserved the
abjurations of six hundred Protestants who, on the
day, or durins the octave, of the translation, were
reconciled to the Catiiolic Church. On that occasion
the Archbishop of Prague, at the recjuest of the civil
and ecclesiastical authorities, proclaimed St. Norbert
the Patron and Protector of Bohemia. (For history
of the order, see Prbmonstratensian Canons.)
Untfl the middle of the leat oentuiy, the principal eouroe for the
Uognplgr of St. Norbert wee e MS. ueuAlIy attributed to Huoo,
poi
Bei
the aaint's first dieciple and euooefleor, of which n«ineroua eooiflt
had been made. That beloncing to the Abbey of Romeradorf ,
near Coblenti» Vita Norberti, aueton eanonieo prwadjuwanU Hvf
pans abbaU, Fottenttt is now in the British Museum. An abrids*
ment of thia by Subius was printed in 1572: the whole MS., with
variants, was published by Abbot Vandbb Stbbbb in 1666; a^n,
with commentaries and notes, by Papkbboch in Ada 88., XX.
Thm followed: Vandbb Stbbbb, Hei Inen «an den H. Norbvriui
(Antwerp. 1623); du Pni. La Vie de 8, Norbert (Paris. 162:n; ,
Camus, 1/ Homme apoetolique en 8. Norbert (Caen. 1640) ; C. L.
Hnoo. La ViedeS. Norbert (LuxemburK, 1704); Illana. Hietoria
del Qran Padre y Patriaroa 8, Norberto (Salamanca. 1755). •
In 1856 a MS. Life of 8t. Norbert discovered in the Royal Li-
brary, Berlin, was published in Pkbts, Mon. Oerm. Hiet., differing
in many particulars from the Hvoo MSS. mentioned above. The
discovery occasioned a great revival of interest in the subject, and
there followed: TBNKorr, De 8, Norberto Ord, Pram, Conditore
eommerUatio fuetorica (Mdnster, 1855); Scholb, Vita 8. Norberti
(Breslau, 1850); WxMTBk, Die Prdmofutrateneer der It. Jahrh,
(Berlin, 1865) ; Robbmhund, Die dUeeten Bioffrankien dee h. Nor-
beriua (Berlin, 1874); Hbbtbl, Le6«n dee h. -Norbert (Leipaig,
1881); M^HLBACHBB, Die atreitipe Papttwahl dee Jahree IISO
(Innsbruck, 1876). In the following three works, the publication
of Perts and other lately discovered documents have been used:
QBX7DBN8, Life of 8t. Norbert (London. 1886): Madbulinb. ^m-
toire de 8. NorbeH (Lille. 1886) (the fullest and best-written biog-
raphy of the saint so far published) ; van dbn Eubbn, Leeeneg^
eekiedenie van den H. Norbertue (Averbode, 1890).
F. M. Geudsns.
Hort>ertliiet. See Prbmonstratensian Canons.
Noreiav Diocese of (Norsin), a city in Perugia,
Italy, often mentioned in Roman history. In the
ninUi century it was a republic. The Dukes of Spoleto
often contended with the popes for its possession;
when, in 1453, the communes of Spoleto ancf Cascia d&-
clarea war aeainst Norda, it was defended by the
pe's general Cesarini. It was the birthplace of St.
nedict; the abbots St. Spes and St. Eutychius; the
monk Florentius; the painter Parasole; and the physi-
cian Benedict Pecgurdati. The chief industry is pre-
serving meats. The first known bishop was Stepnen
(c. 495). From the ninth century, Norcia was in the
Diocese of Spoleto, as it appears to have been tem-
porarily in the time of St. Gregory the Great. The see
was re-established in 1820, and its first bishop was
Caietan Bonani. Immediately dependent on Rome,
it has 1(X) parishes; 28,000 inhabitants; 7 religious
houses of women; 3 schools for girls.
CAPPBLLBTn, Le Chieee d* Italia, IV,
U. Benigni.
Norfolk, Catholic Dukes of, Since the Revob-
MATiON. — Under this title are accounts only of the
prominent Catholic Dukes of Norfolk since the Refor-
mation; a list of the Dukes, from the time the title
passed to the Howard family, is prefixed.
1. John (1430-1485), created first duke of the
Howard line in 1483, dieyl in battle in 1485.
2. Thomas (1443-1524), son. Became duke in
1514.
3. Thomas (1473-1554), son. Succeeded in 1524.
4. Thomas (153&-1572), grandson. Succeeded
in 1554. Beheaded in 1572.
5. Thomas (1627-1677), great-great-grandson.
Dukedom restored in 1660.
6. Henry (1628-1684), brother. Succeeded in
1677.
7. Henry (1655-1701), son. Succeeded in 1684.
8. Thomas (1683-1732), nephew. Succeeded in
1701.
9. Edward (1685-1777), brother. Succeeded in
1732.
10. Charles (1720-1786). descendant of seventh
duke. Succeeded in 1777.
11. Charles (1746-1815), son. Succeeded in 1786.
12. Bernard Edward (1765-1842), third cousin.
Succeeded in 1815.
13. Henry Charles (1791-1856), son. Succeeded
in 1842.
14. Henry Granville (1815-1860), son. Succeeded
in 1856.
15. Henry Fitcalan (1847- ), son. Succeeded
in 1860.
Thomas, Truid Dvke, was the eldeat son of mnrtyroli^t", was asaigned aa histator, {»obab1y to
' " ' """ ' '"'' '~ ' ■'■■-■--■- -J... ... 1 ■ ■.. Protestant priociples. In 1553, when
Thomas Howard, the aecood duke, and Eliubeth, educate hii
daughter o[ Sir F. Tilney of Ashnelltborpe Hall, Nor> Mary released his grandfather fi
la 1495 he was married to Lady Anne, di
ter of Edward JV. He fought as captain of the van-
guard at Flodden FieU in 1513. In 1S14 he was
created Earl of Surrey, and joined his father in oppos-
ing Woleey's policy of deincrang the old ra^ility.
. ..».„.,. .., J.., Q Ireland;
ing Wolsey a policy of dejweming
In 1520-21 he endeavoured to ke^
Whit« of Lincoln became his tutor. Thomas suc-
ceeded his grandfather, as duke, in 1554, and became
esrl-maishal. He married, in 1556, Lady Manr
Fitialan, daughter of Henry, twelfth Earl of Arundd;
in 1558, Margaret, daughter of Thomas Lord Audley
of Wa]den;and. in 1567, Eliiabeth, widow of Thomas
recalled, he took conunand of the English fleet ag^nst Dacre of Gilsland, who had thiiee daughleis. By
France, and aucceesfully opposed the French in Scot- obtaining a grant of their wardship and intermurying
land. In 1524 he becEune duke, and was appointed with them his own three sons, the issue of (orroer
commissioner to treat for peace with France. With marriages, he absorbed the great estates of the Dacre
peace abroad came the burning question of Henri's family. In 1568, he was again a widower, the only
divorce. Norfolk, uncle of Anne Boleyn, dded with Endish duke, the wealthiest man in England, popular
ened the i
became Henry's tool in dis-
honourable purposes and he
acquiesced in his lust for the
Spiritual aupremacy. With
romwell, he obtained a grant
of a portion of the possessions
of the Priory of Lewes and
other monastic spoils. He
was created earl-marshal in
1533. In 1535 Norfolk was
a leading judge in the trial
ofSirThomasMore. In 1536
he disbanded the "Pilgrim-
age of Grace" with false as-
surances, but returned next
jrear to do "dreadful execu-
tion". In 1536 he hanged in
chains, at Yoric, Fathers
Rochester and Walworth, two
Carthusians. Drastic meas-
ures of devastation marked
his whole career as a mili-
tarj leader. He shared the
King's seal against the in-
roads of German Protestant-
ism. In 1534 he had "stud
purgatory" and was always
m &vour of the old ortho-
doxy, as far as he might be
allowed toHupport it. In 1539,
. „ of
Norfolk's position and he was
given a part in the expulsion
of the French troops from
Scotland. With other com-
misBioners, he was appointed
to sit at York and inquire into
the causes of the variance be-
tween Mary Stuart and her
subjects. Circumstances, at
the bef^nning of 1569, com-
bined to awaken the fears of
English nobles, and Arundel,
Pembroke, Leicester, and
others saw the advanta^ to
be gained by the mamage,
first suggested by Maitland,
between Norfolk and Maiy;
that when married she might
be safely restored lo the Scot-
tish throne and be recog-
nised as Eliiaboth'ssuccessor.
Protestant nobles, however,
kMked on the afftdr with sus-
picion, and Catholic lords in
the north were impatient of
long delay. But, even alta:
the council had voted for
the settlement of the Eng-
■ by Mary's
an Englinb
Thoiub Howabd, Tbod Dukk or Tiom
Huu Holbsio tb* YoancH. Windaor Ci
when the biabops could not agree concerning the prac- with great cautjon, withdrew from court, aroused
ticesofreIigion,NorfolkpropoaedtheSixArticle8tothe Elisabeth's suspicion and was committed to the
Lords, theology thus becoming matter tor the whole Tower, in October, 1569. On his abject submission
Bouse. As an old man he served against a lising in to the queen and renundaUon of aU purpose of his
Scotland, and in the French wars of 1544. In 1546 he alliance with Mary, he was released in 1570, He did
was accuaedof high treason. Evidence, however, was not keep his promise; he continued to correspond with
not conclusive against him until Hertford, and other the Queen of Scots^ was found to be in negotiation
keen enemies, prevailed upon him, as a prisoner in with Ridolfi, and through him with PhUip and the
the Tower, to sign his confession and throw hiinself Catholic Powers abroad, concerning an inraaiDn of
on the King's mercy. A bill of attainder was pawed England. He was arraigned for hi^ treason in 1571.
in Parliament, and orders for his immediate execution After eighteen weeks' confinement in the Tower, de-
would have been carried into effect had not Henry prived of books, informed of the trial only on the
died on the previous evening. He remained a prisoner previous evening, kept in ignorance of the chaiges
in the Tower the whole of Edward VI's leign but was until he heard the indictment at the bar, and refused
released on Mary's accession, and restored to the the aid of counsel to suggest advice, on the evidence
dukedom in 1553. of letters and extorted confessions from others, he
His long experience as lord high steward and lieu- was condemned to death by the Earl of Shrewsbury,
tenant-general made him useful to the queen, but the Lord High Steward, and twenty-six peers as as-
he tost favour by his rashness and his failure to crush sessors (judges, all selected by the queen s ministers
Wyat'a rebellion. |See Gairdner, "Lollardy and the and many of them his known enemies). After much
Reformation" (London, 1908); Gairdner, "Hiat. of hesitation on the part of Elisabeth and a petition
Engl. Church in XVIth Century" (London, 1902); from Parliament, on 2 June, 1572, he was executed.
"I-etters and Papers, Henry VIH" various vol- His sympathy seemed to be always with the CathoUc
iinwH- r^rviirhtnn "Dirt, ftf !C«I Rimr'' X " — -■ — ■-■ •— ' ■■- '• — i-.^r.~.J anA ha waa ■
; Creighton, Diet, of Nat. Biog. , X (I<)ndon,
190S).|
Thomas, Focktb Dukb, was the son of Henry
Howard, Earl of Surrey and Frances Vere, daughter
of John^ Earl of Oxford. After the execution of his
father^ m 1547, be was, by order of priv^ council,
committed to the charge of his aunt, and >oie, "the
party, but his policy was two-faced, and he i
professed adherent of the Reformed relipon. CSr-
cumstancea made it expedient for him alwaya to tan-
porise. He seems to have be<ai led on by tiie course
of events and not to have realised the result trf tarn
actions. [See State Trials, I (London, 1776), 82;
Fronde, "Hist, irf Eng,", IV (London, 1866), XX;
NOBIS
103
NOBIS
Labanoff. "Lettres, etc. de Marie Stuart" (1844),
earlier ea. tr. (1842); Anderson, '^ Collections relating
to Mary" (Edinburgh, 1727); Creighton in "Diet, of
Nat. Biog.", X (London, 1908).
Henrt, Sixth Duke, the second son of Henry
Frederick Howard, third Earl of Arundel and Lady
Elizabeth Stuart, was educated abroad, as a Cath-
olic. In 1669 he went as ambassador extraordinary
to Morocco. In 1677 he succeeded his brother as
duke, having previously been made hereditary earl-
marshal. During the Commonwealth and Protecto-
rate he Uved in total seclusion. In January, 1678, he
took his seat in the House of Lords, but in August
the -first development of the Titus Oates Plot was
followed by an Act for disabling Catholics from sitting
in either house of Parliament. He would not comply
with the oath and, suspected of doubtful loys^y,
withdrew to Bruges for three years. There he built a
house attached to a Franciscan convent and enjoyed
freedom of worship and scope for his munificence.
He was a man of benevolent disposition and gave
away the greater part of his splendid library, and
grounds and rooms to the Royal Society, ana the
Arundetian marbles to Osdord University. Jealous
of the family honour, he compounded a debt of
£200,000 contracted by his grandfather. [See Eve-
lyn's ''MisceUaneous Writings'' (London, 1825).]
Hbnbt, Sevknts Duks, son of Henry, sixth Duke,
and Ladv Anne Somerset, was at first a good Catho-
lic and tor four months held out against subscribing
to the oath as a peer in the House of Lords. After-
wards he became a pervert.
Thomas, Eighth Dxtke, was brought up a Catholic
but perverted on succeeding to the dukeaom.
Edward, Ninth Duke, did much to promote a
more liberal treatment of Catholics by offering a
home at Norfolk House to Frederick, Prince of Wiues,
and his wife at the time of the birth of their son, after-
wards' George III.
Charles, Tenth Duke, son of Charles Howard of
Greystoke, Cumberiand, and Mary Paylward, was
brought up a CathoUc. Though he signed a petition
for relief from the pressure of the penal laws, he led
a very retired life. In 1764 he published ** Considera-
tions of the Penal Laws against the Roman Catholics
in England and the new-acquired colonies in Amer-
ica": and in 1768, ''Thou^ts. Essays, and Maxims,
chiefly Religious and PoHtical .
Charles, Eleventh Duke, educated at the Eng-
lish College at Douai, was a man of dissolute life and
had conformed to the State religion by 1780.
Bernard Edward, Twelfth Duke, eldest son of
Henrv Howard of Gloesop, and Juliana, daughter of
Sir William Molyneux of Willow, Nottinghamshire.
In 1789 he married Elizabeth Bellams, daughter of
Henry, Earl of Fauconberg. but was divorced, by Act of
Parliament, in 1794. On tne death of his third cousin,
in 1815, he succeeded to the dukedom. Although
a Catholic, he was allowed, by Act of ParUament
in 1824, to exercise the hereditary office of earl-
marshal. After the Relief Bill of 1829 he was ad-
mitted to the full exercise of his anc^ral privileges;
he took his seat in the House of Lords, where he was a
steady supporter of the Reform Bill, and in 1830 was
nominated as privy councillor. [See Gent. Mag., I
(1842), 542.1
Henrt Charles, Thirteenth Duke, only son of
Bernard Edward and Elizabeth Bellasis. He was
baptized a Catholic but did not practise his religion.
In 1814 he married Lady Charlotte Leveson-Gower,
daughter of George, Duke of Sutherland, and in 1815
he became, as heu-, Earl of Arundel and Surrey. In
1829, after the Catholic Emancipation Act, he took
the oath and his seat in the House of Commons (the
first Catholic since the Refonnation). In 1841 he
sat in the House of Lords. In politics he was a
stanch member of the Whig party. In 1842 he suc-
ceeded his father as Duke of Norfolk. He died at
Arundel in 1856. Canon Tiemey was chaplain at
the time of his death. [See London Times (19 Feb.,
1856); Gent. Mag. (April, 1856), 419.]
Henrt Granville FrrzALAN, Fourteenth Duke,
eldest son of Henry Charles Howard and Charlotte,
daughter of the Dlike of Sutheriand, was educatea
privately, and at Trinity Coll^^, Cambridge. He en-
tered the army but retired on attaining the rank
of captain. In 1839 he married the c&ughter of
Admiral Sir Edmund (afterwards Lord) Lyons, the
ambassador at Athens. From 1837 to 1842 he was a
member of the House of Commons, a Whig, until he
broke with his party on the introduction of the Eccle-
siastical Titles Bill of 1850. In 1856, as Duke of
Norfolk, he took his seat in the House of Lords. In
1839 he attended the services of Notre-Dame in Paris
and made the acquaintance of Montalembert. , This
resulted in his conversion to Catholicism, and Monta-
lembert describes him as "the most pious layman of
our times". Cardinal Wiseman, in a pastoral letter,
at the time of his death in 1860, referred to his benevo-
lent nature: ''There is^not a form of want or a
peculiar appHcation of alms which has not received his
relief or co-operation''. He wrote: "Collections
relative to Catholic Poor Schools throughout Eng-
land", MS. foUo, 134, pp. 1843; "A few Remarks on
the Social and Political Condition of British Cath-
olics" (London, 1847); Letter to J. P. Plumptre on
theBull"InC<Bna Domini" (London, 1848); "Ob-
servations on Diplomatic Relations with Rome"
1848. He edited from origmal MSS. the "Lives of
Philip Howard and Anne Dacres" (London, 1857 and
1861). [See "Gent. Mag." (Jan., 1861); "London
Times" (27 Nov. and 4 Dec., 1860); "London Table"
(1 Dec., 1860); H. W. Freeland, "Remarks on the
Letters of the Duke of Norfolk" (1874); Monta-
lembert, "Le .Correspondant" (25 Dec.. 1860), 766-
776, tr. by Goddard at the end of his Montalembert,
"Pius IX and France" (Boston, Mass., 1861).)
TiBRNBT, CatUe and AntiguUie* of Arundel (London, 1834);
HowARO. MmnoriaU of iKe Howard* (Corby Castle, 1834) ; Gii/-
Low, Bioo. Diet. ofEnd. Catholiea (London. 1885-1902) ; Linqasd.
HieUnv of Ernfiand (London. 1865); Did. Nat. Biog. (London,
1908), 8. y. Howard.
S. Anselm Pabker.
Hoiil, Henrt, Cardinal, b. at Verona, 29 August,
1631, of English ancestry; d. at Rome, 23 Feb., 1704.
He studied under the Jesuits at Rimini, and Uiere en-
tered the novitiate of the Hermits of Saint Augustine.
After his probation he was sent to Rome to study
theology. He taught the sacred sciences at Pesaro,
Perugia, and Padua, where he held the chair of church
history in the university from 1674 to 1692. There
he completed "The History of Pelagianism". and
"Dissertations on the Fifth General Council", the
two works which, before and after his death^ occa-
sioned much controversy. To^^ther wi th the ' ' Vmdiciffi
August inians" they were prmted at Padua in 1673,
having been approved by a special commission at
Rome. Noris nimself went to Rome to ^ve an ac-
count of his orthodoxy before this commission; and
Clement X named him one of the quaJificators of the
Holy Office, in recognition of his learning and sound
doctrine. But, after the publication of Uiese works,
further charges were made against him of teaching the
errors of Jansenius and Baius. In a brief to the pre-
fect of the Spanish Inquisition, 31 July^ 1748, ordering
the name of Noris to be taken off the list of forbidden
books, Benedict XIV says that these charges were
never proved; that they were rejected repeatedly by
the Holy Office, and repudiated by the popes who had
honoured him. In 1692 Noris was made assistant Li-
brarian in the Vatican by Innocent XII. On 12
December, 1695, he was named Cardinal-Priest of the
Title of S. Agostino. In 1700 he was given full charge
of the Vatican Library. His works, apart from some
i
HOBMANDT
104
HOBMANDT
minor oontrovermal treatises, are hiffUy valued for ac-
curacy and thoroughness of reseanST In addition to
those already named^ the most important are: '' Annus
et Epochs Syro-Macedonum in Vetustis Urbium
Syria Exposits": ''Fasti Consulares Anonimi e
Manuscripto Bibliothecse Cfesarese Deprompti*';
"Historia Controversue de Uno ez Trinitate Passo";
"Apologia Monachorum Scythis"; "HistoriaDona-
tistarum e Schedis Norisianis Excerpts"; ''Storia
delle Investiture delle Dignity Ecclesiastiche " . Select
portions of his works have beea frequently reprinted,
at Padua, 1673-1678, 1706; at Ix>uvain, 1702; at Bas-
sano, edited by Berti, 1769. The best is the edition
of aU the works, in five vols, folio by the Ballerini
Brothers, Verona, 1729-1741.
HuBTBB, Nomendaior, KathcUk, I (1884), 181; Pmso and
GnoLAMO Ballbbini, Vita Norini in their ed. of Noris* works,
IV (Verona, 1729-41) ; m shorter Life is prefixed to the edition of
Padua, al 706; Ijurnaa, Poatrema Saada Sex Rdigionie Augu»-
Uniana, III (Tolentino, 1868), 64 sq.
Francis £. Toubscbeb.
Honnandy, ancient French province, from which
five " departments " were foimed in 1790: Seine-Inf6ri-
eure (Aitshdiooeseof Rouen), S^ure (Diocese of Evreux),
Calvados (Diocese of Bayeux), Ome (Diocese of S^es),
Manche (Diocese of Coutances) . The Normans, orig-
inally Danish or Norwegito pirates, who from the
ninth to the tenth century made numerous incursions
into France, gave their name to this province. In the
Gallo-Roman period Normandy formed the so-called
second Lyonnaise province (Secunda Lugdunenaia),
At Thorigny within the territory of this province was
found an inscription very important for the history
of the worship of the emperors in Gaul and of the
provincial assemblies; the latter, thus meetins for this
worship, kept up a certain autonomy throu^mout the
conquered territory of Gaul. Under the Merovin-
gians the Kingdom of Neustria annexed Normandy.
About 843 Sydroc and his bands of pillagers opened
the period of Northman invasions. The policy of
Chanes the Bald in givine money or lands to some of
the Northmen for aefending his land against other
bands was unfortunate, as 'uiese adventurers readily
broke thdr oath. In the course of their invasions they
slew (858) the Bishop of Bayeux and (859) the Bishop
of Beauvais. The conversion (862) of the North-
man, Weland, marked a new policy on the part of the
Carlo vingians; instead of regarding the invaders as
intruders it was admitted that they might become
Christians. Unlike the Saracens, then disturbing
Europe, the Northmen were admitted to a place and a
r61e m Christendom.
The good fortune of the Northmen began with
Rollo in Normand^r itself. It was long believed that
Rollo came by sea into the valley of the Seine in 876,
but the date is rather 886. He destroyed Bayeux,
pillaged Lisieux, besiep;ed Paris, and reached Lorraine,
finally establishing himself at Rouen, where a truce
was concluded. His installation was considered so
definitive that in the beginning of the tenth century
Witto, Archbishop of Kouen, consulted the Arch-
bishop of Reims as to the means of converting the
Northmen. Hollo's settlement ii^ Normandy was rat-
ified by the treaty of St. Clair«ur-Epte (911), prop-
erly speaking only a verbal agreement between RoUo
and Charles the Simple. As Duke of Normandy
Rollo remained faithful to the Carlovinnan dynasty
in its struggles with the ancestors of the future Cape-
tians. These cordial relations between the ducal
family of Normandy and French royalty provoked
under Hollo's successor William Long-sword ^1-42)
a revolt of the pagan Northmen settled in Cotentin
and Bessin. One of their lords {jarU), Riulf by name
was the leader of the movement. The rebels re-
proached the duke with being no longer a true Scandi-
navian and "treatmg the French as his kinsmen".
Triumphant for a time, they were finally routed and
the aristocratic spirit of thejorts had to bow before the
monarchical principles which William Long-sword
infused into his government.
Another atteinpt at a revival of paganism was made
under Richard 1 Sana Peur (the I^arless, 942-96).
He was onlv two vears old at his father's death. A
vear later (943) the Scandinavian Setric, lAnHing in
Normandy with a band of pirates, induced a number
of Christian Northmen to apostatise; among them,
one Turmod who sought to make a pagan of the young
duke. Hugh the Great, Duke of France, and Louis
IV, King ofFrance, defeated these invaders and after
their victorv both sought to set up their own power
in Normanay to the detriment of the young Richard
whom Louis IV held in semi-a4>tivity at Lcu>n. The
landing in Normandy of the King of Denmark,
Harold Bluetooth, and the defeat of Louis IV, held
prisoner for a time (945), constrained the latter to
sifpi the treaty of Gerberoy, by which the young Duke
Richard was re-establishecl in his possessions, and be-
came, according to the chronicler Dudon ae Saint-
Quentin, a sort of King of Normandy. The attacks
later directed against Richard by the Carlovingian
King Lothaire and Thibaut le Tricheur, Count of
Chiurtres, brought a fresh descent on France of the
soldiers of Harold Bluetooth. Ascending the Seine
these Danes so devastated the country of Chartres
that when they withdrew, according to the chronicler
GuiUaume of Jumidges, there was not heard even the
bark of a dog. When Eudes of Chartres, brother-in-
law of Richard II the Good, again threatened Nor-
mandy (996-1020). it was once more the Scandinavian
chieftains, Olaf of Norway and Locman, who came to
the duke's aid. So attached were these Scandinavi-
ans to paganism that their leader Olaf, having been
baptised by the Archbishop of Rouen, was slain bv
them. Althoufdi they had become Christian, all
traces of Scan(unavian paganism did not disappear
under the first dukes ot Normandy. Rollo walked
barefoot before the reliquary of St. Ouen, but he
caused many relics to be sold in England, and on his
death-bed, according to Adh^mar de Chabannes,
simultaneously caused prisoners to be sacrificed to the
Scandinavian gods and gave much gold to the
churches. Richard I was a great builder of churches,
among them St. Ouen and the primitive cathedral of
Rouen, St. Michel du Mont, and the Trinity at F^
camp. Richard II, sealous for monastic reform,
brought from Burgundy Guillaume de St. B^nigne;
the Abbey of F6camp, reformed by him, became a
model monastexv and a much frequented school.
All these dukes protected the Church, but the
feudal power of the Church, which in many States at
that time limited the central power, was but little
developed in Nonnandy, and it was to their kinsmen
that the dukes of Normandv most often gave the
Archdiocese of Rouen and otner sees. Ecclenastical
life in Nonnandy was vigorous and well-developed;
previous to the eleventh centuiy the rural parishes
were almost as numerous as they are to-day. Thus
Normandy for nearly a centuiy and a half was at once
a sort of promontory of the Christian world in face of
Scandinavia and at the same time a coign of Scandi-
navia thrust into the Christian world. Henceforth
those Danes and Scandinavians who under the name
of Normans formed a part of Christendom, never
caUed pagan Danes or Scandinavians to their aid
unless tniiatened in the possession of Normandy: un-
der their domination the land became a stronghold of
Christianity. The monastery of Fontenelle (q. v.)
pursued its religious and literary activity from the
Merovingian period. The ''Chronicon Fontanel-
lense", continued to 1040, is an important souroe for
the history of the period. The ducal family of Nor-
mandy early determined to have an histonoffrapher
whom they sou^t in France, one Dudon, dean of
the chapter of St. Quentin, who between 1015-30
NOBMANDT 105 NOBMANDT
wrote in Latin half verse, half prose, a history of the of Poitiers, wrote the ''Gesta" of his'master and an ex«
family according to the traditions and accounts trans- tant account of the first crusade is due to another
mitted to him by Raoul, Coimt of Ivry. grandson of Norman, Raoul de Caen, an evewitness. At the
Rollo and brother of Richard I AUnea. Duke Robert the same time the Norman dukes of the eleventh century
Devil (10^-35) was already powerful enouKh to inter- restored the buildings, destroyed by the invasions
fere efficaciously in the struggles of Henry I of France of their barbarian ancestors, and a whole Romance
against his own brother and the Coxmts of Champagne school of architecture developed in Normandy, ez-
and flanders. In gratitude the king bestowed on tending to Chartres, Picardy, Brittany, and even to
Robert the Devil, Pontoise, Chaumont en Vexin, and England. Caen was the centre of this school; and
the whole of French Vexin. It was under Robert the monuments like the Abbaye aux Hommes and the
Devil that the ducal family of Normandy first cast Abbaye aux Dames, built at Caen by William and
covetous jdanoes towards Eiupland. He sent an em- Matilda, mark an epoch in the history of Norman art.
bassy to Canute the Great, lung of Enjdand, in order In the course of the twelfth century the political
that the sons of Ethelred, Alfred and Edward, might destinies of Normandy were very uncertain. Henry
recover ih&r patrimony. The petition having been I of England, master of Normandy from 1106-35,
denied he made ready a naval eroedition against preferred to live at Caen rather than in England. His
TCupUnH^ destroyed by a tempest. He died while on rule in Normandy was at first disturbed by the par-
a pilgrimage to uie Holy Sepulchre. tisans of Guillaume Ciiton, son of Robert Courto-
It was reserved for his son William the Bastard. Heuse, and later by the plot concocted against him by
lat» called William the Conqueror, to make England his own dau^ter Matilda, widow of Emperor Henry V ,
a Norman colony by the expedition which resulted in who had taken as her second husband Geofifrey Plan-
the victory of Hastings or Senlac (1066). It seemed, tagenet, Count of Anjou. When Henry I died in 1 135
then, that in the second half of the eleventh century a his body was brought to England; his death without
sort of Norman imperialism was to arise in England, male heirs left Normandy a prey to anarchy. For
but the testament of William the Conqueror which this region was immediately disputed between Henry
left Normandy to Robert Courte-Heuse and England Planta^enet, grandson of Henry I through his mother
to William Rufus, marked the separation of the two Matilda, and Thibaut of Champa^e, grandson of
countries. Each of the brothers sought to despoil the William the Conqueror through his mother Addle,
other; the long strife which Robert wa^ed, first against After nine years ot strife Thibaut withdrew in favour
William Rufus. afterwards against his third brother of his brother Stephen who in 1135 had been crowned
Henry I Beauclerc, terminated in 1106 with the battle King of Enj^and. But the victories of Geoffrey
of Tinchebray, after which he was taken prisoner and Plantagenet m Normandy assured (1144) the rule of
brought to Cardiff. Thenceforth Normandy was the Henry Plantagenet over that land, which being
possession of William I, King of England, and while thenceforth subject to Angevin rule, seemed destined
forty years previous England seemed about to become to have no further connexion with England. Sud-
a Norman country, it was Normandy which became deidy Henry Plantagenet^ who in 1152 had married
an fiu^hsh coxmtry; history no longer speaks of the Eleanor (Alienor) of A^uitaine, divorced from Louis
ducal family of Normandy out of the royal family of VII of Finnce, determined to assert his rights over
E^ogland. Later Hemy i, denounced to the Council England itself. The naval expedition which he con-
of Reims by Louis VI of France, explained to Callistus ducted in 1153 led Stephen to recognize him as his
II in tragic terms the condition in which he had foxmd heir, and as Stephen died at the end of that same year
Normandy. ''The duchy'', said he, ''was the prey of Henry Plantagenet reigned over all the Anglo-Nor-
brigands. Priests and other servants of God were no' man possessions, his territorial power being greater
longer honoured, and paganism had almost been re- than that of the kings of France. , A lone series of
stored in Normandy. The monasteries which our wars followed between the Capetians and Plantag-
anccastors had founded for the repose of their souls enets, interrupted by truces. Xouis VII wisely fa-
were destroyed, and the religious obliged to disperse, voured everytning which paralyzed the power of rlan-
being unable to sustain themselves. The churches tagenet, and supported all his enemies. Thomas k
were given up to pillage, most of them reduced to Becket and the otner exiles who had protested ag^nst
ashes, while the pnests were in hiding. Their pa- the despotism which Henry exercised against the
rishioners were slajring one another. There* may Churph, found refuse and help at the court of France;
have been some truth in this description of Henry and the sons of Henry in their successive revolts
I; however, it is well to bear in mind that the Nor- against their father in Normandy, were supported
man dukes of the eleventh century, while they had first by Louis VII and then by Philip Augustus,
prepared and realized these astounding political .The prestige of the Capetian kings grew in Nor-
changes, had also developed in Normandy, with the mandy when Richard Coeur de Lion succeeded Henry
help of the Church, a brilliant literary and artistic II in 1189. Philip Augustus profited by the enmity
movement. between Richard and his brother John Lackland to
The Abbey of Bee was for some time, under the sradually establish French domination in Normandy,
direction of Lanfranc and St. Ansehn, the foremost A war between Richard and Philip Augustus resulted
school of northern France. Two Norman monaster- in the treaty of Issoudun (1195) by which Philip
iesproduced historical works of great importance; the Augustus acauired for the French crown Norman
"Historia Normannorum". written between 1070-87 Venn and the castellanies of Nonancourt, Ivry,
by Guillaume Calculus at the monastery of Jumidges; Pacy, Vernon, and Gidllon. A second war between
the "Historia Ecclesiastical' of Ordericus Vituis, John Laddand, Kin^ of England in 1199 and Philip
which begins with the birth of Christ and ends in Augustus, was termmated hv the treaty of Goulet
1141, written at the monastery of St. Evroult. The (1^0), by which John Lackland recovered Norman
secular clergy of Normandy emulated the monks; in a vexin, but recognized the French king's possession of
sort of academy founded in the second half of the the territory of Evreux and declared himself the
eleventh centuiy by two bishops of Lisieux, Hugues of " liege man " of Philip Augustus. Also when in 1202
£u and Gilbert Maminot, not only theological but also John Lackland, having abducted Isabella of Angou-
Bcientific and literary questions were discussed. The Itoe, rdTused to appear before Philip Augustus, the
Norman court was a kind of Academy and an active court of peers declared John a felon, under which sen-
centre of literary production. The chaplain of tence he no longer had the right to hold any fief of the
Duchess MatUda, Gui de Ponthieu, Bi^op ofAmiens, crown. Philip II Augustus sanctioned the judgment
composed in 1067 a Latin poem on the battle of Has- of the court of peers by invading Normandy which
tin^; the chaplain of Wilhiwitb^ Conqueror, \^^lliam in 1204 became a French possession. The twelfth
MOBXAHBT
106
MOBXAMDT
eentmy in NonnandY was marked by the ptoduc-
tion of important works, diief of whidb was tbs "Ro-
man de Rou" of Robert or ratlica- Richard Waoe
(1 100-75), a caiKKi of Baveox. In this, whidi oonasts
of nearly 17,000 hnes and was continued by Benott de
Sainte-More, Waoe rdates the history of the dukes of
Normandy dofwn to the battle of Undb^ray. Men-
tion most also be made of the great French poem
which the Norman AmbrtHse wrote somewhat prior to
1196 on the Jemsalem inlgrimage of Richard Conir de
lion. As early as tlus twdf th century Normandy
was an impc»iant oommeroal centre. Guillaume de
Neubrig wrote that Rouen was one of the most cele-
brated cities of Europe and that the Seine brou^t
thither the oommerdal woducts of many countries.
The "Etabfiasements de Rouen" in whidi was drawn
up the "custom" adopted by Rouen^ were copied not
only by the other Norman towns but by the cities with
whidi Rouen maintained ccmstant commercial inter-
course, e. g. Angoul^me, Bayonne, Cognac, St. Jean
d'Ai«!%, Niort, Poitios, La RocheUe, Saintcs, and
Tours. The gkUde of Rouen, a powerful commercial
asBodation^ possessed in England from the time of
Edward the Confessor the port of Dunegate, now
DungenesB, near London, and its merchandise entered
London free.
Once in the power of the Capetians, Normandy be-
came an iinpoftant strategical point in the strug^
against the Engliah, masters of Poitou and Guyenne in
the south of France. Norman sailors were enrolled
by Philip \T of France for a naval ramnaign against
England in 1340 which resulted in the defeat of
Ecluse. Under John II the Good, the States of Nor-
mandy, angered by the ravages committed by Edward
in of' Enj^snd on his landing in the province, voted
(l34S-n50) subsidies for the conquest of England. The
VakMs dynasty was in great danger when Charles the
Bad, King of A avane, who possessed important lands
in Normandy, succeeded in 1356 in detaching from
John II of Fnmoe a number of Norman barons. John
II appraising the danger came suddenly to Rouen,
Kt several barons to death, and took Charles the
d prisoner. ShwtlY afterwards Normandy was
one of thejMOvinces of France most faithful to the
Dauphin Oiarles, the future Charles V, and the
hope the T^nglUh entertained in 1359 of seeing Nor-
mandy ceded to them by the Preliminaries of London
was not ratified by the treat y of Bi^tigny (1360);
Normandv remained French. The victories of Charies
V eonsoliclated the {Hestige of the Valois in this prov-
ince. In 1386 Normandy furnished 13S7 vessels for
an expedition against Elngland never executed. In
141S the <**mp^gn of Henry V in Normandy was
for a long time paralvxed by the resistance of Rouen,
which finally capitulated in 1419, and in 1420 all Nor-
mandv bec^ne again almost English.
The Duke <rf Qarence, brother of Hairy V of Eng-
land, was made lieutmant-general in the province.
Henry VI and the Duke of Bedford founded a uni-
versitV at Caen which had faculties of canon and civil
law, to which Charles VH in 1450 added those of the-
ology, medicine, and arts. This last attempt at Eng-
Gsh domination in Normandy was marked by the
execution at Rouen of Blessed Joan of Arc. English
rule, however, was undermined by incessant oonspir-
acicss especiallv on the part of the people of Roura,
and by revolts* in 1435-36. The rewlt of Val de Vire
is famous and was the origin of an entire ballad litei^
atiire, cadled •' Vaux de Vire", in which the poet Oli>-er
Bass^lin excelled. These songs, which later became
bdcchic or amorous in character, and which subee-
quentlv devek>ped into the populju* drama known as
*^ Vaudeville", were in the beginning chiefly of an
historical nature recounting the invasion of Normandy
by the English. Profiting by the public opinion of
which the ** Vaux de Vire" ga\-e e\'idence, the Consta-
bk de Richemont opposed the English on Norman ter-
ritory. His long and arduous efforts in 1449-50 made
Normandy once more a French province. Thence-
forth the possesoon of Normandy by France was
considered so <ijwrnri*l to the security of tbe Idng-
dom that diaries ths Bold, for a tone victorious
over Louis XI, in order to weaken the latter, exacted
in 1465 that Normandv should be hdd by Duke
Charles de Beny, the king's brotho- and leader of
those in revolt against him; two years later Louis XI
took Normandy from his brother and caused the
States General of Tours to proclaim in 1468 that Nor-
mandy could fcH- no reason whatever be dismembered
from the dmnain of the crown. The ducal ring was
Im^en in the iH«9ence of the great judicial court
called the EcJuquier (Exdiequer) and the title of
Duke of Norm^dy was never to be borne again
except b^ Louis XVlI, the son of Louis XVI.
The Norman school of ardiitecture from the thir-
teenth to the fifteenth centu^ produced superb
Gothic edifices, chiefly diaracterued by the height of
thdr spires and bell-towers. Throug^ut the Middle
Ages Normandy, greatly influenced by St. Bernard
and the Cistercians, was distinguished for its venera-
tion of the Blessed Virgin. It was under her pro-
tection that William the Conqueror placed his expedi-
tion to England. One of the most ancient mural
paintiny in France is in the chapel of the Hospice
St. Juhen at Petit-Quevilly, fortneriy the manor
chapd of one of the wiy dukes of Normandy, por-
trajring the Annunciation, the Birth of Christ, and the
Blessed ^'inn suckling the Infant Jesus during the
flight into Egypt. As eariy as the tw^fth century
Robot or rather Richard Wace wrote the history of
Mary and that of the establishment of the feast of
the Immaculate Conception. The Norman students
at Paris placed themselves under the patronage of the
Immaculate Conception which thus became the
"feast of the Normans '*; this appdlation does not
seem to date beyond the thirteentii century. During
the modem period the Normans have been distin-
guished for their comntercial expeditions by sea and
thdr voyages of discovery. As ckriy as 1366 the Nor-
mans had established markets'on the coast of Africa
and it was frmn Caux that Jean de B<^thenoourt set
out in 1402 for the conquest of the Camarics. He
(»ened up to Vasco da Gama the route to the Cs^ie
ol Good Hqpe and to Christopher Columbus that to
America. ^ Two of his chaplains, Piene Bontier and
Jean le Vorier, gave an account of his expedition
in a manuscript known as "Le Canarien", edited in
1874. Jean Ango, b<»n at Dieppe about the end of
the fifteenth century, acquirea as a ship-owner a
fortune exceeding that of many princes of his time.
The Pbrtuguese having in time of peace, sdaed (1530)
a ship which bdonged to him, he sent a flotilla to
blockade Lisbon and ravage the Poftuguese coast.
The ambassador sent by the King of Portugal to
Francis I to negotiate the matto-, was referred to the
citiien of Dieppe. Ango was powerful «k>u^ to
assist the armaments of Frauds I against England.
He died in 1551.
Jean Parm«itier (14M-1543), another na^gator
umI a native of Dieppe, was, it is held, the firat
Frenchman to take ships to Brasil; to him is also as-
cribed the honour of having discovered Sumatra in
1529. Poet as well as sailor, he wrote in verse (1536)
a^'Descnmion Nouvelle des MerveiDes de ce monde".
The foundation by Francis I in 1517 of the "French
City" which afterwards became Havre de Grace,
shows the importance which French roy^ty attached
to the Norman coa^. Normandv's maritime com-
merce was much de^-ekiped by Henry II and Cath-
erine de Medicis. They granted to the port of Rouoi
a sort of monopoly for the importation of roices and
drugs amving by way of the Atlantic, and when they
came to Rouen in 1550 the merchants of that town
contnved to give to the nearby wood the appearance
N0BRI8 107 NORTHAMPTON
of the country of Brwil "with three hundred naked f^. of the EnglUhl^onnce, s. y., vi. 184; m. 2»i; Ouvra. Co*.
..^^^ «^.«;.«.wJl i;i,« a<k«r<kflM^ ^f kw^^wJi^^ «.FkA.«<%A M/\n«Aa wrfMWM <oiMird« lUualriUwg the Biography of S. J., a. v.; GxLLOW,
men, equippedhke wjvages of Amenca, whence coma ^^ j^^ ^^, cath., V. ». v.
the wood of Braxir . Among these three himdred James Bridge.
men were fifty real savages, and there also figured in ^
this exhibition ''several monkeys and squirrel mon- Northampton, Diocese of (Nortantonibnsis),
keys which the merohimts of Rouen had brought from in England, comprises the Counties of Northampton,
BraiiL" The description of the festivities, which Bedford. Buckingham, Cambridge. Huntingdon, Nor-
bore witness to active commereial intercourse between folk, and Suffolk, mainly compo^ of agricultural dis-
Normandy and America, was published together with tricts and fenlands, where Catholics are comparatively
numerous figures. After the Reformation religious few (see, in article England, Map of the Ecclesiasti-
wars interrupted the maritime activity of the Normans cal Province of Westminster) . The number of secular
for a time. Rouen took sides with the League, Caen priests is 70, of regular 18, of chapels and stations, 73,
with Henry IV, but with the restoration of peace the and of Catholics, 13,308 (1910). Among the more
maritime expeditions recommenced. Normans founded important rehgious orders are the Benemctines, the
Quebec in 1608, opened markets in Brazil in 1612. Franciscans, the Carmelites, and the Jesuits. Of con-
vtsited tJ^e Sonda Islands in 1617, and colonized vents the most notable are those of the Benedictines
Guadeloupe in 1635. The French population of Can- at East Bersholt, the Sisters of Notre Dame at North-
ada is to a large extent of Norman origin. During the ampton and Norwich^ the Sisters of Jesus and Mary
French Revolif tion Normandy was one of the centres at Ipswich, the Poor Sisters of Nazareth at Northamp-
of the federalist movement known as the Girondin. ton^ and the Dames Bemardines at Slough, who at
Caen and Evreux were important centres for the Gi- their own expense built a fine church for that parish,
ronde; Buzot, who led the movement, was a Norman, The principal towns are Norwich, Ipswich, ana Cam-
and it was from Caen that Charlotte Corday set out bridge, the university town where, according to tradi-
to slay the " montagnard " Marat. The royalist move- tion. St. Simon Stock, of the Order of Carmel, received
ment of " la Chouannerie '' had also one of its centres the orown scapular from Our Lady. The Decorated
in Normandy. Gothic Cathohc church at Cambridge, one of the most
,-RY*^**~"» "^^ JVorwannorum ^ptoreeantiqui (Paris, beautiful in the kingdom (consecrated in 1890), is ded-
J5/5ii;V^"M1?SS;1JiJl^li*f in"«^ 1 ^3^2 i?»t«d to,qur I^y and the English Marty™ It is
yiMQtt'd la mart de Guiilaume U Conquirant (Paris, 1866) ; Waits, the gift of inlrs. Lyne Stephens of Lynford Hall, Nor-
Ueber die QtMtten ntr Qeeeh, der Beorikndungder normannisch^ folk. Norwich pOSSesses One of the grandest Catholic
gSS^ ^JSirtSt^ riX^ ^^,^1%IZ^^ churchesm En^^TbSlt by the muiuficence of the
XL und XlL Jahrhundert (Leiptic. 1900); Sakraxin. Jeanne present Duke of Norfolk m the Transitional Norman
iFArc et la Normandie au X V' niele (Rouen. 1896)^iw»bllk, Style, after the designs of Sir Gilbert Soott, and com-
irc.yirBt;e'rt;3SrSS:^t Pleted in lOlO.^ tL cathedral at Northampton is a
tprtr
jLondon, i9M);MiLTOpi.«ofiifcle« in JVorwa^^ hierarchy: he resigned the see in 1858, and died in
FmrnmuAV, Hiit. of the Norman Conqueet of Bngland {,OxioTd,lS70- iqrk trio o,,««*J^^- i?.«.«<.;o ITa.-:! k^^u^m^* «*»«
76) ; Pauibav., Normandy and BrigSnd OiTSte,, 1861-67) ; Lap- ^^^S. HlS SUCCeSSOr, FranclS Kernl Amherst, waS
PBtrBBBG, Anglo-Norman Kings; Noroatb. Bngiand under the Consecrated 4 July, 1858, and resigned m 1879, the see
AngpinKinge (Oxford, 1887) ; Keart, TA* TjfAtna* in Weetem being occupied the following year by Arthur Riddell,
Chrvdendom A, t. 789 to A. D. 888 (London 1891) ^t^^,*^ 15 ^p^^ I9O7 The present Bishop of North-
UEORCjBS UOTAU. ampton (1910), Frederick William Keating, b. at Birin-
Norris, Sylvester (alias Smith, Newton), oontro- ing^am, 13 June, 1859, was cons^sratcd 25 Feb.. 1908.
rersial writer and English missionary priest; b. 1670 Northampton was the scene of the last stand made
or 1572 in Somersetshire; d. 16 March, 1630. After by St. Thomas of Canterbury against the arbitrary
receiving minor orders at Reims in 1690, he went to conduct of Henry II. Bury St. Edmund's, ancientlv
the English College. Rome, where he completed his ^ renowned as the place where the body of St. Ed-
studies and was ordained priest. In May, 1696. he mund. King and Martyr, was enshrined and venerated
was sent on the English mission, and his energetic char- ?* ^«1* ^ ^or its Benedictine abbey, has become famil-
Bridewoll Gaol. From his prison he addressed a letter occumes the central position. The Isle of Ely and St.
to the Earl of Salisbury, dated 1 Dec., 1606, in which Etheldreda are famous m Enghsh ecclesiastical his-
he protests his innocence, and in proof of his loyalty ^^- Canute, King of England, was accustomed to
promises to repair to Rome, and labour that the pope ^^w or skate across the fens each year to be present on
shall bind all the Catholics of England to be just, true, ^^ Feast of the Purification at the Mass in the Abbey
and loyal subjects, and that hostages shall be sent Church of Ely, and Thomas Eliensis ascribes to him
"for the afferminse of those things . He was there- ^^^ well-known lines beginning, "Sweetly sang the
upon banished along with forty-flix other priests monks of Ely". At Walsingham, also in this diocese,
(1606), went to Rome, and entered the Society of only ruins are now left of a shrine which, in the Middle
Jesus. He was for some time employed in the Jesuit Ages, was second only to the Holy House of Loreto,
colleges on the Continent, but in 1611 returned to the of which it was a copy. Many great names of the
Engluh mission, and in 1621 was made superior of the Reformation penod are connected with the district
Hampshire district, where he died. covered by the Diocese of Northampton. Catherine
He wrote : " An Antidote, or Treatise of Thirty Con- of Aragon died at Kimbolton and was buried at Peter-
troveraes; With a large Discourse of the Church" boroueh, where the short inscjription, "Queen Cath-
(1622); "An Appendix to the Antidote" (1621); "The erine", upon a stone slab marks her resting-place.
Pseudo-Scripturist" (1623); "A true report of the From Framlingham Castle, the ruins of which are still
Private Colloquy between M. Smith, alms Norrice, considerable. Queen Mary Tudor set out, on the death
and M. Walker" (1624); "The Christian Vow"; of Edward VI, to contest with Lady Jane Grey her right
" Discourse proving that a man who believeth in the *o the throne. At Ipswich, the birthplace of Cardinal
Trinity, the Incarnation, etc., and yet believeth not Wolsey, is still to be seen the gateway of the College
all other inferior Articles, cannot be saved"(1625). built by him. At Fotheringay^ Mary Queen of Scots
eoiopRiTooBL, AiW. delac.de J., V (1809-09); Foi«T. Bmy wae beheaded (1687), and at Wisbech Castle, where 9Q
HOSTH CABOUHA 108 NORTH CABOLDIA
many miBuonarj' prieata, during penal time*, were im- to the eaatem foot of the Blue Ridge, is more or leM
prisoned, William Watson, the laat but one of the Ma- hilly, but the rich interveiiing valleys produce prao-
rian biahopB, died, a prisoaerfor the Faith (15S4). Sir tically all the general crope, including cotton and to-
HenryBedinKfeld, the faithfulfollower of Queen Many bacco, with fruits of all lands, llie soil, though not
and the gentle "Jtulor of the Princess Ehubeth", is natur^ly rich, is capable of a U^ degree of cultiva-
MfNxaated with this diocese through Oxburgh Hall, tion. The westward section, which runs to the Ten-
hie mansion, still occupied by another Sir Heniy Bed- nesaee line, ia mostly mountainous, with rich valleya
ingfeld.hisairectdeecendant. The PastonsofFaston and sheltered coves. Its principal productions are
are memorable in connenon with the celebrated " Pas- those of the central section, modified somewhat by
ton Letters". Many of the priests who suffered its greater elevation. It cont^ns some lofty prab,
death under the penal laws belonged to the districts Mount Mitchell being the hif^est peak east of the
now included in the Dioceee of Northampton, in par- Rocky Mountains. The state is well watered, having
ticular, Henry Heath, bom, 1600, at Peterborough; numerous rivers, which, though not generally naviga-
Venerable Henry Walpole, S.J., (d. 1595}, a native of bie, in their rapid descent furnish enormous water-
Norfolk, and Venerable Robert Southwell S.J.,(1S60- power, much of which has been recently developed.
95), the Catholic poet, also bom in Norfolk. In more They may be divided into three classes, those flowing
recent times Bishop Mihier was connected with the indirectly into the Mississippi, those flowing into the
preservation of the Faith in this part of England. Great Pedee and the Santra, and tjiose flowing into
Alban Butler, the ha^opapber, was bom in North- the Atlantic. The coast line, nearly. four hundred
amptonshire and was resident priest at Norwich from miles long, includes Capes Fear, Lookout, and Hat-
1754-56. Dr. Husenbeth resided for some years at teras; and, at varying distances from the ocean, run a
Cossey, where he ia buried (see Httbbnbbth, Frbi>- aeries of sounds, chief of which are Currituck, Albe-
KRicK Charles). Father Ignatius Spencer, the Fas- marie, and Pamlico. There are good harbours at
sionist, son of Earl Spencer, and formerly Rector of Edenton, New Bern, Washington, Beaufort, and Wil-
BringtoD, was received into the Catholic Church at nungton, including Southport. The climate is gener-
Norwampton, and Faber, the Oratorian, held the ally equable, and North Carolina produces nearly all
AngUcan living of Klton, Huntingdonshire, before his the crops grown in the United States with the excep-
■__ tion of Bub-tropical cane and fruits. Four (rf the wine
grapes, the Catawba, Isabella, Lincoln, and Scupper-
g,„r^,^ nong, originated here. It has also large areas of toIu-
JoBN Fbeeland. able timber of great variety. With a few rare excep-
tions all the known minerals are found in the state. In
North CwoUnki one of the original thirteen States 1905, taking the fourteen leading induBtriee, includ-
of the United States, is intuated between 33° 53' and ing about 90 per cent of the total, there were 3272
36^ 33' N. lat., and 75° 25' and 84° 30' W. long. It is manufacturing establishments, with a capital of
botmded an the norUi by Virmnia, east and south-east S141, 039,000, producing yearly products of the value
by the Atlantic Oceftn, south by South Carolina and of $142,520,776. The pnncipal manufactured prod-
^^^^^^ Georgia, and west uct was cotton, in which North Carolina nmked
"^^^^^^^ m, j Dorth-west by third among all the States, and tobacco, in which she
Tennessee. Itsex- ranked second.
treme length from Railhoam and Banks. — There are in operation
east to west is 503 within the SUte 4387 miles of railroads, besides 9U
miles, with an ex- miles of sidings, with a total valuation of $86,347,553,
I treme breadth of but capitaliaSd for a much larger amount. The
187 miles, and an state has 321 banks organiied under the state law;
average breadth of with an aggregate capital stock of $7,692,767; and 60
about 100 miles, national ^nks with a capital of S6,760,000. The
Its area is 52,250 entire reco^ed state debt is S6,SS0,950, the greater
square miles, of part of which could be paid by the sale of certain
which 3670 is wa- railroad stock held by the sUte.
ter. Originally it HisTOav.^North Carolina was originally inhabited
included the prea- by various tribes of Indians, the three principal ones
ent State of Ten- being the Tuscaroras in the east, the Catawbas in the
neesee, ceded to the centre, and the Cherokeee in the west. A small bo^
United States in 1790. In 1784-5 the people of that of Cherokees is still located in the mountun section,
section made an unsuccessful effort to set up an in- In 1534 Queen Elitabeth granted to Sr W^ter
dependent state named Franklin, with John Sevier Raleigh the right to discover and hold any lands not
BB governor. It is divided iato ninety-eiKht counties inhabited by Christian people. This charter consti-
ana has (1910) ten Concessional distncts, with a tutes the flrM step in the work of English coloniaation
population of 2,206 ,2S7. The capitaIiBRaleigh,Bitu- in America. Five voyages were made under it, but
MB.: BaoB, HiM. Sed.; Hiloria BUnfiiTw irmKtoii. FitHu
at^ nearly in the geoin^phical centre of the state; without success in establisliing a permanent settle-
the principal cities are Wilmington, Charlotte, Ashe- ment. In 1663 Charles II granted to Sir George
ville, Greensboro, and Winston. Carteret and seven others a stretch of land on toe
Fhtsicai, CHARACTBaiSTics. — North Carolina has Atlantic coast, lying between Vilginia and Florida,
a remarkdble varietv of topografriiy, soil, climate, and and running west to the South Seas. The grantees
production and falls naturmly into three divisions, were created "absolute lords proprietors" of the
The eastern or Tidewater section begins at the ocean province of Carolina, with full powers to make and
and extends north-westwardly to tJie foot of the hills; execute such laws as they deemed proper. This ^raat
the land is level, with sluuisli streams and many was enlarged in 1665 both as to territory and juris-
marshee aod swamps, includu^ part of the great Dis- diction, and in 1669 the lords propriet^wi promul-
mal Swamp. Itis the home of the long leaf pine, with gated the "Fundamental Constitutions of Cuolina",
itaproducteofpiteh, tar,andturpentine,longasource framed by John Locke, the philosopher, but they
of wealth. Tlie principal productions are cotten, proved too theoretical for practical operation. The
com, and rice; whHe "truck gardeniiuc" has recently lords proprietors made every effort to colonise thdr
grown into an important industry, ^e fisheries are province, which already contained one or two small
also valuable. The central or Piedmont section, com- settlements and for which they appointed governors
prinng nearly h^ the state and extending westward at variouB times, frequently with local oomicila-
NORTH CAROLINA 109 NORTH CAROLINA
•
Albeioarle, the name originally given to what now be a member of either house of the Legislature while
constitutes North Carolina, was augmented by settle- continuing in the exercise of his pastoral functions,
ments from Virginia, New Ensland, and Bermuda. All of these provisions, except the declaration of re-
in 1674 the population was about four thousand, ligious freedom, have since been abandoned. The
In 1729, Carolina became a royal province, the king Convention of 1835 adopted many amendments, rati-
havin^ purchased from the proprietors seven-ei^ths fied in 1836; among others, all persons of negro blood
of theu- domain. Carteret, subsequentljr Earl Gran- to the fourth generation were disfranchised; and
ville, surrendered his right of jurisdiction, but re- the Protestant qualification for office omitted. The
tained in sevcaralty his share of the land. It gained Constitution of 1868 restored negro suffrage, but in
considerable accessions in population by a colo^ of 1900 amendments, adopted by uie Legislature and
Swiss at New Bern, of Scotch Highlanders on Cape ratified by the people. i>rovided that every qualified
Fear, of Moravians at Salem, and of Scotch-Irish voter should have paia his poll tax and be able to read
and Pennsylvania Dutch, who settled in different parts and write any section of the Constitution; but that
of the state. For many years, however, there has any person entitled to vote on or i>rior to 1 January,
been veiy little immigration and the population is 1867, or his lineal descendant, might register on a
now. essentially homogeneous. permanent roll until 1 November, 1908. This is
The people of North Carolina were among the called the "Grandfather Clause ''.
earliest anci most active promoters of the Revolution. Education. — ^In early times there were no schools;
The Stamp Tax was bitterly resented: a provincial private teachers furnishing the only means of educa-
congress, held at New Bern, elected delegates to the tion. Beginning about 1760, several private classi-
first Continental Congress m Septembcar, 1774, and cal schools were established in different parts of the
joined in the declaration of Colonial rights. As state, the most prominent being Queen's College
early as 20 May, 1775, a committee of citizens met in at Charlotte, subsequently called Liberty Hall. The
Ch£j*lotte and issued the ''Mecklenburg Declaration State University was opened for students in February,
of Indei)endence", formally renouncing allegiance to 1795; but want of means and a scattered population
the British Crown. In December, 1776, the provin- prevented any public school ^tem until long after
cial congress at Halifax adopted a State constitution the Revolution. The Civil War seriously interfered
which immediately went into effect, with Richard with all forms ofeducation; but the entire educational
Caswell as governor. The delegates from this state system is now in a high state of efficiency. The fol-
signed the Declaration of Independence and the Arti- lowing are under State control, but receive aid from
cles of Confederation. In 1786 the General Assembly tuition fees and donations: the State University,
elected deleg^ates to the Federal Constitutional Con- situated at Chapel Hill, endowment, $250,000; total
vention and its delegates present signed the Constitu- income, $160,000 ; annual State appropriation, $75,000 ;
tion : but the General Assembly did not ratify it faculty. 101 ; students, 821 ; the North Carolina State
until 21 November, 1789, after the Federal Govern- Normal and Industrial College for women at Greens-
ment had been organizea and gone into operation, boro, founded in 1891, buildings, 13; annual State
During the Revolution the state furnished the Con- appropriation, $75,000; faculty, 63; students, 613;
tinental army with 22.910 men. Important battles North Carolina College of Agricultural and Mechanic
were fought at Guilford Court House (between Green Arts at West Raleigh, opened in 1889, annual State
and Comwallis, 15 March, 1781), Alamance, Moore's appropriation. $37,000; annual Federal appropriation.
Creek, Ramsour's Mill, and King's Mountain on the $49,450; faculty. 42; students, 446; the Agricultural
state line. There was a predominant Union senti- and Mechanical College for the coloured race at
ment in North Carolina in the early part of 1861; and Greensboro, annual State appropriation, $10,000; an-
at an election held 28 February, Uie people voted nual Federal appropriation, $11,550; facility, 14;
against caUing a convention for the purpose of seces- students, 173. A training school for white teachers
sion; but after the firing on Fort Sumter and the has just been established at Greenville. There are
actual beginnmg of the war, a convention, called by the three State Normal Schools for the coloured race.
Ledslature without submission to the people, met on The official reports of public schools for the vear
20 Mav, 1861, passed an ordinance of secession, and 1908-9 show a total school population of whites, 490,-
ratified the Confedezate Constitution. Fort Fisher 710 ; coloured, 236,855 : schoolhouses, 7670 ; white
was the only important battle fought in the state, teachers, 8129: coloured teachers, 2828; total avail-
The State sent 125,000 soldiers into the Civil War, the able fund, $3,419,103. There are a large number of
largest number sent by any southern state. In 1865 flourishing denominational colleges both for men and
a provisional government was organized by President, women, several of which belong to the coloured race.
Johnson, and later the state came under the Recon- Among the State institutions are: a large central pcni-
struction Act passed by Congress, 2 March, 1867. tentiary, three hospitals for insane, thi^ee schools for
On 11 July, 1868, the state government was restored deaf, dumb, and blmd, and a tuberculosis sanitarium,
by proclamation of the president. Rbugious Condhions. — Under the lords propri-
The Constitution of 1776 had some remarkable etors there was much religious discrimination and
provisions. It allowed free negroes to vote because even persecution; but there was little under the Crown
they were "freemen"^ all slaves, of course, being dis- except as to holding office and celebrating the rite
franchised because m law they were considered of matrimony. The disqualification for office involved
chattels. Any freeman could vote for the members of in denving the truth of the Protestant religion re-
the House of Commons; but must own fifty acres of mained in the Constitution until the Convention of
land to vote for a senator, who must himself own at 1835. In 1833 William Gaston, a Catholic of great
least three himdred acres, and a member at least abitity and noble character, was elected associate
one himdred acres. The governor must own a free- justice of the Supreme Court for life. Regarding the
hold of five thousand dollars in value. The borough religious disqualification as legally and morally in-
towns of Edenton, New Bern, Wilmington, Salisbury, valid, he promptly took his seat without opposition.
Hillsboro, and Halifax were each allowed a separate While still remaining on the bench, he was elected a
member m the House of Commons apart from the delegate to the Constitutional Convention of 1835,
counties. It declared: "That all men have a natural and attended its session. His great speech against
and inalienable right to worship Almighty Qod, ao- any religious discrimination was conclusive, and the
cording to the dictates of their own cotiscience" ; but obnoxious clause was stricken out of the Constitution,
that no person who denied the truth of the Protestant Since then there has been no legal discrimination
rdigjon should hold any civil office of trust or profit, against Catholics. All persons denying the existence
No clergyman or preacher of any denomination should of Almighty God have been disquahfied from holding
NOBTH CABOLINA
110
NORTH CABOLINA
office under ever^r constitution. The preamble to
the present Constitution recognizes the dependence
of the people upon Almighty God, and their ^titude
to Him for the existence ot their civil, political, and
religious liberties. The Legislature is opened with
praver. The law rec^uires the observance of Sunday,
aaa punishes any disturbance of religious congrega-
tions. The following are legal Holidays: 1 January:
19 January (Lee's birthday); 22 February: 12 April
(anniversary of Halifax Resolution); 10 May (Con-
federate Decoration Day) ; 20 May (anniversary Meck-
lenburg Declaration of Independence); 4 July; 1st
Monday in September (Labour Day); general elec-
tion day in November; Thanksgiving; and Christmas.
Neither Sundays nor holidays are regarded as diet
non except in certain limited cases. Religious bodies
may become incorporated dther imder the general
law or by special act. If not specifically incorporated
they are r^^arded as quasi corporations, and may ex-
ercise many corporate powers. The Protestant Epis-
copal bishop has been created a corporation sole by
special act of the Legislature. All real and personal
property used exclusively for religious, charitable, or
educational purposes, as also property whose income
is so used, is exempt from taxation. Minist-ers of the
(jiospel are exempt from jury duty and their private
libraries from taxation. The only privileged com-
munications recognized are those between lawyers and
their clients, and physicians and their patients. There
is no statute aUowing this exemption to priests, and
therefore they stand as at common law; but there is
no recorded instance in which they have ever been
asked to reveal the secrets of the confessional.
Mabriaqe and DivoRCE.^Driginally in this colony
legally valid marriages could be solemnized only by
ministers of the Church of England, of whom there
were few, nearly all in the eastern part of the colony.
In 1715 this ^wer was conferred upon the governor;
in 1741 upon justices of the peace; in 1766 upon minis-
ters of the Presbyterian Church, and finally in 1778
upon the ministers of all denominations. The cere-
mony can now be performed by an ordained minister
of any religious denomination or a justice of the peace;
and the peculiar marriage custom of the Friends is
recognized as valid. Males xmder sixteen and females
under fourteen are legally incapable of marriage, and
all marriages of those related by consanguinity closer
than the degree of first cousin, and between whites
and negroes or Indians are void. A marriage licence
is required, and the Registrar is forbidden by law to
issue licences for the marriage of any one under
eighteen years of age without written consent of tiie
parent or one standing in loco parerUia. Absolute
divorce (a vinculo) may be granted for the following
causes: pre-existing natural and continued impotence
of either party; if they shall have lived separate and
apart continuously for ten years, and have no chil-
dren; adultciy by the wife, or pr^piancy at the time
of marriage unknown to husband and not by him;
continued fornication and adultery by the husband.
Either party may remarry, but no alimony is allowed.
Divorce a mensa el toro may be granted with alimony
for the following causes: if either party shall abandon
-his or her family, or turn the other out of doors, or
shall by cruel and barbarous treatment endanger the
life of the other, or shall offer such indignities to the
person of the other as to miUce his or her life intoler-
able, or shall become an habitual drunkard. Upon
such a divorce parties cannot remarry.
Bequests for charitable purposes must be cleariy
defined, as the cy-^ha doctrine is not recognized;
and there must be some one capable of taking the
bequest. Whether a bequest for Masses would be
specifically enforced by the courts, has not been de-
cided; but it is not probable that it would be interfered
with, as the courts have never invoked the doctrine
of Superstitious Uses. Cemeteries are provided for
and protected by law. In administering oaths, the
party sworn must ''lay his hand upon the Holy Evan-
g;elist8 of Almighty God " ; but those having conscien-
tious scruples may appeal to God with uplifted hand;
and "Quakers, Moravians, Dunkers, and Mennon-
ites'' may affirm.
Prohibition. — For many years prohibition senti-
ment has been growing until it culminated, in 1908, in
the passage by the General Assembly of an act mak-
ing It unlawful to make or sell any spirituous, vinous,
fermented, or malt liquors within the state, except
for sacramental purposes, or by a registered pharma-
cist on a phvsician's prescription. Native ciders may
be sold without restriction; and native wines at the
place of manufacture in sealed or crated padcages
containing not less than two and a half gallons each,
which must not be opened on the premises.
RbUQIOUB STATIffnCS
(From the Ceosua of Religious Bodies, 1906)
Denominatloii
AU denominations
Baptist, white
Baptist, ooL
Christian
Con^regationalists . . . .
Disciples
Friends
Lutheran
Methodist, white
Methodist, ool
Presbyter, and Refor.. .
Protestant Episcopal . .
Roman Catholic
All other
a
•g
o
9
*5
■
e
of Chi
Gees
"Si
"sl
i§
ii
8502
824,385
8188
2397
235,540
2305
1358
165.503
1192
192
15,909
188
54
2.699
47
130
13.687
128
63
6,752
63
179
17,740
173
2141
191.760
2065
954
85.522
925
655
60,555
656
258
13,890
261
31
3,981
35
180
10,897
W
I
Si
$14,053,505
3.056.889
1.266.227
194,315
42.361
151,605
90.525
445.525
3.523.354
1.366.238
2.247.923
987.925
375.360
305.258
In the above, the Catholic population was reduced
bv deducting 15 per cent for cnildren imder nine years
of age.
North Carolina, Vicariate Apobtouc of, was
canonically established and separated from the Dio-
cese of Cliarleston, South Carolina by Bull, 3 March,
1868, with James (now Cardinal) Gibbons as first vicar.
It comprised the entire state until 1910, when eight
counties were attached to Belmont Abbey. The latest
statistics, for the entire state, show secular priests, 17;
religious, 16; churches, 15; missions, 34; stations, 47;
chapels, 5; Catholics, 5870. The Apostolate Com-
pany, a corporation of secular priests at Nasareth,
maintains a boys' orphanage and industrial school,
and publishes ** Truth^', a monthly periodical. There
is a girls' school and sanatorium at Asheville, and hos-
pitab at Charlotte (Sisters of Mercy) and Greensboro
(Sisters of Charity). There are parochial schools
at Asheville, Charlotte, Salisbury, IXirham, Newton
Grove, Raleigh, and Wilmington. The vicariate is
subject to the Propaganda, and its present vicar is the
Abbot Ordinary of Belmont.
Belmonl Cathedral Abbey. — By Bull of Pius X, 8 June,
1910, the Counties of Gastozi, Lincoln, Cleveland,
Rutherford, Polk, Burke, McDowell, and Catawba
were cut off from the vicariate to form the diocese of.
the Cathedral Abbey at Belmont, canonically erected
by Mgr Diomede Falconio, Apostolic Del^ate in the
Unitea States, on 18 October, 1910. The vicariate re-
mains under the administration of the abbot ordinary
at Belmont until a diocese can be formed in the state.
Behnont Abbey, situated in Gaston County, was
erected into an abbey by Papal Brief dated 19 Decem-
ber, 1884, its first abbot being Rt. Rev. Leo Haid. He
was bom at Latrobe, Pennsylvania, 15 Julv, 1849.
ordained priest in 1872, and served as chaplain and
professor m St. Vincent's Abbey until 1885. Ap-
pointed Vicar Apostolic of North Carolina in 1887, he
was consecratea titular Bishop of Messene 1 July,
KOBTHCOTI i:
1888. The abbey itself haa many extra-territoriBJ de-
pecdenciee, i. e. military colleges in Savannah, Georgia
and lUclunond, Vii^jinia, and paruhea in both of these
cities, bmides varioua misaions in the Btat« itself i and
forms legal coroorations in Virginia, North Carolina,
and Georgia. To it aleo is attached a college for secu-
lar education and a seminary for the secular and regu-
lar clergy. To the abbey proper belong 32 priests, 2
.1 HOBTH DAKOTA
iiad entered the novitiate. He returned to Rome to
complete his ecclemastical studiu, also acquiring
the profound erudition in Christian antiquities which
was later to be enahrined in his gr^t work "Roma
Sotterranea". In 1857 he was appointed to the mis-
sion of Stoke-upon-Trent, which he served until 1860,
phonage for girls and a preparatory school for little bOTB.
Prominent Cat^oJics. —Though there are few Catho-
lics in the statCj an unusual proportion have occupied
prominent official positions. Thomas Burke was gov-
ernor, and William Gaston, M. E. Manly, and R, M.
Dougjaa were associate justices of the Supreme Court.
R. R. Heath, W. A. Moore, and W. S. O'B. Robinson
were Superior Court judges, and R. D. Douglas attor-
ney general. Prominent benefactors were Dr. D.
O'Dona^ue, Lawrence Brown, and Raphael Gua»-
torino. Mrs. Francis C. Tienian (Chiistian Reid) is a
native of North Carolina.
Saai. Aid. itft^ CdlAaUe CAurdi (Nbv York.lge2) ; O'CoHHUL,
CalluliciluiatluCaroliwtandaiaraiaQitw'ioiii.lSVOy. Offieial
Caltulie Dveaam (Kew Yofk, 1810); Fub. o/ V. 8. fiurHui nf
Cinnu ud SdwalioFi; Aaii. Rtp. of SlaU Offiart (lUleUh) ; Bah- COm
CBon. HiM. of V. a. (Barton, 1879)^ Lawion, ^ix. ^Cvalina |nw
(London, 1714; HiJucb. 1880): Buckkll, WMutoJ Hit. of S. C. Jt'
iOublin, 1737): ffiLUimaoH, HiU. of H. C. CPhitulclphU. 181!): ^^
Makdr. HM. at N. C. (Naw Orl«uu. 1829): Wbiklu. HiH. at
N. C. (Pkuladslphi*. 1S5II: Hiwu, HiMt. al N. C. (FusllevUlB,
S. C, 1B57): MoDBi. HiM. of N. C. (Raleigb. 1880); Fo<m,
aktidm e/ N. C. (Nsw Vorlc, 1S4B) : Rhchhu Hiu. of iXi Uaror
tiaiu in JV. e. <8^m. N. C. 18S7): BiiNHnii. Hia. ofOu Oer-
man B^iUmmU in N. C. (PtuUdslpliU, 1872); CABtrrnuui. Tht
Old NoriliSiaU in 1770 (Philmdclpfais. 1884): Idih. lAJt of Rtt.
Darid CaUwiU (Qresoiboni. N. C.. IS42): HtJHTH. StUilu^ of
WuMm ft. C. (iUlfosh. 1877): Va»5, SaMern N. C. (Richmonii,
Vs.. ISBS); Wbiblwi, Kmuiiuccncu and Unuiri of S. C. (Co-
in inbiu. Ohio. ISStl; Cotton. Lif' of Uaam (BBltimon, 1840);
KniiPix. HiM.o/Roim County (S&liibury, N. C., ISSl): Sdurntk,
N. C. (Ralei^. 1889); A»h«, Hitl. of N. C. (Qnciuboro, N. C,
1R08): BATTI.E. Hia. ofUu [/•». of N. C. (lUleisb, 1B07); Aub,
Biot. Hit. of N. C. (OrBeiuiboro. 1905); Clare. N. C. Rogi-
metilt taei~S (lUleich. 1901): Cohneb, Hiorn of iht OU Nortk
ataU (Philwlal^iu, 1906): Hilu Yovrm PcoiU'i Hit. of N. C.
(ChiifctW, N.C., lfi-~ " - - —
rule, which lasted for seventeen years, the college
entered on an unprecedent«d degree of proeperitv,
and his inSuence on education was felt tar outmae
the walls of Oscott. Failing health caused him to re-
ngn in 1876, and he returned to the missioD, firet at
Stone (1878), and then at Stoke-upon-Trent (1881),
where he spent the rest of hie life revered by| all for hia
learning, hia noble character, and his sanctity. Dup-
ing the last twenty years of his life he ButTered from
creeping paralysis, which slowly deprived him of all
boduy motion, though leaving hia mind intact. He
had l>een made a canon of the Diocese of Birmingham
in 1861, canon-theoto(pan in 1862, and provost in
1885. In 1861 the pope conferred on him the doctor^
witnessed to by many works, chief among whicii
"Roma Sotterranea", the great work on the Cata-
combs, written in conjunction with William R. Brown-
low, afterwards Bishop of Clifton. This work has
been translated into French and Genoan; and it won
for its authors recognition as bein^ among the great*
est living authorities on the subject. Other works
were: "The Fourfold Difficulty of Anglicanism"
(Derby, 1846): "A PilnHmage to La Salette" (Lon-
don, 1852)' "Roman Catacombs" (London, 1857):
"Mary in the Gospels" (London, 1867); "Celebrated
Sanctuaries of the Madonna" (London, 1868); "A
Visit to the Roman Catacombs" (London, 1877);
"Epitaphs of the Catacombs" (London, 1878).
leicta. 1834): Put. of If. C. Hiti. Cimmitnon IRAleish, 1900-10);
SwTB. HitL of Edueation in K. C. (Govt. Piintiu Offin. 1S88);
TAU.n*»f, Hit. o/Uu (7anpav0n k/ 1780-1 (I^iidoD, 1787);
PrinetoK CdUw* ivriit l*< BiahUmh Cc^wfv (Nev York, IS73) ;
DC Bow. frujulnal Raoarcn of Uie Souili ami Wet (r^eir 0>
lauis. 18S3) : Poobb. Can^ilufuni, Colanial Charton anil Organic
Lawtofllit U.S..U laon. PiialiDgOaoe, IS7S). 1379: Colonial
and SlaU Kennji »/ N. C. (25 vols., ISSO-IBOS); PiMic Lam of
!f. C; Ttii Codt of ISS3; Tht Retitai of 1906 (publiahsd by SUM,
RBl«(h): Clabk, Tht Suprant Court of N. C. IGncB Bu, Oet.,
Not.. Dm., isez). Tbera u bIh & luce mua ol viliuble tainori-
it«l mAtUtr in mKffmminp HFti^Tnt BnH tii]bliabed BddwCl botb
.oflluHit.Lil.of/f.C.
ROBEBT M. DOUOLAB.
Narthcota, Jaues SniHCitB, b. at Feniton Court,
Devonshire, 26 May, 1821; d. at Stoke-upon-Trent,
Staffordshire, 3 March, 1907. He was the second son
of George Barons Northcote, a gentleman of an an-
cientDevonshirefamilyof Normandescent. Educated
first at Ihmngton Grammar School, he won in 1837 a
scholaiBhip at Corpus Christ! College, Oxford, where
he came luder Newman's influence. In 1841 he be-
came B.A., and in the following year married his
counn, SuHnnah Spencer Ruscombe Poole. Taking
Ai^^ican Orders in 1844 he accepted a curacv at llfra-
combe; but when hia wife was received into tne Catho-
lic Church in 1845, he resipied his office. In 1846 he
himself was converted, being received at Prior Park
College, where he continued as a master for some time.
From June, 1852, until September, 1854, he acted as
editor of ttie "Elambler", and about the same time
bBlpedtoeditthewell-known"Clifton Tracts". After
his wife's death in 1853 he devoted himself to prepora'
tion forthe priesthood, first under Newmannt Edgbas-
ton, then at the Collegio Pio, Rome. On 29 July, 1855,
he was ordained priest at Stone, where his daughter
Korth Dakota, one of the United States of Amer-
ica, originally included ii) the Louisiana Purchase.
Little was known of the region prior to the eroedition
of Lewis and Clark, who spent the winter of 1804-fi
about tliirty miles north-weet of Bismarck. In 1811
Uie Astor expedi-
tion encountered a
band of Sioux near
the boundary of
North and South
Dakota on the Mis-
souri. Settlement .
was long delayed
on account of the
RTB DaBOTA
wars, and the land
was practically
given up to huntore
and trappers. In
1849 all that part
of Dakota east of
the Missouri and
White Earth
Rivers was made part of the Territory of Minnesota,
and in 1854 all to the west of the sud rivers was in<
eluded in the Territory of Nebraska. Finally, 2
March, 1861, President Buchanan signed the bill
creating the Territory of North Dakota, with Dr.
William Jayne of Springfield, 111., as first governor;
and on 2 November, 1889, the State of North DakoU
was formed. North Dakota is bounded on Uie north
by Saskatchewan and Manitdsa, on the south by
South Dakota, on the east by Minnesota (the Red
River dividing), and on the west b^ Montana. The
surface is chiefly rolling prairie, with on elevation of
from eight hundred to nine hundred feet in the Red
NORTH DAKOTA 112 NORTH DAKOTA
River vaUey, from thiiteen hundred to fifteen hundred any time). Service of process except in criminal
feet in the Devil's Lake region and from two thou- cases is prohibited on Sunday. A p^son uniformly
sand to twenty-eight hundredfeet west of Minot. The keeping another day of the week as hol]^ time, may
chief rivers are the Missouri, Red, Sheyenne, James, labour on Sunday, provided he do not interrupt or
Mouse, and their tributaries. The state forms a disturb other persons in observing the first day of the
rectangle, measuring approximately two hundred and week. The fine for Sabbath-breaking is not less than
fourteen miles from north to south and three hundred one dollar or more than ten dollars for each offence,
and thirty from east to west, and has an area of 70,795 It is a misdemeanour to serve civil process on Saturday
square miles, of which 650 is water. The population on a j^rson who keeps that day as the Sabbath.
(1910) was 577,056, an increase of 82.8 per cent, since Oaths, — Section 533 of the code of 1905, amended
1900. 1909. provides : '' Tlie following officers are authorised
Resources, — AffricuUure. — ^The number of farms to aominister oaths: each judge of the supreme court
in the state in 1910 was 64,442. number of acres in and his deputy, clerks of the district court, clerks of
cultivation over 13 millions. Wheat is the dominant the county court with increased jurisdiction, county
crop, the Red River Valley being perhaps the most auditors and registers of deeds and their deputies
famous wheat-producing region in the world. Oats within their respective counties, county commission-
flax, and barley are also produced in large Quantities, ers within their respective counties, judges of the
The prairies offer fine ranching ground ana the state county court, public administrators within their re-
has 1,315,870 head of live stock. Her forests aggre- spective counties, justices of the peace within their
gate 95,918 acres; there are 135,150 cultivated fruit respective counties^ notaries public anywhere in the
trees, a^d 2381 acres of berries. Besides many natural State upon compl3ang with the provisions of sections
groves, very rich in wild small fruit, there are a vast 545 and 546, city clerks or auditors, township clerks
number of cultivated farm groves, and some fine and village recorders within their respective cities,
nurserieSj the largest of which is near Devil's Lake townships, and villages; each sheriff and his deputy
and consists of about 400 acres. within tneir ren)ective counties in the cases provided
Mining. — In the western part of the state, North by law; other officers in the cases especially provided by
Dakota has a coal supply greater than that of any law". It is a misdemeanour to take, or for an officer
other state in the Union; coal is mined at Minot. to administer, an extra-judicial oath, except where the
Burlington, Kenmare, Ray, Dickinson, Dunseith, and same is required by the provisions of some contract
other places; the supply is cheap and inexhaustible as the basis or proof of claim, or is agreed to be re-
fer fuel, gas, electricity, and power. In 1908 there ceived by some person as proof of any fact in the per-
were 88 mines in operation and 289,435 tons mined, formance of any contract, obligation or duty instead
Clays for pottery, fire and pressed brick aboxmd in of other evidence. Blasphemy consists in wantonly
Stark, Dimn, Mercer, Morton, Hettinger, and Bil- uttering or publishing words, reproaches, or profane
lings counties. Cement is found in CavaUer County words against God, Jesus Christ, the Holy Ghost, the
on the border of Pembina. The artesian baon is in Holy Scripture, or the Christian religion. Profane
North Dakota sandstone at the base of the upper swearing consists in any use of the name of God, Jesus
cretacean, at a depth of from eight hundred feet in Christ, or the Holy Ghost, either in imprecating
the south-east to fifteen hundred feet at Devil's Lake. Divine vengeance upon the utterer or any other per-
Good common brick clay may be found practically son, in a light^ triflmg, or irreverent speech. Bla»-
all over the state from deposits in the glacial lakes, phemy is a misdemeanour, and profane swearing is
North Dakota has 5012 miles of railroad, and four punishable by a fine of one doUar for each offence,
main lines cross the state. There is direct railway Obscenity in a public place or in the presence of
communication with Winnipeg, Brandon, and other females, or of children under ten years of age is a
points on the Canadian Pacific. misdemeanour.
Matters Affecting Religion. — North Dakota is a Exemptions from Taxation. — "All public school
code State. The civil and criminal codes prepared houses, academies, colleges/ institutions of leaminff,
by the New York commission but not then adopted with the books and furniture therein and grounds
by that State, were adopted by Dakota Territory in attached to such buildings, necessary for their proper
1865; a probate code was adopted the same year, and occupancy and use, not to exceed forty acres in area
thus the Territory of Dakota was the first English- and not leased or otherwise used with a view to profit;
speaking community to adopt a codification of its also all houses used exclusively for public worship
substantive law. The territorial laws, compiled in and lots and parts of lots upon which such houses
1887, were revised bjr the State in 1895, 1899, and are erected: all land used exclusively for burying
1905. Section 4, Article 1 of the State Constitution grounds or lor a cemetery; all buildings and contents
provides: "The free exercise and enjoyment of re- thereof used for public charity) including public
ugious profession and worship, without discrimination hospitals under the control of religious or charitable
or preference, shall be forever guaranteed in this State, societies used wholly or in part for public charity,
and no person shall be rendered incompetent to be a together with the land actually occupied by such in-
witness or juror on account of his opinion on matters stitutions, not leased or otherwise used with a view to
of religious belief; but the liberty of conscience hereby profit, and all moneys and credits appropriated solely
secur^ shall not be so construed as to excuse acts to sustaining and belonging exclusively to such insU-
of licentiousness, or justify practices inconsistent tutions, are exempt from taxation." AU churches,
with the peace or saiety of this State." The statute parsonages, and usual outbuildings, and grounds not
makes it a misdemeanour to prevent the free exercise exceeding one acre on which the same are situated,
of religious worship and belief , or to compel by threats whether on one or more tracts, also all personal
or violence any p£u*ticular form of worship, or to di»- property of religious corporations, used for religious
turb a religious assemblage by profane discourse, in- purposes, are exempt.
decent acts, unnecessary noise, selling liquor, keeping Matters Affecting Religums Work. — ^The law pro-
open huckster shops, or exhibiting plays witnout vides for corporations for reli^ous, educational, benev-
licence, within a mile of such assembuiges. Servile olent, charitable, or scientific purposes, giving to
labour (except works of necessity or charity) is for- such corporations power to acquire property, real and
bidden on Sunday; also public sports, trades, manu- personal, by purchase, devise, or bequest and hold
factures, mechanical employment, and public traffic the same and sell or mortgage it according to the by-
(except that meats, milk, and fish may be sold before laws or a majority of votes ofthe meinbers. Catholic
nine a. m., also food to be eaten on premises. Drugs, church corporations, according to diocesan statutes,
medicines, and surgical appliances may be sold at consist of the bishop, vicar-general, local pastor, ana
NORTH DAKOTA
113
NORTH DAKOTA
two trustees. No corporation or associatioii for reli-
gioufl purposes shallacquire or hold real estate of greater
value than $200,000 (laws of 1909) . Charitable trusts
are favoured if conformable to the statute against per-
petuities, which forbids suspension of power or of alien-
ations for a longer period than the lives of persons in be-
ing at the creation of condition (Hager vs. Sacrison,
123 N. W. Rep., 518) . Cemetery corporation may be
formed with powers of regulation. The net proceeds
must go to protect and improve the grounds and not
to the profit of the corporation or members. Inter-
ment lot inalienable, but any heir may release to an-
other heir. Cemetery gnrounds are exempt from all
process, lien, and public ourdens and uses.
Marriage and Dioarce, — Anv unmarried male of
the age of eighteen or upwards and any unmarried
female of the age of fifteen or upwards, not otherwise
disqualified, are capable of consenting to marriage,
but if tiie male is under twenty-one or the female undfer
eighteen, the licence shall not be issued without the
consent of parents or guardian, if there be any. Mar-
riages between parents and cmldren including grand-
parents and grandchildren, between brothers and sis-
ters, of haJf or whole blood, uncles and nieces, aunts
and nephews, or cousins of the first degree of half or
whole blood, are declared incestuous and absolutely
void, and this applies to ill^timate as well as legiti-
mate children and relations. A marriage contracted by
a person having a former husband or wife, if the former
marriajse has not been annulled or dissolved, is illegal
and void from the beginnin^,unle8s the former husband
or wife was absent and beheved by such person to be
dead for five years immediately proceeding. Judges
of all courts of record and justices of the peace, within
their jurisdiction, '^ ordained ministers of the Gospel '',
and "priests of every church" may perform the mar-
riage ceremony. The form used by Friends or
Quakers is also valid. Licences, issued by the county
judge of the county where one of the contracting
parties resides, must be obtained and the persons per-
lorming the ceremonv must file the certificate thereof,
and such licence with the county judge within thirty
days after the marriage, such certificate to be signed
by two witnesses and the person performing the cere-
mony. Indians contractm^ marriage according to
Indian custom and co-habiting as man and wife, are
deemed legally married. All marriages contracted
outside of tne State and valid by the laws of the State
where contracted, are deemed valid in this State.
The original certificate and certified copy thereof are
evidences of marriage in all courts. Marriages may
be annulled for any of the following causes existing
at the time: (1) if the person seeking annulment was
under the age of l^al consent, and such marriage
was contracted without the consent of parent or
guardian, unless after attaining the age ol consent,
they lived together as husband and wife; (2) when
former husband or wife of either party was living and
former marriage then in force; (3) when either party
was of unsound mind imless after coming to reason
the parties lived together as husband and wife; (4)
when consent was obtained by fraud> unless after full
knowledge of facts the party defrauded continued to
live with the other in marriage relation; (5) when
consent was obtained by force, unless afterwards
they lived freely together; (6) incapacity.
Actions for annulment where former husband or
wife is living, and where party is of unsound mind,
may be broi^t at any time before the death of either
party. Actions for annulment for other causes must
be brought by the party injured within four years after
arriving at age of consent or by parent or guardian
before such time, also for fraud witnin four years after
discovery. When a marriage is annulled cMldrcai
begotten before the judgment are legitimate and suc-
ceed to the estate of both parents. Marriages be-
tween white persons and coloured persons of one
XI.-
eighth or more negro blood are null and void by Act
of 1907, and severe penalty is provided against parties,
officials, and clergy for violation of the law. Divorce
may be granted for (1) adultery, (2) extreme cruelty.
(3) wilful desertion, (4) wilful neglect, (5) habitual
intemperance, (6) conviction of felony. Neither
party to a divorce may many within three months
after decree is grsmted. Wilful desertion^ wilful
neglect, or habitual intemperance must (continue for
one year before it is a cause for divorce. As to proof
in divorce cases the Statute provides tiiat no divorce
can be granted on default of tne defendant or upon the
uncorroborated statement, adnussion, or testimony
of parties, or upon any statement or findins of facts
made by referee, but the court must in aadition to
any statement or finding of referee, require proof
of facts alleged. The court has held that the fact
of marriaji;e alleged in complaint may be admitted in
answer without other corroboration. Tlie restriction
as to corroboration applies to testimony, not to plead-
ing^ and is intended to prevent collusive divorce.
This statute is more restrictive as to proof than the
proposed resolution, No. 13, of proceeding of the
National Congress on Uniform Divorce which reads:
"A decree should not be granted unless the cause is
shown by affirmative proofj aside from any admissions
on the part of the respondent." A residence of one
year in the State is required for the plaintiff in an ac-
tion of divorce. Dower and Curtesy are abolished,
and a deed of the homestead must be si^ed by both
the husband and wife. Labour of children under
fourteen years of age is prohibited, and stringent rules
provide for regulation of those under sixteen, and
no woman under eighteen years of age may be com-
pelled to work over ten hours; age of consent is dgh-
teen years.
WvU. — ^A woman is of age at ei^teten, and any
person of sound mind may, on arrivms at that ase,
dispose of his or her real and personal property by
will. A married woman may wiU her property with-
out the consent of her husband. A nuncupative will
is limited to $1000, and to cases where the testator
is in military service in the field, or on board ship,
and anticipates death, or where death is anticipate
from a wound received that day. There must be two
witnesses who are requested by the testator to act as
such. An olographic will is one dated, written, and
sinied by the hand of the testator, and requires no
other formalities. Other wiUs must be executed by
the testator in presence of two witnesses, who in his
presence and in the presence of each other, subscribe
as witnesses.
Education. — ^The educational system in North
Dakota is on a broad basis. Sections 16 and 36 of each
Congressional township are given to the common
schools by Congress, also 5 per cent of the net proceeds
of the sale of public lands subseouent to a(unission,
to be used as a permanent fund lor schools, interest
only to be expended for support of common schools.
The enabling act also gives 72 sections for university
purposes, to be sold for not less than ten dollars per
acre, proceeds to constitute a permanent fund, interest
only to be expended. Also 90,000 acres for the Agri-
cultural College, 40,000 acres each for the School of
Mines, Reform School. Deaf and Dumb School,
Agricultural College, State University, two State
Normal Schools; 50,000 acres for capital buildings and
170.000 acres for such other educational and chari-
table institutions as the legislature may determine.
No part of the school fund may be used for support of
any sectarian or denominational school, college, or uni-
versity. The Normal Schools are located at Mayville
and Valley City, the Industrial Training School at
Ellendale, the School of Forestry at Bottineau, the
Agricultural College at Fargo, the State University
(Arts, Law, Engineering^ Model Hieh School, State
School of Mines, Pubuo Health Laboratory and
NOBTH DAKOTA
114
NORTH DAKOTA
Graduate Departments) at Grand Forks; number of
professors, instructors, and assistants, 68; lecturers,
13; students, 1000. Charitable institutions are the
Deaf and Dumb School at Devil's Lake, the Hospital
for Feeble Minded at Grafton, the Insane Asylum at
Jamestown, the School for the Blind at Bathgate, the
Soldiers' Home at Lisbon, the Reform School at Man-
dan. The permanent school and institutional fund
amounted to about $18,000,000 in 1908; the appor-
tionment from that fund in 1903 was $274,348.80;
in 1908, $545,814.66. Ample provisions are made for
State and county institutes, and teachers are required
to attend. Third Grade Certificates are abolished.
The minimum salary for teachers is $45 a month.
Provisions are made for the extension of the High
School system, and also for consolidated schools and
transportation of children to the same. The legis-
lative appropriation in 1909 for the imiversity was
$181,000.
PrUons and Refarmatoriea. — ^The keeper of each
prison is required to provide at the expense of the
county for each prisoner who may be able and desires
to read, a copy of the Bible or New Testament to be
used by the prisoner at seasonable and proper times
during his confinement, and any minister of the Gosf»el
is permitted access to such prisoners at seasonable
* and proper times to perform and instruct prisoners in
their moral and reli^ous duties. Suitable provisions
are made for reduction of time for good behaviour, for
indeterminate sentences, and paroling prisoners.
Sale of Liquor. — ^The manufacture, importation,
sale, gift, barter, or trade of intoxicating liquors by
any person, association, or corporation as a l^verajge,
is prohibited by Article 20 of the State constitution
and by statute. Exceptions are made in favour of
sale in limited quantities on affidavit of applicant by
druggists for medicinal, mechanical, scientific, and
sacramental purposes, under permit granted at the
discretion of the district court. Not more than one-
half pint may be sold to any one in one day and the
purchaser must sign affidavit stating the particular
disease for which the same is required. Sales to
minors, habitual drunkards, and persons whose rela-
tives forbid, are prohibited. Places where intoxicat-
ing liquors are sold or kept for sale or where persons
are permitted to resort for purpose of drinking intox-
icating liquors are declared to oe common nuisances.
The keeper is liable criminally and in an action the
nuisance mav be abated and the premises closed for
one year. The statute also provides for civil liability
against persons violating the law. in favour of those
taking charge of and providing tor intoxicated per-
sons, and in favour of every wife, child^ parent,
guardian, employer, or other person injured in person
or property or means of support by any intoxicated
person.
SUxtiatics of the Protestant Churches.— The Epis-
copalian Church has 4664 members; 1224 families ;-
97 Sunday School teachers; 741 pupils; 42 churches
and chapels; 5410 sittings; 16 rectories: 795 mem-
bers in guilds. The value of the churcnes, chapels,
and grounds is $158,055; rectories $49,000; other
property $42,850. Tnere are 6 parishes ; 36 organized
missions; and 44 unorganized missions. Total offer-
ings for all purposes for the year ending 1 June. 1910,
were $32,496.28. The Methodist Episcopal Church
had in the State in 1908, 223 church buildings valued
at $600,000, and 101 parsonages valued at $150,000,
with a membership oi about 11,000. The most im-
portant fact in connexion with this organization is the
affiliation of Wesley College with the State university,
where the Methodists aim to give religious and other
instruction in their own buildings and arrange for
their pupils to get the benefit of secular instruction
at the State university. The plan suggests a possible
solution of the much vexed question of division of the
school fund. The Presbyterian Church has 7 presby-
teries; 175 ministers; 7185 members. 9411 Sunday
School members. They contributed for all purposes
in the past year $150,635. There are 185 church
organizations; 50 preaching stations; 132 church
buildings, and 62 manses. Value of church manses
and educational property was estimated at $800,000
in 1908. This denomination has recently located at
Jamestown, the Presbyterian university, said to have
an endowment fund of about $200,000. The Lutheran
Church is composed chiefly of Norwegians and other
Scandinavians. According to the ' ' Norwegian Amer-
ican '', published in Norwegian at Minneapolis in 1907,
there were in the State in 1905, of Norwegian birth
and descent, 140,000. The Lutheran church had 380
congregations, and about 240 churches. The Baptist
Church in 1908 had a membership of 4161, a Sunday
School enrollment of 3164; 53 churches, valued at
$191,430; and 28 parsonages valued at $35,772.
Ecclesiastical History. — ^The establishment of Catho-
lic missions in North Dakota cannot be' reliably
traced to an earlier date than 1818. In that year Rt.
Rev. J. Octave Plessis of Quebec sent Rev. Joseph
Provencher and Rev. Josef Severe Dumoulin to Fort
Douglas, as St. Boniface was then called, and after the
grasshoppers had destroyed the crops, the Selkirk
colonists went in large numbers to Pembina. Father
Provencher sent Father Dumoulin in September, 1818,
to minister to the spiritual wants of the colonists,
with instructions to spend the winter at Pembina.
When that place was found to be within the United
States, Father Dumoulin was recalled. Rev. George
Anthony Belcourt became the second resident priest
of North Dakota. A gifted linguist, well versed in
the Algonquin languages which included the Chip-
pewa, he taught the latter to the young misedonaries
and composed an Indian grammar and dictionary,
still standard works. He was resident priest from
1831-8 and often said Mass in every camping place
from Lake Traverse to Pembina and in uie in-
terior of North Dakota. It was customary in the
summer for the settlers to go to the south-western part
of the State to hunt bison on the prairies, and to take
their families with them. The priest always accom-
panied them and in those camps for the first time the
children were given an opportunity of religious in-
struction. Father Belcourt is said to have evangel-
ized the whole of the Turtle Mountain Chippewa, a
circumstance which kept that tribe at peace with the
Sovemment during the Sioux troubles following the
linnesota massacre in 1862. Father De Smet spent
a few weeks with the Mandans on the Missouri in 1840
and baptized a number of their children. Father
Jean Baptiste Marie Genin is credited with establish-
ing a mission at St. Michael's, Fort Totten, in 1865.
His name is honourably and extensively associated
with much of the missionary history of the State. The
first real missionary work among the Sioux of North
Dakota dates from 1874 when Major Forbes (a Cath-
olic), Indian Agent at Fort Totten, with the help of
the Catholic Indian Bureau, induced the Sisters of
Charity (Grey Nuns) of Montreal under Sr. Mary
Clapin to establish themselves in his agency. Father
Bonnin came as their chaplain.' Rev. Claude Ebner,
O.S.B., was stationed at Fort Totten, 1877-86.
Rev. Jerome Hunt, O.S.B., has devoted his talent
and zeal to the welfare of the Indians at Fort Totten
Reservation since 1882, and has written and published
in the Sioux language, a Bible history, prayerbook
with instruction and hymns, and a smaller book of
prayer, and for eighteen years has published an Indian
paper in Sioux. The Grey Nuns at Fort Totten have
conducted .a school since 1874.
Rt. Rev. Martin Marty, O.S.B., was Vicar Apos-
tolic of Dakota until 27 December, 1889, when Rt.
Rev. John Shanley became Bishop of Jamestown; the
see was later changed to Fargo. The number of
chuit^es increased from 40 in 1890 to 210 in 1908.
i
115 NOB1
: I ' I H
After the death of Bishop Shanley. the diocese was cial crisis of 1891 have combined to retard the devel-
divided. Rt. Rev. James O'Reiliy, as Bishop of opment of the country. John McDouall Stuart, the
Fargo, has charge of the eastern part, and Rt. Rev. pioneer erolorer, and his successors decUre that large
Vincent Wehrle, O.S.B., rules over the western part as tracts in the interior are suitable for the cidtivation of
Bishop of Bismarck. According to the census of 1907, cotton and the breeding of cattle, while the govem-
th6 Catholic population was 70,000 but a subsequent ment officials at Port Darwin have ^wn spices, fibre
coimt ^ows the number much larger, and the latest plants, maize, and ceara rubber with great success,
estimate by Father O'Driscoll, secretary of the Fargo The crown lands (only 473,278 of the total 334,643,522
diocese, places it at about 90,000. There are in the acres have been leased) are regulated by the North
two dioceses, 140 j^riests; 14 religious houses; 1 mon- Territory Grown Lands Act of 1890-1901.
astery; 7 academies; 5 hospitals; and about 250 Northern Territoi^ has a varied ecclesiastical his-
churches. The Sisters of St. Joseph have a hospital at tory. In 1847, by a decree of the Sacred Conjugation
Fargo and one at Grand Forks, and an academy at (27 May), it was made a diocese (Diocese of Port Vic-
Jamestown. The Sisters of St. Benedict have estab- toria and Palmerston), Joseph Serra, O.S.B.J conse-
lishments at Richardton, Glen Ellen, Oakes, Fort crated at Rome, 15 August, 1848. boiii^ appomted to
Yates, and a hospital at Bismarck. The Presentation tiie see. He, however, was tranmerred m 1849 before
Nuns have an academy and orphanage at Farpo. 8i»- taking possessiou to Daulia, and nominated coadjutor
ters of Mary of the Presentation are established at ''cum jure successionis". and tem]x>ral administrator
Wild Rice, Oakwood, Willow City, and Lisbon. The of the Diocese of Perth; he retired in 1861 and died in
Ursuline Sisters conduct St. Bernard's Academy at 1886 in Spain. He was succeeded by Mgr Rosendo
Grand Forks. Three Sisters of Mercv opened a mis- Salvator, O.S.B., consecrated at Naples on 15 August,
sion school at Belcourt in the Turtle Mountains among .; 1849, but he was not able to take possession of his see,
the Chippewa in 1884, and continued to teach until fdr in the meantime the whole Ehiropean population
1907, when their convent was destroyed by fire. They had abandoned the diocese; consequently he returned
established at Devil's Lake, St. Joseph's* hospital in to the Benedictine Ab'bey of New Norcia in Western
1895 and the Academy of St. Mary of the Lake in Australia where he resided as abbot nuUitia, Redgn-
1908. The State has several active councils of the ing the See of Port Victoria, 1 August, 1888, be wa6
Knights of Columbus and Courts of the Cadiolio appointed titular Bishop of Adrana, 29 March, 1889.
Order of Foresters. Among the Catholics distinguished Seven years previously Uie Jesuits of the Austrian
in public life are John Burke, three times elected Province were commissioned to establish a mission
|K>vemor; John Carmody, Justice of the Supreme for the purpose of civilixing and converting the
Court; Joseph Kennedy. Dean^f the Normal College, fdiwrigines: fubout sixteen members of the order
State University; W. E. Purcell, U. S. Senator; and devoted tnemselves to the work ^nd stations were
P. D. Norton, Secretary of State. established at Rapid Creek (St. Joseph's), seven
^?Ht^^^d'^}A^^''°^&i^^ HirtjryomfBftv- nules north-east of Pabnerston, Daly lUver (Holy
?o*);^wr2?H.t^^?^^^^ ^oS Rosanr) and Serpentine Lagoon (s4ed Heart A
Dakota Bltu Booka (BiBmi^k. 1899-1909) ; North Dakota Maga- Jesus). There were 2 churches, 1 chapel, and 2 nuxed
finM, pub. by Comm. of Asiicultjwe (BUmarck. 1908) j Caikoiic schools. In 1891 there Were about 260 Catholics in
i';^^^^^VJj:iJ^ the mission. However the^ work did not thrive and.
Pub. iHatntetion (BiamArok, 1908}; Minutea of (7«n. Auembly ef after about twenty years' labour the Jesmts Withdrew,
Prubvt«nan Chwch (PMladelphujj 1910) ; Larnto, Rfferenct Father John O'Brien, S.J.,beingthelastadministrator.
^XliJ^O^^^SS^^^ On their withdrawal the dioc^ was ^^^
Economie Oeoian, II, no. 6 (Sept. and Oct., 1907); North Dakota Bishop WiUiam Kelly of Geraldton. Somewhat later
S^ il?^* ^^^^^ ySr;?^.' ^^^^^' ^*^.jfl?.*^it* the mission was confided to the Missionaries of the
JSiiTilS^eSS'iJg^^^ terlS^Ste'l^'rii^ fr^f^ of Issoudun and es^jished in 1906 as
M. H. Brennan. ^0 Prefecture Apostolic of the Northern Temtory.
— _.^ ««< -^ a r^ XT Very Rev. Francis Xavier Gsell, M.S.H., b. 30 Octo-
Northern m^ons. See Gebm any, Vicariatb ber, 1872, was elected administrator ApostoUc on 23
AP08TOUC OF Nobthbbn; Dbnmabk; Nobway; April, 1906. He resides at Port Darwin. At present
SwBDBN. there are in the prefecture 3 missionaries, 2 churches,
Horthem Territory, Prbfbcturb Apostouc of *^i.l <**P5f- ,. ^ „,,^ , , . ^ , .. ^.
^ra> Tht» Knrthpm Tprritorv formerlv AlcT&ndpr Mttnonoa CaihoUecB (Rome, 1907); AuatraXoMtan Catholic D*-
T*"^-~^^? XNOrtnem lemjory, lormeriy Aiexanoer rutory {Bydxuiy, 1910);Qoudos, Autratanan Handbook /or 1891:
Land, is that part of Australia bounded on the north Babsdow. ArOhropolyiical Notea on the North-Wutem coaatal
by the ocean, on the south by South Australia, on the tribea of the Northern Territory of South Atulralia in TVttfur., Proc.
^t by Queensland and on t1,e west by Western Aus- J2tf^.1^/1SSiSSlJ5{^4S53%'^^
tralia. It thus hes almost enurely Wlthm the tropics, mineral reeoureee of the North Territory of South Auatralia in Proc
and b*"" an area of 528,620 square miles. It is crown of the Royal Oeog. Soe. of Auttralasia, South Auatralia Brandi, V
land, butwas provisionally annexed to South Austra- <A^}^h,^^^* fP?!5!¥*'» ^"^^'^ i?^'7ii' t^V^J^ "^ ***
!• « » 1 vToSA t1 • "^ «»»*"wkY" wv i^«*vM >jwiM.»- jy,jrtA«m Territory for tropical agriculture (Adelaide, 1902), appen-
lia, 6 July, 1863. It is practicallv uninhabited: the dix, 17-27. " *- ^ /.-»'»~--
population is rouffhly estimated at between 25,000 and Andrew A. MacEblban.
30,000, of whom less than a thousand are Europeans,
about 4000 Asiatics mostly Chinese, the remainder Northmen, the Scandinavians who, in the ninth
being aborigines. There are but two towns. Palmers- ^nd tenth centuries, first ravaged the coasts of West-
ton at Port Darwin, with a population ot 600, and em EJurope and its islands and then turned from raid-
Southport on Blackmore River, twenty-four miles en into settlers. This article will be confined to the
south. There is transcontinental telegraphic com- history of their exodus.
munication (over 2000 miles) established in 1872, be- Tacitus refers to the "Suiones" (Germ., xliv, xlv)
tween Palmerston and Adelaide, but raihoad com- living beyond the Baltic as rich in arms and ships
rivers in the north, and Port Darwin is probably sur^ dinavians until the end of Uie eighth century,
passed in the world as a deep water port by Sydney when the forerunners of the exodus appeared as
Harbour alone. The annual rainfall varies from sixty- raiders off the English and Scotch coasts. In their
two inches on the coast, where the climate resembles broad outlines the political divisions of Scandinavia
that of French Cochin China to six inches at Char- were much as they are at the present day, except that
lotte Waters. Droughts, cattle disease, and the finan- the Swedes were confined to a narrower territory.
116
The Finna occupied tke oorthon port of modem Swe- against further invoaioD. Meanwhile, EngUnd h>d
den, and the Danes the southern extretni^ and the been asstulednotonly from theChannel and the south*
eastern shores of the Cattwat, while the Norwegians west, but also by Viking ehips croeaing the North Sea.
stretched down the coast of the Skager-Rack, cutting The Danes for a time had been even more succcwful
off the Swedes from the Western sea. The inhabi- than in Gaul, for Northern and Eastern districts fell
tants of these kingdoms bore a general resemblance to altogether into their hands and the fate of Wessez
the Teutonic peoples, with whom the^ were connected seemed to have been decided by a succession of Danish
in race and language. In their aocial condition and victories in S71. Alfred, however, succeeded in re-
reUgion they were not unlike the Angles and Saxons of covering the upper hand, the countty was (mrtitioned
the sixth century. Though we cannot account satis- between Dane and Weat Saxon, and for a tune further
factorilv for the exodus, we may say that it was due raids were stopped by the formation of a fleet and the
generally to the increase of the population, to the defeat of Hastings in 893.
breakinftdownof the old tribal system, and the efforts To Ireland, too, the Northmen came from two
of the kings, especially of Harold Fairhair, to consoli- directions, from south and north. It was one of the
date their power, ana finally to the love of adventure first countries of the Weet to suffer, for at the bwn-
and the discovery that the lands and dties of Western nin^ of the ninth century it was the w^keet. lie
Christendom lay at their mercy. Vikings arrived even before 800, and as early as S07
The Northmen invaded the West In three mun thai ships visited the west coast. They were, how-
streama; the most southerly started from South Nor- ever, defeated near KUI^ney in 812 and the full fury
way and Denmark ■__^ of the attack did not
and, pasmng along MHH^^^H^H^^^^^^B^^^^^^^h^^^^^^^^B fall on the country
the German coast, ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^K^^^^^H t^U Twenty
visited both ndes of ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H,^^^^^^^| years later there ap-
theChanne],rounded ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^B^^^^^H P^^ ^ have been
Breton promon- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^^^^^^^^H^I^^HM three Norse
lory, and reaiched the ^L_^^^^^^^^^^^^^^H^^H^^^^^HH^^^nH doms" Ireland,
mouths of the Loire ^H^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^BI^^^^^^^H DS^bEI those of Dublin, Wa-
and the Garonne. ^^^^^^^B^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l HI^HH t/Bifoidj and Limer-
It had an offshoot to I^HHc '9¥l^^^^^^^^V^^5^^^^^An^^nl '^^^' '"'^ ^^ "ver-
the west of England tBHTwOW'^w^^I^^^^L'^^^^S^B^H^^^B ''i^'iBj *"i* •** Itiih
and Ireland and in " ^Bhw^' ^^^^SSME*"^ ' -.^fl^BJ^^^^^H^I **'° ^ series of vic-
eome caeea it was ' ^^^^BHt^^^HJ^El^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l^l ^t^^> '^^
the h^^^^^HlBH^^^^k^l^l^^^^^^^^^^^^^^l ""^ between
coasts of Spun and iMM^^^^IHR^^^Vi^^^^^^^^^^^^H^^^I the Danes coming by
Portugal (where Hk. ^C^^BB^^^^aJ^^^^^^^^^^^F^BWWB the Channel and the
Northmen came into ^S^ f^^^^^^^K^^^^^^^^^^^^ ^ Norwe^ansdeeeend-
contact with Sar&- .^ ^^^^^^^^^I^BW^^^^ i '"^ from the north,
cen) and even inta ^'^^^^HPSB^^S^V I ^^^ ^^ ^^^'^ century
the Mediterranean \. . . ^^^^^^^QBt - ^%1\ f] and a half the Dan-
and to Italy. The Vuixci Bo*t. No«w*r "^ "t"* continued,
midmost stream ' Neither party gained
crossed from the same re^on directly to the east and a dis^ct advantage and both the face of the coun-
north of England, while the northern stream flowed try and the national character suffered, finally in
from Norway westwards to the Orkneys and other 1014, on Good Friday, at Clontarf, on the shores of
islands, and, dividing there, moved on towards Ice- Dublin Bay, the Danes suffered a great defeat from
land orsouthwards to Ireland and the Irish Sea. The Brian Boru. Henceforth they ceased to be an a^gres-
work of destruction which the first stream of North- aiveforceinlreland, though they kept their position in
men wrought on the continent is told in words of do- a number of the coast towns.
spturinwhatisleftof the Frankish Chronicles, for the During the earlier attacks on Irdand the Scotch Is-
pagan and greedy invaders seem to have singled out lands and especiallv the Orkneys bad become &pa-
the monasteries for attack and must have destroyed manent centre of Norse power and the home of those
most of the records of their own devastation. A whohadbeendriven to a life of adventure by the cen-
Dantsh fleet appeared off Frisia in 810, and ten years traliiation carried out by Harold Fairhoir. They even
later another reached the mouth of the Loire, but the returned to help the king's enemies; to such an extent
systematic and persevering assault did not be^ till that about 885 Harold followed upa victory inNorway
aoout 835. From that date till the early years of the by taking possession of the Orkneys. The result was
followingcentury the Vilung ships were almost annual that the independent spirits Amongst tiie Vikings
visitors to the coasts and river valleysof Germany and pushed on to the Faroes and Iceland, which had been
Gaul. About 850 thev b.
atrongholdsn.. , _. . _.
could winter and store their booty, and to which thev a hundred years later the Icelanders founded a colony
could retire on the rare occasions when the Frankislt on the atrip of cosst between the glaciers and the sea.
or English kings were able to check their raids. Such which, to attract settlers, they called Greenland, and
were Walcheren at the mouth of the Scheldt, Sheppey soon sifter occurred the temporary aettlement in Vin-
at that of the Thames, Oissel in the lower Seine, and land on the mainland of North America. But the
Noirmoutier near the Loire. For over aeventy yeara prows of the Viking ehips were not always turned
Gaul seemed to lie almost at the mercyof theDanes. towards the West. They also followed the Norwe-
Their ravages spread backwards from the coasts gian coast past the North Cape and established trade
and river valleys; they penetrated even to Auvergne. relatione with "Biarmaland on the shores of the
There was little redstanoe whether from king or count. White Sea. The Baltic, however, provided an easier
Robert the Strong did, indeed, succeed in defending route to theeastandinthenintbanatenthcenturiesit
Paris and so laid the foundations of what was after- was a Swedish Lake. By the middle of the ninth cen-
wuds the house of Capet, buthewaskilledia866. In tury a half-mythical Ruric reigned over a Norse or
the end the success ot the Danes brought this period "Varangian" Kingdom at Nov^rod and, in 880, one
of destruction to a close; the raiders turned into col- of his successors, Oleg. moved his capital to Kiev, and
onists, and in 911 Charles the Simple, by granting ruled from the Baltic to the Black Sea. He imposed
Nonoondy to lUilIo, was able to establish a barrier on Constantinople itself in 907 the humiUation which
NOBTHBOP 117 NORWAY
had befallen so many of the cities of the West, and , Siif™";^*^^ *^^ 9^^2^'J.* f^' i?.®^;.^*^ ^ ^^' ^•^
"Micklegarth" had. to pay Danegeld to the Norae '»*«-^^-»«=*^^*^^lg;S^J^M. Kelly.
sovereign of a Russian army. The Varangian ships « t» * »*«»^^x^— «
are even said to have sailed down the Volga and across Norton, John. See Pobt Augubta, Diocssb of.
the remote waters of the Caspian. There is, however, Norton, John, Venbbablb. See Palabor,
a second stage of Norse enterprise as remarkable, Thomas, Vensrable.
Uiou^^ for dmerent reasons, as the first. The Nor- Norway, comprising the smaller division of the
man conquests of Southern Italy and of England and Scandinavian peninsula, is bounded on the east by
in part the Crusades, in which the Normans took so Lapland and Sweden, and on the west by the Atlantic.
litfge a share, prove wnat the astonishing.vitality of the The surface is generally a plateau from which rise pre-
Northmen could do when they had received Chris- cipitous mountains, as Snfih&tten (7566 feet) and
tianity and Prankish civilisation from the people they Stora Galdhdppigen (about 8399 feet). The west
had plundered. coast is deeply indented by fiords. In eastern and
It IS impossible to account for the irresistible activ- southern Norway the valleys are broader and at times
ity of the Northmen. It is a mystery of what might form extensive, fruitful plains. There are several
be called "racial personahty". Their forces were navigable rivers, as the Glommen and Vormen, and
rarely numerous, tneir ships small and open, suited lakes, of which the largest is Lake Mydsen. The nu«
to the protected waters of thdr own coasts, most un- merous islands along the coast, some wooded and
suitable for ocean navigation, and there was no guid- some bare, promote shipping and fishing; in the Lo-
ins power at home. Their success was due to the foten Islands alone twentv million cod are annually
indomitable courage of each unit, to a tradition of dis- caught. The climate is only relatively mild, with rain
cipline which made their compact "armies" superior almost daily. Agriculture consists largely in raising
in fitting qualities and activity to the mixed and ill- oats and barley, but not enough for home consump-
organiaed forces which Prankish and En^h kin^ tion. Rve and wheat are grown only in sheltered
usually brought against them. Often they are said spots. Bread is commonly made of oats. The culti-
to have won a battfe bv a pretended flight, a dangerous vation of the potato is widespread, a fact of much im-
manceuvre except with well-disciplined troops. Until portance. There are in the country only about 160,-
Alfred collected a fleet for the protection of his coast 000 horses; these are of a hardy breed. Cattle-raising
they had the undisputed command of the sea. They is an important industry, the number of cattle being
were fortunate in the time of their attack. Their estimated at a million, that of sheep and goats at over
serious attacks did not begin till the empire of Charle- two millions. 0? late attention has been paid to the
magne was weakened from within, and the Teutonic raising of pigs. The Lapps of the north mamtain over
principle of division among heirs was overcoming the a hundred thousand reindeer in the grassy pasture
Koman principle of unity. When the period of recon- land of the higher plateaus. The most important
stitution began the spirit of discipline, which had given trees are pine, &, and birch ; oak and beech are not so
the Northmen success in war. made them one of the common.
mat organizing forces of tne early Middle Ages. Porestry was long carried on unscientifically; con-
Everywhere these "Romans of the Middle Ages" ap- siderable effort has been made to improve conditions,
pear as organizers. They took the various material and wood is now exported chiefly as wrought or partly
frovided for them in Gaul, Eln^land, Russia, Southern wrought timber. Silver is mined at Kongsbcrg, and
taly, and breathed into it hfe and activity. But iron at Rdraas, but the yield of minerals is moderate,
races which assimilate are not enduring, and by the Coal is altogether lacking. 7?he peasants are skilful
end of the twelfth century the Northmen had fin- wood-carvers, and in isolated valleys still make all
ished their work in Europe and been absorbed into the necessary household articles, besides spinning and
population which they had conquered and governed, weaving their apparel. The Northmen were always
Then is no eomplete hutoiy of the Northmen ana their work famous seamen, and Norwegians are now found on
!SjSnth,^i;iJ^fi%tKte^.£?lS&S5;S'^ ^^^^^ all nation, ^e merchant marine of
tries they attacked, especially in Palgravb. Bngland and JVor- about 8000 vessels IS One of the mOSt important of the
iiia9Mitf,I;cf.HsLiiouT,MP'or{(2't£rMtory. VI (London, 1007). The world. Good roads and railways have greatly in-
SacB fiteratura is all of a later date and throws little trustworthy rrwkmtA f raffi#* A nrknaf onf 1v \r\t*vMuAna nnrnVL* nt
Ught <m this early period of Norse history; cf. Viorussoi*. Pro- creaseo tramc. A constantly mcreasing number of
Ugommta to ike Siurlunga Saga (Oxford, 1879). strangers are attracted by the natural beauties. Al-
F. F. Ubqxthart. thou^ in this way a great deal of money is brought
w..«*i.«**M«. TT««rBv i> a^ Oo an* «omrv^ n«^vr.»«« ^^ ^^^ couutry, the morals and honesty of the people
Horthrpp. Hbnbt P. See Chablbston, Diocmb unfortunately sliflfer in consequence. The ai^S^ is
^'* 123,843 sq. miles; the population numbers 2,250,000
Norton, Chbibtopheb, martyr; executed at Ty- persons,
bum, 27 May, 1570. His father was Richard Norton Thegreat majority belong officially to the Lutheran
of Norton Conyers, Yorkshire, and his mother, Susan state Church, but on account of liberal laws there is a
Neville, dau^ter of Richard, second Baron Latimer, rapid development of sects. Catholics did not regain
Richara Norton, known as "Old Norton", was the reu^ous liberty until the middle of the nineteenth
head of his illustrious house, which remained faithful century. Reports as to their numbers vary from 1500,
to the Catholic religion. Despite this fact he held as ^ven in the Protestant "TagUche Rundschau", to
positions of influence during the reigns of Henry VIII 100.000, as ^ven in the Catholic " Germania" (see be-
and Edwiuxi VI, was Governor of Norham Castle low). Norway is a constitutional monarchy, its
under Mary, and in 1568-60 was sheriff of Yorkshire, ruler since 18 November^905, has been King Haakon
He had been pardoned for joining in the Pilgrimage of VII, a Danish prince. The colours of the flag are red,
Grace, but he and his brother Thomas, his nine sons, white, and blue. The coimtry is divided into 20
of whom Christopher was the seventh, and many ot counties and 56 bailiwicks. Justice is administered by
their relatives hastened to take part in the northern district courts (adrenakrif verier). Eccleciastically the
uprising cff 1569. He was attainted and fled to Flan- country is divided into 6 dioceses, with 83 provosts or <
ders witii four of his sons, two of his sons were par- deans, and 450 pastors. The largest city and the
doned. another apostatized, Christopher and his royal residence is Christiania (230,000 inhabitants),
faUio^s brother having been captured proved them- the seat of government, of the Parliament (Storthing),
selves steadfast Catholics, were hanged, disem- of the chief executive, of the state university, and of
bowelled, and quartered. Eximund, who apostatized, other higher scheols. The most important commer-
and a sister are the subject of Wordsworth's "White dal city is Bergen (80,000 inhabitants), important
Doe of Rylstone ". even in the Middle Ages and for a long time controlled
NOBWAY
lis
NOBWAT
by the Hanseatic League. Trondhjem, formerly
Nidaros, a city of 40,000 inhabitants, was earlier the
see of the Catholic archbishops, and the place where
the Catholic kinjgs were crowned and buried. Its fine
cathedral, now in process of restoration^ contains the
bones of St. Olaf , the patron saint of Norway. The
army is not highly trained: men between twenty-three
and thirtv-three years ot age are lii^le for militaiy
duty. The modest weU-manned navy is only used for
coast defence.
HisTOBT. — Unlike the Swedes and Danes, the Nor-
wegians were not organised even so late as the nin^
century. The name of king was borne by the chiefs
and heads of separate clans, but tJieir authority was
limited and the rights of the subjects very exten-
sive. Only by marauding expeditions were the Vik-
ings able to gain honour and wealth, and at times also
to acquire control of extensive districts. Their early
history is lost in the fabulous tales of the bards. In
872, Harold Haarfager (Fair-Haired), after a decisive
sefr-fight near Stavanger, established his authority
over all the clans. Those refusing to submit left the
countnr and their possessions were confiscated. When
Harold, divided his kingdom among several sons, its
permanence seemed once more uncertain, but Hakon
the Good (q. v.) restored a transient unity and pro-
cured an entrance for Christianity. Olaf Trygvesson
continued the work of union after Hakon's death, and
promoted the spread of the new faith, but in a se^-fight
with the united forces of the Danes and Swedes he was
killed about 1000 near Svalder (of uncertain location).
The kingdom now fell apart, some portions coming un-
der Cnut the Great of Denmark.
Finally Olaf, son of Harold Grenske and a descend-
ant of Harold Haarfager (1015). re-established the
boundaries of Norway, and aid^ Christianity to its
final victoiy. At a later date Olaf became the patron
saint of Norway. His severity so embittered the
Ereat families that they oombmed with Cnut and
u>rced him to flee the country. Returning with a small
army from Sweden, he was defeated and killed in the
battle of Stiklestad (29 July, 1030) . His heroic death
and the marvellous phenomena that occurred in con-
nexion with his body completely changed the feeling
of his opponents. His son, Magnus the Good, was
unanimously chosen his successor (1035), and the
Danish intruders were driven away. Ma^us died
childless in 1047, and the kingdom went to his father's
half-brother Harold, son of Sigurd. Harold had won
fame and wealth as a viking, and had been an impor-
tant personage at the Byzantine Court. On account
of his grimness he was called Hardrada (the Stem).
Impelled by ambition, he first waged a bloody war
with Denmark and then attacked E^ngland. On an
incursion into Northumberland, he was defeated at
the battle of Stamford Bridge (1066). His son, Olaf
the Quiet, repaired the injuries caused the country by
Harold Hardrada's policy. Olaf 's successor, Magnus,
conquered the Stotch islands, waged successful war
with Sweden, and even gained parts of Ireland, where
he was finally killed. One of his sons, Sigurd Jorsala-
fari (the traveller to Jerusalem), went on a crusade to
iJie Holy Land, while another son, Eystein^ peacefullv
acquired Jemtland, a part of Sweden. Witn Sigurd s
death (1 130) the kingdom entered upon a period of dis-
order caused partly by strife between claimants to the
throne, partly by rivalry between the secular and ec-
clesiastical dignitaries, whose partisans (known as the
Birkebcinar and the Baglar) perpetrated unbelievable
outrages and cruelty on each other. The power of the
king sank steadily, while that of the bishops increased.
For a time Sverre (1177-1202) seemed successful, but
lasting peace was not attained until the reign of his
grandson, Hakon the Old (1217-63). Hakon ruled
with wisdom and force and was hi^^y regarded by
the rulers of other countries. During his reign Nor-
way teached its greatest extent, including Greenland
and Iceland. He died in the Orkney Islands (1263)
while returning from an expedition against the Scotch
His peace-loving son Magnus LagoboiU (the Law-
Mender) tried to establish law and order and prepared
a book of laws. His efforts to promote commerce and
intercourse resulted Unfortunately, as the Hanseatic
League, to which he granted many privileges, used
these to the detriment of the country, and gradually
brotu^ht it into a state of grievous dependence. With
the death (1319) of the vigorous younger son of Mag-
nus, Hakon V, the male line of Harold Harfager
became extinct. The crown went to the three year
old King Magnus Eriksson of Sweden, son of Hakon's
daughter, Ingeborg; this brought about for the first
time a close umon between the two kingdoms of north-
em Scandinavia. When King Magnus assumed the
government (1332), it was soon evident that, al-
though possessing many good qualities, he lacked
force. He seldom came to Norway, and the Norwe-
gians felt themselves neglected. They forced him,
when holding court at Varberg (1343), to send his
younger son Hakon as viceroy to Norway, where
Hakon soon gathered an independent court, and in
1335 became the actual ruler. Seven years later he
was elected King of Sweden by a part of the Swedish
nobiUty, but had to yield to Duke Albert of Mecklen-
burg, chosen by an opposing faction. In 1363 Hakon
married Margaret^ daughter of King Waldemar of Den-
maric^ and won with her a claim to the Danish throne.
As Waldemar, when he died in 1375, left no male de-
scendants, he was succeeded by their son, Olaf. Olaf
also became King of Norway upon the death of his
father, and died in 1387. His momer, an able and ener*
Stic ruler, entered at once upon the administration of
snmark. In Norway she was not only made ruler for
life, but her nephew, Eric of Pomerania. was acknow-
ledged as the lawful heir. Meanwhile, Albert of Meck-
lenburg, greatly disliked in Sweden and the estates,
entered into negotiations with Margaret, whose troops
took him prisoner (1380). The same year Elric was
acknowledged King of Norway, and in 1395^ as King
of Denmark and Sweden. In 1397 the chief men m
the three countries met at Kalmar to arrange a basis
for a permanent lc«al confederation (the Umon of Gd-
mar). The plan tailed, as no one country was willing
to make the sacrifice necessary for the interest of all,
but Eric was crowned king of the three unit^ lands.
Ui> to 1408 Margaret was the real ruler. With un-
wearied activity she journeyed everywhere, watched
over the admixustration of law and government, cut
down the great estates of the nobles K>r the benr£t of
the crown, and protected the ordinary freeman.
Denmark was always her first interest. She placed
Danish officials in Sweden and forced the Qiurdi of
that country to accept Danish bishops; the result was
often unfortunate, as in the appointment of tiie Arch-
bishop of Upsala (1408). Margaret's efforts to re-
gain former possessions of tne three Scandinavian
countries were successful only in one case; she pur-
chased the Island of Gotland from the Teutonic
Knights. She died suddenly (1412) in the harbour of
Flensburg whither she had gone to obtain Schles-
wig from the CJounts of Holstein. Left to himself,
the headstrong and hot-tempered Eric made one mis-
take after another and soon found all the Hanseatic
towns on the Baltic against him. Conditions were
still worse after the death of his one faithful coim-
sellor, his wife Philip^ daughter of Henry IV of
England. In Sweden increasing taxes, constant dis-
putes with the clergy, and the appointment of bad
officials aroused a universal discontent, which led
later to dangerous outbreaks. Vain attempts were
made (1436) to restore the tottering union. Disre-
garding his promises, Eric withdrew to Gotland, where
he remainea inactive. In 1438 his deposition was de-
clared by Norway and Sweden, and his nephew, Duke
Christopher of Bavaria, was elected long. Upon
NORWAY 1]
Chriatopher'B e&Hy death (1448) the union was vir-
tually dissolved: tne Swedes chose Kari KnutMon as
king, and the Danes called Count Christian 6f Old-
cnbuig to tlie throne. At firat Norway wavered
between the two, but Christian was able to letain
control.
Oi Christian's two sons Hans was at first only ruler
woe only after defeating Sten Sture that his position
in Sweden was secure. King Hans I was succeeded
(1513) in Denmark and Norway by his son, Christian
II. Christian's cruelty to the conquered Swedes pre-
pared the way for the deTection of that country to
GustavuB Vasa; consequeotly, he was iDdirectly re-
sponsible for the withdrawal of Sweden from Catholic
a Iceland, Jon Arason, died a
_. . the nobility seized the lands
of the Church. 'Die chief nobles acquired inordinate
influence, and the landed proprietora, once so proud
of thai independence, fell under the control of foreign
tyrants.
As regards territorial development in the Middle
Ages, Norway had a number of tributary provinces —
in the north, Finmark, inhabited by heatoen Lapps;
variousgroupsafislandsBauth-westof Norway as: the
Farve Mands, the Orkneys, the Shetlands, and the
Isle of Man in the Irish Sca^ which were added later
Iceland and Greenland. During the period of the
union, Norway also included Bohusl^, HarjedBleo,
Jemtland, and some smaller districts, all now belong-
ii^ to Sweden. With these islands and outlying t«p-
Tbi CiTBUiaii,
unity. Christian soon aroused diaBatisfactton in his
own country. Undue preference granted to the lower
olasHea tiuned the nobility against him, and his un-
disguised efforts to open the way for the teachings of
Luther repelled loyal Catholics. Serious disorders
followed in Jutland, and Christian, lodng coursKe,
sought to save himself by fiidit. With the aid of the
Baneeatic League his uncle, Duke Frederick of S^w-
wig-Holstein, soon acquired possesion of his king-
doms. The new king and his son, Christian III, were
fanatical adherents of the new doctrine, and by craft
and force brought about its victory in Denmark
(1539). In Norway Archbishop Olaf of Trondhiem
laboured in vain for the maintenance of Catholicism
and the establishment of national independence.
The majority of the peasants wei« indifferent and the
impoverished nobility, who hoped to benefit by the
introduction of the pure Gospel", urged Christian
on. After the departure of the church dignitaries
Christian acquired the mastery of the country (1537),
Norway now ceased to he an independent state.
While rotuning the name of kingdom it was for nearly
three hundred years (until 1814) only a Danish prov-
ince, administered by Danish officials and at times out-
rageously plundered. Here, aa In Sweden and Den-
fore Catholicism v
completely extinguished, "nie
ritorieB the monarchy comprised about 7000 aquar*
miles. The Scotch islands were lost towards the end
of the fifteenth century, and at a later period the col-
onies in Greenland were totally neglected. Originally
the kingdom had consisted of four provinces, each
with its own laws, but when a system of law for the
entire country was introduced, it was divided into
eleven judicial districts. The most closely settled
districts were the fertile lowlands on the inlets of
the sea, now Cbristiania and Trondhjem fiords. The
waterway from Trondhjem (o Oslo, near the present
Cbristiania, was the most important route for trafGc.
There was also much intercourse by water between
Oslo and Bei^en. Through the mountain districts
huts for the convenience of travellers (SpOloBlvgor)
were erected, and developed later into inns and tav-
erns. The country was unprepared for war. The
topc^raphy and economic conditions made it difficult
to mobiliEe the land forces. The soldiers were not
paid, but only fed. The chief state officials lived in
Bohus, Akerahus, Tunsberg, and the royal fortified
castles on the harbours of Bergen and Trondhjem.
Ecclesiastically, Norway was at first under the direc-
tion of the Archbishop of Lund (1103); later (1152)
under the Archbishop of Trondhjem, who had juris-
diction over the Bishops of Bergen, Stavanger, Oslo,
Hamar, FarvA, Kirkwall (Orkney Islands), Skalholt
and Holar (Holum) in Iceland, and Gardar (Garde) io
NORWAY 120 NORWAY
Greenland. Jemtland was subject to the Swedish diction over the Norwegian Church to the Bishop of
Archdiocese of Upsala. There were a thousand well- TrondhJem and his successors. The sufifragans ofthe
endowed churches, thirty monasteries^ and various new archbishopric were: Hamar. Farve, and Kirkwall
orders of women: Benedictines, Cistercians, Premon- in the Orkneys, Skalholt. and Holar in Iceland, and
stratensians, Dominicahs, Franciscans, Augustinians, Gardar in Greenland. Tne tithes, legally established
and Brigittines. Schools were attached to the cathe- before 1130 in the reign of Sigiuxl Jonsalafari, made
drals and to most of the monasteries. For luygher ed- possible the foundation of a large number of new ^r-
ucation Norwegians went to foreign universities, es- ishes and strengthened those fuready existing. The
pecially to Paris. Diocese of Oslo contained the largest number, namely
From the reign of Christian III Norway shared the 300 parishes; Nidaros had 280. There was a chapter
fortunes of Denmark. Christian's son, Frederick II for each see. Not much is known of the morals
(1559-88), paid no attention to Norway, but much was and reUgious spirit of the people; it is certain that
done for the country during the long reign of Chris- in the Cathohc period much more in proportion
tian IV (1588-1648), who endeavoured to develop the was given for purposes of religion than after the
country by encouraging mining at Konsberg and Reformation. There are few details of the pas-
Roraas, and to protect it from attack by improving toral labours of bishops and clergy, but the works
the army. Jemtland and Herjudalen, however, had of ChristiaTi charity, hospices, lazarettos, inns for pil-
to be ceded to Sweden. Frederick III (1648-70) was grims, bear ready testimony to their efforts for the
also obliged to cede Bohuslan. FrederidcV (1746-66) advancement of civilization. Nor was learning neg-
encouraged art^ learning, commerce, and manufao- lected. As early as the twelfth century the momc
tures. Prosperity strengthened the self-reliance of Dietrich of Trondhjem wrote a Latin chronicle of the
the people and their desire for potitical independence, country, and in 1250 a Fitmciscan wrote an account
In 1807 they were granted autonomous aomimstra- of his journey to the Holy Land. Norwe^an students
tion^ and in 1811 a national universitv was founded at who desired degrees went to the Universities of Paris
Chnstiania. Political events enabled Sweden to force and Bologna, or, at a later period, attended a univer-
Denmark in the Treaty of KeU to relinquish Norway, sity nearer nome, that of Kostock in Mecklenbuq^.
Many of the Norwegians not being in lavour of this, With the abandonment of the old Faith and its insti-
a national diet, hdd at Mdsvold (17 May, 1814), tutions was associated the loss of national independ-
agreed upon a constitution and chose as king the ence in 1537. As early as 1519 Christian II had be-
PDpular Danish prince. Christian Frederick. But the gun to suppress the monasteries, and Christian III
owers interfered and ratified the union with Sweden, abetted the cause of Lutheranism. Archbishop Olaf
The Swedish monarchs, Charles John XIV, Oscar I, Engelloechtssen and other dignitaries of the Cnurch
Charles XV, and Oscar II, had a difficult position to were forced to flee; Mogens . Lawridtzen, Bishop of
maintain in Norway. Notwithstanding zealous and Hamar, died in prison in 1642. and Jon Arason of
successful efforts to promote t^e material and intel- Holar was executed on 7 November, 1550.
lectual prosperity of^ the land, they never attained The large landed possessions of the Church went
popularity, nor could they reconcile national dislikes, to the king and his favourites. Many churches were
Fnction increased, the Norwegian parUament growing destroyed, others fell into decay, and the number of
steadily more radical and even becoming the exponent parishes was greatlv reduced. The salaries of the
of republican ideas. From 1884 the Storthing, which preachers, among whom were very objectionable per-
now possessed the real power, steadfastly urged the sons, were generally a mere pittance. Fanatics of^the
dissolution of the unicm. and on 7 June, 1905, (Glared new belief thundered from the pulpit against idolatry
it- to be dissolved. Tne Swedish Government nat- andthecrueltyof the "Roman Antichrist"; whatever
urally was unwilling to consent to ^lis revolutionary might preserve the memory of earlier ages was doomed
action. Negotiations were successfully concluded at to destruction; the pictures of the Virgin were cut to
the Convention of Karlstad, 23 September, 1905. pieces, burned, or thrown into the water; veneration
The Norwegians elected as king Fnnce Charles of of saints was threatened with severe punishment.
Denmark, who, under the title of Hakon VII, has Notwithstanding this, it was only slowly and by the
since t^en reigned over the country. aid of deception that the people were seduced from
Ecclesiastical History. — Little is known of the the ancestral faith. Catholicism did not die out in
religious ideas of the heathen Norwegians, and this Norway until the beginning of the seventeenth cen-
little rests on later sources, chiefly on the Eadas of the tury. The pope entrusted the spiritual care of Nor-
thirteenth century. It seems certain that not only way, first to the Nunciature of Cologne, and then to
animals, but aJso human beings (even kings), were Brussels, but the Draconian laws of Denmark made
sacrificed to the gods, of whom first Thor (ister Odin) Catholic ministration almost impossible. Whether
was the most important. Tlie early Norwegians were the Jesuits appointed to Norway ever went there is
characterized by reckless courage and a cruelty that unknown. A Dominican who reached the country
alternated with generosity and magnanimity. Hakon was expelled after a few weeks. The Norwegian con-
the Good and Olaf Tryggoesson laboured to introduce vert Rhugius was permitted to remain, but was not
Christianity, and during the reign of Olaf Haroldsson allowed to exercise his office. Conditions remained
Christianity became, nominally at least, the prevail- the same later, when the supervision was transferre^l
ing religion. Olaf Haroldsson was a zealous adherent from Brussels to Cologne, from Cologne to Hilders-
of the new faith. He built churches, founded schools, heim, and thence to OsnaorQck.
and exerted influence by his personal example. After There was no change until the nineteenth century
his death he was revered as a saint: the church built at when the laws of 1845 and succeeding years released
Nidaros (now Trondhjem) over his grave was replaced all dissenters, including Catholics who had come into
later by the cathedral of Trondhjem. the finest Duild- the country, from the control of the Lutheran state
ing in Norway. The Dioceses of Nidaros, Bergen. Church. From the time of its foimdation the Luth-
03o, and Stavanger were soon founded, monks ana eran Church had wavered between orthodoxy and
nuns carried on successful missionary work, and in a rationalism, and was finally much affected by the
short time the land was covered with wooden churches Pietistic movement, led by Haugue. In 1843 a small
(StovHrken) of Mngiilitr architecture; the few that Catholic parish was formed in Christiania, and from
remain still arouse admiration. Gradually stone this centre efforts were made to found new stations,
churches with a rich equipment were erected. In 1860 Pius IX created an independent prefecture
The Norwegian bishops were under the jurisdiction Apostolic for Norway. The first prefect was a French-
of the Metropolitan of^Lund until 1152, when the man^ Bernard, formerly prefect of the North Pole
papai legate, Nicholas of Albano, transferred the juris- mission. He was followed by the Luxemburg priest
former ^^mnasial rector Sverenson, and the author
Kroo^^onning, doctor of theology, ori^:inallv a
Lutheran pastor at Christiania. All monastic oraers,
NORWICH 121 NORWICH
falliie, later Bishop of Alusa. under whom the mission een, and the altar in the Ringsacker church on Lake
has steadily developed, although not yet large. Nysen; (in painting) the antependium at Gal; (in re-
Espedally noteworthy among the men who of late lief work) the doorways of the churches at Hyllestad
years have been reconciled to the Church are the and Hemsedal: the baptismal font at Stavanger, reU-
quaries, as at Hedal; censers, as at Hadsel; crucifixes
and vestments. The finest medieval secular building
is King Haakon's Hall, a part of the former roysil {Mdace
Jesuits excepted, are allowed, but there are no mon- at Bergen. Beautif iilly carved chairs, rich tap^tries^
asteries for men. On the other hand the missionaries and fine chased work are further proof of the degree of
of the female congregations, Sisters of St. Elizabeth, culture attained by Catholic Norway.
Sisters of St. Fnmcis, and Sisters of St. Joseph of Hibtobt of Literatube. — Norway can hardly be
Chambdry,numberingabout thirty, have gained useful siud to have an indigenous literature. As regards
and active fellow-workers. There are a few thousands material and arrangement, the chronicles and narra-
of Catholics, for whom there are churches in Chris- lives are very much the same both in the north and the
tiania (St. Olaf and Halvard), in Bergen, Trondlgem, south (for Icelandic Sagas see Icelandic Litebatube).
Fredrikshald, Tromso. Fredrikstad, Altengaard, Hiam- We here treat specifically Protestant literature only
erfest. Catholic hospitals exbt in Christiania, Ber- so far as individual writers, such as the brothers
sen, Drammen, and Christiansand, and there is a num- Munch, refer in poetry or prose to the Catholic era in
ber of Catholic schools towards which the Protestant Norway, and thus indirectly furUier the interests of
population has shown itself friendly. In 1897, for the the Church. The historical investigations and writ-
first time in three hundred years, the feast of St. Olaf ings of Bang, Dietrichson. Daae, and Bugge have
was celebrated at Trondhjem. overthrown many historical misstatements and judg«
Hibtobt of Abt.— Durm^ the Middle Ages art was ments prejudicial to Catholicism. These works nave
closely connected with religion, and its chief task was influenced even Protestant tiieology in Norway, so
the building and embellismnent of churches. Some that its position towards Rome is relatively more
twenty old wooden churches (Stavkirker), still in exist* friendly than in other countries. If heretofore no
eace, show with what skill Norwegians made use of Norwegian Catholic has made a great contribution to
the wood furnished by their forests. At a compara- the national literature the reason is obvious. Of
tively early date, stone was used, first in the Roman- late years, however, various books have been pub-
esque, then in the Gothic buildings. Some of the li^ed of an edifying, apologetic, or of a polemical
work thus produced has a singular and characteristic nature. There is a Catholic weekly, the "St.
charm. Besides primitive churches of one aisle with Olav".
rude towers and belfries, as at Vossevanger, there are When not otherwiM noted, the place of publication is Chxis-
In existence churches of three aisles with pleasing, *»^= ^(JS^T^^^'^To ^?~??^"i,x^^S**~"^Vr^-2?'^' ?**
J /^. *^»"'^ y« " v***^*- <M0<«a . i^ i'*^«*»^> norfJbe folkeU hxstone (8 voU., 1852-63); BAMB^'Udnet over den
and at times relatively nch ornamentation. The nor«Jfc« Xiatorw (1803— ); ODHN«B,Ldro6oibt5wrve«. ^«»raMoc*
facades of some of these are flanked by two towers, as Danmarkt hisUria (7th ed., Stockholm, 1886); ZOBN, Stoat tt.
»t Ake«, B«rg«i and StavMiwn lie mort striking grtr^^"SST^^ I^TJt^S^dVJH^. SS^
achievements of Norwegian architecture are the Cathe- Banq, Udntft <ner den Nor%ke Kirket Hietwie under KatoLiciemen
dral of St. Magnus at Kirkwall in the Orkneys, and, (1887) ; Iobm, Udaint over den Nor»ke Kirket Hietorie efier Refer'
what is even finer the cathednJ at Trondhjem. . The rjSSTffih^i^^^'OTU^S!^
latter has had a chequered history. Bmlt Onginally oartnbr, NordUche Fahnen, II (Freiburg, 1890); Dibtrichbon,
in 1077 by Olaf the Quiet {Kyrre) as a "Christ De Narike Stavkirker (1892); Idkm, Vore Paedres Verk; Norgee
Church" of one aisle over the bones of St. Olaf, it 5««« ». ^ftdiWoWa^en (i^^
x^***«*.M v«v«*« ««Mw ^Tw ux«^ fxv 1 • txri^' • '«»« Htatene (Copenhacen, 1866-9); ScHWsmsB. Ph%L Oetch.
servea at nrst as tnebunal place ottne Kings. Wnenm der tkand, LUeratw (3 yoU., Leipxig, 1886—); OuTXBOAiLBD,'
1152 Trondhjem (Nidaros) was made an archdiocese, lUuetreret Danak lAteraturhittorie (1907); Halyobskm, North
it by^e a place of pilRimage for the entire kingdom, f^^JSJj-igifiif M"^^
and the gifts of the faithful made possible the neces- ;«wiin(F?Sdburg. 187»-); Bbbmxnsaivd KoHLKHMmr. Prcuet.
sarv enlargement of the eauiedral. In 1161 Arch- TMchenbuch (Leipng, 1906).
bishop l^stein Erlandson began its restoration in the P> Wittmann.
Romanesque style. Obliged to flee from King Sverri.
he became acquainted during his stay in England Norwich (Noroovicxtm; Nobvicum), Ancient
with Gothic architecture and made use of this style Diocese of. — ^Though this see took its present name
on his return. This is especiallv evident in the unique only in the eleventh century, its history goes back five
octagon erected over St. Olaf s grave, evidently an hundred years earlier to the conversion of East Anglia
imitation of "Becket's Crown" in Canterburv cathe- by St. Felix in the reign of King Sigeberht, who suc-
dral. Eystein's successors completed the building ceeded to the kingdom of his father Redwald on the
according to his plans. The cathedral was twice death of his half-brother Eorpweald in 628. St. Felix
damaged by fire but each time was repaired (in 1328 fixed his see at Dimwich, a sea-coast town since sub-
and in 1432). It fell into almost complete ruin after merged, the site of which is in South wold Bay. From
the great fire of 5 May, 1531, and for several hundred Dimwich, St. Felix evangelized Norfolk, Suffolk, and
years no attention was paid to it. A change came Cambridgeshire, the counties which formed the dio-
with the awakening of national pride, and the restora- cese. He was succeeded by Thomas (647), Beorhtgils
tion of the cathedral is now nearine completion. Its (Boniface), who died about 669, and Bisi, on whose
most valuable treasures, the body of the great Apostle death, in 673, St. Theodore, Archbishop of Canter-
of Norwajr St. Olaf and the costlv shrine that enclosed bury, divided the see into two, with cathedrals at
it, have disappeared. In 1537 the shrine was taken to Dunwich and Elmham. The following are the hues of
Copenhagen, robbed of its jewels, and melted, while episcopal succession based on the most recent re-
the bones of the saint were buried by fanatics in some search, with approximate dates of accession where
unknown plaoe to put an end forever to the veneration known : —
of them. The wood-carvings, paintings, and other Dunwich: .£cci, 673: Alric; .£scwidf: Eardred;
objects of art, which formerly adorned Norwegian Ealdbeorht I: Eardwult; Cuthwine: Ealdbeorht II;
churches, have been either carried off or destroyed. Ecglaf ; Heardred; ^Ifhun. 790; Tidirith, 798; Waer-
This was not so frequently the case in the northern mund; Wilred, 825. Elmham: Beaduwine, 673;
part of the country, and in other districts some few Nothbeorht; Heathulac; ^thelfrith, 736; Eanfrith;
objects escaped. Ainon^ the works of art especially iEthelwulf ; Ealhheard; Sibba; Hunfrith; St. Hun-
interesting may be mentioned: (in wood-carvmg) the beorht; Ciinda (there is some doubt as to whether
altar of the Virgin in the Church of GNir Lady at Ber- Cunda was Bishop of Elmham or Dunwich).
I
NOTARY 123 KOTHOMB
oontinued. The ordinary notaries of the chancery, Notary. See Pbothonotabt.
however, wwe gradually known by other names, ac- Notlnirga, Saint, patroness of servants and peaa*
cording to their vanoiw functions, so that the t«rm ^^ j, ^^2^ ^^ feattenberg on the Inn; d. c. 16
ceased to be employed m the pontifical and other September, 1313. She was cook in the family of
chanceries. The prothonotanes were and stiU are ^^^ g ^^ Rothenburg, and used to give food to
a college of prelates, enjoying numerous privileges: ^y^^ ^^^ q^^^^ her mistress, ordered her to
they are known as participants , but outside of feed the swine with whatever food was left. She,
Rome th«e are many purely honorary prothono- therefore, saved some of her own food, especially on
**"^^ J^® ®®S*^ u^"^*^ ^^ insenably ahnost pridays, and brought it to the poor. One day, ac-
oawedibutRusXinhisrwrpamjationoftheRoman eording to legen^her master met her, and com-
Curia has apTOmtedpartimpant prothonotanes to sanded her to show him what she was carrying. She
the chancery CCpnst. Sapienti , 29 June, 1908). A obeyed, but instead of the food he saw only shavings,
corresponding change occurred in the bureaux of the and the wine he found to be vmegar. Hereupon Ot-
episcppal churches, abbeys, etc. : the officials attached tilU dismissed her, but soon felldangerously iU, and
to the chancery have ceased to be known as Notburga remained to nurse her and prepared her for
notaries and are called chancellor, secretary, ete. death
Lastly, mention must be made of the notari€» of the Notburga then entered the service of a peasant
pmodal or concihar assemblies, whose duties are j^ the town of Eben, on condition that she be per-
hmited to the duration of the assembly. netted to go to church the evenings before Sundays
Society m former times did not reoogmae the separa- ^nd festivds. One evening her master urged her to
tion of powers; roM«o, m the Church the judiciAl continue working in the field. Throwing Tier sickle
authority was vested m the same prelates as the ad- -^^ the air she swd: " Let my sickle be jucfee between
mmistratiye. Soon however, contentious matters ^^^ ^nd you," and the sickle remained suspended in
were tned separately before a roecially appointed the air. Meantime Count Henry of Rothenburg was
body. TTie courta required a staff to record the tran*. ^ted with great reverses which he ascribed to the
actions; iheae clerks were hkewise notanca. In most dismissal of Notburga. He engaged her again and
cmlcourtath^ are however, caUedr»strM,d^^ thenceforth all went well in hw household. Shortly
of the court, etc., but m the ecclesiastical tnbunals j^^^ y^^ ^jeath she told her master to place her
they retam the name notary, though they are ^ ^ ^^ ^ ^ ^1,^^ b two oxen, and to bury
called, actuaries. Thus the g)ecial law of the higher her wherever the oxen would stand sUh. The oxen
ecclesiastical tnbun^, the Rota and the Si^atura, ^^ the wagon to the chapel of St Rupert near
reorgamaed by Pius X. provides for the appointment ^y^ wherelhe was buried. Her ancient cult was
of notaries for these two tnbunals (can. v and xxxv). ^^^ ^^ 27 March, 1862, and her feast is celebrated
^^r^f'^'^^'^i^'^^^^J^^'^^rS^^'^i^i'^'^'^ on 14 September, ^he is generaUy represented with
up the documente of the Holy OflBce is caUed the no- ^„ ^ J ^ Ao^^^ ^^ ^ ^^kle in her hand;
tary, as were the clerks who m^ former times drew up eometimes with a sickle suspended in the air.
the records of the Inquisition, W, doubtless, that of all Her legendary Ufe was first compiled in Germany by Guaki-
the Roman Congregations the Holy Office is the only noni. in 1646, Latin tr. Roschmann in Ada ss., September, iv,
real judicial tribunal. The notaries of ecclesiastical 717-726; Hattlbh. si. NcOmrg, die Magd de» Herrn, den afaufr-
«^u..l«..i« ->«^ .,<...»tK, ^i^^^w.. ♦u^ ^..4.:.r^ «»«,. u^«.»..»- vnurdtgen Urkunden treuherztQ nadierxaehU^ 5th ed. (Donauwortn,
tnbunals are usually clencs; the duties may however i902)r&rAX)L«B, HeUioer^Lexikan, iv (Au«sburE. 1875), 686-
be confided to laymen, except m criminal cases 692; Dunbab, DittumaTy of SairUlu Women, II (London, 1905),
against a cleric. 111-112; Babiko-Gould, Li^ea of the Sainte, 14 Sept.
FinaUy, there is the class of persons to whom the Notburga, legendary daughter of Dagobert I, who
term notary is restnctedm coimnon parlance to wit, i^ said to have l^ed in a cave near Hochhausen on the
those who are appomted by theproper^ Neckar in Baden. Many legends are rented as to the
to witness the dwjumentary proceeainrabetww^^^ sanctity and holiness of her^e. After her death her
vato persons and to impress them with legal authen- ^od was placed on a chariot drawn by two white
^2^^*K% "^ ''''15°^^?^ '"^ ^^"^ chancenes, m ^^^ ^ the place of burial, where at piisent stands
order that they may be witEm easy reach of private ^^^ ^ j^ ^^ Hochhausen. It is very probable that
!Si!i'*'^'™ ^ ^""^ a pubhc character, so that their ^^e legend of St. Notburga, the daughter of Dagobert
records drawn up according to rule are received as j ig^erely a distortion of that ofSt. Notb^a of
authentic accounts of the particular transaction. }(attenbenc
especially agreements, contracts, testaments, and d^ BlomT'i^ ne et la Ugmde de Madame SainU Notburga
wills. (Paris, 1868) ; Clock. Bin Bidd aue Badena SaaemaeU (Karlanibe,
perors, reigning princes, and of course only witnin the (London, 1906), iio.
limits of their jurisdiction; moreover, the territory Michael Ott.
within which a notary can lawfully exercise his f unc- «,_..•. wt t» t»i-_aa uo
tions is expressly determined. There were formerly ^ r^**?^'*' Jban-Baptistb, Belgian statemnan, b. 3
Apostohc notaries and even episcopal notaries, duly July, 1806, at Messancy, Luxemburg; d. at Berhn, 16
commissioned by papal or episcopal letters, whose September, 1^1. He received his secondary educa-
duty it was to receive documents relating to ecclesi- t»o? at the atfiMie of Luxemburg, studied law m the
astical or mixed aflFairs, especially in connexion with Umvermty of Li^, and was awarded a doctor's de-
benefices, foundations, and donations in favour of greeinl826. He practised law in Luxemburg, then m
churches, wills of clerics, ete. They no longer exist; Brussels, where he took an active part in the war that
the only ecclesiastical notaries at present are the of- ^^ t^®^ wa^ in the press in behalf of the independ-
fidalsof the Roman and episcopal cutub. Moreover «»oe of Belgium. During the riots of August, 1830,
these notaries were layman, and Canon Law forbids ^^ ^^ ^^ his native province; but hearing of the fight
clerics to acts as scrivenere (c. viii, "Ne ckrici vel ^^ch had taken place between the patnote and the
monachi", 1. Ill, tit. 50). troops of the Prince of Orange he hurried back to the
Dn Camob, OloMonum, 8. ▼. Nolariue; Fbbbabis, Ptompta capital.
W******?".* ••7- ^«*«??"' r'AOiKAin, Cortmeniaria in e. Sieut to. t, >rhe provisional government appointed him secre-
Ne Ciena eel menaeht; and inc. In ordtnando, I, De e%mon%a; x„^, ^t xi,^ «^,v.wJ»:**~k «i.:aI, »aa *%»<>»««:>«»• 4\%a
IWbicoubt, Lee Uri* eielieiaetuiuee de France (Pari.. 1721), B, i^ry Of the committee whlch WSa prepanng the
nii; Oibt, Manuel de diplomatique (Paris, 1894). first draft of a new constitution. Three electoral dis-
A. BouDiNHON. tricts of Luxemburg chose him as their representative
NOTITIiL
124
NOTITLi
In the ilnt legidatuie of Belgium. He dedared for
the district of Arlon to which, in 1831, he gave proof
of his gratitude by doing his utmost to prevent its
union with Germany. Nothomb, who was the young-
est member of the legislative assembly, was appointed
one of its secretaries and a member ot the committee
on foreign afifairs. In the chamber he strongly op-
posed the advocates of the union of Belgium with
France and those who were for a republican govern-
ment. His political ideal, which he defended with
great eloquence, was a representative monarchy with
two houses, liberty of the press, and complete inde-
Eendence, in their own spheres, of the secular and re-
gions powers.
From 1831-36 he was general secretary for foreign
affairs; with Devaux he went to London to carry
on secret ne^tiations at the conference which had
met in that city to settle the new state of affairs cre-
ated by the Belgian revolution, and did much to re-
move the difficulties which had delayed the departure
for Belgium of Leopold of Saxe-C!oburg. He pub-
lished in 1833 his "Essai historioue et politique sur la
revolution beige", a remarkable work which was
translated into German and Italian and was reprinted
three times in the same year. In 1836 Nothomb re-
signed as general secretary for foreign affairs and in
1837 became minister of Public Works in the Catholic
administration of de Theux. He gave a powerful
impetus to the construction of railroads and when he
resigned in 1840 more than 300 kilometres had been
built. In the same year he was sent as an extraordi-
nary envoy to the German Confederation and in 1841
became minister of the interior in a unionist adminis-
tration; but the positions of the parties were not what
they had been in the preceding decade, and Nothomb
soon realized that a union of the Catnolics and lib-
erals was no longer possible. In 1845 he withdrew
from the political arena to enter the diplomatic corps.
He was for many years minister plenipotentiary of
Beljpum in Berlin. In 1840 he had become a member
of nie Royal Academy of Brussels; and he received
many distmctions from foreign countries.
NoTHOiiB, Alphonse, broUicr of Jean-Baptiste, b.
12 July, 1817; d. 15 May, 1898. He had a brilliant
career in the magistracy, was minister of justice in
1855, and became a member of the lower house of Par-
liament in 1859. In 1884 he was made a minister of
State. Like his brother he was a staunch Catholic;
in the latter part of his life he had become a convert to
the political creed of the new Catholic democratic
party.
JuBTS, Le Baron Nothomb CBniiaels, 1874); Tbokimkk, Hia-
toire du r^gru de Uopotd /•'' (Louyain, 1861); Htmans, BuUrirt
partemenUrin de la BMgiqu* (BninelB, 1877-80).
P. J. Mabiqub.
NotitU Dignitatuxn (Register of Offices), the
official handbook of the civil and military officials in
the later Roman Empire. The extant Latin form be-
longs to the early fifth century. Tlie last addenda con-
cerning the Eastern Empire point to the year 397 as the
latest chronological limit^hile supplementary notices
concerning the Western Empire extend into the reign
of Valentinian III (425-55). The bulk of the state-
ments, however, point to earlier years of the fourth
century, individual notices showing conditions at the
be(;inning of this century. The first part of the ' ' No-
titia " ^ves a list of the officiab in the Eastern Empire :
"Notitia dignitatum omnium tam civilium quam mil-
itarium in partibus Orientis"; the second part gives a
corresponding list for the Western Empire: ''Notitia
... in partibus Occidentis". Both give, first the
highest official positions of the central administration,
^en the officiab in positions subordinate to these, ana
also the officials of the various "dioceses'* and prov-
inces, the civil officials being regularly stated alons
with the military. In addition, .the insignia of the on
ficials and of the army divisions are shown by draw-
ings. This register was used in the imperial chan-
cery; the chi^ official of the chancery {primieeriitM
notariorum) found in it all necessary information for
drawing up the announcements of the appointment of
officials and of their positions. The " Notitia", pre-
served as it is in an incomplete condition, is partly an
abstract, partly an exact transcript of this official reg-
ister. It shows that at various periods, extending as
late as the first part of the fifth century, additions were
made to the state re^pster and gives the essential form
of the list in the era just mentioned. It is, therefore,
a very important authority for the divisions of the
Empire, for an understanding of the Roman bureau-
cracy, and for the distribution of the army during the
late Roman Empire. The first printed edition was
"Notitia utraque cum Orientis tum Occidentis"
(Basle, 1552) ; the latest editions were edited by BGdc-
ing (2 vols., Bonn, 1839-53), and O. Seeck, "Notitia
diniitatum. Accedunt Notitia urbis Constantino-
poutan® et Laterculi provinciarum'* (Berlin, 1876).
Sbbck. QuaHione$ de Notitia diifnitatum (Berlin, 1872) : Iobm ,
Die Zeit dee Vegetitte in Hermee, XI (Berlin. 1876), 77 aqq.;
Idsm, Zur Krittk dor NotUia dignitatum in Hermee, IX (1876).
217 eqq.; Stbvfbnbaobn, Der Gottorfer Codex der Notitia dignita-
tum in Hermee, XIX (1884), 458 sqq.; Mommbbn, Die Coneerijh
I Hermca. XIX (1884). 233 Bqq.;
TBUFTBii-ScHWABB, Oeock, doT rfffltMch^n bittraiwr (Sth ea..
tioneordnung der r&m, Kaieerteit in Hermee^ XIX (1884). 233 eqq.;
Ldpng, 1890), 1163.
J. P. KiBSCH.
NotitlSB BpiBCopatuum, the name given to official
documents that furnish for Eastern countries the list
and hierarchical rank of the metropolitan and
suffragan bishoprics of a' Church. Whilst, in the
Patriarchate of Home, archbishops and bishops were
classed according to the seniority of their conse-
cration, and in Africa according to their age, in
the Eastern patriarchates the hierarchical rank of
each bishop was determined by the see he occupied.
Thus, in the Patriarchate of Constantinople, the first
metropolitan was not the lonsest ordained, but who-
ever happened to be the incumbent of the See of Cssa-
rea; the second was the Archbishop of Ephesus, ahd so
on. In every ecclesiastical province, the rank of each
suffragan was thus determined, and remained un-
changed unless the list was subsequentlv modified.
The hierarchical order included first of all, the patri-
arch; then the greater metropolitans, i. e., those who
had dioceses with suffragan sees; the autocephalous
metropolitans, who had no suffragans, and were di-
rectly subject to the patriarch; next archbishops who,
although not differins from autocephalous metropoli-
tans, occupied hierarchical rank inferior to theirs, and
were also immediately dependent on the patriarch;
then simple bishops, i. e., exempt bishops, and lastly
suffragan bishops. It is not known by whom this very
ancient order was established, but it is likelv that, in
the beginning, metropolitan sees and simple bishop-
rics must have been classified according to the date of
their respective foundations, this order bein^ modified
later on for political and religious considerations. We
here append, Church by \;hurch, the principal of
tiiese documents.
A. Constantinople: The "Ecthesis of pseudo-Epi-
phanius", a revision of an earlier Notitia episcopa-
tuum (probably compiled by Patriarch Epiphanius
under Justinian), made during the reign of Heraclius
(about 640) ; a Notitia dating back to the first years
of the ninth century and oifferinK but little from
the earlier one; the "Notitia of Basil the Armenian'',
drawn up between 820 and 842* the Notitia com-
piled by Emperor Leo VI the Philosopher, and Patri-
arch Nicholas Mysticus between 901 and 907, modify-
ing the hierarchical order which had been established
in the seventh century, but had been disturbed by the
incorporation of the ecclesiastical provinces of Iilyri-
cum and Southern Italy in the Byzantine Patriar-
chate; the Notitis episcopatuum of Constantine Por*
/
NOTITIA 125 NOTKEB
phjrrogenitus (about 940), of Tzimisces (about 980), cally accepted that he is the ''monk of St. Gall" (mon-
of Alexius Comnenus (about 1084), of Nil Doxapatns achus Sangallensis), author of the legends and aneo-
(1143), of Manuel Comnenus (about 1170). of Isaac dotes ''Gesta Caroti Magni". The number of woiks
Angelus (end of twelfth century), of Micnael VIII ascribed to him is constantly; increaong. He intro-
Palsologus (about 1270), of Andronicus II Palaeolo- ducedthe8equence,anew6pecieB of religious lyric, into
inxs (about 1299), and of Andronicus III (about 1330). Germany, it had been the custom to prolong the
druckte und
Notitis episoopatuum" (Mimich, 1900); Gelzer, ker learned how to fit the separate sy^Uabk
** Georgii Cyprii Descriptio orbis romani '' (Leipzig, text to the tones of this jubilation : this poem was called
1890) ; Gelzer. " Index lectionum lens" (Jena, 1892); the sequence (q. v.), formerly called the "jubilation ".
Parthey, "£ueroclis Synecdenms" (Berlin, 1866). (The reason for this name is imoertidn.) Between
The later works are only more or less modified copies 881-887 Notker dedicated a collection of such verses
of the Notitia of Leo the Philosopher, and therefore do to Bishop Liutward of Veroelli, but it is not known
not present the true situation, which was profoundly which or how many are his. Ekkehard IV, the his-
changed by the Mussulman invasions. After the cap- toriographcr of St. Gall, speaks of fiftv sequences
ture of Constantinople by the Turks^ another Notitia attributable to Notker. The hymn, ''Media Vita",
was written, portraying the real situation (Gelzer, was erroneously attributed to him late in the Middle
"Ungedruckte Texte der Notitise episcopatuum", Ages. Ekkehud IV lauds him as "delicate of bodv
613-37), and on it are based nearly all those which but not of mind, stuttering of tonpue but not of Intel-
have been since written. The term Syntagmation is lect. pushing boldly forward in thin^ Divine, a vessel
now used by the Greeks for these documents. of tne Holv Spirit without equal in his time". Notker
B. We know of only one "Notitia episcopatuum" was beatined in 1512.
for the Church of Antioch, viz. that drawn up in the Chbvalibk, B%o4nbl., b, v.; Mbykb von Knonau in RnUneyk.
sixth century by Patriarch Anastasius (see Vailh6 ff:^Ji3£^^^
in "Echoe d'Orient", X, pp. 90-101, 139-145, 363-8). ®''™' ^"""^ '^^*~' ^^ ^^^' ^®"^'
Jerusalem has no such document, nor has Alexan- (2) Notksr Labeo, monk in St. Gall and author,
dria, although for the latter Gelzer has collected b. about 950; d. 1022. He was descended from a
documents which may help to supply the deficiency noble family and nephew of Ekkehard I. the poet
61) has published a Coptic document which has not recognition of his services to the language,
yet been studied. For the Bulgarian Church of Ach- to St. Gall when only a boy, and there acquired a vast
rida, see Gelzer, "Byz. Zeitschrift"^ II, 40-66, and and varied knowledge by omnivorous reading. His
"Do: Patriarchat von Achrida" (Leipzig, 1902). M. contemporaries admired him as a theologian, philo-
Gerland has just announced for 1913 a critical and logist, mathematician, astronomer, connoisseur of
definitive new edition of all the Notitise episcopa- music, and poet. He tells of his studies and his liter-
tuum of the Churches of Constantinople, Alexandria, ary work in a letter to Bishop Hugo of Sitten (998-
Antioch, Jerusalem, Cyprus, Achrida, Ipek, Russia, 1017). but was obliged to give up the study of the
and Georgia. liberal arts in order to devote himself to teaching.
In addition to the worka cited, a aupplementary bibUopaphy YoT the benefit of his pupils he had undertaken some-
j^be^found in Khumbacmh. Gesch. iUr 6y,. l^^^ch. ^^^ ^^^^ unheard, namely translations from Latin
into German. He mentions eleven of these translar
Notitia ProYinciarum et Ciyitatum AfricsB tions. but unfortunately only five are preserved: (1)
(List of the Provinces and Cities of Africa), a list of the Boethius, "De oonsolatione pJulosophuB": (2) Mar-
bishops and their sees in the Latin provinces of North cianus Capella, De nuptus Philologia et Mercurii";
Africa, arranged according to provinces in this order: (3) Aristotle, "De cat^riis"; (4) Aristotle, "De
Proconsularis, Numidia, Byzacena, Mauretania Cjb- interpretatione"; (6) "The Psalter". Among those
sariensis, Mauretania Sitifensis, Tripolitana, Sar- lost are: "The Book of Job", at which he worked for
dinia. The cause of its preparation was the summon- more than five years; "Disticha Catonis"; Vergil's
ing of the episcopate to Carthage, 1 February, 484, "Bucolica"; and the "Andria" of Terenz. Of his
by the Arian King of the Vandals, Hunerich (477-84). own writings he mentions in the above letter a "New
It names also the exiled bishops and vacant sees, and Rhetoric" and a "New Computus" and a few other
18 an important authority for the history of the African smaller works in Latin. We still possess the Rhetoric,
Church and the geography of these provinces. It is the Computus (a manual for calculating the dates
incorporated in the only extant manuscript to the hi&- of ecclesiastical celebrations, especially of Easter), the
tory of the Vandal persecution by Bishop Victor of eway "P© partibus logics", and the German essay
Vita, and is printed in the editions of this work. on Music.
P. L., LVIII. 267 sqq.; VictortM de Vita Opera, ed. Halm in In Kogel S Opuuon Notker Labeo was One of the
Mon. Germ, hiu.: Auet. antiq., Ill (Berlin, 1879), 63 jq.; ed. greatest stylists in German literature. "His achieve-
Prr^BKio in Carp, ecnpi, ecci. W.. VII ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ Sents in this.respect Seem almost marvellous." His
style, where it becomes most brilliant, is essentially
Notker.— Among the various monks of St. Gall poetical; he observes with surprising exactitude the
who bo/e this name, the following are the most taws of the language. Latin and German he com-
importan t : manded with equal miencv; and while he did not undei^
(1) Notker Balbulub (Stammerer), Blessed, stand Greek, he was weak enough to pretend that he
monkandauthor,b.about840.atJonswil, canton of St. did. He put an enormous amount of learning and
Gall (Switzerland); d.912. Of a distinguished family, erudition mto his commentaries on his translations,
he received his education with Tuotilo, originator of There everything may be found that was of interest
tropes, at St. GalFs, from Iso and the Irishman in his time, philosophy, universal and literary history,
Moengall, teachers in the monastic school. He be- natural science, astronomy. He frequently quotes the
came a monk there and is mentioned as librarian classics and the Fathers of the Church. It is charao-
(890), and as master of guests (892-94). He was teristic of Notker that at his dying request the poor
chiefly active as teacher, and displayed refinement of were fed, and that he asked to be buried in the clothes
taste as poet and author. He completed Erchanbert's which he was wearing in order that none might see the
chronicle (816), arranged a martyrologjr. and com- heavy chain with which he had been in the habit of
posed a metrical biography of St. GaU. It is practi- mortifying his body.
NOTO 126 NOTOBIETY
Kbllb, Oe$eh. d«r deut. Lit. hia mr Mitu dM It. Jahrhundmu, I surrender to Uie Normans. Destroyed by an earth-
gS^'JS^i^if?: K.2S?i8l5)'S5t^!*1&5SL^5S <l«»k? l? 1«93, ;» w« rebuilt nearly five mile, from
sSuifUn NoUtert, I-III (Freiburg, 1882-^). its primitive Site. It contains fine churches, like that
KusMENB L5FFLEB. of St. Nicholas, an archsological museum with a col-
, ^ ^ lection of Syracusan, Roman, and Saracen coins, and
(3) NoTKBB Phtsicub (sumamed Pipbris Gra- a library. Noto is the birthplace of the humanist
num), physician and painter, d. 12 Nov., 975. He re- John Aurispa, secretary of Eugene IV and Nicholas V.
ceived his surname on account of his strict discipline, in the cathedral is the tomb of Blessed Conrad of
Concerning his life we only know that in 956 or 957 Piacensa. The diocese was separated in 1844 from
he became cellarius, and in 965 koapUarius at St. Gall. theArchdioceseof Syracuse, of which Noto is suffragan;
Ekkehard IV extols several of his paintmgs, and men- the first bishop was Joseph Menditto. It has 19 par-
tions some antiphons and hymns of his composition ishes; 148,400 inhabitants; 11 religious houses of men,
(e. j5. the hvpMi "lector «temi metuende secli"). and 14 of women; a school for boys and three for prls;
He IS probably identical with a "Notker notanus", and a home for invalids.
who enjoyed great consideration at the court of Otto Cafpbllvxtx, Le Chi^e iT Italia, XXI. XJ. Benigni.
I on account of his skill in medicine, and whose knowl-
edge of medical books is celebrated by Ekkel^. In Notoriety, Notorious (Lat. Notarietaa, notanwn,
940 this Notker wrote at Quedlmburg the confirmation from notua, known). — Notoriety is the quality or the
of the immunity of St. Gall. This is in accord with gtate of thinra that are notorious; whatever is so
the great partieOity later shown by the Ottos towards fuUy or officitoly proved, that it may and ought to be
the monk, for example when they visited St. Gall in held as certain without further investigation, is no-
972. .^..'. J ,, ,, torious. It is difficult to express exactly what is meant
Ekkbhart (IV), Cagua Sandt Gailt, ed. Meter von Khonau Kvtinf^riMv onH aa tfiA OlAfaa wi.va (in om\ MfinifpAfji.
in MitteiL tur vaieriAnd. Gesch. (St. Gall. 1877), cxxiii, cxivu; Dy notonety, ana, as ine U108S Mys un Can. Maniiesta.
BuBaBNBR,He/«e<M.Safu<a.ll(EinMedeln. 1860). 132 aq.:SiRKT. 15, C. u, q. 1), "we are Constantly usmg the word
Diet, det peinirea etc. (new ed., Parb. 1874), 640; Wattbnbach. nciorioiis and are ignorant of its meaning". Ordi-
DmOaehlandM OeachiehUqueUen, I (7th ed., Stutti^rt, 1004). 354; narilv it \a MinivivlAnt tj\ nnhlin TnA.niff)«f PviHf»nt
Rahn, Gmc*. dar ww«nd«n Xfliwt* in d«r 5c*u>€ii (Zurich, 1876), J^^^^Y " IS cqmvaieni lo puDUc, manuMt, eviceni,
139 eqq. known; all these terms have something m common,
, ^ ^^ , * 1.T 1 T»i- • J *i^ they signify that a thing, far from being secret, may be
(4) NoTKBR, nephew of Notker Phymcus, d. 15 easUy known by many. Notoriety, in addition to this
Dec., 975. We have no documentary information common idea, mvolves the idea of indisputable proof ,
concerning him until his appointment as Abbot of St. go that what is notorious is held as proved and serves
Gall (971). Otherwise also the sources are silent con- ^g ^ basis for the conclusions and acts of those in au-
ceming him, except that they call him "abba benig- thority, especially judges. To be as precise as is pos-
nus" and laud his unaffected piety. sible, "public" means what any one may easily prove
dSs?*^" ^^' *^' **" '*™* Mabilloh, Ada S8. 0.S.B.. V ^^ ascertain, what is done opeidy : what many persons
know and hold as certain, is manifest"; what a
(5) NoTKSR, Provost of St. Gall and later Bishop greater or less numb^ of persons have learnt, no mat-
of Li6ge, b. about 940; d. 10 April, 1008. This eel- ter how, is "known": what is to be hdd as certain and
ebrated monk is not mentioned by the otherwise pro- may no longer be called in question is "notorious",
lix historians of St. Gall. He probably belonged to a Authorities distinguish between notoriety of fact,
noble Swabian family, and in 969 was appointed im- notoriety of law, and presumptive notorietv, though
perial chaplain in Italy. From 969 to 1(X)8 he was the last is often considered a subdivision of the second.
Bishop of Li6ge. Through him the influence of St. Whatever is easily shown and is known by a sufficient
Gall was extended to wider circles. He laid the foun- number of persons to be free from reasonable doubt
dation of the great fame of the Li6ge Schools, to which is notorious in fact. This kind of notoriety may refer
studious youths soon flocked from all Christendom, either to a transitory fact, e. g^Caiua was assassi-
By procuring the services of Leo the Calabrian and nated; or permanent facts, e. g., Tltius is papsh priest
thus making possible the study of Greek, Notker gave of this parish; or recurring facts, e. g., Sempronius en-
notable extension to the Li6ge curriculum. Among gages in usurious transactions. Whatever has been
Notker's pupils, who extended the influence of the juScially ascertained, viz., judicial admissions, an af-
li^ge schools to ever wider circles, may be men- fair fully proved, and the judjpnent rendered in a law-
tioned Hubald, Gimther of Salzburg, Ruthard and suit, is notorious in law; the judge accepts the fact as
Erlwin of Cambrai, Heimo of Verdun, Hesselo of Toul. certain without investigation ; nor will he allow, except
and Adalbald of Utrecht. A noteworthy architectural in certain well-specified cases, the matter to be called
activity also manifested itself under Notker. in question. " Notorious " is then used as more or less
In Folcwin's opinion Notker's achievements surpass synonymous with "official". Such also are facts re-
those of any of his predecessors: among the builcungs corded in official documents, as civil or ecclesiastical
erected by him may be mentioned St. John's in Li6ge, registries of births, deaths, or marriages, notarial rec-
after the model of the Aachen cathedral. Praise- ordis. Lastly, whatever arises from a rule of law based
worthy also were his services as a politician under on a "violent" presumption^ for instance, paternity
Otto III and Henry II. He adhered faithfully to the and filiation in case of a legitimate marriage, is pr&-
cause of the romantic Otto, whom he accompanied sumptively notorious.
to Rome. It was also he who brought back the corpse when a fact is admitted as notorious by the judge,
of the young emperor to Germany. The "Gcsta and in seneral by a competent authority, no proof of it
episcoporum Leodiensium" have been freauently is requ&ed, but it is often necessary to show that it is
wrongly attributed to him, although he merely sug- notorious, as the judge is not expected to know eveiy
gested its composition, and lent the work Mb name to notorious fact. The notoriety has to be proved, like
secure it greater authority. any other fact alleged in a trial, by witnesses or "in-
struments", that IS, written documents. The wit-
Wattbnbach, DeuitdUanda GeaehiehUqudien im Mititialter, I
'^S^Kampkhs tracte from the official registries, in the copies
r^Nz A^^FEBs. ^i^gn^c judicial papers, for instance, a judgment, or of
Noto, DiocBSB or (Nbtbn) , the ancient Netum and notarial papers, known as "notarial acts ' . drawn up
after the Saracen conquest the capital of one of the by public notaries on the conscientious declarations ot
three divisions of Sicily, was among the last cities to well-informed witnesses.
NOTRE DAME 127 NOTRE DAME
Canoniste have variously classified the legal effects Bishop of Quebec, invited the sisters to open houses
of notoriety, especis^Iy in matters of procedure; but, in that settlement, which was done. In 1689 he de-
ultimately, they may all be reduced to one: the judge, sired to confer with Mother Bourgeoys in regard to a
and in general the person in authority, holding what is project of foundation. Though sixty-nine years of
notorious to be certain and proved, requires no further age, she set out at once on the Jong and perilous jour-
information, and therefore, both may and ought to ney on foot to Quebec, and had to suffer all the incon-
refndn from any judicis^ inquiry, proof, or formalities, veniences of an April tnaw. Acceding to the demands
which would otherwise be necessary. For these in- of the bishop for the new foundation, she had the
quiries and formalities having as their object to double consolation of obedience to her superior, and of
enlighten the judge, are useless when the fact is keeping her sisters in their true vocation when, only
notorious. Such is the true meaning of the axiom four years later, the bishop himself became convinced
that in notorious matters the judge need not follow that such was necessary. Mother Bourgeoys asked
the judicial procedure (cf. can. 14 and 16, C. ii, q. 1; repeatedly to be discharged from the superiorship,
cap. 7 and 10, ** De cohab. cleric", lib. Ill, tit. ii ; cap. 3, but not until 1693 did the bishop accede to her petition.
"iJe testib. cogend.", lib. II, tit. xxi). None of the Eventually on 24 June, 1698. the rule and constitution
essential solemnities of the procedure should ever be of the congregation, based upon those which the
omitted. The most interesting application of the ef- foundress had gathered from various sources, were
feet of notoriety in criminal matters is in connexion formally accepted by the members. The next day
with the floffrans deUctuSf when the accused is caught they made their vows. The superior at the time was
in the cnminal act, in which case the judge is ous- Mother of the Assumption (Baroier). Mother Bour-
pensed from the necessity of any inquiiy . geoys devoted the remainder of her life to the prepara-
Faonan. Commeru. in cap. Veatra, 7, lib.jll Decrrf., tit. ii; tion of points of advice for the guidance of her sister-
YKBSLkKi%,PrompUi b%bl\oih,,^.v.NoU>num; Burn, The ElemenU u,^-^ cju^ j:.^ ftn 19 Tammi-v 1700 On 7 T%i^
o/BccU4naJttiealUwiNewYoTk,lS77-l8S9); Taunton. The Law ^^- ^'^^ °^^ O^ ^f January, 1/UU. Un 7 Llec.,
of the Church (Londoa, 1006). 452. ^ n 1878, she was declared venerable. The proclamation
A. BouDiNHON. ^f yjg heroicity of the virtues of the Venerable Mai-
Notre Dame, CongregationB of. — I. — Congre- guerite Bourgeoys was officially made in Rome, 19
GATioN OP Notre Dame de Montreal. — Mamierite June, 1910. In 1701 the community numbered fifty-
Bourgeoys, the foundress, was bom at Troyes, France, four members. The nuns were selfHsupporting and,
17 April, 1620. She was the third child" of Abraham on this consideration, the number of subjects was not
Bourgeois, a merchant, and Guillemette Gamier, limited by the French Government, as was the case
his wife. In 1653 Paul Chomodv de Maisonneuve, with all the other existing communities. The con-
the founder of Ville Marie (Montreal), visited flagration which ravaged Montreal in 1768 destroyed
Troyes, and invited her to go to Canada to teach; the mother-house, which had been erected eighty-
she set out in June of that year, arrived at Ville five years before. The chapel of Bon Secours, built by
Marie, and devoted herself to every form of works Mother Bourgeoys^ was destroyed by fire in 1754, and
of mercy. She opened her first school on 30 April, rebuilt by the Seminary of St. Sulpice in 1771.
1657, but soon had to return to France for recruits. During the latter half of the nineteenth century,
where four companions joined her. A boarding missions were established in various parishes of the
school and an industrial school were opened and Provinces of Quebec, Ontario, Nova Scotia, New
sodalities were founded. In 1670 the foundress went Brunswick, Prince Edward Island, and in the United
back to France and returned in 1672 with letters States: also, many new academies and schools were
Trom King Louis XIV and also with six new com- openea in the city of Montreal. The normal school
panions. In 1675 she built a chap)el dedicated to in Montreal, imder the direction of the congregation.
Notre Dame de Bon Secours. To insure greater free- begun in 1899, has worthily realLscd the hopes founded
dom of action Mother Bourgeoys founded an un- upon it. Of its three hunored and eighteen graduates,
cloisto^ community, its members bound only by authorized to teach in the schools of Quebec, one
simple vows. They had chosen 2 July, as their pat- hundr^ and eighty-four are actually employed there,
ronal feast-day. Modelling their lives on that of Our The house, built after the fire of 1768, was demolished
Lady after the Ascension of Our Lord, they aided the in 1844 to give place to a larger building. A still more
pastors in the various parishes where convents of the commodious one was erected in 1880. This was
order had been estabhshed, by instructing children, burned down in 1893, obliging the community to re-
Although the community had received the approbar turn to the house on St. Jean-Baptiste Street. A new
tion of the Bishop of Quebec, the foundress became building was erected on Sherbrooke Street, and here
veiy desirous of having the conditions of non-enclosure the Sisters have been installed since 1908. The Notre
and, simple vows embodied in a rule. To confer with Dame Ladies' College was inaugurated in 1908. To-
the bishop, who was then in France, she undertook a day the institute, whose rules have been definitively ap-
third journey to Europe. She returned the next year, proved by the Holy See, counts 131 convents m 21
and resisted the many attempts made in the next few dioceses, 1479 professed sisters, over 200 novices, 36
years to merge the new order in that of the Ursulines, postulants, and upwards of 35,000 pupils,
or otherwise to change its original character. In 1683 The school system of the Congregation of Notre
a mission on Mount Iloyal was opened for the instmc- Dame de Montreal always comprised day-schools and
tion of Indian girls. This mission, under the auspices boarding-schools. The pioneers of Canada had to
of the priests of St. Sulpice, was removed in 1701 to clear the forest, to cultivate the lasd, and to prepare
Sault au Recollet, and m 1720 to the Lake of Two homes for their families. They were all of an intelli-
Mountains. It still exists. The two towers still sent class of farmers and artisans, who felt that a
standing on the grounds of Montreal College were Christian education was the best legacy they could
part of a stone fort built to pro^t the colony from leave their children; therefore they seized the opportu-
the attacks of their enemies; they were expressly nity afforded them by the nascent Congregation of
erected for the sisters of that mission: one for their Notre Dame, to place their daughters in boarding-
residence, the other for their classes. schools. The work, inaugurated in Canada, led to de-
The sisters continued their labours in the schools mands for houses of the congregation in many totally
of Ville Maricj and also prepared a number of young English parishes of the United States.
women as Christian teachers. Houses were opened at The schools of the Congregation of Notre Dame
Pointe-aux-Trembles, near Montreal, at Lachine, at everywhere give instruction in all fundamental
Champlain and Ch&teau Richer. In 1685 a mission branches. The real advantages developed by the sys-
was established at Sainte Famille on the Island of Or- tematic study of psychology and pedagogy have been
i^ans and was so successful that Mgr de St. Vallier, fully turned to account. The system begins with ih»
NOTRE DAME 128 NOTRE DAME
•
kindergarten, and the courses are afterwards graded Neuve, the cradle of the institute, with ei^t oiphans,
as elementary, model, commercial, academic, and ool- childre^ confided to them by Pdre Varin. In the
legiate. The first college opened was in Nova Scotia chapel of this house, at Mass on 2 February, 1803, the
at Antigonish, affiliated with the university for young two foundresses and their postulant, Catherine Du-
men in the same place: since the early years of its chAtel of Reims, made or renewed their vow of
foundation it has annually seen a numb^ of Bachelors chastity, to which they added that of devoting them-
of Arts among its graduating students. In 1909 the selves to the Christian education of girls, further pro-
Notre Dame Ladies College, in affiliation with Laval, posing to train religious teachers who should fo where-
was inaugurated in Montreal. The fine arts are taught ever their services were asked for. Victoire Leleu
in all the secondary schools and academies, while in (Sister Anastasie) and Justine GarQon (Sister St.
the larger and more central houses these branches are John) joined the institute this year and with the
carried to greater perfection by competent professors, foundresses,' made their vows of religion 15 October,
The teaching from the very dements is in conformity 1804' The Fathers of the Faith who were givine
with the best methods of the dav. missions in Amiens sent to the five sisters women ana
Db Ca80on. Hittaire de MonirM,! (1673), 62 aq.; Faillon, girlg to be prepared for the sacraments. Bl. Julie was
l^^^ifrSna^^l^^^r^-s::^ 'Sii^ r '^("^ an<ron the inviUUon of the miMioners con-
(1818); Saubsebet, 1"- Bloge HUtorimie de la Saur Bourgeay tmued tO assist them m the neighbounng tOwns.
0864); Idem, t^ Bloge Hittorique deU SiBur Bourgeov»[iS79); Returning to Amiens, the foundress devoted her-
SlBPPBB OF THE CoNOBBOATiON, Th« Pearl of Troyea (1878), 338- „if x^ xu^^ formAiion nf liPr litflp nnmmnnif v S9ht^
68; Dbummond. The Life and Timee of Marguerite Bourgeay* ?®" J? ?? *°"^^*'\<^? ° .?®'^ "^^*® community. »ne
(1907). taught the young sisters the ways of the spiritual life.
Sister St. Euphrosinb. To attain the double end of the institute, the found-
,.T T^ o '■^^ fi™** secured teachers, among whom were Fathers
H.—CoNGRBGATiON OP Notrb-Dame db Sion, a Varin, Enfantin and Thomas, the last-named a former
religious institute of women, founded at Pans in May, professor in the Sorbonne, and Mother St. Joseph
1843, bv Marie-Theodore and Marie-Alphonse Ratis- bun^ to train the novices and sisters,
bonne (q. v.) . Theodore, at that time sub-director of The first regular schools of the Sisters of Notre-Dame
the Archconfratemity of Our Lady of Victories, se- were opened m August, 1806. Pupils flocked into the
cured frona Gregory XVI permission to work among class-rooms at once. The urgent need of Chmtian
the Jews for their conversion. His brother Mane- education among all classes of society in France at
Alphonse was equally zealous and they established a that time, led the foundresses to modify their original
congregation of sisters under the patronage of Our plan of teaching only the poor and to open schooE for
Lady of Sion, with its motheivhouse at Paris. The the chUdren of the rich also. SimpUcity, largeness of
new body received warm encouragement from Mgr mind, and freedom from little feminine weaknesses,
Affre, Mgr Sibour, and Cardinal Foman, and, on 15 marked the traming given to the higher classes. But
January, 1847, Pius IX showed his approbation of the the poorest and most forsaken were ever to remain the
work by granting many indulgences to the institute, cherished portion of the institute, and the unwritten
Foundations were made m the Holy Land, the chief law that there may be in every mission free schools
being the convent, orphan asylum, and school, near without pay schools, but not pay schools without free
the Ecce Homo arch in Jerusalem. That of St. John s schools, still remains in force. Mother Julie did not
in the Mountains was founded from it. Connected require her postulants to bring a dowry, but a modest
with the orphanage in Jerusalem under the patronage pension for the years of probation; a sound judgment,
of St. Peter are schools of art and manual-training, good health, aptitude for the work of the congregation,
At the Ecce Homo there are 170 pupils, Jews, Mo- a fair education; these, with unblemished reputation,
hammedans, and Greek schismatics, besides 100 day good morals, and an inclination to piety, were the
scholars. . t j j i qualifications she deemed indispensable. Within two
There are foundations m London and also at years forty postulants were received.
Rome, Grandbourg near Versailles, Trieste, Vienna, The community lived under a provisional rule,
Prague, Galati, Bucharest, Jassy, Constantinople, based upon that of St. Ignatius, drawn up by Mother
Kadi-Koi, etc. At Munich the "Sionsverein" for the JuUe and Father Varin, which was approved in 1805
support of poor children in Palestine was founded in by Mgr Jean-Frangois Demandolx, Bishop of Amiens.
1865 throui^ the instrumentality of Baroness Th6r^ The necessary recognition was accorded on 10 March,
von Gumppenberg and Hermann Geiger. The Sisters 1807. Though time and experience brought addi-
of Notre-Dame de Sion number 500, of whom fifty are tions to those first constitutions, none of the f unda-
at the Ecce Homo and St. John's, and seven at St. mental articles have been changed: the sole exterior
Peter's. They are directed spiritually by the Priests labour in the institute is the instruction of youth
of Notre-Dame de Sion, a congregation of secular in schools in concert with the parochial clergy; a
Sriests, which includes lay brothers. At St. Peter's in mother-house, a sui^erior-general who appoints the
erusalem. there are six priests, nine lay brothers, and local superiors, decides upon foundations and assigns
some scholastics. The German settlement of Tabgha, their revenues, visits the secondary houses and moves
on the Lake of Genesareth, is in charge of a priest of subjects from one to another when necessary; one
Notre-Dame de Sion, assisted by a Lazarist. There grade only of religious, no cloister, but no goinc out
is a foundation of Priests of Notre-Dame de Sion at save for necessity, no visiting to relations, friends, or
Constantinople. public buildings. It was for these points that the
^oJSf*^?^?" ^^ Ord€nw^ongreo<aiaMn. Ill (Paderborn, feiegsed Foundress laboured and suffered, as the sub-
1908). 391: HiLTor, Didt, dee ordree rdigteux. *^««3o«-^* * v*»**vfc*«» k»^uavm «**** ouu^t^;^, cw vu^ oui^
3LAJJCHB M. Kellt. Btance of the constitutions, solemnly approved by
Gregory XVI in 1844, shows.
III. — Inbtitutb of Notre-Damb de Namxtr, The first branch house was established at St. Nicho-
founded in 1803 at Amiens, France, by Bl. Julie Bill- las, near Ghent. At the departure of these five mi»-
iart (b. 1751: d. 1816) and Marie-Louise-Fran^oise sionaries, 15 December, 1806, the religious habit
Blin de Bouraon, Countess of G^zaincourt, in rehgion was assumed by the congregation, a private, religious
Mother St. Joseph (b. 1756; d. 1838) . The formation ceremony, still unchanged. The taking of vows is also
of a rehgious congregation for the education of youth private, but takes place during Mass. St. Nicholas,
was the result of a formal order to Blessed Julie in the as well as Mother Julie's five other foundations in
name of God by P6re Joseph Varin, S. J., who discerned France, were aU temporary. Later and permanent
her fitness for such an enterprise. Mile Blin de Bour- foundations were made in Belgium: Namur, 1807,
don offered to defray the immediate expenses. At which became the mother-house in 1809; Jumet, 1808;
Amiens, 6 August, 1803, they took a house in Rue St. Hubert, 1809; Ghent, 1810; Zele, 1811; Gembloux
VOTBK DABB 129 NOTRE DAMI
and Andennes, 1813: Fleurus. 1814; and all arrange- Mother St. Joseph died on 9 February, 1838, in the
ments for Li^e and Dinant, tnough the oommunities dghty-third year of her age and the twenty-third of
took posseesion of these convents only after 1816. her ^neralate. llie preliminary process of her beati-
Mother St. Joseph Blin de Bourdon, the co-foun- fication is well advanced,
dress, was elected superior-general in succession to The third superior-general was Mother Iniatiua(Th6-^
Blessed Motiier Julie. During her g^eneralate the in- rdee-Josephine Goethals, b. 1800; d. 1842)7 Her ser-
stitute passed through the most critical period of its vices durmg the persecution under King William were
existence, owing to the oersecutions of religious orders invaluable. Excessive toil, however, told upon her
by William of Orange-Nassau, Kin^ of the Nether- later, and she died in the fourth year of her generalate;
lands. To compel them to remam in gtatu fuo, but not before she had sent the first colony of sisters to
to hold diplomas obtained only after rigid exanuna- America.
tions in Dutch and French by state officials, to furnish She was succeeded by Mother Marie Th^rftse, who,
fdmost endless accounts and writings regarding con- on account of ill-health, resigned her office the fol-
vents, schools, finances, and subjects, were some of the lowing year and Mother Constantine (Marie^eanne*
measures adopted to harass ana destroy all teaching Joeeph-CoUin, b. 18GK2, d. 1875) was elected. She
orders; but Mother St. Joseph's tact, clear-sightedness, rulea the institute for thirty-three years, her term of
and seal for souls saved the mstitute. Durins his tour office being marked by the papal approbation of the
in 1829, King William visited the establishment at Rule in 18^, the first mission to En^and in 1845, to
Namur and was so pleased that he created the mothei^ California in 1851, to Guatemala m 1859. Under
general a Dutch subject. The Revolution of 1830 and Mother Aloysie (Tii^rgse-Joeeph Mainy, b. 1817, d.
the assumption of the crown of Belgium by Leopold of 1888), fifth superior-general, the processes for the
Saxe-Gotha put an end to the petty persecutions canonisation of Mother Julie and Mother St. Joseph
of religious. Mother St. Joseph founded houses at were begun in 1881: twenty houses of the institute
Thuin, 1817; Namur Orphanage, 1823; Hospital St. were esliblished in Beljsium, England, and America.
Jacques, 1823; Venders, 1827; Hospital d'Harscamp Under her successor, Mother Aim^ de J^sus C^lodie
and Bastogne, 1836, the latter having been for the DuUaert, b. 1825, d. 1907), the Sisters of Notre Dame,
past thirty years a state normal school ; Phihppeville, at the request of Leopold II of Belgiiun, took charge of
1837. The most important work of her gcoieralate the girls' schools in the Jesuit missions of the Conffo
was the compiling and collating of the present Rules Free State, where three houses were established. She
and Constitution of the Sisters of Notre Dame. She also sent from Endand a community of eight sidbers
has left an explanation of the rule: the particular for the girls' schools in the Jesuit mission oiZamben,
rule of each office; the Directorv ana Customs. She Mashonaland. An academy and free school were
had preserved a faithful record of all that Mother opened later at Kronstadt, Orange River Colony,
Julie had said or written on these points; hence the South Africa. Mother Aimde de J^us was created bv
will of the foundress is carried out in the smallest de- the King of Belgium a Knight of the Order of Leopold,
tails of daily life, and the communities are alike every- and Sister Ignatia was accorded a similar honour after
where. Moreover, she drew up the system of school fourteen years of labour in the Congo. During this gen-
management which has been followed ever since^ with eralate Mother Julie Billiart was solemnly b^tifiea by
only such modification of curricula and disciphne as Pius X, 13 May, 1906. Tbe present Superior-general,
time, place, and experience have rendered indispen- Mother Marie Aloysie, was elected in January, 1906.
sable. This system of instruction is based upon that The first foundation in America was made at Cin-
of St. John Baptist de La Salle, and may be read cinnati, Ohio, at the request of the Right Reverend
broadly in the ''Management of Christian Schools," John b. Purcell, then Bimop and later tae first Arch*
issued D]r the Christian Brothers. The points of tmi- bishop of Cincinnati. Sister Louise de Gonzague was
f ormity in the primary and secondary schools of all appointed superior of the eight sisters who came here
countnes are chiefly: the emphasis laid upon thorough for this purpose. After firmly establishing the insti-
grounding in readmg, writing, and arithmetic, gram- tute in America, failing health caused her recall to
mar and composition, geo^phy, and history; the Namur. where she wonLed until her death in 1866.
half hour's instruction daily in Chnstian doctrine; the Upon Sister Louise, another of the ori^^inal group, de-
half-hourly change of exercise; the use of the signal volved in 1845 the charges of supenority not only
or wooden clapper in giving directions for movements of the house of Cincinnati, but also of the others
in class ; the constant presence of the teacher with her then founded or to be founded east of the Rocky
class whether in the class-room or recreation ground: Mountains. Every year the sisters were asked for
the preparation of lessons at home, or at least out of in some part of the country and the mother-house of
class hours. Vocal and chart music, drawing and Namur gave generously of subjects and funds until
needlework are tau^t in all the schools. No masters the convents in America were able to supply their own
from outside may give lessons to the pupils in any of needs,
the arts or sciences. The two provincials who have followed Sister
Mother St. Joseph was twice re-elected superior- Louise continued the work along the lines she had
general, the term being at first fixed at ten years. To traced out. Sister Julie (b. 1827, d. 1901) founded
give greater stability to the government of the insti- fifteen houses, including Trinity Colle^^ Washington,
tute, a general chapter was convoked which should D. C, and ajprovincial house and novitiate at Cincin-
settle by ballot the Question of L'e-tenure of the of- natij Ohio, ^ster Agnes Mary (b. 1840, d. 1910) made
fice of superioi^enerai. The assembly unanimously three foundations and built the first chapel dedicated
voted in the affirmative. In 1819 a foundation was to Blessed Mother Julie in America, a befuitiful Gothic
asked for Holland by Rev. F. Wolf, S.J., but, on structure in stone, at Moylan, Pennsylvania,
account of political difficulties, Mother St. Joseph In 1846 a colony of eight sisters left Namur under
could not c^ant it. She offered, instead, to train the care of Right Reverend F. N. Blanchet and
aspirants to the relidous life. Accordingly, two came Father de Smet, S.J., to labour among the Indians of
to Namur, passed their probation, made their vows, the Oregon mission. Five years later these sisters,
and retumeid to labour in their own country. This at the request of the Ri^t Reverend J. S. Alemany,
is the origin of tHe congregation of Sisters of Notre Bishop of San Francisco, were transferred to San Jos^,
Dame, whose mother-house is at Coesfield, and who California. The first establishment on the Pacific
have large schools in Cleveland, Covington, and other Coast was followed in course of time by ten others,
cities of the Middle West. Though not affiliated to which formed a separate province from Cincinnati.
Notre Dame of Namur, they foUow the same rule and For thirty years it was under t^e wise care of Sister
regard Blessed Mother Julie as their foundress. Marie Com^Ue.
XI.— 9
NOTRE DABU
130
NOTRE DAMl
Ih 1851 two foundations were made in Guatemala.
Central America, imder government auspices ana
with such an outburst of welcome and esteem from
the people as reads like a romance. In less than
twenty years the reins of power having passed into the
hands <n the Liberals and Freemasons, the forty-one
Sisters of Notre Dame were exiled.
There are three novitiates in America: at San Jos6
for the California Province, at Cincinnati for the cen-
tral part of the United States, and at Waltham, Ma»*
sachusetts, for the Eastern States. The rule has been
kept in its integrity in America as in Europe. The
imion with Namur has been preserved, and a like
imion has even been maintained between all the houses
of a province and its centre, the residence of the
provincial superior. According to the needs of the
schools, the sisters pass from house to house, and even
from province to province as obedience enjoins.
It was through the Redemptorists that the Sisters
of Notre Dame first went to England. Father de
Buggenoms. a Belgian, superior of a small mission at
Falmouth, felt the urgent need of schools for the poor
Catholic children. He asked and obtained from the
Superior of the Sisters of Notre Dame at Namur a
conmiunity of six sisters, and with these he opened a
small school at Penryn in Cornwall. It. continued
only three years, however, as the place afforded no
means of subsistence to a religious house. The Re-
demptorists having established a second English mis-
sion at Clapham, near London, and having asked again
for Sisters of Notre Dame for a school, the communitv
of Penryn was transferred thither in 1848. Through
the initiative of Father Buggenoms the Sisters of the
Holy Child Jesus, a community in the Diocese of
Northampton, about fifty in number, were affiliated in
1852 to the Institute of Notre Dame, with the consent
of the Bishops of Namur and Northampton. Scarcely
had the hierarchy been re-established in England
when the Government offered education to the Catho-
lic poor ; the Sisters of Notre Dame devoted themselves
earnestly to this work, under the guidance of Sister
Mary of St. Francis (Hon. Laura M.Fetre), who was to
the congregation in En^and what Mother St. Joseph
was to the whole institute. Before her death (24
June, 1886) eighteen houses had been founded in Eng-
land. There are now twenty-one.
The most important of these English houses is the
Training College for Catholic School-Mistresses at
Mount Pleasant, Liverpool, the direction of which was
confided to the Sisters of Notre Dame by the Govern-
ment in 1856. The "centre system" which admits
of the concentrated instruction of pupil teachers, now
adopted by all the School Boards of the larger English
cities, originated with the sisters at Liverpool.
At the request of the Scotch Education Depart-
ment, the Sisters of Notre Dame opened the Dowan-
hiU Training College for Catholic School-Mistresses
at Glasgow in 1 895. Its history has been an unbroken
record of academic successes and material expansion.
A second convent in Scotland has been opened at
Dumbarton this year (1910).
Although "codes'' differ in terms and requirements,
it may be said in general that in England and America
the schools of Notre Dame are graded from kinder-
garten all through the eleipentaiy, grammar, and high
school classes. The academies cany the schedule of
studies on to college work, while Trinity College,
Washington, D. C, and St. Mary's Hall, Liverpool,
are devoted exclusively to work for college degrees.
To meet local difficulties and extend the benefit of
Christian instruction, the sisters conduct industrial
schools, orphanages for girls, schools for deaf mutes,
and for negroes.
Annalt of th0 Moihar^HovM of ffotre Dame^ Namur^ Bdgiumj
Sivnni OF NoTRB Dame, IaJo of the Bleated Julie BiUiart (Lon-
don, 1000) : SiBTKB OF Notre Dame, Life of the Ret, Mother 8t.
Joeej^ (Namur, 1850) : MANmx, Memoir of Sieter Louiee (Bos-
ton, lOGd); Clabkb, The Hon, Mr», Petre^ iu rtUgim SitUr Mary
of St. Fronde (London, 1890) ; Bnglieh Foundatione of the Sielere ef
Notre Dame (Liverpool, 1895); S.N.D.. Paget from the Reeordt of
Catholie Bdueaiion (Sitter Mary of St. Philip and' the Training
College at Mount Pleatant) in The Crucible, I. no. 4. March, 1006.
See Juux Billiabt, Bubssbd, and Louise, Sister.
A Sister of Notre Dams.
Statistics for 1000:
Houses
Ssters
Free Sohoiars
Pay Scholars
Boarders
Industrial
Sunday Scholars.. . .
Sodalista
Belgium
England
Scotland
America
Africa
40
18
47
4
1.250
700
1.480
33
15.054
36,510
31.010
1,588
5,060
2.845
2,505
60
1.001
1,246
1.107
60
618
03
54
• > ■ •
5.034
8,621
18.052
2.000
5,004
12.112
25.601
415
Totals
118
3,472
85,060
11,450
3.409
765
35.507
43.222
IV. — School Sisters of Notre Dame, a religious
conmiunity devoted to education. In 1910 they
counted 3170 members in Europie and 3604 in America,
a total of 6774, with about 115,800 pupils in America
and 94,827 in Europe, a total of 210,127. In the
United States they conduct parish schools in ten
archdioceses and twenty-five dioceses, and have charge
of eight orphanages; m addition tney have pari^
schools and an orphanage in the Diocese of Hamilton,
Canada: an Indian school at Harbor Springs, Mich.;
a school for negroes at Annapolis; and a deaf-mute
institute in Louisiana. Their principal boarding-
schools are: Baltimore, Md.; Fort Lee, New Jersey;
Quincy, 111.; Longwood, Chicago; Prairie du Chien,
Wis. Of their day and high schools the most prominent
are at Baltimore, Md., Quincy, 111.; Longwood and
Chatawa, Miss.
The School Sisters of Notre Dame are a branch of
the Congregation of Notre-Dame founded in France,
by St. Peter Fourier in 1597. In the seventeenth ana
eighteenth centuries, several convents of the con^^a^
tion were established in Germany. The one at Hatis-
bon was suppressed at the beginning of the nineteenth
century, but it was soon restored and remodelled to
meet the needs of modem times. Bishop Wittmann
of Ratisbon and Father Job of Vienna effected the
change. While retaining the essential features of the
rule and constitutions given by St. Peter Fourier, they
widened the scope of the Sisters' educational work. In
1834 their community consisted of one former pupil
of the suppressed congregation, Caroline Gerhardinger,
who became first Superior General (Mother Theresa
of Jesus), and a few companions. The first convent
was in Neunburgvorm Wald, Bavaria. In 1839 they
removed to a suburb of Munich, and in 1843, into a for-
mer Poor Clare convent, built in 1284, and situated
within the city Umits. From this mother-house in the
year 1847 six School Sisters of Notre Dame, on the invi-
tation of Bishop O'Connor of Pittsburg, emigrated to
America and landed at New York on 31 July. One
of the Sisters succumbed to the heat of the season and
died at Harrisburg, Pa., on the journey from New
York to St. Mary's, Elk Co., Pa., destined to be the
foundation-house in America. As St. Manr's was not
the place for a permanent location the mother-general
successfully negotiated to obtain the Redemptorists'
convent attached to St. James' Church, Baltimore,
Md. By 3 Nov., 1847, three schools were opened.
The second and last colony of sisters, eleven in num-
ber^ arrived from Munich^ 25 March, 1848, and foun-
dations were made at Pittsburg, Philadelphia, and
Bufifalo.
On 15 December, 1850, the mother-house was trans-
ferred to Milwaukee, with Mother Mary Caroline
Friess as vicar-general of the sisters in America.
With money donated by King Louis I of Bavaria, a
house was bought; this was absorbed later by Notre
Dame Convent on St. Mary's Hill. On 2 January,
HOTRE DABU
131
HOTRE DAMl
1851, St. Mary's parish school was opened and St.
Mary's Institute for boarding and day pupils soon
afterwards. On 31 July, 1876, owin^ to its growth
and extension, the congr^ation was divided into two
provinces: the Western, with mother-house at Mil-
waukee; and the Eastern with mother-house at Bal-
timore. A second division of the Western province
became necessary, and on 19 March, 1895, the Southern
province was formed, with its mother-house at St. Louis.
Government of the Congregation. — ^The Congregation
of the School Sisters of Notre Dame is under the gov-
ernment of the mother-general at Munich; she and
her four assistants form the generalate. In America
the government is in the hands of the commissary-
general and four assistants. The commissariate is
elected for six vears. All professed sisters of the
teaching grade have a vote in this election. The
congregation is divided into districts. The voting
sisters in each district choose one chapter-sister.
These chapter-sisters together iivdth the provincials
elect the commissary-general and assistants. The
election is by secret ballot, and its results must be con-
firmed by the mother-general and the cardinal-pro-
tector. At the head of each province there is a mother
provincial, elected with two assistants, by each prov-
mce for three years. For the election of the motheiv
general and the general chapter, which meets every
six years, a deputation of the sisters in America is sent
to Munich, Bavaria. This deputation consists of the
commissary-general and the mother provincial, ex
officio, and a companion of each mother provincial
elected by the respective province. In America a
general congr^ation is convened every six years in the
principal mother-house at Milwaukee.
Training of Members. — To triun members for their
future life the School Sisters have a candidature and
a novitiate. The age for admission into the candida-
ture is sixteen to twentynseven. After two years'
probation and study, the candidate enters the novi-
tiate, and two years later makes temporal vows for
seven years; she then makes perpetual vows and be-
comes a professed sister. The teaching sisters meet
at specified periods and at appointed houses of the or-
der for summer schools ana teachers' institutes.
The principal houses of the congregation in the
Western province are at Elm Grove, Waukesha Co.,
Wis., the home for aeed, invalid, and convalescent sis-
ters; at Prairie du Cnien, Wis., founded in 1872, char-
tered in 1877, owing its origin to the generositv of
Hon. John Lawler (died on 24 Feb., 1891) and his
son, Thomas C. Lawler, of Dubuque, Iowa; at Long-
wood, Chica«), 111., established and chartered in 1872.
In 1903 the Legislature of Illinois grants the acad-
emy the right to add a college course and confer the
degrees of A.Eb and Ph.B. In the Elastem province
at Baltimore, Md., chartered in 1864, cluuler amended
and powers of corporation enlarged 1896. The sisters
began their work m Baltimore in 1848; owing to the
growth of their academy, more commodious quarters
became necessary and the school, Notre Dame oi Mary-
land, was transferred in 1873 to a ma^iificent estate of
seventy acres obtained in the suburbs. To meet the
continual demand for a more extensive curriculum for
women, the sisters of the convent applied in January,
1896, to the State for the power of conferring academic
degrees; this was granted by an Act of the Legislature,
2 April, 1896, and the convent has now a colfege with
courses leading to the baccalaureate, an academy that
prepares students for the college, and a grammar and
primary department. There is a convent at Fort Lee
on the Palisades of the Hudson, Bergen County, N. J.,
where a residence was purchased by the sisters on 2
Oct., 1879, the school being opened on 21 November,
1879, and chartered in June, 1890. In the Southern
province the principal schools are at Quincy, 111.,
founded on 28 Dec., 1859, as a parochial school, the
academy opened in Sept., 1867; at Chatawa, MisB.|
founded on 16 October, 1874, a deaf-mute institution;
at Chmcuba, La., founded by Canon Mignot, 1 Octo-
ber, 1890, given in charge of the sisters 25 Septem-
ber, 1892.
Most prominent among the sisters in America was
Mother M. CaroUne Friess, who died on 22 July, 1892,
after being superioress of the congregation for forty-
two years. Sne was bom near Paris, on 24 Auffust,
1824, and was called at baptism by the name of Jose-
phine. As a child she was brought to Eichstadt.
Bavaria, under the tutelage of her uncle, Mgr Michael
Friess. Even when only a novice she was given charge
of very important schools in Munich. She was one of
the first to volunteer for the missionary work in the
New World, and emigrated to America in 1847. It
soon became evident that it was Sister Caroline who
was to develop the young congregation. She was ap-
pointed vicar of the mother-general in America and
later on elected as the first commissary-general.
Under her direction from four members in 1847, the
sisterhood grew to two thousand in 1892. Her life
was written by Mgr P. M. Abbelen. Mother M.
Clara Heuck was the third commissary-^neral.
When the Eastern province was established m 1876
Sister M. Clara was appointed as novice-mistress.
Soon she became the superioress in Baltimore and the
second mother provincial in the East, which position
she held for three terms, after which she was elected
commissary-general at Milwaukee on 13 May. 1899.
She died at Milwaukee on 4 August, 1905, aged sixty-
two. Sr. Mart Josephine.
V. — Sisters of Notre Dame (of Cleveland, Ohio),
a branch of the congregation founded by Blessed Juhe
Billiart. In 1850, Father Elting of Coesfeld, Ger-
many, aided by the Misses Hildegonda Wollbring and
Lisette Kuehhng, who became Uie first members of
this community, introduced the Order of Notre Dame
into Westphaha. The novices were trained by three
sisters from the community of Amersfoort, Holland.
Soon thev were enabled to open a normal school and
to take charge of parish schools. The Prussian Gov-
ernment objecting to teachers dependent on foreign
authority, the sisters were compelled to sever their re-
lations with the mother-house m Holland and to erect
their own at Coesfeld. When in 1871, the Kultur'
kampf broke out in Germany, the Sisters of Coesfeld,
thou^ they had repeatedly received at the Prussian
state examinations, the hi^est testimonials as most
efficient teachers, were at once expelled. Thereupon,
Father Westerholt, of St. Peter's Church, Cleveland,
had Bishop Gilmour invite them to his diocese. On 5
July, 1874, the suoerioress-general accompanied by
dght sisters arrived in New York, and the following
day in Cleveland. Their first home was a small frame
house *near St. Peter's Church. Two months later
thev took charge of the parish school for girls. Pres-
ently Bishop Toebbe of Covington, Ky., invited them
to his diocese, where they were first employed as teach-
ers of the Mother of God schools in Covington. In
the autumn of 1874, the sisters began to conduct the
Saridi schools of St. Stephen's, Cleveland, and of St.
oseph's, Fremont. Within four years of their first
arrival on the North American contment, two hundred
sisters had been transferred to the missions in Ohio
and Kentucky. The centre of the community was
temporarily at Covington, where in 1875 a convent
with an academy was erected. The same year the
superioress-genenJ came to Cleveland, where the
mother-house was bmlt and an academy founded in
1878. In 1883 a girls' boarding-school on Woodland
Hills was opened. An academy was founded in To-
ledo, Ohio, and opened September, 1904. Since 1877
the Sisters of Notre Dame have been in charge of two
orphanages, one at Cold Springs, Ky.^ and the other at
Bond mil in the Archdiocese of Gincmnati. In May,
1887, the Prussian Government allowed the sisterB to
HOTBB DAMl
132
HOTRE DAMl
return and their mother-house was establifihed at
MOhlhauaen^ Rhenish Prussia. The American branch
is under the mmiediate direction of a provincial supe-
rioresSj residing in Cleveland, and nimibers 430 sisters.
The sisters conduct also upwards of forty parish
schools, mostly in Ohio ana Kentucky, containing
about 14,000 pupils.
ABEN8, Die tdxgt Julie BiUiaH (Freiburf im Br., 1908); An^
nala of Notre Dame Convent in Clevdand (autnuaeript).
Nicholas Pfbil.
Notre Dame du Lac, UmvERsnT of, in Northern
Indiana near the boundarv Hnes of Michigan and
Illinois. It is owned and directed by the Congrega-
tion of Holy Cross, whose mother-house in the United
States is located at Notre Dame, the name by which
the university is most commonlv known. Notre
Dame was founded in 1842 by the Very Reverend Ed-
ward Sorin, C.S.C., late superior-general of his oongre-
fation, who came from France at the invitation of the
li^ht Reverend Celestine A. L. Guynemer de La
Hailandidre, D.D., Bishop of Vincennes. Nearly two
years passed before the nrst building was erected and
a faculty organized. In 1844 the university received
a charter from the State. By special act of the Legis-
lature of Indiana, it was given legal existence and em-
powered to grant degrees in the liberal arts and
sciences and in law and medicine. Though no medi-
cal faculty has been formed, all the other departments
mentioned in the charter have been established, and
collegiate and university d^rees granted in each.
At the outset only collegiate instruction was given in
the studies then regarded as best furnishing a liberal
education. The first faculty organized was that of
the college of arts and letters, and chairs of philosophy,
history, mathematics, and ancient and modem lan-
guages were established. But the educational con-
ditions in the country near the universitv were prim-
itive, and few students were ready to take up college
work. Accordingly, there was soon founded a pre-
paratory school at Notre Dame in which instruction
was given, not only in subjects immediately preparing
for college, but also in the rudiments. Soon after the
college courses began, the needs of the North-West
demanded a school for those preparing for the pri^t-
hood. The founder accordingly provided a faculty
in theology, and six years after the State charter was
granted, one-fifth of the students were pursuing theo-
u)gical studies. But as intercommunication between
the more settled parts of the United States increased
with more easy modes of travel, the theological faculty
was maintained only for members of the Congregation
of Holy Cross. Tonday the university consists of five
colleges, each with several departments — ^arts and
letters, engineering, science^ architecture, and law.
At the heaMi of each college is a dean. Tne faculties
of the five colleges are directed by the president of the
university, who governs in matters purely academic.
All other aJff airs are administered by a Doard of trustees.
Though young as a university, Notre Dame has
had distinct influence on movements of the Church in
the Middle West from its foundation. Founded at a
period when the need of missionaries was pressing^ and
located in a centre of missionary activity^ its aid in
Qie spread of Catholicism in the North-West was
strong. The work of the early French missionaries
was continued by the religious at Notre Dame, who
served both as professors and evangelists. They sup-
plied, too, a Catholic literature by their doctrinal
and scientific writings and by works of fiction. A uni-
versity press was early established, from which has been
issued weekly a Hterary and reUgious magazine, the
"Ave Maria , contributed to by the best writers of
Europe and America. By attracting, too, every ^ear
a large number of non-Catholic students, the umver-
sity has greatly lessened antagonism to the Church
and has quickened religious feeling among the indif-
ferent. Moreover, in laws passed oy the State Legis-
lature affecting the Church, and especially in legisla-
tion regarding education, the university is usually
consulted, and any protest from it is respectfully
heeded. In these matters Notre Dame has merited
consideration by the State not only by her position
as a leading university, but also by a remarkable dis-
play of patriotism in the Civil War. At the first call
for arms seven of her priests, who were acting as pro-
fessorsj were sent by Father Sorin to act as chapliuns;
and this at a time when the university could ill spare
any of her faculty.
The pro^press of the university has been due largely
to its presidents, who have been, in all cases, men
of scholarly attainments and executive capii^ilities.
Excepting the founder, who wsa the first president,
each had served as professor at Notre Dame before
being called to direct its affairs. In all there have
been eight presidents — the Very Reverend Edward
Sorin, the founder; Rev. Patrick Dillon, William
Corby, Augustus Lemmonier, ' Patrick Colovin,
Thomas Walsh. Andrew Morrissey, and John Cava-
naugh, all members of the Congregation of Holy Cross.
Among other professors who, by their writings and re-
searches, have contributed to the sciences which they
taught and have added lustre to Notre Dame, are Rev.
J. A. Zahm, C.S.C., author of scientific works and pro-
fessor of physics; Rev. Alex. Kirsch, C.S.C., professor
of zoolo^; Rev. Jos. Carrier, C.S.C., professor of
botany, WilUam Hoynes and Timothy E. Howard,
professors of law; Michael E. Shawe, Uardner Jones,
Rev. N. H. Gillespie, C.S.C., Rev. Daniel Hudson,
C.S.C., Charles Warren Stoddard, and Maurice Francis
Egan, professors of English literature; James Famham
Edwaras, Ubrarian; Arthur J. Stace and Martin J.
McCue, professors of en|;inecring; Rev. John B. Scheier,
C.S.C., professor of Latin; Rev. Louis Cointct, C.S.C.,
professor of philosophy.
Excepting the land on which it is built, donated by
Bishop HaDandi^re, and a few lesser donations in
money, Notre Dame has developed into a great uni-
versity without financial aid. It opened as a college
in September, 1843, in a modest brick structure
erected to serve temporarily until a larger building
was coinpieted in 1844. This was enlarged in 1853.
Farher Sorin was president continuously until 1865.
The enrolment of students for many years was small,
numbering sixt\^-nine in 1850, coming from four states
in the Middle West and from New York and Penn-
sylvania. By 1861 the number had advanced to two
hundred, and in that year the faculty of the college
of science was organized. In 1865 the enlarged cen-
tral bmlding of 1853 gave way to a more pretentious
structure; the corps of professors was augmented to
forty; the university press was establishea; the main
tibrary was added to, and the equipm^t of the colle^
of science enlarged. The college of law was formed in
1869. and the college of engineering in 1872. A fire in
April, 1879, wiped out the labours of forty years, con-
suming all the university buildings except the church
and the university theatre. Plans were at once made
for rebuilding, and the present Notre Dame begun.
In September, 1879, the administration building, a
large structure, planned to form the centre of a group,
was completed and classes resumed. A departure
from the old system of student life was made m 1887
when the first residence hall containing private rooms
was erected. Before that time the common-room
system, modelled on college life in Europe, prevailed.
In 1900 the college of architecture was established.
The growth of the University has been steady. At
present (in 1911) over one thousand students are regis-
tered, from North and South America and from nearly
all the countries of Europe. All the students live on
the univermty grounds. The faculties are made up
of eighty-five professors, including many laymen.
Twenty buildings are devoted to university purposes,
and these with their equipment and apparatus are
NOTmOHAM
133
NOTTINOHAM
valued at $2,800,000. The land belongjnir to Notre
Dame is valued at $400,000. In the main library are
Bixty-five thousand volumes, while libraries in various
departments have about ten thousand volumes.
William Alan Molonst.
Notttngham, Diocese of (NorrmaHAinEN), one
of the original twelve English iMoceses created at the
time of the restoration of the hierarchy by Pius IX in
1850, embraces the counties of Nottingham, Leices-
tery Derby, Lincoln, and Rutland, which were com-
prised in the old Midland District or vicariate, when
at the request of James II in 1685, the Holy see di-
vided England into four vicariates, the London, the
Northern, the Midland, and the Western. Prior to
1840 when the niunber of vicars Apostolic was in-
creased from four to eig^t, the Midland District had
consisted of fifteen counties. In 1850 Nottingham could
count onlv twenty-four permanent missions, many of
these little better than villages. For the most part
they originated from chaplaincies which had throi^
penal times been maintained by the Catholic nobility
and gentry, or had been founded independentlv by
them. Among these there existed founoations of sev-
eral religious orders. In Derbyshire the Jesuits had
missions at Chesterfield and Spink Hill: in Lincoln-
shire at Lincoln, Boston, and Market Kasen. The
Dominicans were settled in Leicester, the Fathers of
Charity carried on several missions in Leicestershire,
and the Cistercians occupied their newly founded
Abbey of Mount St. Bernard in Chamwood Forest.
From the appearance of the Jesuits in England in
1580 at the special request of Dr. Allen, they had done
much bv theur devoted labours to keep alive the Faith
in the Nottingham diocese. Of their missions men-
tioned above some were among the earliest of the So-
'nety in England dating back some three hundred
years. Deri)y was included in the district or coUese
of the Societv called the ''Immaculate Concration^',
founded by Father Richard Blount, about 1633, first
Provincial of the English Province. Extinct for many
vears it was partially revived in 1842 as Mount St.
Mary's College^ when the present college and convic-
tus was estiubhshed by the then provmcial. Father
Randal Lythegoe. After the Reformation, the Englidi
Province of the Friars Preachers ceased to exist, until
resuscitated at Bomhem in Flanders bv Philip Howard
(q. V.) later cardinal, who became the first prior of
the Dominicans in 1675. The first introduction of
the En^^ish Dominicans from Bomhem was at Hinck-
ley, whence for many years Leicester was served by
them at intervals. Their mission at Leicester was
put on a permanent basis only in 1798 by the purohase
of a house by Father Francis Xavier Choppelle. The
present churoh^of the Holy Cross was begun bj^ Father
Benedict Caestrick in 1815 and was opened in 1819.
The dedication under the title of Holy Cross was
adopted no doubt on account of the celebrated reUc
of tne Holy Cross brought from Bornhem, and now
in London. After the lapse of three centuries a monas^
tery of the Cistercian Order was resuscitated in Eng-
land by the foundation of the Abbejr of Mount St.
Bernard in Leicestershiro. made possible by the as-
sistance of Ambrose Phillips de Lisle of Grace Dieu
Manor, who after his conversion in December, 1825,
devoted all his energies to the spread of the Faith in
Encdand. This he hoped to accomplish by the re-es-
tflinishment in the country of monastic institutions.
In* 1835 he purohased about two hundred and twenty-
seven acres of wild uncultivated land in Chamwood
Forest and presented it to the Cistercians. Beginning
with one brother who lived alone in a f ouivroomed cot-
ta^, the communitv rapidly increased, and a larger
building was erectea as well as a small chapel, opened
by Dr. Walsh 11 October, 1837. This also in a short
time proving insufficient, the Earl of Shrewsbury gen-
erously offered them £2,000, but on condition that a
new monastery should be erected, choosing for that
purpose the present site of the abbejr. It was built
from desi^ oy Augustus Welby Pugin. In 1848 by
Brief of Plus IX the monastery of Mount St. Bernard
was raised to the dignity of an abbey, and Father
Bernard, the first mitred abbot in England since the
{teformation, was consecrated 18 February. 1849. In
introducing the Cistercians into England, ae Lisle had
hoped that they would undertake missionary work
and with this view he had built three chapels, at Grace
Dieu, Whitwick, and the abbey. On the score of
their rule, however, they declined to tdce chaige per-
manently of the missions. De Lisle then decided to
bring from Italy members of the Order of Charity.
After much negotiation with the head of the order,
Father Gentili came to Grace Dieu as chaplain. Tliis
was the commencement of the settlement of this order
in the diocese. In 1841 Dr. Walsh made over to them
the secular mission of Loughborough founded in 1832
by Father Benjamin Hulme.' The buildings were too
small to permit of a novitiate and a college of their own
which thev were desirous to establish. To carry out
this twofold object, about nine acres were purchased :
here the f oimdation stone of the new buildings was laid
in May, 1843, and in 1844 was Opened the first college
and novitiate house of the institute in England. The
Sisters of Mercy had come to Nottingham m 1844, and
in 1846 entered their convent in close proximity to
the cathedral.
The first Bishop of Nottin^am was the Rt. Rev.
William Hendren, O.S.F., b. in 1792, consecrated 10
September, 1848, as Vicar Apostolic of the Western
District, transferred to the Diocese of Clifton, 29
Sept., 1850. and to Nottingham, 22 June, 1851. The
cathedral church of St. Barnabas is of the lancet style
of architecture, and is considered one of the best
specimens of tne work of Augustus Welby Pugin.
Owing to ill-health Dr. Hendren resigned in 1853 and
was succeeded by Dr. Richard Roskell, b. at Gateacre
near Liverpool, m 1817. He was sent to Ushaw and
afterwards to Home, where he took his degree and was
ordained in 1840. He was consecrated in the cathe-
dral by Cardinal Wiseman on 21 September, 1853.
During his episcopate a number of missions were
founded in the various counties of the diocese. In
Lincolnshire, through the generosity of Thomas Arthur
Young of Kingerb}^ Hall, not only was there a church
and presbvtery built at Gainsborough and Grimsby,
but the rremonstratensian order was re-introduced
into Ensland at Crowle and Spalding. In 1874^ ow-
ing to Dr. Roskell's ill-health, the pope appointed
the Rev. Edward Gilpin Bagshawe of the London
Oratory his coadjutor. The same year, however, Dr.
Roskell tendered his resignation and Dr. Bagshawe
was consecrated at the London Oratory 12 November,
1874. Numerous missions necessitated by the devel-
opment of the mining industry were opened during his
administration, and various communities of nuns in-
troduced into the diocese, which he ruled for twenty-
seven years. He resigned in 1901 and in 1904 was
transferred to the titular Archbishopric of Seleucia.
Rt. Rev. Robert Brindle, D.S.O., his successor, was
bom at Liverpool, 4 November, 1837. The first
Catholic chaplain to receive the pension for distin-
giished and meritorious service, as well as Turkish and
gyptian orders and medals, he was, on his retirement
from the army in 1899, on the petition of Cardinal
Vaughan, appointed his assistant, and on the resig-
nation of Dr. Bagshawe, received his Brief to the Jbe
of Nottingham 6 November, 1901.
In 1910 there were in the diocese 32,000 Catholics;
84 secular, and 44 regular, priests; 75 churches with
missions attached, 31 without missions; 6 convents for
men, and 9 for women.
FoLST. Rteordt; Pubcsll, Lift of Ambro9t PhiUipa de LUU;
Priory Chureh of Holy Cro»», Leicetter; Jxwitt and Cruikbbanx,
CitUreian Record* in Quide to MU St, Bernard** Abbey.
W. Cnorr.
NOUREISSOH i;
Koarriaioii, Jban-Feux, pfailoKpher, b. at Thi-
en. Department of Puy-de-Dflme, 18 July, 1825;
d. at Psna, 13 June, 1800. He received hie education
in the collie of hia native city and in the Coll^
Stanislas (Paris), where, at the age of nineteen, imme-
diately after completing his studies, he was appointed
profesaot. In accordance with the wishes of his fa-
ther, he applied himself first to the study of law, but
hia own inclinations led him in another direction, and
he finally decided to devote himself to philosophy.
He was appointed to the chair of philosophy in the
CoU^ SttuiislHa (1840), received the Doctorate (1S53),
and was made professor of philosophy euccesdvely
in the Lycfe de Rennee (1854), the University of
Clermont-Ferrand (1865), the Lycfe Napolten, Paris
(1858) and the CoU^ge de France (1874). Nourriason
obtained three prizes in competitions on the philoso-
phy of Leibnii (I860), and on the r61e of psyeholofor
m the philoaophy of St.. Augustine (1864), subjects
proposed by the Institut de France. In 1870 he be-
came a member of the Academic des Sciences morales
et politiques in the section of pbilosoi^y. Nourrisson
was one of the best representatives of French spiritu-
alistic philosophy in the nineteenth centurv. Not
onlv was he a deep thinker, a penetrating philosopher
and historian, but a firm believer, convinced that
"conscience rcmuns hesitating, and that convictions
come to nothinE, unless the teachinKs of religion com-
plete the data of reason" (letter to de Barante, 5 Dec.,
1856).
Besides a number of reports, memoirs, and
articles in the "Journal dea Debate", "Revue dea
Deux Mondes", "Revue Contemporaine", "Correa-
pondant", etc., Nourrisson's works are: "Quid Plato
de ideis senserit" (Paris, 1852); "Esaai sur la philoso-
n'aris, 1856) : "Exposition de la thforie plat«nicienne
dea idiea" (Paris, 1858); "Tableau des progris de la
penste humane depuis Thal^ jusquA Leibniz"
(Paris, 1858), the third edition was augmented and
brought down to Hegel's time (1867): "Histoire et
philoBophie" (Paris, 1860); second enlarged edition
under the title "Portrwts et etudes" (Paris 1863);
" La philosophie de Leibnii" (Paris, 1860); ''Le dix-
huitilme si&;le et la Revolution frangaise" (Pari^,
1863), 2nd ed,, 1873, under the title "L'ancienne
France et la Revolution"' "La nature humaine: essais
de^psychologieapplii^uee (Paris, 1865); "La philoso-
phie dc Saint-AuguaUn" (Paris, 1865); "Spinoza et le
naturalisme contemporain " (Paris, 1866); "De la
liberty et du haaard, eaam sur Alexandre a'Aphrodi-
Maa " (Paris, 1870) ;■' Machiavel " (Paris, 1875) ;" Trois
rfivoiutionnjures; Turgot, Necker, Bwlly (Paris,
1885); "Pascal, physicien et philoeophe" (Paria,
1885); "PhiloBophes de la nature: Bacon, Bayle,
Toland, Buffon" (Paris, 1887); "DSfenaede Pascal''
(Puis, 1888); "Voltaire et le voltairiaaisme" (Paria,
B. d.); "Rousseau et le rousseauisme" (Paris, 1004),
a posthumous work edited by Paul Nourrisson.
Yb^dihi^ K« Carriin UnittriiUiri. Jtan-FUit Nourrition
(Ptria, 1901).
C. A. DUBBAT.
Nourry, Le. See Le Nodtuit, Denis-Nicolas.
Hovara, Diocese or (Novarienbis), the capital of
the province of Novara, Piedmont, Italy, noted for
the manufacture of wool, cotton, and silk textiles, and
machinery. The cathedral originally' Romanesque
has been modified. The high altar is the work of
Thorwaldsen, Marchesi, and Tinelli; the baldachin ia
^ Tenarini, and there are paintings by Bordine,
Cjespi, and other artista, besides some ancient mo-
aaics; the baptbte^ dates from the fifth century.
The cathedral archives contain codices and other
doeuments from the eighth century. The church
4 HOTAIU
of St.. Gaudentius, a work of Pellegrino PeU^rinl,
was begun in 1553 to replace the ancient basilica
built by St, Gaudentius and torn down to make
room for the fortifications; Renaisaance in style,
although the cupola does not harmonize, it con-
taina valuable paintings and freacoes by Lombard,
Caccia, Frocaccini, Crespi, Gilardini, So^, Saletta,
and Fiamminghino. The cit^ has an inatitute of arts
and trades, a museum of antiquities, and several pri-
vate galleries, among them the Leonardi, Novara
was the birthplace of the ancient jurist, C. Albuciua
Silo, Peter Lombard, the philolofiist Cattaneo, the
painter Caccia, and the Jesuit Tormclli . Novara, for-
merly Novaria, was inhabited by Liguriana and Sa-
laasiana. Under the Carolingians, it was the seat of a
count, but the power of the counts passed gradually to
the biahopa, confirmed by Otho I (060), in the person
of Bishop Aupaldus. P^m the time of Henry HI,
Novara was a commune, governed by two conauls and
B^nst the latter city, but in 1168 was compelled to
join the Lombard L^i^e. After the peace of (in-
stance it contended with the Ck>unts of Bisndrate,
Vercelli, and its own bishops, unwilling to be deprived
of their sovereign rights in which tbey bad been agun
confirmed by Frederick Barbaroaaa. Upon the ex-
pulaionof the bishop in I2I0, Innocent 111 threatened
to suppress the diocese. Later, when Martin delU
Torre became lord of Milan, Novara ^ave its allef^ance
to him, then to the Visconti, from which time it formed
part of the Duchy of Milan, with rare intervals; in
1536^8 it belonged to Monferrato, 1556-1602 to
the Famese of Parma, 1734 to the Savoy. BecauM
of its position, Novara has been the scene of im-
portant battles: in April, 1500, Louia the Moor, Duke
of Milan, intended to besiege here Trivuisi, appointed
governor by the King of France, but abandoned by his
Swiss troops, he was taken prisoner. On 6 June, 1513,
the Swiss in the pay of the King of Spain, drove out
the French; on 10 April, 1812, the troops tbat had la-
belled tujainst King Charles Felix were dispersed there ;
on 23 March, 1840, Radetiky inflicted upon the Piod-
montese a d^eat that compelled King Charles Albert
to abdicate.
In the fourth century, Novara was in the Diocese of
VercelU; its first bishop, St. Gaudentius, waa conse-
crated by St. Simplicianus. Bishop of Milan (397-^00).
St. Lawrence is said to nave introduced the Pait^
into Novara. St. Julius and St. Julian aaaiated
Gaudentius in the conversion of the diocese. The
list of bishops has been preserved on two ivory
diptycha, one in the cathedral datee from 1168; the
otner in the church of St. Gaudentius from 1343.
Among ibx bishops were St. Agabiua (417); St. VicUv
NOVA SCOTIA 135 HOVA SCOTIA
(489) ; St. Honoratiis (c. 500) : St. Leo (c. 700), biog- The resoturoes of Nova Scotia are diversified. Fanii«>
rapher of St. Gaudentius; Aaalgisua (e. 840), call^ ing. mining, fishing, lumbering, and manufacturing
Oemma Sacerdotum: Albertus, killed by the Counts of yield an ample return to the inaustry of the inhabit
Biandrate in 1081; Litifredus (1122) and Papiniano ants. In the counties lying along the Bay of Fundv
della Rovere (1296); Guglielmo Amidano (1343), a and penetrated by the mlets'are valuable dike-lands
learned theologian and former general of the Augus- begun by the early French settlers, and continued
tinians; Pietro Filargo (1388), later the Antipope after the e^roulsion of the Acadians by the colonists
Alexander V; Bartolomeo Visconti (1429), deposed by from New England, who in 1760 and 1761 took pos-
Eugene IV, who suspected him of treachery, but fi- session of the lands of the expelled Acadians. The
nally reinstated; Cardinal Gian Angelo Arcimboldi agricultural products of the country are hay. wheat,
(1525) ; Gian Antonio Serbelloni (1560), founder of the oats, barley, potatoes, and turnips, all of whicn obtain
seminary; Francisco Rossi (1579), founder of a second a local maxKet. In tne Annapolis Valley about 750,-
seminarv; Carlo Bescap^ (1593), a Bamabite histo- 000 barrels of apples are annually produced and
rianof the diocese; Benedetto Odesoalchi (1650), later shipped to the English markets. There are large coal
Innocent XI. Suffragan of Vercelli, it has 372 par- measures in the Counties of (Cumberland, Pictou, hi-
iahes; 408,000 inhabitants; 11 religious houses of men yemees, and Cape Breton. The coal is bituminous,
and 14 of women; 2 schools for boys, and 6 for girls; and supplies the local demand and a large portion of
and 3 Clatholic weekly publications. the markets of the St. Lawrence River. Iron, copper,
Savio. gh anHehi neMcori d*ltalia, I, PimumU; CApPBLUpm, and gvpsum are also mined. The coast fisheries are
L» ChieM ^Italia, XIV; Mouio. Sioria di Nowu gfUan, 1833). looked UDon as very valuable. They consist of sal-
U. Bbnioni. mon, cod, shad, halibut, mackerel, herring, ^eUfish,
and ar#exported to American and European maricets.
rfovaSootia. — I. Geography. — Nova Scotia is one The forests produce maple, birch, hemlock, spruce,
of ihe maritime provinces of Canada. It forms part of pine, and beech. The manufacturing interests are also
what was formerly Acadie or Acadia and now consists extensive, the larger plants being the iron and steel
of what is known as the peninsula of Nova Scotia proper works at Sydney «nd Sydney Mines.
&nd the Island of Cape Breton . The island is separated II. Ethngorapht. — ^When the European colonists
from the mainland oy the Gut or Strait of Canso, an first came to Nova Scotia thev found tne country in-
important international waterway connecting the At- habited by a tribe of Indians known as the Micmacs.
lantic Ocean with the Gulf of St. Lawrence. This These savages were converted to Christianity by the
strait is about fifteen miles long and varies in width from early French missionaries. Their descendants, num-
faalf a mile to two miles. Sable Island, a dangerous bering 1542 at the time of the last official census
sand ridge, on which in 1518 a Frenchman, named de (1901), belong to the Catholic Church. They live
Lery, made a fruitless attempt to form a settlement, principally on reservations set aside for them by the
was before the confederation of the provinces a part oi Government. The duty of caring for the Indians has
the Province of Nova Scotia, but oy the Union Act been assigned by the British North American Act to the
(British North America Act of 1867) this island Parliament of Canada. The descendants of the French
came under the exclusive legislative authority of the settlers form an important body. They numbered at
Dominion Parliament. It is about twenty-five miles the time of the last census 45, 161. They also are Catho-
long and of varjring width. In some places it is about lies and are noted for their industry and frugality,
a mile and a half wide. From the numerous ship- The Germans form another important element. They
wrecks that have occurred there. Sable Island has be- are descended from the body of (jierman settlers who
eome known as 'Hhe graveyard of the Atlantic". arrived in Nova Scotia shortly after the founding of
The Province of Nova Scotia lies between 43^ .25' Halifax, and in 1753 removed to the County of Lunen-
and 47^ north latitude, and 59^ 40^ and 66^ 35' west burg. Principally Lutherans and Anglicans, they are
longitude. Gn the north it is bounded by the Bay of thrifty and industrious. The English settlers came in
Fundy, Chignecto Bay, New Brunswick, Northum- after the defeat of the French, and after the Revolu-
berland Straits, and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence, and tionary War from twenty to thirty thousand loyalists
on all other sides by the Atlantic Gcean. The penin- left the United States and settled in Nova Scotia,
sula is connected with the Province of New Brunswick Later on came accessions from Ireland and Scotland.
by the Isthmus of Chigpecto which is about twelve At the last census these last^mentioned races were esti-
and a half miles wide. The total area of Nova Scotia mated as follows: English, 159,753; Scottish, 143,382;
is estimated at about 21,428 souare miles. The sur- Irish^ 54,710. There were also 5984 negroes in the
face is undulating. There are three mountain ranges, provmce. They are descended from slaves who were
namely: the dJobequid Mountains, commencing at brought to Nova Scotia before the abolition of slavery
Cape Chignecto in Cumberland and running about in British dominions. The total population of the
one hundred miles through the (bounties of Colcl^es- Province of Nova Scotia in 1901 was 459,572, of whom
ter, Pictou and Antigonish: the North Moimtains ex- 129,578 were returned as Catholics,
tending from Cape Blomiaon to Digby Neck, about III. History. — John Cabot made his first voyage
one hundred and ten miles; and the South Mountains, from Bristol in search of a westerly route to India m
a low range parallel with the North Mountains ana 1497. He made a landfall on the eastern coast of
with some interruptions running through the middle North America, but whether on Labrador, Newfound-
of the peninsula and through the leland of Cape land, or Nova Scotia is uncertain. No actual set-
Breton, the range being about three hundred and tlement immediate^ followed the voyages of the
fifty miles long. The greatest height of these moun- Cabots. In 1604 lung Henry lY of France gave a
tains is 1700 feet above searlevel. The rivers are commission to deMonts appointing him viceroy of the
small, and no part of the country is far from the sea. territory lying between the Gulf ot St. Lawrence and
The lakes are numerous but not large. The Bras d'Or the mouth of the Hudson River. De Monts arrived at
Lakes in Cape Breton divide the island into two parts the mouth of the La Have River on the coast of Nova
and cover about 500 square miles. The coastline of Scotia and he then sailed up the Bay of Fundy and
Nova Scotia is about 1500 miles and there are numeiv into the sheet of water which is now known as the An-
ous ports of refuge. The harbours of Halifax, Louis- napolis Basin. Here, near what is now the town of An-
burg, and Sydney are among the best in North ni4)olis, a site was chosen for a settlement and to the
America. Thie average temperature ranges from 65° place de Monts gave the name of Port-Royal. Leav-
F. in summer to 25° F. in winter. The mgh tides on mg some of his companions there he sailed along the
the Bay of Fundy constitute an unusual physical fea- northern shore of the Bay of Fundy, entered the St.
tore (rf the counties lying along the bay. John River and later made his winter quarters at the
NOVA sconi 136 nova sgotia
&iOUth of the St. Croix River. The oompanions whom the people. In the latter year the first repreflentative
he left at Port-Royal returned to France. The follow^ Afisembiy was convened in Hidifax. By the laws of
ing year de Monts and the /nirvivons of his party at that thne Roman Catholics were disqualified from
St. Croix retumied to Port-Roya), This #08 the be- holding seats in the legislature,
ginning of £ur(x>eah settlem^t. in Canada, and the In 1756 began the famous Seven Years' War; two
colony thus cAtiublished is the oldest European settle- years later the final capture of Louisburg, under Gen-
inent in Nortk America with the exception of St. Au- end Amherst, took place. The siege lasted for seven
gusbine in ^orida. The colony was temporarily aban- weeks and at last the French governor was obliged to
doned in 1607, but in 1610 the French returned and surrender unconditionally. By the Treaty of Paris
Remained in undisturbed possession until 1613, when a (1763) France ceded Cape Breton, Prince Edward
freebooter from Virginia named Argall made a descent Iriand, and Canada to Great Britain, and the long
upon the colony ana totally destroyed it. duel in North America between the two 0reat Euro-
In 1621 King James I gave a grant of Acadia to Sir pean powers came at last to an end. Cape Breton and
William Alexander and changed the name to Nova Prince Edward Island became a part of Nova Scotia:
Sootia; but the efiforts of Sir William Alexander to but in 1770 Prince Edward Idana severed its political
build up an English settlement were of little avail, connexion, as in 1784 did Cape Breton and New
After the capture of Quebec by David Kirke, peace Brunswick. Cape Breton was reannexed to Nova
was made between France and Great Britain by the Sootia in 1819. During the Revolutionary War Nova
Treaty of St-Germain-en-Lave (1632) , and Quebec and Sootia remained loyal to Britain. Many people in the
Nova Scotia were given back to France. But in 1654 United States who did not approve of the war migrated
Cromwell sent out a fleet to capture the Dutch colony to the British provinces. These were known as
at Manhattan, and a portion of his fleet sailed into United Empire Loyalists. In the province to which
AnniH[K>lis Basin, and Port-Royal surrendered to them, they removed they recdved free grants of land and
After the accession of Charles II, l^ the Treaty of they formed a valuable accession to the scant popula-
Breda, Nova Scotia was again restored to France. In tion.
1690 Sir William Phips took command of a naval At the first session of the Legislature of Nova Scotia
force from Massachusetts, and he easilv took Port- a law was passed reouiring all , Catholic priests to
Royal, but he left no garrison there and the French leave the country; ana any person who harboured a
soon reoccupied it. After several years of war terms priest was liable to payment of a large fine. These
of peace were again arranged between Great Britain laws were subsequently rei>ealed. In 1827 a Catholic
ana France by the Treat^ of Ryswick (1679) and was permitted, for the first time, to take his seat as a
Nova Scotia was once agam placed under the rule of member of the Assembly. While Nova Scotia had
France. The final capture of Port-Royal took olace in representative p)vemment as early as 1758. the exeo-
1710 when the French surrendered to Colonel Nichol- utive was not m any way responsible to the people;
son, who named the settlement Annapolis in honour of affairs were so administered for about seventv years.
Queen Anne. The long warfare between the two coun- Then arose a strong agitation under the brilliant,
tries for the possession of Nova Scotia proper was leader^p of Joseph Howe. After several years of dis-
brought to a close by the Treaty of Utrecht (1713), cussion and negotiation, in 1848, responsible govern-
which provided that the peninsula should belong to ment was secured and thereafter the tenure of office of
England and the Island of Cape Breton to France, the government was made to depend upon the support
Annapolis became the capital of the colony and the of the representatives of t)ie people in the Assemoly.
only other English settlement was at Canso. Very The next twenty years were years of continued prog*
few settles arrived in the country for nearly forty ress. Steam communication was established with
years. The French to regain their position strongly England; railways were built; and a revival of trade
fortified Louisbuig on the south-east coast of Cape took place. In 1867 the Provinces of Nova Scotia,
Breton. War again broke out and in 1745 a force wiLs New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario were confeder-
sent from Massachusetts under Colonel William Pep- ated as the Dominion of CanadiL under the provision
perell. After a si^e of seven weeks the Governor of of the British North America Act. The legislative
Louisburg was obuged to surrender. To recapture functions of the Dominion and of the provinces were
Louisburg the Frendi in the vear following sent out a separated,and subjects of local concern were assigned to
powerful fleet under d'Anville. This expedition was the several provinces. Among the latter may be men-
unfortunate. The fleet encountered bad weather and tioned education and municipal institutions, solemni-
after the remnants of it arrived at Chebucto (Halifax) sation of marriage, and property and civil rights.
Harbour, the commander and many of the men died; Among the powers assign^ to the Dominion are the
tl^ee who survived returned to France. Great Bri- postal service, census and statistics, military and
tain held Louisburg for three years after the first cap- naval service and defence, navigation, banking^ copy-
ture; and then terms of peace were arranged by the rights, marriage and divorce, and the regulations m
Treaty of Aix-larChapelle (1748) and Louisburg was registra to the Indians.
S'ven to France. To strengthen the position of the IV. Chitrch and State. — ^The relations between
nglish in Nova Sootia it was determined to establif^ Chureh and State do not give rise to much complaint,
a permanent settlement on the shores of Chebucto There is no state religion, and all religious denominar
Harbour. Accordingly in June, 1749, Colonel Com- tions are placed on an equality by the law. The school
w^lis arrived with a number of settlers and founded system is undenominational. The Catholi(» have no
the town of Halifax. The seat of government was separate schools, but in centres of population where
transferred from Annai)olis to the new town, and Com- they are numerous and in country districts where they
wallis selected a council to assist him in the adminis- predominate, they are permitted by usage to have-
tration of the colony. Six years later occurred the teachers of tneir own behef. There is perfect freedom.
cruel expulsion of the Acadians from their fertile lands of worship in every respect,
along the Bay of Fundy. Several thousands of these V. Division into Dioceses, Population, etc. —
people were banished from Nova Sootia and scattotKi The Province of Nova Scotia is divided into two dio-
m the English colonies from Massachusetts to Louis- oeses: the Archdiocese of Halifax, which embraces the?
iana. In many cases families were separated and the eleven westernmost counties of the province; and the
event remains a dark blot on the reputation of the Diocese of Antigonish, which embraces the four coun-
English governor of that day. ties on Cape Breton Island, and the Counties of Guys-
innom 1749 to 1758 the governor of the colony ad* borough, Pictou, and Antigonish on the peninsula,
ministered its affairs with the assistance of a council, According to the last officiid census there were 54,301
but there were no representatives directly chosen by Catholics in the Archdiocese of Halif ax» and 75,277 ia
NOVA SCOTIA 137 NOVA SCOTIA
the Diooeee of Antigonish. By chapter 3 1 of the Acts impriBonment, the presiding justice may sentenoe such
of the Legislature of Nova Scotia for the year 1849, boy to be detainer in St. Patrick's Home for a term
the Roman Catholic Bishop of Halifax and his succes- not exceeding five years and not less than one year,
aors were incorporated under the name of '' the Roman The statute provides also that boys so detuned shall
Catholic Episcopal Coiporation of the City and be educated and tatight a trade. This home is as-
County of Halifax'' with perpetual succession, and sisted from the public funds and is open at all time
power to hold, receive ana enjoy real and personal to public inspection. It is under the direction of the
estate. In 1888, by chapter 102 of the Acts of that Christian Brothers. The statute provides also that
^ear, s. 4, it was provided as follows: — ''The Coipora- juvenile ofifenders and vagrants may be sent to this
tion may acquire by deed of conveyance or by devise reformatory. Similar provision is made in the case of
or in any other manner for the time being recognised a girl, being a Cathohc and above the age of six-
by law lands within Nova Scotia and may have, hold, teen years, convicted of an offence punishable by im-
possess and enjoy the same for the general uses ana prisonment in the city prison or common jail for a
purposes eleemos3mar^, ecclesiastical or educational of term of two months or longer. She may be sentenced
the Archdiocese or of any portion thereof or for any to the Good Shepherd Ren)rmatoty at Halifax, for an
such uses or purposes and may sell, alien, exchanj^, extended or substituted imprisonment subject to con-
assign, release mortgage, lease, convey or otherwise ditions: (a) if she is under tne age of twenty-one, such
dispose of such lands or any part thereof for such uses extended imprisonment may be until she attains the
ana purposes or imv of them in the manner herein- age of twenty-one, or for any shorter or longer term
after provided ". This statute also provides that all not less than two and not more than four years; (b) if
Churdi property, real and personal, shall be vested in die is of the age of twenty-one or upwaras, such ex- .
the corporation and used as the propertv of the Ro- tended imprisonment may be for any term not less
man Catholic Church within tne archdiocese for than one year and'not more than two years. Catholic
eleemosynary, ecclesiastical, and educational purposes, girls under the age of sixteen may be sentenced in the
The corporation executes a deed by its corporate seal same way to the Good Shepherd Industrial Refuge
and the signature of the archbishop, his coadjutor or at Halifax^ where the sisters are in chaiige and are
vicaivgen^al, and one other Roman Catholic cler^- obliged to instruct them in reading and writing and in
man of Uie archdiocese. The Diocese of Antigonish arithmetic to the end of simple proportion, and also
was formerly known as the Diocese of Arichat ; by to teach them a trade or occupation suitable to their
diapter 86 of the Acts of the Legislature of Nova capabilities. The Good Shepherd Reformatorv re-
Scotia for 1887 the name was chan^d from Arichat to ceives assistance from the public funds and is subject
Antigonish. The Roman Catholic Episcopal Corpora- to inspection by a government official,
tion of Antigonish was created by Chapter 74 of the IX. Wilus and Chabitablb Bbqubbts. — Evei^
Acts of the Legislature of Nova Scotia (1854), and the person of the age of twenty-one vears and upwaras
legislative provisions with respect to this coiporation may dispose of his property bv wul. Such will must
are substantiallv tiie same as those relating to the Ro- be signed by the testator in the presence of two wit-
man Catholic Episcopal Corporation of Halifax. nesses who shall subscribe thereto as witnesses iii his
VI. Taxation and Exemption of Churches, presence and in the presence of each other. Bystat-
vro.— The Assessment Act [R.S.N.S.. 1900, c. 73, sec. ute (R. S. N. S., 1900, o. 135) a devise or bequest of
4, SS. (b)] exempts from taxation every church and real or personal property to any reli^ous or charitable
place of worship and the land used m connexion corporation or any incorporated institution of learning
therowith, and every church and burial ground. The is valid and effectual for the purpose of vesting the
same statute also exempts the real estate of every property in such body, notwithstanding that it was
college, academy, or institution of learning and everv not by its act of incorporation empowered to take
schoolhouse. The statute mentioned applies to aU or hold real or personal property or notwithstanding
property in Nova Scotia outside of the city of Halifax, any limit in such act as to the amount of real or per-
fit>perty witldn the city of Halifax is dealt with by flonal property the incorporated body was empowered
the Halifax City Charter, S. 335, which exempts every to take or hold — ^provided the statute shall not extend
building used as a college, incorporated academy, to render valid or effectual any devise or bequest that
schoolhouse, or other semmary of learning, and every is to be void fok" another reason,
building used for public worship and the site, appur- . X. Cbmxtbribs. — ^By statute (R. S. N. S., 1900,
tenancee and furniture of eacn. This charter also c. 132) it is provided that any number of persons, not
exempts every poorhouse, almshouse, orphans' home, less than ten, may form themselves into a company
house of industry, house of refuge, and infants' home, for the purpose of establishing a public cemetery,
while used for the purposes indicated by their respective Catholic cemeteries, however, are owned by t£e
desisnations, and all their real and personal property. Episcopal Corporation of the diocese. Cemeteries .
VIL Exemption of the Clergy from Public are exempt from taxation and the lots or plots owned
Services. — ^There lire no obnoxious public duties re- by individual proprietors cannot be seised or taken on
quired to be performed by clergymen. The Juries' execution.
Act (R. S. N. S., 1900, c. 162, s. djexempts from serv- XI. Marriage Laws. — By the provisions of the
ing on juries ** clergvmen and ministers ox the Gospel *\ British North America Act, the subject of marriage
The Militia Act (K. S., c. 41, s. 11) provides that the and divorce is assigned to the Dominion Parliament,
clersy and ministers of all religious denominations, and that of the solemnisation of marriage to the lensr -
pro^Bsors in colleges and universities, and teachers in lature of the province. The fprmer body, underthis.i
religious orders shall be exempt from liability to serve distribution, deals with the capacity to contract tmar- -
in the militia. '^^ ^^^ in pursuance of such power it :has: enacted i
VIII. Prisons and Reformatories. — ^These are (R.S.C.,c. 105) that "a marriage is not invalid merely
maintained by the State and are non-denominational, because the woman is a sister ofa deceased wife of the >
The clergy are permitted to minister to the spiritual man, or a daughter of a sister of a deceased wife of r
wants ofthe people of their own faith. At Halifax the-man". The provincial statute (R.S.N.S., 1900,.
there are two reformatories conducted under Catholic ci 111) deals with the mode of solemnising a mar- .
auspices, namely, St. Patrick's Home for Boys, and the riagS' within the province. It provides that everv.
Good Shepherd Reformatory for women, und^r the marriage shall be solemnised by a mihister of a church
provisions of the Act relating to prisonsaad reforma- or religious denomination, being a man and resident in
tories (R. S. C, c. 148), whenever, a: bby, who is a Canada, who is recognised as duly ordained according
Catholic and under eighteen years^ is convicted in to the rites and ceremonies of the church or denomina-
Nova .Scotiaior. an offence Joc.wJhifikJ1e.i4.liAbte.tQ. tion.tQ.whjLQk.hie.bj^lQngs. Persona belonging to th^^
NOVATIAK
138
NOVATIAN
society known as the Salvation Army may be married
by any duly appointed male .commissioner or staff
officer of the society. No person shall officiate at the
solemnization of any marnage unless publication has
been made of the banns of the marriage or a licence has
been obtained for the solemnization of the marriage.
The banns shall be published in any church at the place
in which one of the parties resides by the officiating
cler^^yman in an audible voice during the time m
Divine service, and if there is more than one public
service in the cnurch on each Sunda^^, such publication
shall be made at three several services held on two or
more Sundays; otherwise the pubUcation may be at
two several services on two Sundays. Every marriage
shall be solemnized in the presence of at least two
witnesses. After the solemnization of the marriage
the clergyman solemnizing the same shall make out a
certificate containing the date of the marriage, the
place thereof, the date of the publication of the banns,
the church in which and the clergyman bj whom the
banns were published, the names of the witnesses and
his own name, and the religious denomination to
which he belongs. The marriage register giving the
above particulars, and also the names, ages, residences,
etc., of the parties and their parents shall also be filled
up. Returns in the prescribed form shall be made by
the clerg3rman to the nearest issuer of marriage licences
within ten days after the solemnization. Forms for
that purpose are furnished by the issuer of marriage
licences. Large penalties are provided for solemnizing
marriage without banns of marriage or licence, for
refusing to publish the banns, for solemnizing under an
illegal licence, and for failing to return the marriage
renster.
XII. Divorce. — In Nova Scotia there is a court
for divorce and matrimonial causes, and it has juris-
diction over all matters relating to prohibited mar-
riages and divorce, and may declare any mairiage
null and void for impotence, adultery, cruelty, or
kindred within the degrees prohibited in an Act made
in the thirtynsecond year of King Henry the Eighth,
entitled ''An Act conceminj^ pre-contracts, ana
touching degrees of Consanguinity"; and whenever
a sentence of divorce shall be given, the court may
pronounce such determination as it wall think fit on
the rights of the parties or either of them to courtesv
or dower. In the provinces of the dominion in which
no divorce courts exist, applications for divorce are
made to Parliament and the evidence is taken and
considered by the members of the Senate of Canada.
In Nova Scotia there is an appeal from the decision
of the judge of the Divorce Court to the Supreme
Court of Nova Scotia sitting; in banco. When the
final decree is for the dissolution of the marriage, the
statute enables either of the parties to marry again
as if the prior marriage had been dissolved by death;
but no clergyman shall be liable to any penalty for
refusing to solemnize the marriage of either of the
parties who have been divorced. In cases of divorce
the wife and husband are not competent to testify,
but in proceedings by the wife, on account of adultery
coupled with cruelty, the husband and wife are com-
petent and compellable to give evidence of or relating
to such cruelty.
XIII. Religious Orders, Schools, etc. — Sev-
eral of the public schools of the province are taught by
members of the religious orders. In such cases the
teachers must be licensed in the same way as other
public teachers, and they are paid out of the public
funds. Besides the public schools there are man>r ex-
cellent private schools taught by members of religious
orders. These do not receive any assistance from the
Eublic treasury. ' The public schools are maintained
y a grant from the government and by local taxation
upon the property holders of the section or munici-
pality. They are otherwise free and all children jof
,0chool age are entitled to be admitted to them.
Brown, History of tht Idand of Cape Breton (London, i860);
the works of Parkuan (Boston, 1883-4); Calkin, HxaUfry of
Canada (Halifax. 1907): Robbbtb, Hittoryof Canada (Boston,
1807): Calkin. School Oeography of the World (HaUfaz. 1878);
Bewieed SkUuife of Canada (Ottawa, 1906) ; Statvtea of Nota Seatia
(various dates) ; SUUutee «/ Canada (various dates) ; Rented Sta^
ulet of Nova Scotia (Halifax, 1900). For further bibliography
see Halktax, Abcroiocksb or.
Joseph A. Chisholm.
Noratlan 4nd NoTatlaniBin — ^Novatian was a
schismatic of the third century, and founder of the
sect of the Novatians; he was a Roman priest, and
made himself antipope. His name is given as Nova-
tus (Noovdrof, Eusebius; Navdrot, Socrates) by Greek
writers, and also in the verses of Damasus and Pni-
dentius, on account of the metre.
BiOQRAPRT. — We know little of his life. St. Cor-
nelius in his letter to Fabius of Antioch relates that
Novatian was possessed by Satan for a season, ap-
earently while a catechumen ; for the exorcists attended
im, and he fell into a sickness from which instant death
was expected; he was, therefore, given baptism by af-
fusion as he lay on his bed. The rest of the rites were
not supplied on his recovery, nor was he confirmed by
the bisnop. ''How then can he have received the
Holy Ghost? *' asks Cornelius. Novatian was a man 4>f
learning and had been trained in literary composition.
Cornelius speaks of him sarcastically as 'Hhat maker
of dogmas, that champion of ecclesiastical learning".
His eloquence is mentioned by Cyprian (Ep. Ix, 3),
and a pope (presumably Fabian) promoted him to the
priesthood in spite of the protests (according to Cor-
nelius) of all the clergy and many of the laity that it
was uncanonical for one who had received only clinical
baptism to be admitted among the clerinr. The story
told by Eulogius of Alexandria that rl^ovatian was
Archdeacon of Rome, and was made a priest by the
pope in order to prevent his succeeding to the papacy,
contradicts the evidence of Cornelius and supposes a
later state of things when the Roman deacons were
statesmen rather than ministers. The anonymous
work "Ad Novatianum" (xiii) tells us that Novatian,
''so long as he was in the one house, that is in Christ's
Church, bewailed the sins of his neighbours as if they
were his own, 'bore the burdens of the brethren, as the
Apostle exhorts^ and strengthened with consolation
the backsliding m heavenly faith."
The Church had enjoyed a peace of thirty-eight
years when Decius issued his edict of persecution early
in 250. Pope St. Fabian was martyred on 20 Jan.,
and it was impossible to elect a successor. Cornelius,
writing in the following year, says of Novatian that,
throu^ cowardice and love of his life, he denied that
he was a priest in the time of persecution; for he was
^diorted oy the deacons to come out of the cell, in
which he had shut himself up, to assist the brethren as
a priest now that they were in danger. But he was
angry and d^arted, saving he no longer wished to be
a priest, for he was in love with another philosophy.
The meaning of this story is not clear. Did Novatian
wish to eschew the active work of the priesthood and
give himself to an ascetic life?
At all events, during the persecution he certainlv
wrote letters in the name of the Roman clergy, which
were sent by them to St. Cyprian (Epp. xxx and
xxxvi). The letters are concerned with the question
of the Lapsi (q. v.), and with the exaggerated claim of
the martyrs at Carthage to restore them all without
penance. The Roman clergy agree with Cyprian that
the matter must be settled with moderation by coun-
cils to be held when this should be possible; the elec-
tion of a new bishop must be awaited; proper severity
of discipline must be preserved, such as had always dis-
tinguished the Roman Church since the days when her
faith was praised by St. Paul (Rom., i, 8), but cruelty
to the repentant must be avoided. There is evi-
dently no idea in the minds of the Roman priests Uiat
j-estorationnf the lapsed .to jcnmmiinlnn is impossible
NOVATIAN 139 HOVATIAN
or improper; but there are severe expressions in the natures, and the entire list was sent to Antioch and
letters. It seems that Novatian got into some trouble doubtless to all the other principal Churches,
during the persecution, since Cornelius says that St. It is not surprising that a man of such talents as
MoseSj the martyr (d. 250), seeing the boldness of Novatian should have been conscious of his superior-
Novatian, separated him from communion, together ity to Cornelius, or that he should have found priests
with the five priests who had been associated with to assist his ambitious views. His mainstay was in
him. the confessors yet in prison, Maximus, Urbanus, Nic*
At the beginning of 251 the persecution relaxed, and ostratus, and others. Dionysius and Cyprian wrote
St. Cornelius was elected pope in March, "when the to remonstrate with them, and they returned to the
chair of Fabian, that is the place of Peter, was vacant", Church. A prime mover on Novatian's side was the
with the consent of nearly all the clergy, of the peo- Carthaginian priest Novatus, who had favoured laxity
Sle, and of the bishops present (C^rian, Ep. Iv, &-9). at Carthage out of opposition to his bishop. In St.
ome days later Novatian set himself up as a rival Cyprian*searlierletter8aboutNovatian(xliv-xlviii, 1),
pope. (Jomelius tells us Novatian suffered an ex- there is not a word about any heresy, the whole ques-
traordinary and sudden change; for he had taken a tion being as to the legitimate occupant of the place
tremendous oath that he would never attempt to be- of Peter. In Ep. li, the words "schismatico immo
come bishop. But now he sent two of his party to hsretico furore refer to the wickedness of opp>osing
summon three bishops from a distant comer of Italy, the true bishop. The same is true of "hsereticse pravi-
telling ihem they must come to Rome in haste, in or- tatis noceos factio" with Ep. liii. In Ep. liv, Cyp-
der that a division might be healed by their meaiation rian found it necessary to send his book ''De lapsis"
and that of other bishops. These simple men were to Rome, so that the question of the lapsed was al-
constrained to confer the episcopal order upon him at readv prominent, but Ep. Iv is the earliest in which
the tenth hour of the day. One of these returned to the "Novatian heresy" as such is argued against,
the church bewailing and confessing his sin, "and we The letters of the Roman confessors (Ep. liii) and Cor-
despatched" says Cornelius, "successors of the other nelius (xUx, 1) to Cyprian do not mention it, though
two bishops to the places whence they came, after or- the latter speaks in general terms of Novatian as a
daining them." To ensure the loyalty of his support- schismatic or a heretic; nor does the pope mention
ers Novatian forced them, when receiving Holy Com- heresy in his abuse of Novatian in the letter to FabiuB
munion, to swear by the Blood and the Body of Christ of Antioch (Eusebius, VI, xliii), from which so much
that they would not go over to Cornelius. has been quoted above. It is equally clear that the
Cornelius and Novatian sent messengers to the dif- letters sent out by Novatian were not concerned with
ferent Churches to announce their respective claims, the lapsiy but were "letters full of calumnies and male-
From St. Cyprian's correspondence we know of the dictions sent in large numbers, which threw nearly all
careful investigation made by the Council of Carthage, the Churches into disorder" (Cornelius, Ep. xlix).
with the result that Cornelius was supported by the The first of those sent to Carthage consisted appar-
whole African episcopate. St. Dionysius of Alexan- ently of "bitter accusations" against Cornelius, and
dria also took his side, and these influential adhesions St. Cyprian thought it so disgraceful that he did not
soon made his position secure. But for a time the read it to the council (Ep. xlv, 2). The messenj^ers
whole Church was torn by the question of the rival from Rome to the Carthaginian Council broke out into
popes. We have few details. St. Csrprian writes similar attacks (Ep. xliv). It is necess&ry to notice
that Novatian "assumed the primacy" (Ep. Ixix, 8), this point, because it b so frequently overlooked by
and sent out his new apostles to many cities to set new historians, who represent the sudden but short-lived
foundations for his new establishment; and', though disturbance throu^out the Catholic Church caused
there were already in all provinces and cities bishops by Novatian's ordination to have been a division be-
ef venerable age, of pure faith, of tried virtue, who tween bishops on the subject of his heresy. Yet it is
had been proscribed m the persecution, he dared to obvious enough that the question could not present it-
create other false bishops over their heads (Ep.lv, 24) self: "Which is preferable, the doctrine of Cornelius
thus claiming the right of substituting bishops by his or that of Novatian? " If Novatian were ever so or-
own authority as Cornelius did in the case just men- thodox, the first matter was to examine whether his
tioned. There could be no more startling proof of the ordination was legitimate or not, and whether his
importance of the Roman See than this sudden revela- accusations against Cornelius were false or true. An
tion of an episode of the third century: the whole admirable reply addressed to him by ^t. Dionysius
Church convulsed by the claim of an antipope* the of Alexandria has be^i preserved (Eusebius, VI, xlv):
recognized impossibility of a bishop being a Catholic " Dionysius to his brotner Novatian, greeting. If it
and legitimate pastor if he is on the side of the wrong was against your will, as you say, that you were led,
pope ; tne uncontested claim of both rivals to consecrate you will prove it by retiring of your free will. For you
a new bishop in any place (at all events, in the West) ought to have suffered anything rather than divide
where the existing bishop resisted their authority, the Church of God; and to be martyred rather than
Later, in the same way, in a letter to Pope Stephen, cause a schism would have been no less glorious than
St. Cyprian urges him to appoint (so he seems to im- to be martyred rather than commit idolatry, nay in my
Ely) a new bishop at Aries, where the bishop had opinion it would have been a yet greater act: for in the
ecome a Novatianist. St. Dionysius of Alexandria one case one is a mart3rr for one's own soul alone, in
wrote to Pope Stephen that all the Churches in the the other for the whole Church". Here again there
East and beyond, which had been split in two, were is no question of heresy.
now united, and that all their prelates were now re- But yet within a couple of months Novatian was
joicing exceedingly in this unexpected peace — ^in Anti- called a heretic, not only by Cyprian but throughout
och, Caesarea of Palestine, Jerusalem, TyrCj Laodicea the Church, for his severe views about the restoration
of Syria, Tarsus and all the Churches of Cilicia, Cse- of those who had lapsed in the persecution. He held
sarea and all Cappadocia, the Syrias and Arabia that idolatry was an unpardonable sin, and that the
(which depended for alms on the Roman Church), Church had no right to restore to communion any
Mesopotamia, Pontus and Bithynia, "and all the who had fallen into it. They might repent and be ad-
Churches everywhere", so far did the Roman schism mitted to a lifelong penance, but their forgiveness
cause its effects to be felt. Meanwhile, before the end must be left to God; it could not be pronounced in
of 251, Cornelius had assembled a council of sixty this world. Such harsh sentiments were not alto-
bishops (probably all from Italy or the Neighbouring gether a novelty. Tertullian had resisted the forgive-
islands), in which Novatian was excommunicated, ness of adultery by Pope Callistus as an innovation.
Other bishops who were not present added their sig- Hippolytus was equally inclined to severity. In van-
* NOVATIAH 140 HOVATIAN
0118 places and at various times laws were made which that seems meant to express the oonsubetantiality of
pumshed certain sins either with the deferring of the Son, or at least EUs gjeneration out of the substance
Commimion till the hour of death, or even with re- of the Father. But it is a very unsatisfactory unity
fusal of Communion in the hour of death. Even St.* which is attained, and it seems to be suggested that
Cvprian approved the latter course in the case of those the Son is not immense or invisible, but the image of
who refused to do penance and only repented on their the Father capable of manifesting Him. Hippo^us
death-bed; but this was because such a repentance is in the same difficulty, and it appears that Novatian
seemed of doubtful sincerity. But severity in itself borrowed from him as well as from Tertullian and
was but cruelty or injustice; there was no heresy un- Justin. It would seem that Tertullian and Hippoly-
til it was denied that the Church has the power to tus understood somewhat better than did Novatian
gprant absolution in certain cases. This was Nova- the traditional Roman doctrine of the consubstantial-
tian's heresy; and St. Cyprian says the Novatians ity of the Son, but that all three were led astray by
held no longer the Catholic creed and baptismal inter- their acquaintance with the Greek theology, whicn
rogation, for when they said ''Dostthou oelieve in the interpreted of the Son as God Scriptural expressions
remission of sins, and everlasting life, through ^oIy (especially those of St. Paul) which properly apply to
Church? " they were liars. Him as the God-Man. But at least Novatian nas the
Wbitinos.— -St. Jerome mentions a number of writ- merit of not identifying; the Word with the Father, nor
ings of Novatian, only two of which have come down Sonship with the prolation of the Word for the purpose
to us, the ** De Cibis Judaicis" and the ''De Trini- of Creation, for He plainly teaches the eternal genera-
tate". The former is a letter written in retirement tion. This is a notable advance on Tertullian.
durins a time of persecution, and was preceded by two On the Incarnation Novatian seems to have been
other letters on Circumcision and the Sabbath, which orthodox, though he is not explicit. He speaks cor-
are lost. It interprets the unclean animals as signi- rectly of the one Person having two substances, the
fying different classes of vicious men; and expliuns Godhead and Humanity, in the way that is habitual to
that the greater liberty allowed to Christians is not the most exact Western theologians. But he very
to be a motive for luxury. The book ''DeTrinitate" often speaks of "the man'' assumed by the Divine
is a fine piece of writing. The first eight chapters con- Person, so that he has been suspected of Nestorianiz-
cem the transcendence and greatness of God, who is ing. This is unfair, since he is equally liable to the
above all thought and can be described by no name, opposite accusation of making ''the man" so far from
Novatian soeson to prove the Divinity of the Son at being a distinct personality that He is merely flesh
great leng^, arguing from both the Old and the New assumed (caro, or substantia camis et corporis). But
Testaments, and adding that it is an insult to the there is no real ground for supposing that Novatian
Father to say that a FaQier who is God cannot beget meant to deny an intellectual soul in Christ; he does
a Son who is God. But Novatian falls into the error not think of the point, and is only anxious to assert
made by so many early writers of separating the the reality of our Lord's flesh. The Son of God, he
Father from the Son, so that he makes the Father says, joins to Himself the Son of Man, and by this
address to the Son the command to create, and the connexion and mingling he makes the Son of Man be-
Son obeys; he identifies the Son with the angels who come Son of God, which He was not by nature. This
appeared m the Old Testament to Agar^ Abraham, last sentence has been described as Adoptionism.
etc. ''It pertains to the person of Cnnst that He But the Spanish Adoptionists tauKht that the Human
should be God because He is the Son of God, and that ^ Nature of Christ as joined to the Godhead is the
He should be an Angel because He announces the adopted Son of God. Novatian only means that be-
Father's Will" (patemo! disposiiionis annuniiator est), fore its assumption it was not by nature the Son of
The Son is "the second Person after the Father", less God; the form of words is bad, but there is not neces^
than the Father in that He is originated by the sarily any heresy in the thou^t. Newman, though
Father; He is the imitator of a\\ His works, and is he does not make the best of Novatian, says that he
always obedient to the Father, and is one with Him "approaches more nearly to doctrinal precision than
"by concord, by love, and by affection". any of the writers of the East and West" who pre-
No wonder such a aescription should seem to op- ceded him (Tracts theological and ecclesiastical, p.
ponents to make two Gods; and consequently, after a 239).
chapter on the Holy Ghost (xxix). Novatian returns to The two pseudo-Cyprianic works, both by one au-
the subject in a kmd of appenoix (xxx-xxxi). Two thor, "De SpectacuUs and "De bono pudicitiae", are
kinds of heretics, he explains^ try to guard the unity attributed to Novatian by Weyman. followed by
of God, the one kind (Sabelhans) by identifying the Demmler, Bardenhewer, Hamack, ana others. The
Father with the Son, the other (Ebionites, etc.) by de- pseudo-Cyprianic "De laude martyrii" has been as-
nying that the Son is God; thus is Christ again cruci- cribed to Novatian by Hamack, but with less proba-
fied between two thieves, and is reviled by both, bility. The pseudo-Cyprianic sermon, "Ad versus Ju-
Novatian declares that there is indeed but one God. dseos", is by a close fnend or follower of Novatian if
unbegotten^ invisible, immense, immortal; the Wora not by himself, according to Landgraf, followed by
(Sermo), His Son, is a substance that proceeds from Hamack and Jordan. In 1900 Mgr Batiffol with the
Him (substantia prolata), whose generation no apostle help of Dom A. Wilmart published, under the title
nor angel nor any creature can declare. He is not a of "Tractatus Origenis de libris SS. Scripturarum",
second God, because He is eternally in the Father, else twenty sermons wmch he had discovered in two MSS.
the Father would not be eternally Father. He pro- at Orleans and St. Omer. Weyman, Haussleiter, and
ceeded from the Father, when the Father willed (this Zahn perceived that these curious homilies on the Old
synaUabasis for the purpose of creation is evidently Testament were written in Latin and are not transla-
distinguished from tne eternal begetting in the Fa- tions from the Greek. They attributed them to No-
ther), and remained with the Father. If He were vatian with so much confidence that a disciple of
also the unbegotten. invisible, incomprehensible, there Zahn's, H. Jordan, has written a book on the theology
might indeed be said to be two Goos; but in fact He of Novatian, grounded principally on these sermons,
has from the Father whatever He has. and there is It was. however, pointed out that the theology is of a
but one origin (origo, principiuin)^ the Father. "One more aeveloped and later character than that of No-
God is demonstrated, the true and eternal Father, vatian. Funk showed that the mention of compcfente*
from whom alone this energy of the Godihead is sent (candidates for baptisxn) implies the fourth century,
forth, being handed on to the Son, and again by com- Dom Morin su^ested Gregorius Baeticus of Illibens
munion of substance it is returned to the Fattier." In (Elvira), but withdrew this when it seemed clear that
this doctrine there is much that is incorrect, yet much the author had used Gaudentius of Brescia and Rufi-
N0VATU8
141
NOVINA
nuB's translation of Origen on Genesb. But theee re-
semblances must be resolved in the sense that the
"Tractatus'' are the originals, for finally Dom Wil-
mart showed that Gregory of Elvira is their true au-
thor, by a comparison especially with the five homilies
of Gregory on tJ^e Canticle of Canticles (in Heine's
"Bibliotbeca Anecdotorum'', I^pzig, 1848).
Thb Nov atianistSbct. — ^The followers of Novatian
named themselves KoBapol, or Puritans, and affected to
call the Catholic Church the Aposiaticunit Synedrium,
or Capiiolinum, They were found in every province,
and in some places were very numerous. Our chief
information about them is from the ''History'' of
Socrates, who is very favourable to them, and tells us
much about their biwops, especially those of Constan-
tinople. The chief works written against them are
those of St. Cyprian, the anonymous "Ad Novatia-
num" (attributed by Hamack to Sixtus II, 267-8),
writings of St. Pacian of Barcelona and St. Ambrose
(De psnitentia), ''Contra Novatianum", a work of
the fourth centurv among the works of St. Augustine,
the " Heresies" of Epiphfuuus and Philastrius, and the
"Quaestiones" of Ambrosiaster. In the East they
are mentioned especially by Athanasius, Basil. Greg-
ory of Nasiansus, Chrysostom. Eulogius of Alexan-
dria, not long before 600, wrote six books asainst
them. Refutations by Reticius of Autim and Euse-
bius of Emesa are lost.
Novatian had refused absolution to idolaters; his
followers extended this doctrine to all "mortal sins"
(idolatry, inurder, and adulteiy, or fornication).
Most of them forbade second mamage, and they made
much use of TertuUian's works; indeed, in Phrygia
they combined with the Montanists. A few of tnem
did not rsbaptise converts from other persuasions.
Theodoret says that they did not use confirmation
(which Novatian himself nad never received) . Eulo-
gius complained that they would not venerate mar-
tyrs, but he probably refers to Catholic martyrs.
They always had a successor of Novatian at Rome,
and everywhere they were sovemed by bishops.
Their bishops at Constantinople were most estimable
persons, according to Socrates, who has much to relate
about tnem. They conformed to the Church in al-
most everythixig, including monasticism in the fourth
century. Their bishop at Constantinople was invited
by Constantine to the Council of Nicea. He ap-
proved the decrees, though he would not consent to
union. On account of the homoounon the Novatians
were persecuted like the Catholics by Constantius.
In Paphlagonia the Novatianist peasants attacked
and slew the soldiers sent by the emperor to enforce
conformity to the official semi-Arianism. Constan-
tine the Great, who at first treated them as schismatics,
not heretics, later ordered the closing of their churches
and cemeteries. After the death of Constantius they
were protected by Julian, but the Arian Valens p^-
secuted them once more. Honorius included them in
a law against heretics in 412, and St. Innocent I closed
some of their ishurches in Rome. St. Celestine ex-
pelled them from Rome, as St. Cyril had froni Alex-
andria. Earlier St. Chrysostom had shut up their
churches at Ephesus, but at Constantinople they were
tolerated, anci their bishops there are said by Socrates
to have been highly respected. The work of Eiilogius
shows that there were still Novatians in Alexandria
about 600. In Phrygia (about 374) some of them be-
came Quartodedmans, and were called ProUypaach-
Hat; they included some converted Jews. Theodosius
made a stringent law against this sect, which was
imported to Constantinople about 391 by a certain
Sabbatius, whose adherents were called SdbbaJtiani.
See the hittoriee of Culubb, Tillkmont, eto.; recent histories,
■s Bbioht, Qwatkin. Bioo, Duchbbnb; the histories of dogma
by DoBim, Hakhack, Loovb. Sbbbkbo, BaTHnir»*BAKBB, and
ScHWAiTB, TixxBONT, eto.; Also Fausskt (below). PBitieulsr
studies: HmLC in Kirchmitx, (1806). s. v. No9aUanUch€9
SekUma; &roKaa in /Het. CkriH. Btog,, s. ▼▼. Nif9aiiani»m and
NcmUanut; Haxnacx in ReaUneyd, fOr prU» Thsol., s. ▼. JVovo-
Han. The two works Ds Trinitats and De c%b%$ first printed by
Ganonbius, TflrfvUian (Paris. 1645), and included in subsequent
editions of Tertullian; nrst edited as Novatian's by Wblchman
(Oxford. 1724); the edition of Jackson (London. 1728) is re-
printed in Oallandi. BM, Vet. Pair., Ill (Venice. 1767). and
P. L.. III. The best ed. of De Trinitate, with introd. and notes,
is by FAUsaBT (Cambridge. 1009) ; it is denied to be Novatian's
by Haobmaxn, Dm tihniMche Kirche (Freiburg, 1864), and is con-
sidered a Latin transl. from Hippolytus by Quabbt in Herman
thtfM, XXIII (1807). Best ed. of De eibie Jvdaieie by Lanmraf
AMD Wbtmam in Archie fiir lot. Lextkogr. u. Oramm., XI, u (1808) ;
see Wbtmam, NowUian u. Seneka Hber den PrUhtrunk in Philolooue,
JJI (1803). On De epedaculit and De bono pud. see WourruM
in Archie fOr lot. Lexikogr. u. Or., VIII, i (1802. for Cyprianio
authorship); Wbtmam in Hisi. Jahrbuch, XIII-XIV (1802);
HAUSSLBrrBB in ThedL. LiteraturhlaU (16 Sept.. 1802; 12 Oct..
1804); Dbmmlbb in TkeoL QuarkUeehr., LXXXVI (1804), re-
printed as Ueber den Verfaeeer der , , . Traktate De bono pud. u.
•De Sped. (TQbingen, 1804); and see also Lamdoraf and Wbt-
mam's ed. of De eibie (above). On De lattde martyrii, see Hab-
MACK, Bine bither niehi erkannte Schrijt NoeaUane eom JcJure £4^
60 in TexU und Untere., XIII, 4b (Ldpiig, 1806). On Ade.
Judaoe, see Lamdobaf. UAer den peeudecypr. TrtikUU ade. Jvd,
in Ardiiv fikr lol. Lexikogr. u. Or., XI, i (1808); Habmack. Zw
Sehri/i Paeudoeypriane Ade. Jud. in TexU und Unt., XX. new
series. V. iii (1000); BAXirvoL amd Wilmabt. TraeUUue Origenie
de librie 38. Scripturarum (Paris, 1000); for Novatian's author-
ship, Wbtmam in Archie fUr !ai. Lexxk., XI (1000), 467, 646;
Idbm in Hiei. Jahrb., XXI (1000), 212; Zarm in Neue kirehl.
ZeOechr., XI (1000). 248: Hausslbxtbr in Theol. IMeraturblatt
(1000). nn. 14-16; Idbm in Neue kirehl. Zeiteehr., XIU (1002) ;
JOBDAM. Die Theoiogie derneuenldeckten Predigten NoeaUane (Leip-
sig. 1002); against Novatian auth.. Funk in Theol. Quart.,
LXXXII (1000) ; MoRiN in Revue d'hiei. ecd., I (1000), 267; Idbm,
in Reeue BtnSdieHne, XIX (1002), 226; Bdtuer in Journal ^
TheA. Siudiee, III (1001), 113. 264; Idbm in Zeitechr. fikr N. T.
Wiee., IV (1003), 70; DB Bbxttnb in Reeue BHUd. (1007). For
Gregory of Elvira, see Morin in Ree. d'hiei. el de titt, relig., V
(1001), 146; KuNSTLB in lAt. Rundeehau (1000), 160; esfMcially
Wiuiabt's elaborate proof in Bulletin de IMt. eeeUeiaetigue de
Toulouee, viii-iz (Oot.-Nov., 1006), which is summarised by Lb-
JAT in Ree. BhUd., XXV (1008). 435; Butlbr in Joum, Theol.
Stud., X (1000). 460.
John Chapman.
NoTatiu, Saint, who is mentioned on 20 June with
his brother, the martyr Timotheus, was the son of St.
Pudens and Claudia Rufina, and the brother of Sts.
Pudentiana and Praxedes. His paternal grandfather
was Quintus Cornelius Pudens, the Roman senator,
who with his wife, Priscilla, was among St. Peter's
earliest converts in Rome and in whose hbuse the
Apostle dwelt while in that city. A portion of the
superstructure of the modem cnurch of St. Puden-
tiana (Via Urbana) is thought to be part of the sena-
torial palace or of the baths built by Novatus.
Nofena (from novem. nine), a nine days' private or
public devotion in the CathoHe Church to obtain spe-
cial graces. The octave has more of the festal char-
acter: to the novena belongs that of hopeful mourn-
ing, of vearning, of prayer. "The number nine in
Holy Writ is indicative of suffering and meV* (St.
Jerome, in Esech., vii, 24;— P. L., XXV, 238, cf.
XXV, 1473). The novena is permitted and even
recommended by ecclesiastical authority, but still has
no proper and fully set place in the liturgy of the
Church. It has, however, more and more been prized
and utilised by the faithful. Four kinds of novenas
can be distinguished: novenas of mourning, of prep-
aration, of prayer, and the indul^enced novenas,
though this aistmction is not exclusive.
The Jews had no nine days' reliraous celebration or
nine days' mourning or feast on the ninth day after
the death or burial of relatives and friends. They
held the number seven more sacred than any other.
On the contrary, we find amons the ancient Romans
an official nine days' reli^ous celebration whose origin
is related in Livy (I| xxxi). After a shower of stones
on the Alban Mount, an official sacrifice, whether be-
cause of a warning from above or of the augurs' ad-
vice, was held on nine days to appease the gods and
avert evil. From then on the same novena of sacri-
fices was made whenever the like wonder was an-
nounced (cf. Livy, XXI, bdi; XXV, vii; XXVI,
xxiiietc.).
Besides this custom, there also existed among the
NOVKNA 142 NOVEMA
Greeks and Romans that of a nine days' mourn- of Our Lady. And this usage, because of the people
ing. with a special feast on the ninth day after death who took part in the celebration, was permitted to
or burial. This, however, was rather of a private or continue (28 Sept., 16^; Deer. Auth., 1003). A
familv character (cf. Homer, Iliad, XXIV, 664, 784; french Ordinanum (P. L^ CXLVII, 123) prescribes
Virgil, iEneid, V, 64; Tacitus, Annals, VI, v.). The that the preparation for Christmas on the ninth day
Romans also celebrated their parentaiia nooendialia. should begin with the O anthems and that each day,
a yearly novena (13 to 22 Feb.) of commemoration of at the Mamificat, th^ altar and the choir should be
all the departed members of their families (cf . Momm- incensed. The Ordinarium of Nantes and the Antiph-
sen, ^'Corp. Inscript. Latin.'\ I, 386 sq.). The cele- onary of St. Martin of Tours, in place of the seven
bration ended on the ninth day with a sacrifice and a common O anthems, have nine for the nine days be-
joyful banquet. There is a reference to these customs fore Christmas, and these were sung with special
m the laws of the Emperor Justinian (''Corp. Jur. solemnity (Mart^ne, ''De Antiq. Eccles. Ritib. , III,
Civil. Justinian.". II, Turin, 1757, 696, tit. xix, ''De Venice, 1783, 30). In Italy the novena seems to
sepulchro violato"). where creditors are forbidden to have spread only in the sevente^ith century. StiU,
trouble the heirs ol their debtor for nine days after the "Praxis oseremoniarum seu sacrorum Komanse
his death. St. Augustine (P. L., XXXIV, 596) warns Ecdesis Rituum aocurata tractatio" of the Theatine
Christians not to imitate the pagan custom, as there Piscara Csstaldo, a book approved in 1^5 by the
is no example of it in Holy Wnt. Later on, the same author's father general (Naples, 1645. p. 386 sqq.),
was done by the Pseudo-Alcuin (P. L., CI. 1278), in- gives complete directions for the celebration of the
voking the authority of St. Augustine, and still more Christmas novena with Exposition of the Blessed
sharply by John Beleth (P. L., CCII, 160) in the Sacrament. The author remarks that this novena in
tweltth century. Even Durandus in his ''Rationale'' commemoration of Our Lord'i^ nine months in the
(Naples, 1478), writing on the Office of the Dead, womb was solemnly celebrated in very many places
remarks that "some did not approve this, to avoid the in Italy. And in the beginning of the eighteentn cen-
appearance of aping pa^an customs". tury the Christmas novena held such a distinguished
Nevertheless, in (Jhnstian mortuary celebrations, position that the Sacred Congregation of lOtes (7
one finds that of the ninth day with those of the thira July, 1718), in a special case, allowed for it alone the
and seventh. The "Constitutiones ApostoHcsB" solemn celebration with Exposition of the Blessed
(VIII, xlii; P. G., I, 1147) aheady speak of it. The Sacrament (Deer. Auth., 2250).
custom existed specially in the East, out is found also But before this, at least in Sicily, the custom had
among the Franks and Anglo-Saxons. Even if it was sprung up among religious of preparing for the feast
connected with an earlier practice of the pagans, it of their founder with a novena of Masses, and these
nevertheless had in itself no vestige of superstition. Miasm novendialea voivoa were also (2 Sept., 1690) de-
A nine days' mourning with daily Mass was a distino- clared permissible (Deer. Auth., 1843). In general,
tion. naturally, which could be shared by none but in the seventeenth century, numerous novenas were
the nigher classes. Princes and the rich ordered such held especially in the churches of religious and to the
a celebration for themselves in their wiHs; even in the Saints of the various orders (cf . Prola, " De novendi-
wills of popes and cardinals such orders are found. aUbussupplicationibus", Romael724, ixunm). Two
Already m the Middle Ages the novena of Masses for hundred years later, on application from Sicily for
popes and cardinals was customary. Later on, the Exposition of the Blessed Sacrament in the celebration
mortuary celebration for cardinals became constantly of novenas, special permission was granted (Deer,
more simple, until finally it was regulated and fixed Auth., 3728), and in tne decrees on the MiastE votivcB of
by the Constitution ''Pracipuum" of Benedict XIV 30 June, 1896, there is really question of the Misscg
(23 Nov., 1741). For deceased sovereign pontiffs the vativct novendialea B. M, V, (Deer. Auth., 3922 V, n. 3).
nine days' mourning was retained, and so came to be At least in this way, then, the novena is recognized
called simply the '^Pope's Novena" (cf. Mabillon, even in the Liturgy.
"Museum Italicum", II, Paris, 1689, 530 soq., "Ordo At the same time as the novena of preparation, the
Roman. XV"; P. L., LXXVlII, 1353: Const. "In proper novena of prayer arose, among the faithful, it
eligendis" of Pius IV, 9 Oct., 1562). The usage still would seem, who in their need turned to the saints
continues and consists chiefly in a novena of Masses with a novena, especially to recover health. The
for the departed. A rescript of the Sacred Congregar original home oif this novena must have been France,
tion of Rites (22 Apr., 1633) informs us that such Belgium, and the neighbourhood of the Lower Rhine,
novenas of mourning, offida novendiaHa ex teatamento, Specially noteworthy up to the year 1000 are the
were generally known and allowed in the churches of novenas to St. Hubert, St. Maroolf, and St. Mom-
religious (Deer. Auth. S. R. C, 604). They are no molus. St. Mommolus (or Mummolus) was con-
longer in common use. though they have never been sidered the special patron for head and brain* diseases:
forbidden, and indeea, on the contrary, novendiales the novenas to him were made especially in the Holy
precum et Misearum devoiiones pro defuncHs were ap- Cross Monastery of Bordeaux, where the saint was
proved by Gregory XVI (11 July, 1853) and indul- buried (MabiUon, "Act. Sanot. O. S. B.", II, Venice,
genced for a confraternity agonizantium in France 1733, 645 sqq.; "Acta SS.", August, II, 351 sqq.;
(Rescr. Auth. S. C. Indulg., 382). Du Cange, "Glossarium", s. v. "Novena"). St.
Besides the novena for the dead, we find in the Maroolf procured for the kings of France the power
earlier part of the Middle Ages the novena of prepara- to cure scrofula by a touch of their hand. For this
tion, but at first only before Christmas and only in purpose, shortly after their coronation and anointing
Spain and France. This had its origin in the nine at Reims, the kings had to go in person on pilgrimage
months Our Lord was in His Blessed Mother's womb to the tomb of St. Marcolf at Corbeny and make a
from the Incarnation to the Nativity. In Spain the novena there. Those who were to be healed had to
Annunciation was transferred for the whole country make a similar novena. But the best known is the
by the tenth Council of Toledo in 656 (Cap. i;- Mansi, novena to St. Hubert, which continues even to our
"Coll. Cone", XI, 34) to 18 Dec., as the most fitting day. This is made against madness by people bitten
feast preparatory to Christmas. With this it appears by a mad dog or wolf ( Acta SS., November, 1, 87 1 sqq.) .
that a real novena of preparation for Christmas was The last-named novena was attacked in later times,
immediately connected for the whole of Spain. At particularly by the Jansenists, and was rejected as
any rate, in a question sent from the Asores (Insula superstitious (cf. "Acta SS.", loc. cit., where the
Angrenses) to the Sacred Congregation of Rites, an attack is met and the novena justified). Before this,
appeal was made to the "most ancient custom" of Gerson, in the fourteenth century, had given warning
celebrating, just before Christmas, nine votive Masses against the superstitious abuse ot this novena. But
HOVINA
143
NOVINA
be does not reject nov^ias in general and we see from
his works that in his time they were already wide-
3>read (Opera, Paris, 1606, II, 328; III, 886, 389).
ut notwithstanding Gerson's warning, novenas were
from that time on ever more and more in favour with
the faithful, to which the manv, even miraculous,
effects of the novenas contributed not a little. Bene-
dict XIV (De canonizat. sanct., Ub. IV, p. II, c. adii,
n. 12) tells of a number o( such miracles adduced in
the processes of canonisation. Catholics know from
their own experience that the novena is no pagan,
Buperstilious custom, but one of the best means to
obtain signal heavenly graces through the interces-
sion of Chiir Lady and all the saints. The novena of
Tprayer is thus a kind of prayer which includes in it, so
^ to speak, as a pledge ot b^g heard, confidence and
perseverance, two most important qualities of effica-
cious prayer. Even if the employment of the number
nine in Christianity were connected with a similar use
in paganism, the use would still in no way be blameable
or at aU superstitious. Not, of course, that every
single variation or addition made in whatever private
novena must be justified or defended. The holiest
custom can be abused, but the use of the number nine
can not only be justined but even interpreted in the
best sense.
The number ten is the highest, the twrnems maxi-
tnuSf simply the most verfectf which is fitting for God;
the number nine, whicm is lacking of ten, is the number
of imperfection, which is fitting for mortal kind. In
some such way the Pvthagoreans, Philo the Jew^ the
Fathers of the Church, and the mpnks of the Middle
Ages, philoso^khised on the meaning of the number
nine. For this reason it was adapted for use where
man's imperfection turned in prayer to God (cf.
Jerome, loc. cit.; Athena«>ras. ''Legat. pro Chris-
tian.", P. G., VI, 902; Pseudo-Ambiosius, P. L.,
XVII, 10 sq., 633; Rabanus Maurus, P. L., CIX, 948
sq., CXI, 491; Angelomus Monach.. In lib. Reg. IV,
P. L., CXV, 346; PhUo the Jew, *'Lucubrationes*',
Basle, 1554, p. ^3).
In the novena of mourning and the Mass on the
ninth day it was remembered m the Middle Ages that
Christ gave up the ghost in prayer at the nintn hour,
as in the penit^itisd books (cf . Schmitz, *^ Die Buss-
bacherunddieBussdisciplin", II, 1898, 539, 570, 673),
or remarked that, by means of Holy Mass on the
ninth day, the departed were to be raised to the ranks
of the nine choirs of angels (cf. Beleth, loc. cit.:
Durandus, loc. dt.). For the origin of the novena oi
prayer we can point to the fact that the ninth hour in
the Synagogue, like None in the Christian Church,
was a special hour of prayer from the beginning, so
that it was reckoned among the "apostolic hours"
(cf . Acts, iii, 1; X, 30; Tertuman, ** De jejuniis", c. x,
P. L., II, 966; cf. "De oratione", c. xxv, 1, 1133). The
Church, too, in the Breviary, has for centuries in-
voked the Almighty in nine Psalms and honoured Him
in nine Lessons, while from ancient times the Kyrie
has been heard nine times in every Mass ((^. ^Duran-
dus, "Rationale, De nona"; Bona, "Opcnra", Venice,
1764; "De divina ps^modia" p. 401).
As has been said, the simplest explanation of the
Christmas novena are the nine months of Christ in the
womb. But for every novena of preparation, as also
for every novena of prayer, not only tn<; best explana-
tion but also the beet model and example was given
by Christ Himself to the Church, in the first Pente-
cost novena. He Himself expressly exhorted the
Apostles to make this preparation. And when the
yoonf Church had f aitmully persever^ for nine full
days m it, the Hoty Ghost came as the precious fruit
of this first Qiristian novena for the feast of the es-
tablishment iand foundation of the Qmrch. If one
keeps this is mind and remembers bendes that no-
venas in the course of time have brought so many,
even miraculous, answers to prayer, andthat finally
60
Christ Himself b^ the revelation to Blessed Margaxet
Mary Alacoque recommended the roecial celebration
of mne successive first Fridajrs of the month (cf .
Vermeersoh, "Pratique et doctrine de la devotion au
Sacr6 Coeur de J^sus", Toumai, 1906, 555 sqq.), one
must wonder that the Church waited so long before
positively approving and recommending novenas
rather than tbt she finally took this stop (cf. "Col-
lection de pr^is historiques", Brussels, 1859, "Des
neuvaines". 157 sqq.).
Not until the nmeteenth century did the Church
formally recommend novenas by the concession of
j^dulgences. This brings us to the last kind of
novenas, those which are indulgenced. Apparentiy
Alexander VII in the middle of the seventeenth cen-
tury granted Indulgences to a novena in honour of
St. Francis Xavier made in Lisbon (cf . Prola, op. cit..
. 79). The first novena indulgenced in the city of
me, and even there for only one church, was the
novena in prepsration for the feast of St. Joseph in
the church of St. Ignatius. This was done by the
Briefs of Clement XL 10 Feb., and 4 March, 1713
(cf. Prola, loc. cit.; Benedict AlV, "De canonis.",
loc. cit.). The Franciscans, who used before this to
have a novena for the feast of the Immaculate Con-
ception (cf . Deer. Auth. S. R. C, 2472) received spe-
cial Indulgences for it on 10 Apr., 1764 (Resc. Auth.
S. C. Indulg., 215). Not until later, especially from
the beginning of the nineteenth century, were various
novenas enriched with Indulgences in common for the
whole Chundi. They number in all thirty-two, in-
tended for the most part as novenas of preparation
for definito feasts.
They are in detail as follows: one in honour of the
Most Holy Trinity, which -may be made either prior
to the feast of the Holy Trinity (first Sunday after
Pent^DOSt) or at any other time of the year: two to
the Holy Ghost, one to be made prior to tne feast
of Pentecost for the reconciliation of non^atholics
(this is also made publicly in all parochial churches),
one at any time of the year; two novenas to the
Infant Jesus, one to be made before the feast of
Christmas and the other at any time during the
year; three to the Sacred Heart, one prior to the
feast of the Sacred Heart (the Friday after the octave
of Corpus Chiisti), one at any time during the ^ear,
and the third that of the nine first Fridays, which is
based on the promise made to Blessed Margaret Mary
by the Sacred Heart assuring the grace of final perse-
verance and the reception of the Sacraments before
death to all who should, receive Holy Communion on
the first Friday of every month for nine consecutive
months; it is customarv to offer this novena in repara-
tion for the sins of aU mankind; eleven novenas in
honour of the Blessed Virsin, vis., in honour of the
Immaculate Conception, the Nativity of Mary, her
Presentation at the Temple, the Annunciation, the
Visitation, the Maternity of Mary, her Purification,
her Seven Dolours, the Assumption, the Holy Heart of
Mary, and the Holy Rosarv; one novena «ach in
honour of the Archangels Michael, Gabriel, and Ri^h-
ael, and one in honour of the Guardian Angel, two to
St. Joseph, one consisting of the recitetion of prayers
in honour of the seven sorrows and seven joys of the
foster-father of Christ, prior to the feast of St. Joseph
(19 March) and one at any time during the y^ar; one
novena each in honour of St. Francis of Assbi, at any
time during the year. St. Vincent de Paul. St. Paul of
the CrossTst. Stanislas Kotska, prior to nis feast (13
Novembtf), St. Francis Xavier, and one for the Holy
Souls.
The novena in honour of St. Francis Xavier. known
as the "Novena of Grace", originated »a follows: iif
1633 Father Mastrilli, S.J., was at thepoint qf death
as the ronilt of an accident, when St. Irancls Xavier.
to whom he had great devotion, appeared to him ana
urged him to devote himself to the missions of the
NOVXGB
144
HOVXGB
Indiefl. Father Mastrilli then mad^ a tow before hia
provinical that he would go to the Indies if God
spared his life^ and in another apparition (3 Jan., 1634)
St. Francis Aavier exacted of him a renewal of tiiis
promise, foretold his martsrrdom, and restored him to
health so completely that on that same night Father
Mastrilli was m a condition to write an accoimt of his
cure, and the next morning to celebrate Mass at the
altar of the saint and to resume his community life.
He soon set out for the Japanese missions where he
was martyred. 17 October, 1637. The renown of the
miracle quickly spread through Italy, and inspired
with confidence in the power and goodness of St.
Francis Xavier, the faitmiil implored his assistance
in a novena with such success that it came to be called
the "novena of grace". This novena is now made
{>ublicly in many countries from 4 to 12 March, the
atter being the date of the canonisation of St. Francis
Xavier together with St. Ignatius. The conditions
include a visit to a Jesuit church or clumel. The in-
dulgence may be gained on any day of the novena,
andthose who are prevented by illness or another le-
gitimate cause from communicating during the no-
vena may gain the indulgence by doing so as soon as
possible. All of these novenas without exception
ar6 to be made, in private or in public, with pious
exercises and tne reception of the Sacraments, and
for these usuallv a daily partial Indulgence can be
gained and a plenary Indulgence at the end of the
novena. The Indulgences and the conditions for
gaining them are aocurateljr given in detail in the
authentic "Raccolta" and in the works on Indul-
pences by Beringer and Hilgers, which have appeared
m various langua^. The inaulgenced novenas, tp
a certain extent official, have but contributed to in-
crease the confidence of the faithful in novenas.
Hence, even the private novena of prayer flourishes
in our day. Through the novena to Our Lady of
Lourdes. through that to St. Anthonv of Padua or
some other saint, the faithful seek ana find help and
relief. The history of novenas is not yet written, but
it is doubtless a good part of the histo^ of childlike
veneration of Our Lady and all the saints, of lively
confidence in God. and especially of the spirit of prayer
in the Catholic Church.
JOSBPH HlLOBBfi
HOViee. — I. DbFINITION and RSQITIBBlfBNTS. —
The word nomce. which among the Romans inea.pt a
newly acquired slave, and which is now used to deribte
an inexperienced person, is the canonical Latin name
of those who, havmg been regularly admitted into a
religious order and ordinarily alrc»ady oonfiimed in
their hi^er vocation by a certain period of probation
as poetwants, are prepared by a series of exercises and
tests for the religious profession. In Greek^ the novice
was called d^xA/Mo«i a beginner. The religious life,
recommended by Jesus Christ is encouraged by the
Church and any person is allowed to become a novice
who is not prevented by some positive lepal impedi-
ment. No minimum or maximum ape is fixed by
canon law for admission into the novitiate. Those,
however, who have not arrived at puberty cannot enter
without the consent of their parents or guardians: and
canon law C'Si quis", I; "De regulanbus". III, 31)
grants to parents one year to compel the return of a
child who has entered without their consent. As the
Council of Trent fixes at sixteen years the earliest age
for the profession which follows the novitiate, we mav
conclucle that the novice must have completed his fif-
teenth year if the religious order requires one year of
novitiate; or, his fourteenth, if the two years bte re-
quired, and this opinion is cpnfirmed in respect to
Regulars, properly so-called, by the decree of the Sa-
cred Congregation of Religious dated 16 May, 1675.
and for nuns by that of the Sacred Congregation of
Bishops and Regulars dated 28 May, 1689. Accord-
ing to the rules of procedure, publiriied by the latter
congregation, 28 June, 1901 ^ no person may be ad-
mitted into a new con^p^ation under the atte of fif«
teen years without special permission of the Holy See.
The constitution of Clement VIII, "Cum ad R^sa-
larem". of 19 March, 1603, requires the age of nine-
teen full years for the reception of lay-brothers, but
this constitution has not been everywhere carried into
effect. Canon law distinctly gives to clerics the right
to enter religion (cf. Clerici, unic, c. XIX, i; AUenum,
I eodem, q. 2; Benedict XIV, C. "Ex quo dilectus",
14 January, 1747; the reply of the Sacred Congrega-
tion of Bishops and Regulars of 20 December, 1859;
Nilles^ ''De libertate clericorum religionem ingro-
diendi "). Even those who have obtained a burse for
study, or who have been maintained at the expense of
the seminary retain this right, although it is admitted
that the founder of a burse, or the donor of money for
educational puiposes may impose certain reasonable
conditions for the use of nis ipfts, and may stipulate
for instance that the cleric shall undertake to serve
the diocese for a certain number of years, or not to
enter into religion without the consent of the Holy See.
Althoudb the consent of the bishop is not canomcally
required, the cleric is recommended to inform him of
his intention to enter a religious order, and a similar
notification is required of any cleric or priest occupy-
ing any office or benefice. The bishop in fact must be
in a position to fill the vacancy. For the entiy into
reUgion of a diocesan bishop nonunated or confirmed
by the Holy See, the consent of the pope is required.
This does not apply to a bishop who has lawfully re-
signed his see, but some authors consider that it does
apply to titular bishops.
However general may be the freedom to enter a re-
ligious order, no person is allowed to do this to Uie
detriment of another's right. Thus a married man, at
least after the consummation of marriage, cannot en-
ter into relision^ unless his wife has by her misconduct
given him the nght to refuse cohabitation forever, or
unless she consents to, his entrance, and a^p'ees to
make a vow of chastity or to enter into religion her-
self, in conformity with canonical rules. The liberty
of a married woman is similarly limited (''Proterea ,
1; "Cum sis'', 4; "Ad Apoeto&cam", 13; "Sisnifica-
vit", 18; "De conversione conjupatorum". III, 32).
Parents may not enter into rehgion without making
suitable provision for the education and future of their
children; nor children who are under the obligation of
maintaining their parents, if their religious profession
would prevent them from aiding their parents in any
grave necessity. Debtors also are forbidden, at least
those who may be expected to be able to pay their
debts within a reasonable time (this is a disputed
point but we give the most commonly accepted opin-
ion, which is that of St. Alphonsus, "Moral Theol-
o^", bk. IV, 5, n. 71). Moreover, a positive order of
Sixtus V (Cum de omnibus, 1687), modified to a cer-
tun extent by Clement VIII (In Suprema^ 1602), for-
bids the profession of persons involved m debts by
their own fault. Canon law also excludes persons
branded with infamy and those connected with any
criminal proceeding, also those under an oblin^tion to
render accounts of a complicated nature. (C. Clement
VIU, "In Suprema", 1602.) An iUegitimate child is
not necessarily excluded, but he cannot be received
into any order in which his father is professed (C.
Gieffory XIV, "Orcumspecta". 15 March, 1501).
Tne canonical regulations spoken of above, concern
those religious orders in which solemn vows are taken.
Religious congregations are governed generally by the
natural law and their own approvea constitutions.
According to the " Normie " (Regulations) of 1001. the
Holy See imposes the following disabilities, ana re-
serves to itself the right of dispensation: ill€«;itimacy.
not removed by legitimation: age, below fifteen ana
above thirty yean; vows binding a person to another
NOVICI
145
NOVICX
drder; marriage; debts or liability to render accounts;
and for nuns, widowhood. More recently, the decree
"Ecclesia Christi" of 7 Sei)tember, 1900, with which
must be read the declarations of 4 January and 5
April, 1910, renders invalid, without the permission of
the Holy See, the admisaon of any person whahas
been expelled from a college for immorality or other
grave fault, or of a person who has been dismissed for
any cause whatever from another religious order, a
seminary, or any institution for the training of ecclesi-
astics or religious. A person who has obtained a
dispensation from hb vows cannot enter into any
oroer but the one which he left. This decree applies
both to religious orders, and to congregations with
simple vows, at least to those which are not diocesan,
andf its efifect has been extended by the order of 4 Jan-
uary, 1910, to religious communities of women. Only
formal expulsion renders admission invalid, but the
fact of leaving college or other institution under cir-
cumstances which would make it ^uivalent to expul-
sion m^es it illicit, and the Holy See requires superi-
ors to make such inouiries as are necessary to prevent
the admission of undesirable persons. Another decree
of 7 September, 1910, "In articulo", while not ren-
dering tne reception invalid, forbids the admission of a
young man who presents himself in order to become a
religious cleric, unless he has gone through a course of
at least four years of classical studies. (For these
decrees and their explanation see "De religiosis et
missionariis", vol. V).
Before the taking of the habit, exact information
must be secured to make sure of the qualities and good
intentions of the candidates. These precautions are
happy substitutions for the rather rude test that had
to be undergone in former times (see Postulant).
Besides being dictated by the natural law, they have
been sanctioned for the orders of men by a Constitu-
tion of Sixtus V, "Cum de omnibus", 1587, and bv
another Constitution, "Cum ad regularem", promul-
gated by Clement VIII, March, 1603. and confirmed
by Urban VIII. (The ordinances of Clement VIII
concern Italy and the adjacent islands only.) In the
celebrated Decree "Romani Pontifices'' (25 January,
1848), Pius IX laid a strict injunction on all superiors
of orders and congregations of men to admit no one to
the habit without testimonial letters from the ordi-
nanr of the diocese in which the candidate was bom
ancf of the dioceses in which he has lived for more than
a year from the age of fifteen. This year is explained
in a later declaration to mean twelve successive
months spent in the same diocese. In these letters,
the ordinaries ought, in as far as they can, to bear
witness to the candidate's birth, age, conduct, reputa-
tion, and all other qualities that affect his entry into
religion. The obligation of exacting such letters is
imposed under penalty of censure, but it does not en-
tail nullit}^. Tneir receipt does not dispense superiors
from malong their own inquiries.
II. Juridical Condition. — By the fact of his en-
trance into an approved congregation, the novice be-
comes an ecclesiastical person. If he is a novice in a
religious order, he becomes a regular in the widest
sense of the word ; as such he is not bound by any vow,
but he is protected by the ecclesiastical immunities,
and shares in the indulgences and privileges of his
order, gaining a plenary mdulgence on the day of his
admission, at least into an order properly so called.
The prelate or superior may exercise m regard to his
novices all his powers of absolution in reserved cases,
and of dispensations from rules and precepts of the
Church. Novices benefit also by any exemption at-
tached to the order to which they belong. The juris-
diction communicated by the superior of the congre-
gation suffices to absolve them, it follows apparently
mat a confessor approved only bv the ordinary of the
place could not ^ve them valid absolution, though
this point is disputed. According to the common law
XI.— 10
of regulars, the priest who is master of novices is theh
only ordinary confessor. The novice is bound to obey
the superior who has jurisdiction over him, and pNower
as head of the house. He is bound by any private
vows he may have taken, but these may be moirectly
annulled by the superior in so far as they are contrary
to the rules of the order or the exercises of the novi-
tiate. The training of the novices is entrusted to an
experienced religious, ordinarily distinct from the local
superior. The latter, though obliged to respect the
prerogatives of the novice-master, remains the real im-
mediate superior of the novices, and outside that part
of the house which is called the novitiate, the direc-
tion of the entire community belongs exclusively to
him. By canon law, the novice retains full and entire
liberty to leave his order and incurs no pecuniary re-
sponsibility by the mere fact of leaving it. Vows of
devotion do not change the juridical condition of the
novice, and they cease to bind if he is legally expelled.
As soon as one has made up his mind to leave, it be-
comes his duty to inform the superior; and if he fails to
do so, he becomes liable to reimburse the order for any
unnecessary expense it may incur on his behalf after
his decision. This is only naturid justice. The order is
obliged to restore to hun his personal property and
anything he may have brougnt with him. As the
order is not bound to the novice by any contract, it
may dismiss him. According to the regulations of 28
June, 1901, in new congregations governed by simple
vows, the dismissal of a novice must be approved by
the superior-general and his council. Dismissal with-
out sufficient cause would be an offence against chai^
ity and equity, and a superior guilty of such an offence
would fail in his duty to his oraer.
Although the reception of a novice should be gra^
tuitous. the Council of Trent (c. 16, Sees. 25, " De regu-
laribus ) permits the order to stipulate for the pay-
ment of his expenses wlule in the novitiate. In order
to ensure the complete liberty of the novice, the same
council forbids him to make any renunciation of his
property or any important gift, and annuls such re-
nunciation if made. .Parents also, to whose property
the novice had a right of succession, are debaired from
making any considerable donation. By common law,
however, a novice may legally renounce his property
within the two months immediately preceding his pro-
fession, and this renunciation should also be authorised
by the bishop or his vicar-general. This formality of
authorization is not always insisted upon in practice.
The renunciation may extend to property of which he is
already possessed, or to such as must necessarily de-
scend to him by right of inheritance; but not seem-
ingly to such as he has only an expectation of receiv-
ing. He is free to make over his property to his family,
his order, or any pious work, or even to provide for
services and Masses after his death. Although the
renunciation takes effect only from the date of his pro-
fession, and becomes null and void if that profession
does not take place, it is not revocable at tne pleasure
of the novice before his profession, unless he has re-
served to himself the rignt to change the disposition
of his property. If no renunciation nas been made at
the time of solemn profession, canon law assigns the
property either to the monastery or to the natural
neirs of the religious. Common law requires that the
solemn profession shall be preceded by a period of
simple tows; before making these vows, the novice is
bound to declare to whom he commits the administra-
tion of his patrimony, and how he wishes the income
to be employed, and the consent of the Holy See is
generally required for any chanji^e in this arrangjement.
The religious is entitled to provide for the administra-
tion of any additional property which may come to
him after his simple profession, and for the disTOsal of
the income of sucti property. The law of the Council
of Trent does not concern congregations which are
governed by simple vows; but in these the power of a
NOVICS
146
NOVICB
novice to alienate or retain his property is provided
for by their constitutions. Generally speakmg, the
novice is bound, before taking his vows^ to declare
how he wishes his property to be administered, and
the income expended. According to the Regulations
of 1901, he may, even after making his vows, be au*
thorized by the superior-general to modify these dis-
positions. The renunciation of property, though not
made null and void, is forbidden to the novice. The
Holy See does not approve that any obligation should
be imposed upon the novice to give even the income of
his property to his order; he remains free to apply it to
any reasonable purpose. Solemn profession vacates
all ecclesiastical benefices of which tne novice was pos-
sessed; the perpetual vows of congregations governed
by simple vows vacate residential benefices; that is to
say, benefices which require residence are vacated bv
the simple profession, which prepares the way for sol-
emn profession, or by the temporary vows which
precede perpetual vows.
III. Exercises. — Except in the case of some special
privilege of the religious order (as with the Society
of Jesus) or some unavoidable obstacle, the novice
should wear a religious habit, though not necessarily
the special habit of novices. It is the duty of the
novice, under the guidance of the novice-master, to
form himself spiritually, to learn the rules and cus-
toms of his order, and to try himself in the difficulties
of the religious life. The rule ordinarily prescribes
that at the outset of his reli^ous career he shall pass
some days in spiritual exercises, and make a general
confession of the sins of his whole life. By the Con-
stitution ^'Cum ad regularem'' of 19 March, 1603,
renewed under Urban VIII in the Decree " Sacra Con-
gjregatio" of 1624, Clement VIII laid down, for novi-
tiates approved by the Holy See, some very wise rules
in which he directed that there should be a certain
amount of recreation, both in the house and out of
doors; and he insisted on the separation of the novices
from older religious. For a long time, studies, prop-
erly so called, were forbidden, at least during the
first year of novitiate; but a recent decree dated 27
August, 1910, while maintaining the principle that one
year of the novitiate should be devoted especially to
the formation of the religious character, recommends
certain studies to exercise the mental faculties of
the novices, and enable their superiors to form an
opinion of tneir talents and capacities without involv-
ing any excessive application, such as the study of the
mother-tongue, Latin and Greek, repetition of work
previously done, reading the works of the Fathers,
ete., in shorty studies appropriate to the purpose of the
order. Novices, therefore, are bound to give up one
hour regularly to private studv on all ofays except
feast-days, and also to receive lessons limited to one
hour each, not oftener than three times a week. The
manner in which the novices apply themselves to
these studies is to be taken into account when the
question arises of their being admitted to profession
(see the decree annotated in Vermeersch, '^Periodica
de religioais et missionariis". vol. V, 1910, n. 442,
pp. 195, 197). According to the practice of the older
orders the novice receives a religious name, differing
from his baptismal name.
IV. Duration. — For aU religious orders^ the Council
of Trent prescribes a full year la the novitiate, under
penalty of nullity of profession. In those orders which
nave a distinctive nabit, the novitiate commences
with the assumption of the habit; in those which have
no habit, it commences from the time when the novice
is received into the house lawfully assigned for the
purpose by competent authority. This year must be
continuous without interruption. It is interrupted
whenever the bond between the order and the novice
is broken bv volimtary departure or legal dismissal ;
and also when, independently of the wish of either
superior or novice, tne latter is compelled to live for
any considerable time in the world. A dismissal is
considered to take effect when once the Aovice has
crossed the threshold of the house; in case of a volun-
tary departure, a novice who has left the house, but
has kept his religious habit and who returns after one
or two days' absence, is considered as having given
way to a temporarv desire for change, not sufficient to
cause him to lose the benefit of the time already spent
in the nqvitiate. An interruption makes it necessary
that the novitiate should b^n afresh as if nothing
had previously been done, and it differs in this respect
from suspension, which is, so to speak, an interval be-
tween two effective periods of novitiate. The time
which passes during the suspension does not count,
only the time passedbefore the suspension being added
to that which follows. The novitiate is suspended
when a novice is withdrawn for a certain time ^rom
the superior's diieetlon, but without changing his con-
dition. This would happen in the case of a temporary
mental aberration, or an expulsion for some reason
shown afterwards to be unfounded, and therefore an-
nulled. It is f^enerally held that if a novice autts his
order after havinjg finished his novitiate, ana is sub-
sequently readmitted, he has not to begin his novitiate
afresh, unless it appears that there has been some
serious change in his dispositions. The law of the
Council of Trent does not strictly apply to congrega-
tions governed by simple vows, but tne constitutions
of these congregations ordinarily require a year of
novitiate at least, and the '' Norms" (Regulations) of
1901 make a complete and continuous year of the novi-
tiate one of the conditions of a valid profession.
The practice of the Holy See has been of late
years to interpret this continuity much more strictly
than was formerly the case. Some persons consider
that one whole day passed outside the novitiate,
even for some good reason, and with the permission
of superior, is sufficient to render ineffective the whole
of the previous probation, but this is too rigorous an
interpretation of the rule. To avoid all danger of
offending against canon law, superiors will do wisely
not to grant permission to pass the night out of the
novitiate, except for a very good reason and for a verv
short time. By the C^onstitutions of Clement VIII,
^'Regularis discipline" of 12 March, 1596, and of
Iimocent XII, ^^Sanctissimus" of 20 June, 1699, the
novitiate house must be approved by the Holy See,
and the novitiate cannot be vahdiy passed else^'here.
These directions refer to Italy and the adjacent isl-
ands, and do not apply to all religious orders. Never-
theless some authors consider them to be of universal
application. The rules of congregations governed by
simple vows approved by the Hol]^ See ordinarily re-
serve to the Holv See the approbation of the novitiate
house. Pius lA. in an Encyclical letter of the Sacred
Consregation ot Bishops and Regulars dated 22
April, 1851, required that in all novitiates there should
be a common life; pocket-money and the separate use
of chattels of whatever kind (pcculimn) was forbid-
den. One part of the novitiate house should be re-
served for the novices, and strictly separated from
the rest of the dwelling. The novitiate cannot validly
be commenced except in the house lawfully set apart
for the purpose. Some authors strictly require that
the novices shall never be lodged elsewhere; but, al-
though in the orders whose novitiate is bound to be
approved b^ the Holy See, residence in this house is
rigorously insisted upon, it does not seem possible
t^t a few days' absence should lessen the value of the
probation.
V. HiSTOBT.— The institution of a time of proba-
tion, in order to prepare the candidate who has al-
ready been admitted to the religious life for his profes-
sion, goes back to very ancient times. According to
Mgr Ladeuze (Le c^nobitisme Pachomien, p 282), in
spite of the testimony of the MS. life of St. Paoh(HniuB
(MS. 381, "Patrologia", IV, Paris), the novitiate
NOTCH
147
NUBIA
did not exist in the monastery of St. Pabhomius as a
flNteral institution; but from the fifth century at least
It has been the rule for the Coptic monks to pass
throu^ a novitiate of three years. (See the "Cop-
tic Orainal" in the Bodleian Library of Oxford; Evetts
in "Revue de I'Orient chr^tien", II, 1906, pp. 66,
140.) This term of three years was required also in
Persia in the sixth century (Labouret, "Le Christian
nisme en Perse", p. 80) . Justinian, in approving this,
says that he borrowed it from the rules of the saints,
"Sancimus ergo, sacras sequentes r^ulas" (Novella
V, " de monachis", c. 2, preface and § I). Many West-
em orders, notably that of St. Benedictj^ were content
with one year. St. Gregory the Great m his letter to
Fortunatus, Bishop of Naples (bk. X, Letter 24, in
Migne, "P. L.". lSCXVII, col. 1082-7) required two
years. Many orders of canons left the time to the discre-
tion of the abbot. Common law did not prescribe any
term of novitiate and this omission led to the frequent
shortening, and occasionally to the entire abolition
of the preparatory probation. Innocent III ["C.
Apostolioum", 16, "de regularibus'' (III. 31)] directs
tlut the novitiate shall be dispensed witn only in ex-
ceptional circumstances, and forbids the Mendicant
Orders to nudce their profession within one year.
Finally the Council of Trent (Sess. XXV, c. xv, "de
regularibus'') makes a year's novitiate an indispensa-
ble condition of valid profession. In the East, since
the fourth or fifth century, the novices of Palestine,
Egypt, and Tabenna have been accustomed to give
up their secular dress, and put on the habit ^ven them
by the community. This nabit is distingwshed from
that of the professed by the absence of the cucuUa
or cowl. Those of St. Basil kept their habits. This
practice, sanctioned by Justinian (Novella, V, c. 2),
was also that of St. Benedict and the Benedictines,
but the contrary use has for a lone time past prevailed.
(See Profsssion; PosTtfLANr; Nuns.)
Claasioal authora: St. Thomab, Summa theoloffieat II-II. Q.
dzzx, a. 2-7 and Q. olzzziz ; Pabskbini, De haminum atatHma, III,
commenting on St, Thomaa, I. c; Scarsx* De Reliffione, tract. VII,
bk. IV-VI; Latmann, Theologia moralie.De etatu relioio*o, c. vi;
ScHUAUBQBUBBBR in bk. Ill Deer., XXaI, XXXII; in bk. IV, i.
VI, D. 38-42; Schmxxb, Jivriavrudentia cananic4hcinlitt bk. Ill, 1. 1,
pt. I, c. iii, 8. 2; PsLLiSABina, Maniuile Hegulariumt tr. 2; Rotarivb,
Theol. mar. Reffuiarium, t.'I, bk. I, II; MAkT&NE, De antiquia mo-
naehorum ritibtu; iDKUtCommentariue in rtg. 8. Benedidti; Thomab-
siNi, VetueetNomBeeUnadieei'plina^ 1. 1, bk. Ill, ete. More recent
writers — ^Angblub a 88. Cobdb, Manuale juris eommunia reffu-
iarium 9t apedcUie Carmditarum duooZceotorum, t. I (Ghent, 1899) ;
Bacbofbn, Compendium juris reffularium (New Yoric, 1903);
Bouix, De iure reffularium^ 1. 1 (Paris, 1857) ; BATTAMDnB, Guide
canonigue pour lea conatittUiona dea inatituta d mbux aimpUa (4th
9d.. Paris, 1908); Babtibn, Direetoire canoiiique AVuaoffedeaeon-
ffriffoiiona d vaux aimplea (2nd ed., Maradsoiis, 1911); Hbim-
BUCHEB, Die Orden und Congreffotionen der ka^udiacnen Kirche
(Paderbom, 1907) : Ladbusb, Etude aur le cSnobitiame Pakkomien
pendant le IV* aUcle et la premiire moitU du V' (Louvain, 1898);
NiLLES, De libertate dericorum religi&nem ingrediendi (Innsbruck,
1886); PiAT, FnaUeUonea iuria reguUtria, t. I (Toumai, 1898);
ScBiswiBTX, Vorffeaeh. dea M6nehtuma oder daa Aaeetentum der die
ereten chriaUichen Jakrhunderten' Daa egyptiaehe Mdnchtum im
tierten Jahrhundert in ArehivfOr Kirchenrecht (Mains), LXXVIII,
sq. (separately published, 1904) ; Taunton, The Law of the Church
(London, 1906); Vbbmbbbbcb, De religioaia inatitutia et peraonia,
I (2nd ed., Bruges, 1907); Idem, SuppUmenta et Monumenta, II
(4th ed., Bruges, 1910) ; Idem in Periodica de Reliffioaia et Mia-
aionariia (Bruges, 1905); Wbbni, Jua deeretatium. III (Roma,
1901). A. Vbbmeebsgh.
Noyon. See Beauvais, Diocese of.
Nubia, in North-eastern Africa, extending from
Sennar south to beyond Khartoum and includmg the
Egyptian Sudan. Hie soutiiem section includes
Sennar with Dschesireh-el Dschesire (Island of Isl-
ands), the ancient Meroe; the western. Bahr el Abiad,
Kordofan, and Darfur; the eastern, Tarka; the cen-
tral^ Dong[ola; and the northern, Nubia proper. The
various tribes belong to the EtMopian or Berber fam-
ily, intermixed with Arabians; in the south negroes
pr«x>nderate. Nubia embraces 335^97 square miles
ana contains 1,000,000 inhabitants; Dongola, Berber,
Khartoum, Fashoda, Sennar, Fassuglo, 75,042 square
miles with 2,500,000 inhabitants; Taka, 7766 square
miles with 1,000,000 inhabitants; Kordofan, 35,060
square miles with 300,(XX) inhabitants^ Darfur, lOd,*
070 square miles with 4,000,000 inhabitants; Shegga,
85,017 square miles with 1,400,000 inhabitants, ^e
chief cities are: Khartoum, at the junction of the White
and Blue Niles, founded in 1823 and the starting-point
of all scientific and miadonaiy expeditions, destroyed
in 1885 by the Mahdi, rebuilt in 1898; Omdurman, on
the Abiad, founded by the Mahdi; Sennar, capital of
Southern Nubia; Kassala, capital of Taka. On the
Nile are Berber, Abu-Hammed, Old Dongola, and New
Dongola, ca^tal of central Nubia: in Nubia proper,
Derr, Wadi Haifa, and Assuan; in Kordofan, ElA}beid;
in Darfur, El Fasho. Formerly the port of Nubia was
Suakin on the Red Sea; from 1906 it has been Port
Sudan. Nubia is administered by the Viceroy of
^HisTORT. — ^Nubia is said to be derived from the
Egyptian Nvb (gold), as the E^ptians obtained most
of their gold there. In the Bible it is called Cush.
E^ypt sought repeatedly to extend its southern bound-
anes, and during the eighteenth dynasty reached
Wadi Haifa. A temple was built at Napata (near the
Fourth Cataract) by Amenophis III^ and Rameses
II waged successful war with the Ethiopians. After
this there arose in Napata near the sacred mountain
Gebel Barkal an independent theocratic state; the re-
mains of many of its temples are still to be seen. • Dur-
ing the twenty-third dynasty the Nubians shook off
the Egyptian yoke, and even conquered Egypt (750
B. c); three Nubian kings ruled the united territory
(732-d68). Psametich I (664r-10) drove out the Nu-
bians, and Meroe replaced Napato, which maintained
its sovereignty over Nubia until destroyed by the
native kmg Er^enes during the reign of Ptol-
emy Philadelphus (285-47). During Roman rule, the
Nubians attempted to gain the Thebaid, but Petro-
nius in 2^ B. c. conquered Napata and forced Queen
Candace to make a treaty of peace. In the third
century after Christ marauding mcursions of Nubian
tribes called the Blemmyer forced Diocletian to sum-
mon the Nobatss from El Charge in the Nile valley
as confederates of the empire. Nevertheless Prima,
Phcenicon, Chiris. Taphis, and Talmis yielded. In
the fourth and fifth centuries the Thebaid was so often
devastated that Emperor Marcian was forced to con-
clude an unfavourable peace in 451. Christianity,
brought probably by the hermits and monks of the
Thebaid, began to spread through the country. The
various accounts of this event are confusing; Pliny and
Mela give the name of Ethiopia to all the countries in
this region, including Abyssinia, while ecclesiastical
writers speak of an Ethiopian Chureh, but give no ac-
count of the conversion of individual lands. Chris-
tianity was not yet well established, when about the
middle of the sixth century imder the protection of the
empress Theodora, the ^exandrian priest Juhan in-
troduced Monophsrsitism. Its adherents called them-
selves Copts. The Nobatsean kings Silko and Eiipar
nomos accepted Christianity in this form, and the
Monophysite patriarch Hieodosius, Bishop Theodore
of Philie, and Lonsinus, Juhan's successor, put the new
doctrine on a firm basis. In 580 Longinus baptized the
King of the Alods. The final victory of the Mono-
physites was secured by their union with the Arabs,
soon to be masters of Egypt.
In 640 Amr Ben el-Asi'S,
the commander-in-chief
of the Arabs, conquered Egypt and ended Byzan-
tine supremacy. The Melcmte (Catholic) patriarch,
George of Alexandria, fled to Constantinople and his
see remained vacant for over a hundred years. The
Copts secured peace only by becoming confederates of
the enemy, and in return received nearly all the Catho-
lic churches; their patriarch alone exercised jurisdio-
tion over the entire territory. According to the Ara-
bian Makrizi, as related by Ibn Selim. when the
Nubians requested bishops they receivea from Alex-
NTTEVA CiCXBSB
148
NXTEVA CACXBSB
andria Monophymtes, and in this way became and
remained Jacobites or Copts. In the following cen-
turies numerous churches and monasteries were built
even in Upper Nubia and Sennar, the ruins of which
yet remain. Other documents show that Nubia was
divided into three provinces with seventeen bishops:
Maracu with the suffragan Dioceses of Korta, Ibnm,
Buooras, Dunkala, Sai, Termus, and Suenkur; Albadia
with Bona, Gagara, Martin, Arodias, Banazi, and
Menkesa; Niexamitis with Soper, Couchaiim, Takchi.
and Amankul. Yet Christianity was in continual
danger from the Mohammedans. Nubia succeeded
in freeing itself from the control of Eg^t, which be-
came an mdependent Mohanmiedan kingdom in 969,
but in 1173 Saladin's brother Schems Eddawalah
Turanschah advanced from Yemen, destroyed the
churches, and carried ofif the bishop and 70,000 Nu-
bians. At the same time Northern Nubia was con-
quered. In 1275 the Mameluke sultan Djahn Bei-
bars sent an army from Ef^ypt into Nubia. Don^ola
was conquered, the Christian king David was obliged
to flee, and the churches were plundered. The inhab-
itants escaped forcible conversion to Mohammedan-
ism only by payment of a head-tax. Nubia was di-
vided into petty states, chief of which was Sennar,
founded in 1484 by the negro Funji. For some time
Sennar ruled Shendi, Berber, and Dongola. In the
eighteenth century the King of Sennar obtained for
a time Kordofan also. From the Middle Aj^ there
is little information as to the position of Christianity;
Islam became supreme, partly by force, partly by the
amalgamation of the native with the Arabian tribes.
In 1821 Sennar and the dependent provinces sub-
mitted to Mohammed Ali, tne founder of modem
Egypt. The commanding position of the capital,
Khajrtoum, led the Holy See to hope that the conver-
sion of Central Africa could be effected from Nubia.
On 26 December, 1846, the Fropaeanda erected a
vicariate, confirmed by Gregory AVI, 3 April, 1846.
The Austrian imperial family contributed funds and the
mission was under the protection of the Austrian con-
sulate at Khartoum. Missionary work was begun by
the Jesuits Ryllo (d. 1848) and Knoblecher (d. 1858),
who pushed forward as far as 4° 10' north of the equa-
tor, Kirchner, and several secular priests (among whom
were Hallerj d. 1854^ and Gerbl, d. 1857). They
founded stations at Heiligenkreuz on the Abiad (1855),
and at Santa Maria in Gondokoro (1851). In 1861
the missions were transferred to the Franciscans.
Father Daniel Comboni (d. at Khartum, 1881)
founded an institute at Verona for the trainin^of mis-
sionaries to labour among the negroes of Soudan.
The Pious Mothers of the Negro Country (Pie Madri
della Nigrizia)f founded in 1867, devoted itself to con-
ducting schools for girls and dispensaries. The
Mahdi. Mohammed Ahmed, in 1880 conquered
Kordofan, in 1883 vanquished the E^ptian army,
and on 26 January, 1885, destroyed 0iartoum. A
number of priests and sisters were held for years
in captivity ; the name of Christian seemed obliterated.
After the overthrow of his successor. Caliph Abdullah,
by the English under Lord Kitchener, 2 September,
1898. the mission was re-estabMied. In 1895 a mifr-
sion had been opened at Assuan. In 1899 Msr Roveg-
gio with Fathers Weiler and Huber established a station
at Omdurman. and in 1900 founded the mission near
the ShiUiik ana re-established the station at Khartoum.
Under his successor, Geyer, stations were opened in
1904 at Halfaya, Lul, Atiko, Kayango; in 1905 at
Mbili among the Diur, at Wau in Bahr el Ghazal, and
the mission at Suakin, opened in 1885, was resumed.
The Sons of the Sacred Cross, as the Missionaries of
Verona had been called from 1887, founded a station
at Port Sudan. ,
Starting from Khartoum the missionaiy territory is
divided into a northern and a southern district. The
majority of the population in the north is Mohamme-
dan, and the chief task of the missionaries is pastoral
work among the scattered Christian oommumties. In
1908 Khartoum had 69,344 inhabitants, Omdurman
57,985, among them about 2307 Europeans, of whom
about 1000 are Catholics. Khartoum is served by 2
fathers, 1 brother, and 4 sisters; the schools contain 42
boys and 75 girls. In Omdurman there are 300 Cath-
olics, 3 fathers, 1 brother, and 5 sisters; 44 boys and 45
girls attend the school. There is also a school for
girls at Halfaya. At Assuan there are 2 fathers, 1
brother, and 4 sisters; 34 boys and 54 girls are taught
in the schools. There are 5(X) CathoUcs among the
workmen. At Port Sudan the Catholics number
between 200 and 300. There are Catholics also at
Haifa, Abu-Hammed, Dongola, Argo, Meraui, Ber-
ber, Atbara, Damer, Shendi, Kassala, Duen, El-
Obeid, Bara, and Nahud. The southern missions
among the heathen negroes have already advanced
beyond the boundaries of Nubia. The statistics for
1907 for the northern and southern missions were: 11
stations, 30 priests, 23 brothers, 41 sisters, 2407 Cath-
olics, 492 boys and girls in the mission-schools.
Rbnaudot. Litttrgiarum orientalium coUedio (2 vols., Paria,
17ie): Lb Quien. Oriena cArwtiantM. II (Paru. 1740), 659-62;
a[7ATBSiikBB, M&moira gSographique* et hvdorigue* nur VBgyvU,
(Paru, 1811). 1-161; Bubckhardt, Travd» in Nubia (London,
1819); NxBBUHB, Intcriviionet NubienBta (Rome, 1820); Qau,
AnHouiUB dela Nvbie (Paris, 1821-2); RosELLim. / monumefUi
deU Bgitto e delta Nubia (Pisa, 1832-44); Chaupoluon, Mon%^
nunU de VBjpnP^ el de la Nubie (2 vols., Paris, 1844); Makbui,
Oeaeh. der Copten^ tr. WOstbnfbld (Odttinsen, 1845) : Lakb-
PooLB, Hist. ofBgypt in the Middle Aaee (London, 1901) ; Butlbb,
The Arab Conquest of Bgypt (Oxford, 1902) ; Kumu, Jvtt6»en ton
Aeeuan bi» Dongota (<3otha. 1903) ; Cook. Handbook for Bgypt
and the Svdan (London, 19()5) ; Gbtbb in KcUholische Mieeionen
(Freiburg, 1908).
Otto HARno.
Nii0TaO&oer68,DiocESE of (Nova Caceres), created
in 1595 by Clement VIII ; it is one of the four suffragan
sees of the Archdiocese of Manila, Philippine Islands.
It comprises the provinces of Camarines Sur, Cama-
rines ^orte, Albav, and Tayabas in the southern part
of Luson, the islands Ticao, Masbate, Burias, and
Cantanduanes, also numerous smaller islands off the
coast of Southern Luzon. It includes a territory of
13,632 square miles, and has a population of nearly
600,000. The cathedral and emscopal residence are
situated in the town of Nueva Cdceres, the capital (^
Camarines Sur. The territory now included in the
diocese was first visited by Augustinian Friars, who
had accompanied the famous Legaspi-Urdaneta ex-
e edition of 1565. When the missionaries began their
hours, they found the natives given over to gross
idolatries and superstitions (adoration of the sun,
moon J and stars, ancestral worship), and to the pro-
pitiation of a multitude of deities by strange sacrifices;
nor did they seem to have any idea of a supreme
being. So fruitful, however, was the apostolic seal
of the missionaries that, within a few years, many
thousands of converts were made in Albay, in Ca-
marines Sur, and in Masbate. Assisted by heroic
Catholic laymen, they gathered the natives into villages
or reductions, where they instructed them in the
truths of religion and taught them the advantages of a
settled civilized life. The Augustinians had begun
the spiritual conquest of the diocese, but, being few in
number, they were unable to attend to so extensive a
territory. In 1578 the Franciscans were called to
assist them. The arrival of the latter fl^ve a new im-
pulse to the work of evan^lization. Missions and re-
ductions were multiplied in Albay, in Camarines Sur,
and in Masbate; and new foundations were made in
the Province of Tayabas. The ranks of the mission-
aries were strengthened from time to time by workers
from Spain and Mexico; as early as 1595 the Church
had made so much progress in these parts that Clement
VIII created the Diocese of Nueva U^Lceres, taking the
name from the town of Nueva Cdceres founded in Ca-
marines Sur in 1579 by Francisco de Sande, second
Governor-General of the Philippine Islands. The .
HtEVA PABIPLONA
149
NUIVA UGOVIA
first bishop was Francisoo de Ortega, an Augustinian
friar who nad laboured for several years in the Prov-
ince of Manila. He took possession of his diocese in
1600. The present bishop (Rt. Rev. John B. McGin-
le3r, con. 1910) is his twentv-seventh successor.
From the beginning until 1890, the greater number
of parishes and missions were cared for by the Fran-
ciscans and the Augustinians. Although the latter
had resigned during the first years in favour of the
Franciscans, they returned to the diocese some years
later and converted to the faith the whole of Camar-
ines Norte. E^ch parish had as its parish priest a
friar, assisted, accoraing to the importance and popula-
tion of the district, by one or more native secular pnests.
Only in later y^urs were the latter placed in full
charge of important parishes. As late as 1897, out of
a total of 90 parishes, 43 were in charge of friars. The
bishops were also generally chosen from the various re-
ligious orders, though on severdll occasions members
of the secular clergy held the see, the most noted
being (1723) the saintly Bishop de Molina, a native of
Iloilo, whose name is still held in veneration. The
Lazarists came in 1870, under Bishop Gainza, and
were placed in char^ of the diocesan seminary then in
process of construction. The same prelate introduced
the Sisters of Charity and placed them in charge of the
academy and normal school which he had founded.
In 1886 the Capuchins arrived and were given several
missions. In 1898, on account of the revolution
against Spanish rule and the feeling against the friars,
most of these religious were withdrawn from their
parishes and missions, and secular clergy placed in
charge. The present (1908) statistics of the diocese
are as follows: 168 priests, of whom 25 are regulars;
the religious who are not priests number 12 (sisters 9,
brothers 3) j 122 parishes with resident priests ; without
resident pnests, 6; parochial schools 180, with 46,000
children in attendance (24,000 boys and 22,000 girls) ;
one hospital ; one academy for girls, with 200 in attend-
ance; a diocesan seminary, preparatory and theologi-
cal, with -60 students; a college for secular students
attached to the seminary, with 500 students. The
total population of the diocese is nearly 600,000, of
which number less than 1000 are non-Catholic.
Bl ArehipUh^ FUipino (Waahixigton, 1900); Cr^nieeudela
ApoalAlica Frovtneia de Franc%9cano» Dexaizot (Manila, 1738);
DC ZuNioA. HUioria de lae lOaa PAi/ftpina« (Sampoloc. 1803);
DB Couth, Ettado de lae FUipinae (Madrid, 1820); Bluuen-
TRITT, Dieeionario MUoldgieo de Filipinae (Manila, 1895); db
Vioo, HUtoria de FUininae (Manila. 1876): Quia Qficial de
Filipinae (Manila, 1897); db Huerta, Eetaao de la Provineia
de San Oregorio en lae telae Filipinae (Binondo, 1865).
Jos. J. Dalt.
Nurra Pamplona, DiocesiIop (Neo-Pampilonen-
bib), in Colombia, South America, founded in 1549 and
a see erected by Gregory XVI on 25 September, 1835.
The city contains 15,000 inhabitants and is the capital
of the province of the same name in the Department
Norte de Satander; the diocese is suffragan of Bogota,
with a population of 325,000, all Catholics ex^t
about one hundred dissenters, mostly foreigners. Tne
first bishop, Joe6 Jorge Torres Estans, a native of
Cartagena, ruled from 30 August, 1837, to 17 April,
1853, when he died at the age of 81, an exile in San
Antonio del Fdchira, Venezuela. His successor, Jos^
Luis Nifio, named vicar Apostolic, was consecrated
in October, 1856, and also died an exile in San Antonio ,
del FAchira, 12 February, 1864. The third bishop,
Bonifacio Antonio Toscano, governed from 13 Octo-
ber, 1865, to his retirement m 1873. He convoked
the first diocesan synod, and assisted at the Provincial
Council of New Granada in 1868 and at the Vatican
Council. Indalecio Barreto succeeded him 3 Decem-
ber, 1874, and died 19 March, 1875, at La Vega near
Cucuta. The Bishop of Panama, Ignacio Antonio
Parra, his successor, ruled from 8 June, 1876, until his
death, 21 February, 1908. Bishop Parra had been
exiled by the Liberal government from 1877 to 1878 on
account of his efforts to preserve the liberty of the
Church. The present incumbent, Evaristo Blanco,
was transferred from the Diocese of Socorro, 15
August, 1909.
The diocese has 52 parishes, 75 priests, a seminary,
a normal school for women, 10 secondary schools for
boys and 13 for girls. 180 primarv schools with an
average attendance ot 10,500, 12 charity hospitals, 4
orphanages for girls, 3 for boys, 2 homes for the
a^fed, 1 convent of Poor Clares, 9 convents of the
Sisters of the Presentation, 4 of Bethlehemites, 3 of
Little Sisters of the Poor. The Jesuits, Eudists, and
Christian Brothers maintain schools. At present the
Catholic element is actively promoting good journal-
ism and workingmen's societies, in order to counteract
soci^ism and establish a Christian ideal of society.
Antonio JobA Uribe.
Nuava Sagovia, Diocese op (Nova SEooBiiis), in
the Philippines, so called from Segovia, a town in
Spain. The town of Nueva, or New, Segovia was
in the Province of Cagayan, and was foimdd in 1581.
Manila was the only diocese of the Phihppine iBlands
until 14 Aug., 1595, when Clement VIII created three
others, namely Cebti, Nueva C^eres, and Nueva
Segovia. The latter see was established at Nueva
Segovia. About the middle of the eighteenth century,
the see was transferred to Vigan, where it has since re-
mained. The town of Nueva Segovia dechned, was
merged with a neighbouring town called Lalloc^and
its name preserved only by the diocese. Leo XIII
(Const. **Qu8d mari Sinico'') created four new dio-
ceses in the Philippines, among them Tuguegarao, the
territory of which was taken from Nueva Segovia, and
comprises the Provinces of Cagayan, Isabela. Nueva
Vizcaya, and two groups of small islands. Tne terri-
tory retained by the Diocese of Nueva Segovia em-
braces the Provinces of Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur,
Union,>Pangasinan, five towns in the province of Tar-
lac, the sub-province of Abra, and also a large part of
what is called the Mountain province ; all this territory
lies between 15° and 19° N. lat. and is located in the
large island of Luzon.
The population of the Diocese of Nueva Sesovia
b about one miUion, consisting principally of the
Ilocanos and Pangasinanes tribes, besides mountain-
eers who are nearly all Igorrotes. The Ilocanos and
Pangasinanes live, mostly, in the plain between the
mountains on the east and the China Sea on the west.
They were all converted by the Spaniards, and, up to
the present time have, generally speaking, remained
faithful to the Catholic Church. Since the Ameri-
can occupation, a few Protestant sects have estab-
lished themselves here, and have drawn a few of the
ignorant class away from the Church. The fidelity
of the Catholics was severely tested by the schism of
1902, started by Rev: Gresorio Aglipay, an excom-
mumcated priest. He was bom in this diocese, was a
high military officer during the rising of the natives
against the American sovereignty, and found much
sympathy, especially in this part of the islands. He
pretended to champion the rights of the native cler^,
though the movement was political. He drew with
him twenty-one priests and a large number of lav
people. He and his movement have been discredited,
and the people, in large numbers, have returned to the
Church. Onlv a small part of the Igorrotes has been
converted. The Spanisn missionaries were evangeUz-
ing them until 1898, when the insurrection against
the United States broke out, and the missionaries
had to flee. Belgian and German priests have
taken the place of Uie Spaniards in the missionary
field, and gradually are reclaiming the people from
their pagan and especially from their oloodthirsty
customs.
There is at Vigan a seminary-coU^e under Spanish
Jesuit Fathers, with four hundred coUegiaQs and
NUGENT
150
NUGENT
twenty seminarists; there is also a girls' college
founded by the last Spanish bishop, Moasignor He via
Campomanes, who had to flee in 1898. It is in charge
of the Sisters of St. Paul of Chartres. The Dominican
Fathers have a boys' college in Da^pan, Province of
Pangasinan, and the Dommican Sisters have a girls'
college in Lingayen, the capital of the same prov-
ince. In 1910 a parochial school and college, under
Belgian sisters, was opened at Tagudin, a town of
the Mountain Province, with an attendance of 305
^irls, who receive manual as well as intellectual train-
ing. A similar institution is projected for the sub-
province of Abra. and will be entrusted to German
sisters. Gradually parochial schools are being or-
ganized, but in many cases it has been found ex-
tremely difficult to sustain the expense. The Spanish
government supported religion in all its works; but
since the separation of Church and State the people,
unaccustomed to contribute directly to the support
of religion, find the maintenance of ecclesiastical in-
stitutions a difficult undertaking. At least Sunday
schools are possible, and gradu^Iy the^ are coming
into vogue. In Vigan, out of a population of 16,000,
about 2000 go to Simday school. There are not and
never were almshouses or asylums of any kind. The
people are very charitable towards the poor and af-
flicted, who have the custom of going at stated times in
a body to the homes of the well-to-do, where they re-
ceive some gifts and where they then publicly recite
the rosary for the spiritual good of their benefactors.
Up to 1903 nearly all the bishops of Nueva Secovia
were Spaniards. In that year Right Reverend D. J.
Dougherty, D.D., an American, was appointed. He
was transferred to the Diocese of Jaro, Philippine Isl-
ands, and Right Reverend J. J. Carroll, D.D., the
present (1910) incumbent, like the former bishop an
American, succeeded him.
James J. Carroll.
Nugent, Francis, priest of the Franciscan Capu-
chin Order, founder of the Irish and the Rhenish Prov-
inces of said order; b. in 1569 at Brettoville, near Ar-
magh, Ireland, according to some; according to others,
at Moyrath, County Meath; d. at Charleville, France,
in 1635. His father was Sir Thomas Nugent of Moy-
rath, and his mother was the Lady Mary, daughter of
Lord Devlin. At an early age he was sent to France
to receive an education which the Penal Laws denied
him at home. Before the age of twenty he obtained
the de^ee of doctor at the Universities of Paris and
Louvain, and occupied chairs in these two centres of
learning, prior to his entrance into religion. He ac-
quired a profound knowledge of Greek and Hebrew,
and could speak a number of European languages
fluently. In 1589 he joined the Capuchin Flandro-
Belgian Province, taking the name of Francis. In
due course he was professed and ordained priest.
Towards the close of 1594, or the be^nning of 1595, he
was sent to France to guide the destinies of the French
provinces then being formed, and established com-
munities at Metz and Charleville. Meanwhile he con-
tinued to deliver lectures in philosophy and theology
at Paris. In 1596 he went as custos-general of France
to the general chapter at Rome, and was appointed
commissary general of the Capuchins at Venice.
Three years later, being again in the Eternal City, he
took part in a public disputation in theology at which
Clement VI II himself presided . Father Francis main-
tained his thesis with skill and eloquence, and was en-
thusiastically awarded the palm of victory.
At the general chapter of 1599 he was relieved of the
provincialate and returned to Belgium, where he re-
mained about eleven years. In 1610, at the earnest
request of John Zwickhard, Archbishop of Mainz,
seven friars of this province were sent to establish the
order in the Rhine country, and Father Francis was
appointed their commiBsary general. He founded ^
convent at Paderbom in 1612, and two years later
communities were settled at Essen, Mlinster, and
Aachen. He also established the Confraternity of the
Passion at Cologne, and amongst its first protectors
were his two great friends Mgr Albergatti. the papal
nuucio, and Frederick of Hohenzollem, tne dean of
the cathedral. In 1615 he began a monastery at
Mainz, and Pope Paul V nominated him vicar Apostolic
and commissary general, with full power to establish
the order in Ireland. Tnat countr}^ was then passing
through a period of terrible persecution, but the Capu-
chins Draved every danger, mingled with the people,
and ministered to their spiritual needs. Meanwhile,
in 1618. the monastery of Charleville, in Upper Cham-
pagnCj became a training-school for friars intended for
the Irish mission, and facilities for the same purpose
were offered by the Flandro-Belgian Province. A
fresh band of workers was soon sent to Ireland, and
Father Nugent was thus enabled to found the first
monasterv in Dublin in 1624. The Archbishop of
Dublin, Dr. Fleming, in 1629 addressed to the Iri^
cler^ a letter commending the Capuchin Fathers,
specially mentioning ''their learning, prudence, and
earnestness ' ' . Two years later Father Nugen t founded
a monastery at Slane, in the diocese of his friend. Dr.
Dease, who had previously borne public testimony to
the merits of the Capuchins. Owing to failing health,
he retired in 1631 to Charleville. He is generally
credited with having procured the foundation at Lille
of a college for the free^ucation of poor youths from
Ulster and Meath for the Irish clergy. He died at
Charleville on the Feast of the Ascension, 1635.
Rinuccini described him as "a man of most ardent
zeal and most exemplary piety'', and the annalists
of the order state that he refused the Archbishopric of
Armagh offered him by Pius V, who stvled him "the
support of the Church and the light of the orthodox
faith". He wrote several works, of which the princi-
pal are: "Tr^ctatus De Hibemia", "Cursus philo-
sophicus et theologicus", "De Meditatione et Con-
scientise examine , "Paradisus contemplantium",
"Super regula Minorum, Expositio Copiosa".
CooAN, The Dioeeae of Meath Ancient and Modem, III (Dublin.
1870). 648: BtUlarium Ordinie F.F. Minorum. S.P. Franeisei. IV,
V: Nicholas, Bitdiolh^que de Troyee and Fran. Cap. Mon. (MS.,
1643) (Dublin): Franntcan AnnaU (1886). Nos. Ill, 114. 116;
BELL.EAHEIM, Qeachichte der KaiholiecKen Kirche in Irland, II
(Mains, 1890), 362-63; Pellborino. Annali Capuccini, I (Milan,
1884), 155-160; Rocco oa Cesinals, Storia delle Misaioni dei
Capuccini, 1 (Paris, 1867), 375-380, 403 sq.
Father Augustine.
Nugent, James, philanthropist, temperance ad-
vocate and social reformer, b. 3 March, 1822, at Liver-
pool; d. 27 June, 1905, at Formby, near Liverpool.
Educated at Ushaw, 1838-43, and the English College,
Rome, 1843-6, he was ordained at St. Nicholas's, Liver-
pool, on 30 August, 1846. After being stationed at
Blackburn and Wigan, he was sent to Liverpool 1 Jan-
uary, 1849. In 1861 he introduced the teaching Sis-
ters of Notre Dame, now directing an English Catholic
training college for teachers at Mount Pleasant. In
1853 he opened the Catholic Institute, in which Dr.
Newman delivered in October, 1853, his lectures on the
Turks. In 1863 he was appointed chaplain of Walton
Prison, and held the office twenty-two years. In 1865
he established the Refuge for Homeless Boys, which
from 1865 to 1905 trained 2000 boys. In 1867 he
founded "The Northern Press", which in March,
1872, became the "Catholic Times". On 29 Feb-
ruary, 1872, he organized for the spread of temperance
the League of the Cross. This he considered his
greatest work. In 1870 he began a series of visits to
America. After retiring from the chaplaincy of Wal-
ton Prison in 1885, he devoted nearly two years to
garochial work and inaugurated the new mission of
ilundellsands, which he resigned in 1 887. To prevent
drunkenness he instituted a series of Saturday night
f re^ concerts, which |;radually became i^ pivip in^wt^l-
151
tlon and in 1891 established in Bevii^ion Bush a Ref-
uge for Fallen Women and a Night Shelter for home-
less women which (1891-1905) received 2300 poor
women. In 1892 Leo XIII apoointed him a dom'estic
E relate. In memory of his golden jubilee as a priest
e purchased for Temperance meetmgs and concerts,
the Jubilee Hall in Burlington St. The citizens of
Liverpool on 5 May, 1897^ presented to him at an
enormous public meeting his own portrait now in the
Liverpool Art Gallenr and over £1300 with which he
began the House of Providence, West Dingle/ for
young unmarried mothers with their first babies; 200
such cases were sheltered from 1897-1905. In 1904 at
the age of eighty-two, he visited America with Abbot
Gasquet but taken ill at St. Paul, Minnesota, he hur-
ried nome to die. On 8 December, 1906, there was
erected near St. George's HalL a bronze statue com-
memorating him as : Apostle of Temperance, Protector
of the Orphan Child, Consoler of the Prisoner. Re-
former of the Criminal, Saviour of Fallen Womannood,
Friend of all in Poverty and Affliction, An Eye to the
Blind, a Foot to the Lame, the Father of the Poor.
Caiholie Time*, Liverpool Daily PoH, Catholie Family AnniioZ,
filea; London Catholic Weekly (29 June, 1906).
Jam£s Hughes.
Nuxnben, the name of the fourth book of the
Pentateuch (q. v.).
Numben, Use of, in tbb CmrRCH. — No attentive
reader of the Old Testament can fail to notice that a
certain sacredness seems to attach to particular num-
bers, for example, seven, forty, twelve, etc. It is not
merely the frequent recurrence of these numbers, but
their ritual or ceremonial use which is so significant.
Take, for example, the swearing of Abraham (Gen.,
xxi, 28 sqq.) after setting apart (for sacrifice) seven
ewe lambs, especially when we remember the etymo-
logicfd connexion of the word nishba (3?3U^) to take an
oath, with sheba (y^^) seven. Traces of the same
mystical employment of numbers lie much upon the
surface of the New Testament also^ particularly in the
Apocalypse. Even so earljr a wnter as St. Irenseus
(User.. V , xxx) does not hesitate to explain the num-
ber of the beast 066 (Apoc, xiii, 18) by the word
AATEIN02 since the numerical value of its constituent
letters yields the same total (30+ 1+ 330+ 6+ 10+
60+ 70 + 200=666) ; while sober critics of our own day
are inclmed to solve the mystery upon the same prin-
ciples by simply substituting for Latinus the words
Nero Cssar written in Hebrew characters which ^ve
the same result. Of the ultimate origin of the mystical
si^piificance attached to numbers something will be
said under Stmbousm. Suffice it to note here that
although the Fathers repeatedly condemned the mag-
ical use of numbers which had descended from Baby-
lonian sources to the Pvthagoreans and Gnostics of
their times, and although they denoimced an^ svstem
of philosophy which rested upon an exclusively nu-
merical basis, still they almost unanimously regarded
the nimibers of Holy Writ as full of mystical meaning,
and they considered the interpretation of these mysti-
cal meanings as an important branch of exegesis. To
illustrate the caution with which they proceeded it
will be sufficient to refer to one or two notable exam-
ples. St. Irenseus (Hser., I, viu. 5 and 12, and II,
xxxiv, 4) discusses at length the Unostic numerical in-
terpretation of the holy name Jesua as the equivalent
of 888, and he claims that by writing the name in
Hebrew characters an entirely different interpretation
is necessitated. Again St. Ambrose commenting upon
the days of creation and the Sabbath remarks: ''The
number seven is good, but we do not explain it after
the doctrine of Pythagoras and the other philos-
ophers, but rather according to the manifestation
and division of the grace of the Spirit; for the prophet
Isaias has enumerated the principal gifts of the Holy
Spirit as seven" (Letter to Horontianus). Simi-
larly St. Augustine, replying to Tichonius the Donar
tist, observes that ''if Tichonius had said that these
mystical rules open out some of the hidden recesses
of the law, instead of saying that they reveal all the
mysteries of the law, he would have spoken truth"
(De Doctrina Christiana, III, xlii,). Many passages
from St. Chrysostom and other Fathers might be cited
as displaying the same caution and showing thef reluc-
tance of the great Christian teachers of the early cen-
turies to push this recognition of the mystical signifi-
cance of numbers to extremes.
On the other hand there can be no doubt that in-
fluenced mainly by Biblical precedents, but also in
part by the prevalence of this philosophy of numbers
all around them, the Fathers down to the time of Bede
and even later gave much attention to the sacredness
and mystical significance not only of certain numerals
in themselves but also of the numerical totals given
by the constituent letters with which words were
written. A conspicuous example is supplied by one of
the earliest of Christian documents not included in the
canon of Scripture, i. e., the so-called Epistl^ of Barna-
bas, which Ughtfoot is inclined to place as early as
A. D. 70-79. This document appeals to Gen., xiv, 14.
and xvii, 23, as mystically pointing to the name and
self-oblation of the coming Messias. "Learn, there-
fore", says the writer, "that Abraham who first ap-
Sointed circumcision, looked forward in spirit unto
esus when he circumcised, having received the ordi-
nances of ^reeletters. For the Scriptures saith ' And
Abraham circumcised of his household eighteen males
and three hundred'. What then was the knowledge
given unto him? Understand ye that He saith 'the
eighteen' first, and then after an interval 'three hun-
dred*. In the eighteen I stands for 10, H for 8. Here
thou hast Jesus (IH20T2). And because the cross in
the T was to have grace^ he saith also * three hundred'.
So he revealeth Jesus in two letters and in the re-
maining one the cross ' ' (£p . Barnabas^ ix) . It will, of
course, l>e understood that the numerical value of the
Greek letters t and % the first letters of the Holy Name,
is 10 and 8=18, while T, which stands for the form ot
the cross, represents 300. At a period, then, when the
Church was forming her liturgy and when Christian
teachers so readily saw mystical meanings uhderl3ring
evenrthing which had to do with numbers, it can
hardly be doubted that a symbolical puroose must
constantly have guided the repetition of acts and
prayers in the ceremonial of the Holy Sacrifice and in-
deed in all public worship. Even m the formuUe of
the prayers themselves we meet unmistakable traces
of this kind of symbolism. In the Gregorian Sacra-
mentary (Muratori, "Liturgia Romana Vetus", II,
364^ we find a form of Benediction in some codices
(it IS contained also in the Leofric Missal)^ assimed
to the Circumcision or Octave of the Nativity, which
concludes with the following words : " Quo sic in senarii
numeri perfectione in hoc sseculo vivatis, et in septe-
nario inter beatorum spirituum aginina re<iuie8cati8
quatenus in octavo resurrectione renovati; jubilsi
remissione ditati. ad gaudia sine fine mansura per-
ventatis. Amen .
We are fairly justified then when we read of the threes
fold, five-fold, and seven-fold litanies, of the num-
ber of the repetitions of Ky rie eleison and Christe elei-
Bon, of the number of the crosses made over the oblaia in
the canon of the Mass, of the number of the unctions
used in administering the last sacraments, or the
prayers in the coronation of a king (in the ancient
form in the so-called Egbert Pontifical these prayers
have been carefully numbered), of the intervals as-
signed for the saying of Masses for the dead, of the
number of the lessons or the prophecies read at certain
seasons of the year, or of the absolutions pronounced
over the remains of bishops and prelates, or again of
the number of subdeacons that accompany the pope
and of the acolytes who bear candles before him— ^^
NUMI8BCATZCS
152
RUMI8MATXCS
are justified, we say, in assigning some mystical mean-
ing to all those thmgs, which may not perhaps have
been very closely conceived by those who instituted
these ceremonies, but which nevertheless had an in-
fluence in determining their choice why the ceremony
should be performed m this particular way and not
otherwise. (For explanation of the m3rstical signifi-
cance commonly attached to the use of numbers see
Stmbolism.)
Hbrbsbt Thurston.
Numismatics (from the Greek p6/uff/ta, ''legal cur-
rency ") is the science of coins and of medics. Every
coin or medal bein^; a product of the cultural, economic,
and political conditions imder which it originated, this
science is divided according to the various civilised
communities of mankind. It is not only a distinct
science, but also, in its respective parts, a branch of
all those sciences which are concerned with the history
of nations and of their culture — classical archeology,
history in its narrower sense, Orientalism, etc. Prac-
tically, only ancient, modem, and possibly Oriental
numismatics are of importance. Furthermore, a dis-
tinction should be made between numismatography,
which is chiefly descriptive, and numismatology,
which views the coin from its artistic, economic, ana
cultural side.
The dependence of theoretical numismatics on the
pursuit oi coin-collecting is clearly seen in the history
of the filbienoe. The earliest publications of any im-
portance were written to meet the needs of collectors
(e. g., the various cabinets of Taler, Groschen, and
ducats, and the MUmbehiatibungenf or "coin-pas-
times ) , whereas the foundations for a scientific treat-
ment of ancient numismatics were not supplied until
1790, by Eckhel, and for modem not until the nine-
teenth century by Mader, Grote, and Lelewel. (It is
worth remembenng that ot. Thomas Aquinas, in "De
regimineprincipis , II, xiii, xiy, treated the subject
of money and coinage, and this work was for manv
J rears the authoritv among canonists. ) The oldest col-
ection of coins of which we have certain knowledge
dates back to the fifteenth century, and was made by
Petrarch: his example found numerous imitators.
Hubert Goltz, in 155&-^, visited the various collec-
tions of Europe, of which there are said to have been
950. In comparison with private collections, which
are as a rule scattered after the death of their owners,
the collections of mlers, states, or museums, possess
Earamount imi>ortance, and furnish the most reliable
asis for numismatic investigations. As early as
1756 Francis I of Austria in two works of great beauty,
" Monnoves en or'' and " Monnoyes en argent'', made
known the treasures of his collection; and in recent
years the great catalogues, especially those of the
British Museum, have become the most important
sources of information in this science. The needs of
both collectors and theoretical students have called
into being a large number of numismatic societies, as
well as about 100 technical periodicals, in lar^e part
published by these societies. From the meetings of
the German Society of Numismatics, held from year
to year in different cities, there have developedf in-
ternational congresses: Brussels. 1892: Paris, 1900
(Records and 'Immsactions, published by Comte de
Castellane and A. Blanchet); Rome, 1903; (Atti del
congresso intemazionale di scienze storiche, 6 vols.);
Bmssels, 1910.
I. Coins. — Ck>ins may be defined as i)ieces of metal
that serve as legal tender. The term includes ordi-
nary currency, commemorative or presentation pieces
stamped by public authority in accordance with the
established standard, etc., but not paper money or
private coinage. To the last class we refer the English
tokens which were largely circulated as a result of the
insufficient supply of fractional coiii about the year
JSfft^/ furthermore, the pieces called mereaux, issued,
especially by church corporations, as vouchers for
money, a,nd afterwards for value in general, like feloiM,
or counters, and Rechnungapfennige, When each indi-
vidual is no longer able to wrest from the earth his own
subsistence, the necessity arises for sharing labour and
distributing its products. This is at first effected by
barter of commodities, which requires a universally
available medium of exchange usually found in cattle
(in Homer the equipment ofMenelaus is valued at 9
steers; that of Glacus, at 100). Besides cattle, prim-
itive men have used hides, pelts, cloth, etc., for this
purpose. Soon, however, it oecomes necestary to find
a measure of value that can be employed universally,
and for this ^old, silver, and copper have been used from
very early times; in comparatively recent ye^xB after
experimentatioji with many other metals, nickel has
been added to these. The first stage of metallic money
is reached with the weighing out of pieces of metal of
any shape; but, as only the gross weight can be de-
termined by this proced,ure, and not the degree of fine-
ness (a very essential factor in the case of the precious
metals), the necessity arises of certifying fineness by
the stajnp of public authority, and this stamp makes
the lump of metal a coin. Tne employment of only
one of the metals mentioned soon proves insufficient:
it is impossible to put into circulation gold coins of
sufficiently small aenomination or, using the base
metal, to issue coins of sufficiently high values. It is
necessary, therefore, to n^ake use of two or three
metals at the same time. This may be done either
by employing the one precious metal as a measure of
value and the other, together with copper, only as a
commodity or subsidiary coin, or else By using both
metals concurrently as measures of value at a ratio
fixed by law (bimetallism), a course however, which
has frequently caused difficulties on account of the
fluctuations in the rate of exchange of the two precious
metals.
In form, coins are usually circular, sometimes oval,
and quadrangular; these last are particularly common
in emergency coinage, and in Sw^en had grown to an
immense size and great weight. There are also found,
especially in the Far East, coins of the most eccentric
shapes. In. addition to the device and inscription
coins frequently bear what are called mint marlks or
mint-masters' marks which deserve special mention.
Mint-masters and die-sinkers have in many cases been
accustomed to distinguish their works by means of
certain marks or letters; and the mints distinguidi
their respective coins either by letters, indicating the
Elace of issue by conventional and arbitrary marJu, or
y some other means — sometimes scarcely perceptible
to the uninitiated — such as the placing of a dot be-
neath a particular letter of the inscription. In this
way the various issues of coins, otherwise alike, are
kept distinct.
The science of numismatics is mat^ally advanced .
by finds of coins in large quantities: in addition to a
knowledge of previously unknown typeBf such dis-
coveries afford an instmctive insight into the actual
circulation of coins at given periods and the extent to
which certain coinages were current beyond the con-
fines of their own states, and help us to assign undated
varieties, especially those of the Middle Ages, to some
particular mint-master or precise period. In the
study of the science, as well as in the classification of
coins, it is the practice to follow, chronologically, three
great eras: the ancient, medieval, and modem: geo-
graphicall]^, the different political divisions of tne re-
spective times. For the Greek coins, Eckhel has
adopted an exemplary system which is still in use.
Beginning at the Pillars of Hercules, he takes up the
countries of the world, as known to the ancients, in
the order of their positions around the Mediterranean :
first those of Europe, then Asia as far as India,
and lastly Af rica^ from ^^YP^ b^ck to the Straits ot
Gibraltar.
TYPICAL COINS OF TWENTY -FIVE CENTURIES
. PRACrE OROSCHGN. 12. AUOCSTAUS OP FREDERIC U
IS. UUBIJBa RUBENTALER. 18. SILVER BRACTEATB (GERMAN). IT. CHAISE d'oR. 18, NOBLE.
19. DOCBLG SEQUIN OF LEO X, GOLD.
JL, 22. UARIATERBSIENTALER.
RUMZSBCATZCS 153 NUMISBCATICS
A. Chreek Coins. — ^The term Greek is always under- degree of excellence uneaualled by any later race:
stood in ancient numismaticB to include all coins ex- Syracuse holds the first place; after it in order come
cept those of Roman origin and the Italian cm grave, Arcadia, Thebes, Olynthus, etc.
The monetary unit b the talent of 60 minae (neither Of the non-Hellenic peoples whose coins are in-
the talent nor the mina being represented by any eluded in the Greek series, the most important for us are
coin), or 6000 drachms, each being equal to 6 obols. the Jews. At first they made use of foreign coins, but,
The various currencies are in most cases based upon as one of the results of the national rising under the
the Persian system of wei^ts. The Persians had two Machabees against the Syrians, the high priest. Simon,
dififerent standards of weight for the precious metals: received from Antiochus VII (139-^ b. c.) the right
for gold, the Euboean; for silver, the Babylonian, of coinage. Simon minted copper and silver. To
The gola daric. the common gold coin, corresponding him is ascribed the '^ Shekel Israel'': obverse legend
to the Greek silver didrachm, weighed 8.385 grammes (^Shekel Israel) and a cup or chalice above which is a
(about 120 1 grains); the silver daric (shekel), 5.57 date (1-5, reckoning from the conferring of the right
grammes (nearly 87 grains). As the value of silver to of coinage) ; reverse, lesend (Jerusalem £e Holy) and
that of gold waSj in antiquity, as 1 to 10, the gold a lily-stalk with three buds. The rest of the Macha-
daric is the equivalent of 15 silver darics. Other bees — John Hydranus. Judas Aristobulus, Alexan-
standards of coinage were the Phocean, the i£ginetan, der Jannaeus, Mattatnias Antigonus^ and so on —
the Attic, the Cormthlan, the Ptolemaic, and the cis- coined copper exclusively with inscriptions in old He-
tophoric standard of Asia Minor; some of these, how- brew or in Hebrew and Greek. After these came the
ever, majr be derived from the Persian standard. By copper coins of the Idumsan prince Herod and his suc-
the substitution of the lighter Attic standard for the cessors. In the time of Christ Roman coins were also
old iEginetan Solon brought about the partial aboli- in circulation. This is proved by the story of the trib-
iion of debt. The most abimdantly coined pieces ute money. ''And they offered him [Christ] a penny,
were the tetradrachm (25-33mm. in diameter) and And Jesus saith to them: Whose image and inscri|>-
the didrachm; pieces of eight, ten, and twelve tionistlus? Thevsay to him: Caesar's'' (Matt., xxii,
drachmse are exceptional, and a forty-drachma piece 19-21). It was only during the two revolts of the Jews
is a rarity. In the downward scale the division ex- against the Romans in a. d. 66-70 and 132-135, that
tends to the quarter-obolus {^ih drachma). In silver was again coined under Eleazar and Simon and
Greek Asia Minor coins made of a mixture of gold and Bar-Cochba respectively. On the Bactrian coins of
silver (electrum) were used. In Greece the silver the first century after Christ there occurs the name
coinage greatly predominated; copper coins do not Gondophares, or some similar name, supposed to be
antedate 400 b. c, while gold was but rarely minted, identical with that of one of the three Magi, Caspar.
The coinage of the Persians, on the other hand, was B. Roman Coins. — In Italy the earliest medium
very rich m gold, and it was their example that in- of exchange was copper, which had to be weighed at
fluenoed Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the each transaction {ces rude). At first it was used in
Great. With a few exceptions the highest degree of pieces of irregular form, later in clumsy bars. The
fineness was aimed at, the gold daric bemg 97 per cent credit of having first provided a legal tender is
fine. ascribed to Servius Tullius, who is said to have had
In the early times the coining was done with a single the bars stamped with definite figures, mostly cat-
die: the reverse of the blank metal was held fast bsr a tie (jnimtts sigruxuU <bs; <bs signatum). The mtro-
peg, generally square, in the anvil, and so received its duction of true coins with marks indicating their
impress in the form of a quadrangular depression (in- value and the emblems of the city belongs to a much
cuse square) ; in time this square came to be adorned later date. The monetary unit was uie as of 12
with lines, figures, and inscriptions. In Southern Italy oimces (10.527 oz. Troy), equal to a Roman pound
two dies uiat fitted into eacn other were employed, so (JUbra — ^hence, libral stanoara) ; usually, however, the
that the coins present the same design in relief on the weight of an as was only 10 ounces (about 81 oz.
obverse and depressed on the reverse (nummitncuAt). Troy). The divisions of the as (the semis »},
The inscriptions are in different languages, according iriens =i, qvadrans «}, sextans »}, and unda
to nationauties. Bilingual inscriptions — e. g., Greek- =iV)( in order that they might be more readily dis-
Latin — and inscriptions in whicn the language and tiuKuished, were marked on one side with as many
type do not conespond — e. g., Greek in Cypriote balls as they contained oimces. On the one side was
characters, also occur; and even the (jrreek characters the representation of the prow of a ship, the charac-
undergo numerous changes in form in the course of tenstic device of the city of Rome, on the other, the
time. The rif^ht of coinage being a privilege of sov- head of a divinity, which varied with the denomina-
ereignty, the inscriptions first mention the name of tion of the coin. The coins were round, in high^ but
the sovereign power under whose authority the coin somewhat clumsy, relief, and cast; some were mm ted
was struck ; in Greece, until the time of Alexander the in Campania.
Great, this was the community. The names of the From 268 b. c. the weight of the as steadily de-
ofllicials who had charge of the coinage are also found: creased; the libral standard became first a triental,
and later coins also show the year, frequently reckoned then an uncial, and finally even a semiuncial stand-
from the Scleucid era, 312 b. c. The oldest coins had , ard — A of the original weight. While this reduction
their origin on the i£gean coasts, perhaps in Lydia, as ' of the standard facilitated the manufacture of coins
Herodotus tells us, or at MgaiA^ to whose king, of larger values (dupondius, tripondiuSf decussis, equal
Pheidon, the Parian chronicle ascribes them, possibly to 2, 3, and 10 asses respectively), it resulted in giving
earlier than 600 b. c. Various islands of the same sea to copper coins a current value far above their intrin-
fumish coins bearing designs not very dissimilar to sic worth and furthered the introduction of stamped,
these. Hie coins of Southern Italy are ot not much instead of cast, coins. According to Livy the first
later date, as is proved by the fact that specimens are silver coins were minted in 268 b. c, this first silver
extant from the city of oybaris, which was destroyed piece was the denarituij equal to 10 asses. It was fol-
in 510 B. c. The early coins of Greece proper and towed by the minor denominations, the quinarius
Asia Minor are thick pieces of metal, resembling flat- (h denarii^) and sestertiiis (} denarius). Besides
tened bullets, and, naturally^ bear the simplest de- these the viclorUUus {\ denarius) was coined for the
vices, plants and animals, wnich soon become typical use of some of the provmces as a commercial currency,
of paiticular localities; these are succeeded by the The denarius, weighing at first t^ of a pound was re-
heads and figures of deities and men, sometimes united duced in 217 b. c. to r4» the silver used being almost
in groups. About 400 b. c. the Greek art of die- pure. The obverse shows the dea Roma; the reverse,
cutting reached its fullest development, attaining a the two Dioscuri; of these stamps the former more
lTIGS 1
particularly remained in use for many yeare. The
mint was managed by a commission (&eBviri eere or-
Qodo auToftandoferiundo), the members of which soon
placed upon the coine their names or initials, and later
?:lorifled the members of their families and their deeds
family or consular coins). Even at that time, but
much more frequently in the imperial period, there
were denarii of base metal which were often thinly
coated with silver (deitarii sulxevali). It rarely hap-
pened that sold was coined.
Cssar marks the transition to the imperial coinage:
in44R.c. theSenateordered the issue of coins beannK
luB portrait. Even Brutue followed this example, and
with Augustus bwins the unint«rrupt^ series of por-
trait coins. While Cfesar had already claimed the
right of coining gold and silver, Aucustua claimed this
ri^t for himself alone and left to the Senate only the
coma^e of copper; and these copper coins are char-
acteriaed by tne letters S.C. {senatueeonsulU}). Aure-
lian (270-76) took even this privilege from the Senate.
Beginning with the empire we find a copious coinage of
gold. The principal coin is theaureiM, weighing about
I23i groins; its obverse bears the name, title and por-
trait of the emperor; it« reverse, historical representa-
tions in rich variety, buildings, favourite divinities of
the emperor, and personiS cations of the virtues that
adorned, or should have adorned, him; the members
of his family are also represented. In tJiis respect the
series of Trajan and Hadrian are especially rich.
With Nero b^ins the debasement of the coina^, par-
ticularly of the silver; and this continued until Con-
etantinc again established some degree of order. He
introduced a new gold coin, the sol^us, equal to ^ of
a pound (about 70 ctuns), which (or centuries re-
mained an important lac tor m the development of the
monetary system.
Special mention should be made of the medals, pecu-
harly large and carefully executed' works of the mint,
issued in commemoration of some event. They were
made of gold^ silver, or copper, and in the precious
metal, generally coined in conformity with the legal
standard. There are also specimens mode of copper
surrounded by a circle of yellowish metal (midaUUs
des deux cuitres). The term amtomiaU is applied to
a lar^ circular copper coin with a raised nm, used
principally in connexion with the circensian games.
The coins of the Roman emperors of the East,
which arc designated as Byzantine, belong, chrono-
logically at least, to the Middle Ages, but, judged by
the standard observed in their coinage and, in the ba-
nning, also by the character of the coins tlaemselves,
the entire series is closely connected with the issues of
the Roman Empire. Copper was coined abundantly,
silver rarely, but the greatest importance attached to
the gold coina^. For many yeare gold was coined
only at Byzantium, and these gold pieces served as a
model, not only for the gold coinage of the West,
which was not resumed until the thirteenth century,
but also for that of Islam. Artistic merit is entirely
lacking in the Byzantine coins: their type is rigid and
monotonous. In place of the former wealth and vari-
ety of devices on the reverse, we find rehpous sym-
bols, the monogram of Christ, and saints. The coin-
Xof John VlII, the last of the emperors but one,
ut the middle of the fifteenth century, was the last
of the Byzantine series.
C. Medieval Coins. — The new states that arme
within the territorial limits of the old Roman Empire
at first made use of the Roman coins, of which a suffi-
riently large number were in existence. The rare
autonomous issues of the period of the racial migration
are very closely connected with the Roman series;
only the Merovingians, in France, made themselves
to some extent independent. Very soon, however, a
general decline liegan in all mattera connected with
coinage; the coins steadily become coareer, gold cur-
rency disappeared, copper was coined only excep-
rnr^); it was divided into 20 shillings (jxiund and
shillings being both merely money of account) each
equal to 12 penoe (deniera). The penny therefore
14 NUHISHATIOS
tjonally; small silver coins were the onIj| medium of
payment. Chorlem^se restored some kind of order;
claiming the right of coinins as a royal prerogative, to
be exercised by the kinK alone, he suppressed all pri-
vate coinage, which at tliat time had assumed disas-
trous proportions. He furthermore enjoined greater
care in minting and made regulations on this point
which becftme the standard for the greater part of
Europe, and which, in their essential features, are
operative in England to the present day. The basia
the talent, or pound, of silver (abo " " '
"■''"' ' illings i_
y of account) each
^ . . . . , , , le penny therefore
weighed 23} grains. The most common designs on
the Carlovini^an coins are the representation of the
cross and a church adorned with columns, surrounded
by the l^end Christiana rdigio.
The peculiar economic conditions of the Middle
Ages ^ve rise to the issue of silver coins of constantly
diminishing weight and fineness, so that they steadily
became more and more worthless and, as a result of
the general rise in values, could no longer be used as
currency. In this way a process began which was re<
peated several times during the Middle Ages; as a re-
sult of the depreciation of the older smalfcoins, new
coins, larger and more valuable, were struck in some
city whence they made their way triumphantly
through the whole of Europe, In course of time these
in turn became depreciated and. were replaced by a
new issue. In the thirtentth century the ahilung
(equal to 12 pence) was first coined at Touts; in con-
tradistinction to the denifT, which at that time had
become very thin, it was called nummus groitua
(thick coin), and. from the name of the place where
it was first coined, grottiu (uronefww, or gro» Unimoit.
One side has a cross with the name of the king and a
legend, moat commonly Benedietum sit nomen domini;
the othw, a church. The tournow spread rapidly
through France and along the Rhine, and led to the
minting of a similar coin at Prague (the groanu pro-
gemia, or Pragtr Oroteken), which in its turn was imi-
tated in many countries. After the Merovingian
period the only gold coins minted were the Avguttoin
of the emperor Frederick II. These were copies of
the earlier Roman coin and were struck in Sicily.
A regular gold coinage does not begin until about 1250,
in the Republic of Florence. These coins bear, on the
one side, St. John the Baptist, and, on the other, a
lily, the emblem of Florence. FVom this device (^o«
liJtt), or from the name of the city, they received the
name fionn. Their weight was a little more than 540
DWns. A few decades later the Doge of Venioe,
Giovanni Dandolo, began the minting of a gold coin
which bears the representation of the doge kneeling
before St. Mark and the effigy of Christ with the
legend: Sit tibi Christe daba fuem lu re^ u(« ducolu*.
The last word of this legend gave the coin its name,
dueato (ducat); in Venice it was al90_called zaxhino
throughout the world.
The transition to modem times is marked by the
introduction of still larger silver coins. Of these, be-
NUUBIUTIOS li
■ides the Italian IttUme and the French franc, the
German Taler was the mort important. In 1486
the Archduke Sigiamund of the Tyrol csused the iMue
of a new eilver coin weighing 2 LoOi, and of a fineness
of 15 Lolh; its value at the rate of exchange of that
time corresponded to that of the gold gulden and it
was therefore called Guidengroichen. The example of
the Tyrol was soon followed by many nobles who had
the right of coining; the JoackimalaleT {shortened to
Ttder)^ made in the mint of the counts of Schlick, at
Joachimatal, originated the name of Taler (Dollar),
which has been retained to the present day. Among
the most interesting of the coins of this kind are the
Rubtnlaier, coined By Leonard of Keutschacb, Arcfa-
i5 inmisiuTios
age, thereby caunng serious losses to those of their
subjecta who were eii^aged in trade. The cities,
therefore, which had not y%t obtuned the right of
coinage, eodeayoured to g^n some control over the
syatem, either by obtuning for themselves the right
of coining or by farming mints, or bv inducing the
owners of minta to eitercise their privileges m a more
reasonable manner.
Of the German medieval coins, the "bracteatcs"
(Lat. braetm, "a thin sheet of metal") deserve special
mention. They were not personal ornaments, like
the Scandinavian bracteates of earlier times, but
genuine coins. As the denier had become thinner and
tanner in the oourae ot the elevMith century, it was
rarest and most frequently counterfeited eoina of the
Middle Ages.
The monetary systems of the German Empire dur-
ing the Middle Ages are of the greatest interest with
respect not only to the number of its types of coin,
but also the peculiarity of its evolution. Charle-
magne, it ia true, had eatabliahed uniformity of coin-
3e and had caused the right of coining to be acknowl-
ged as exclusively belonging to the sovereign; but
his weaker successors were gradually compelled to
yield this, as well as most of the other royal preroga-
tives, to the feudatory lords, whose power continued
to increase as that of the paramount government
weakened. Amons; these feudatories were, not only
all archbishops and bishops, but also the leading al>-
botfl and abbesses within the empire. The evolution
was gradual. At first permission was granted to hold
a ftur (mercatus), levy a tax (Idimium), and erect a
mint [numela) at some place belonging to one of the
feudatories. At first the mint may have been only
an exchange, the profits of which, however, in the
Middle Agea were qften very considerable, and accrued
to the lord. Then he was permitted to have coins
struck bearing his portrait, but had to mainttun the
uniform standard. At lea^h these feudatory lords
(Stained the privilege of coming without anyrestric-
tions. When this was done uniformity in the aai-
rency of the empire was at an end, a great diversity
in the coinage was rendered possible, uid the right of
coining, instead of being a prerogative of the emperor,
became a privilege of every feudatory. These sought
to exploit this pijvil^ as a productive source of m-
ogme by constantly deba^ng and changing tJie ooin-
replaced, early in the twelfth century, in some parts
of Germany, by very thin but rather large silver coins,
made with one die, showing the same de«Kn, in relief
on one aide and depressed on the other. These coins,
especially in the beginning, were carefully executect
and not without artistic merit. The city of Halle in
Swabia (Wurtemberg) issued a small fractional coin
which had a wide circulation, and was called HtUer
from the place of its origin. In some respects the
evolution of French coinage resembles that of German;
here too we find, in the tenth century, coinages of lay
and ecclesiastical barons (the archbishops ol Vienne,
Aries, Reims, etc. in particular), charact«nEed by afixed
type ((ype immobUUi) which ie m^ntained unaltered
for a long period. But by the close of the Middle Ages
this coinage is confined to a very few powerful feu-
datories and in comparison with the royal coinage, is
no longer of importance. From France we have the
chaise d'or, a gold coin that was also largely minted in
other countries; it represent* the king seated upon a
Gothic throne. In England sterlings and nobles were
struck, both ot them often counterfeited. Coins of
the archbishops of Canterbury and York are extant.
In Italy, because of its numerous political diviMons, we
findauiversity of coinageasimilar to that of Germany.
The scarcity of coins of eccleaastical mints is notice-
able; with the exception of some isolated examples and
theseriesofAquileja, Trent, and Trieste, we have only
the papal coinages, which, following chiefly the Byzan-
tine model, begin with Adrian I, but do not become
important untQ Clement V (the first of whose coins,
however, were struck at Avignon). While eastern
Europe was for the most part under the influence ot
fiysantine, the Crusaders nevertheless brought West-
em types into the states founded by them in the
HinCUlUTZGS
156
mnoBiuTioB
the year 700 ; these coine, because die Koran forbidfl 1780, is even DOV the moat important commercial cur-
SLCtoriai repreHentationa, bear Duly texta from the ' reney is Central Africa, the Sudan, Tripoli, and Ara-
loran and. generally, precise Btat^ents concerning bia. The hi^ degree of perfection which had been
the ruler, the mint-master, and the date of coinaKe. attained durmg the last aecades in the l«chnique of
a number of e:
and tiie exploitation of ita silver depoaits", lai^ silver ttussion coins of platinui ,
pieces appear everywhere in great numbers. As a liah coins of two metals) n
natural consequence of this, we find greater cars be- no decisive succeBs. On the other hand, it became
stowed upon the execution of the work, more l^ble possible lo pa^ greater attention to the artiatic side
characters in the inscriptions, and increased attention of coining, as is^ evidenced by the latest issues of the
to the pictorial representations (portnuts and coats- French and Italian mints.
of-arms). Several of the Renaissance issues, particu- II. Medaijs. — The term mtdal {medaUia in Flor-
larty the papal coins, are reckoned among the foremost ence = | denier) is applied hi pieces of metal, usually
worlds of art of that time. In the course of the last circular, which, though issued by a mint, are not in-
few centuries, countries which hod not come under tended as a medium of payment. Their material,
the influence of the civilization of the Middle Ages form, mode of manufacture, and history prove that
enter into numismatic relations with the others, e. s., they were originally coins, though altered conditions
Russia and the Far East, China having coins of the and needs, both artistic and cultural, have made them
most extraordinary shapes, some perforated, some in independent. Their purpose is to commemorate im-
the form of tuning-forks, sabres, etc.; Slam, lumps of portant events in the history of a nation, so much so
twisted silver wire. that attempts have been made to write histories based
While during the earlier centuries the monetary sys- upon and lUustrated bv the series of medals of some
terns of the older civihied countries of Europe gener- individual or of a whole country. Occasions for the
ally developed along the lines established in the course issue of medak are found in an accession to the throne,
of the Middle Ages, the great
political and economic revolu-
tions of the nineteenth century
broueht into being new forces
which hod their effect on the
monetary systems. While the
changed relations of the German-
speaking peoples resulted in a
variation of their currencies <the
mark in Germany, krone in
Austria, gulden in Holland, and Bboh™ W
franc in Switzerland], the uni-
fication of Italy, on the other band, resulted
form Italian monetary system (lira). But e „
conditions have produced even more lasting results
than political. On the 23rd of December, 1865, . _
France, Italy, Belgium, and Switzerland formed the the following centuries furnishes the n
Latin Union, which was joined in 1868 by Greece, eitamples. Portrait medals played the part now taken
asreeing upon a uniform regulation of the coinage of by photography. Medals stamped with coats-of-
these states on the basis of the French monetary ays- arms aJao serve to represent private individuals, and
tern. This system has now been adapted by a lai^ are sometimes put to practical use as tokens, buttons
number of states, which have not themselves joined for liveries, etc. They ore used to commemorate
the Latin monetoiy Union — Rumania, Bulgaria, Iwtrothals, or marriages, silver or golden weddings.
Servia, Finland, Spain, and, at least nominally, manv births and baptisms, and there are a large number of
of the Central and South American repubhcs, whicn sponsors' christening gifts in the shape of coins or
were formerly Spanish colonies, and lurthermore a medals {Patenpfennige) made expressly for the pur-
number of smaller European states. Austria-Hungary pose and inscribed with the names of the infant and
and Russia are also approximating to this system, the godparent, the place and date of baptism, and
Another monetary union was formed in 1873 and in- generally a pious maxim. These Palenpffnni^e were
eludes Sweden, Denmark, and Norway, the monetary often put into rich settings to be worn as ornaments,
union being the Scandinavian krone. The Portuguese and were handed down as heirlooms from generation
monetary system is still in force in Brazil, its former to generation. Not only the entrance into life but
colony. Even without any formal convention, a coin also death is recorded in medals: and many such
may gain currencj; in foreign lands. Thus the Mexi- pieces contain detailed biographical notices,
can dollar, which in name and value is an offshoot of Very often the medal serves a religious purpose; in
the German monetary system, is current coin on the Kremnits and especially in Joachimstal extenmve se-
farther shore of the Pacific Ocean, in the maritime ries of such religious coinages were struck. Typo-
provinces of China, in Japan, Siam, and part of the logical representations found great favour, the one
Malay Archipelagoi it influences Central America and side showing the Old-Testament type, the other the
even many of the African maritime provinces. The New-Testament antitype. The Reformation pro-
Indian rupee, too, has gained currency on the shore of duced many medals embellished with Biblical phrases,
the ocean opposite the land of its origin, on the coasts A favourite subject on religious medals was tlie head
of East Afnca, Southern Arabia, and the Malay pen- of Christ; the city of Vienna has for centuries used
insula. A good example of the crossing of economic medals bearing this design as public marks of distino-
and political interests is furnished by Canada, where tion. At Easter medals with the Paschal Lamb, at
the English sovereign is legal tender, although Cono- Christmas others with the Infant Jesus, were given
dian currency follows the standard of the United as presents. Of the stunts, St. George was moat fre-
Statea. While the coins now in circulation in Austria qilently represented, on the Georgstaier and Otorgt-
and Hungary are valid as currency in Liechtenstein aveat, and a superstition previuled that the wearing
and Montenegro and vice versa, an Austrian coin loi^ of a medal with the image of St. G^rge was a pro-
since put out of circulation in Austria itself, known tection against wounds. A umilar superstition waa
i declaration of war, the conclu-
sion of a peace, or on alliance,
the completion of a public build-
ing; it has also been very ex-
tensively used by sovereigns for
presentation to persons whom
they wished to honour, and in
su<^ cases waa often a veritable
gem of the goldsmith's art. On
the other hand, a medal has
often been presented by sub-
jects to their sovereign on such
his marriage, in token of homage. But
expression of the culture of a people the pri-
lecial possesses much greater interest, and in
this field the German medal of the Renaissance and
NUMUIunO 1!
connected with the representation of St. Roch and St.
Sebastian or of St. Roealia, as also of the cross with
the brasen serpent, as a protection against the plague.
There ia also an intermmabie series of wholly super-
Btitious amulets, astrological and aJchemistic coinages
wtuch profess to be the product of an alchemistic
tranamutatioQ from a base into a precious metal.
The imperial ooin-c^inet at Vienna contains one of
these pieces, probably the largest medal in existence.
weishtQg about 15!^ lbs. avoirdupois; and sdomect
with the portraits of forty ancestors of the Emperor
Leopold I, in whose presence the transmutation is
supposed to have taken place. Thus the numerous
ftnd manifold purposes for which the medal has been
employed fEuthfully reflect the cultural conditions
which led to it« coinage and are a souroe of informa-
tion that has not yet be«n fully appreciated.
True medals were unknown to antiquity ; their (imo-
rticulany as memo-
HUHI81UTIC8
Duke Boleslav III to the tomb of 6
Gnesen. A denier of Ladislaus I of Bohemia shows
the repulsive head of Satan with a descriptive legend
on one aide, and on the other a church. Luschin was
able to account for this device ss follows: sft«r a suc-
cession of serious elemental disturbsjices in Bohemia
there came, in the midst of a terrible hurricane, a
meteoric shower, during which many persons declared
they beheld Satan in numan form near the castle;
this denier was then struck, bearing on either side the
head of Satan and the Church of God. Such coins
as these in some measure serve the purpose of com-
memorative medals.
The first true medal appeared in Italy towards the
close of the fourteenth century. Francesco II Car-
rara, Lord of Padua, had two medah struck, in imita-
tion of the ancient Roman medaUions: one, in memorv
of his father, Francesco I, recalls the later medat
rials of important events — ^performed by coins. In lions of Commodue and Septimius Severus; the otiier,
contrast with the monotonous and gener^ly inartistic commemorating the capture of Padua in 1390, baa a
coins of the present day, the coins of antiquity, and portrait of Francesco II analogous to that of the Em-
more particularly those of Greece, were maJiterpieces peror Vitellius on his sesterces. The reverse in each
of the art of the die-engraver, who was not compelled case bears the punning device of the Carrara family.
to seek other opportunities to display his skill. - - , i-i i i . . - ,
Among the Romans conditions were anolo
the exception that the medallions of the emperors ap-
proximate somewhat to the character of our medals,
although they ore, as a rule, duplicates of the legal
monetary unit; the tokens {les$tr<E), struck for the
games, and the contoraiates are even more closely
relateo to the medal. The few gold issues of the
Emperor Louis the Pious (814-40) also resemble Pisano,
medals, and in the further course of the Middle Ages Verona; d. 1455'
we meet with a large number of coins which vteie evi- tant of the medallist
dently intended to commemorate some event in his- works are cast from
tory, although their devices are often very difficult to a process which frequently makes it necessary for the
explain; there is many a puzile here still awiuting pieces to be afterwards chiselled. He signs nis work
solution. As the symbol of Henry the Lion, the opua Pitani piefcri*. The medals ore, lor the most
powerful Duke of Bavaria and Saxony, the lion plays part, of lai^ sise, and are coated with an artifitial
an important role on his coins. But his adversary, patina. On the obverse they present expressive por-
Otho of Wittetsbach, who, when Henry the Lion had traits, generally in profile; on the reverse, beautiful
been outlawed, received the Duchy of Bavaria, em- and ingenious allegories: thus of Leonello d'Eete, a
ployed this symbol also and issued deniers which pic- lion singing from a sheet of music held by Cupid; or of
ture him in |>ursuit of a lion or with the severed head Alfonso of Naples, an eagle that generously ^ves up
These medals are struck in bronze and
silver. To the same period belong the medal-like
trial-pieces made by theSesto family of Venice, a family
of die-cutters. These, too, were stamped; but the de-
velopment of the medal in the next period was not due
to stamped pieces. Even before the middle of the
fifteenth century Italian art suddenly reaches the cli'
this department with the cast medal. Vittore
painter (b. about 1380, in the Province of
1456) is the oldest and most impor-
Like those of his followers, bis
models or models cut ii
ueeling
his hand. Coins are also very frequently the slain deer to the vultures. Even though it
commemorate enfeoffments, ana these bear proved that Pisano made use of certain prototypes
iresentation of the Uege brd from whom the which in turn were possiblv derived from seals, nis
receives the gonfalon. A PoUah fame as the real (u«ator of the medollic art is not ma-
NUMISIUTICS IJ
teriaJIy diminiBhed by that fact. Both in eompoaUon
and in execution he oae hardly been equalled, as, for
instanoe, in his representationB of the nobler animalB,
the lion, eagle, horse. '
I^sano travelled through the whole of Italy, and
portrayed the prominent princes and influential men
of his time; he made the
medallic art bo popular that
thenceforth artiHta, in all the
important art centres of
I Italy, engaged in the manu-
I facture a! medals. Such
-e Matteo de' Paeti, an
mirable artist at the
court of Rimini; the Vene-
tians Giovanni Boldu and
Gentile Bellini, the latter
of whom made a portrait-
BiLvsB MiDAir-MoDEHH medal for the sultMi Mehe-
AnvTBiiH BTScRArr met; the Mantuan Speran-
dio, the most prolific medalliHtof the fifteenth century,
and many others. ' At this time, too, the stamped
medal returns to prominence. In Rome Benvcnuto
Cellini and, after him, CaradosBO, and especially the
masters of the papal mint are deserving of mention.
The imitations of the bronie coinages of the Roman
emperors by Cavina are truly admirable. Finally, at
a somewhat later period, ItaJian medallists are found
in the aervice of foreign princes:
Jacopo da Trezzo in the Nether'
lands, the two Abondio in Ger-
many. The Italian medal exerts
the most powerful influence upon
the developmcDt of the older
French productions. The Italian
Laurana in the latter half of the
fifteenth century struck the first
French medals, and the works
of the next period clearly show
Itahan characteristics. Not un-
til the seventeenth century did
a new style appear, in which the
drapery especially is admirably
reproduced; the moat prominent „ . „.
Richier, at Metz, and, later, Guillaume Dupr£ and
Jean Warin.
In GermaDVj the earliest large silver pieces were
Otnned at HaU in the TVrol, under the mfluence of
Italian coinages; and to dian Marco Cavallo, who was
invited to HaU as engraver to the mint, these coins
owe their important position in the hiBton" of art and
their demonstrable influence upon many of the medals
of Germany. These, the oldest specimens of the
German medallic art, being at the same time coins,
were stamped; but, like the Italian, the German
medi^ does not reach ile highest perfection in stamped,
but in cast pieces. A considerable number of models
made of boxwood, of Kehlheim stone, and, later, of
wax are still extant. These portraits in wood or stone
were at first regarded as final, and only by degrees did
they come to be used as models for cofltmg in metal.
These cast medals, which made their appearance at
the art-centres of Germany (in the begmning of the
sixteenth century, Augsburg and Nuremberg) like-
wise owe thdr origin to the ItoUan medal. But only
their origin; the further development of the German
modal follows entirely original and independent lines
until it reaches a d^^ree of excellence, on a level with
the Itahan. It istrue that thcUermans fail toproduoe
the magnificent designs with their wealth of figures
that we find on the reverse of Italian medals; instead,
we find, more commonly, excellent representations of
coats of arms. The great strength of the German
medal lies in the loving care bestowed upon the execu-
tion of the accurate portrait on the obverse; and this
accords with the purpose of the medal, which was
jcDuch more widely distributed among the prominent
8 nUHUMATICS
familiea of the middle daaaea than was the case in
Itatv.
The German medal cieaehes it« prime soon after the
year 1500, considerably lat«r than the Italian: among
the oldest examples that have come down to us are
those of Albrecnt Dilrer. Many of the artists give
us no clue at all to their identity or sign themselveB
by marks or symbols that are ofton difficult to inter-
pret. It has now become possible, however, to as-
sign definitely a longseries of veiy valuable medals to
Peter FlStner, a master of Nuremberg, who must
therefore be conradered as one of the foremost of all
medalhsta; he is closely followed by Matthes Gebel.
Other noteworthy raeaallists of this period arc Hans
Daucher, most of whose work was done for the Court
of the Palatinate; Hans Schwara of Nuremberg, "the
best counteKeiter in wood", who executed a large
number of works for the members of the Diet of Augs-
burg of 1518; Jacob Stampfer, in Switserland; FriM-
rich Hagenauer, one of the moat popular artists;
Joachim Deschler, who finally settled in Austria,
where, especially in the mints of Vienna, Kremniti,
and Joacnimstol, a large number of medals were
struck at this period, not all of them, however, to the
advantage of the medallic art; Hans Reinhard, from
whom we have a number of very carefully chiselled
pieces, and Tobias Wolf, both in Saxony. By the end
of the sixteenth century the German medal has
clearly passed its zenith and be-
comes dependent upon forei^,
and. at first, especially Italian
works. In the Netherlands the
art attained a high degree of
Krfection. The great names
re are Stephanus Hollandicus
and, somewnat later, Konrad
Bloc, both of the second half
of the sixteenth century, and
Peter van Abeele of the seven-
teenth century. In England the
medallists are for the most part
^^ foreigners; of the native artists,
^"^ who do not appear until very
late, the most deserving of mention are Th. Simon and
William and L, C. Lyon. Caspar and Simon Passe
on the other hand attun great artistic skiU in the pro-
duction of very carefully engraved small, thin silver
pieces. The other states are of lees importance; they
employed for the most part foreign artlats.
The high artistic level which the medal attained in
Italy and Germany at the beginning of the modem
age could not be maintained permanently. For while
excellent pieces of work were produced here and them,
medals as well as coins, as works of art. deteriorated
more and more. Not until after the middle of the
nineteenth century did the art receive a fresh impetus
and that first in France. Considering merely its ex-
teraal manifestations, it is possible even to fix the ex-
act date of the beginning of thb movement. On 2
May, 1868, the <£emist Dumas, president of the
HUHC If
ComiM CoDsultatif dea Graveura of the Paris mint
delivered an address pointing out the defects which
prevented the artlHtic development of the medal, and,
as president of the mint, appeaUng for their amend-
ment. He particularly mentioned the bad taste of
the Iett«rinK, the polish, the high rim etc. If this
address dealt rather with the outer form, a new view
of the true purpose of the medal had already been
'i NUNO
trareUobHfii (Bna»l>, Ibea PbtLl 1881—): Reeut iuiik Si
'«HBL..DDC(riBO nuimionHii nfmim (VienilB,
B); MioHNET. pturivtion da mtdaiUu anliinut arittu*
.«j (B vdU. ud Hppfamaiit. P«rti. 1800-13; Svok.. 1819-
37); Ham, /f ittsna numann. A Uanual of Orak tfuiniimalia
(Oiiari. 1SB7) ; A Calalont g/' Greet Cairn in Uu Briliih Mvtum
(London,. 1878— );.- ■■ ■■ ■ ■
1702-98); Mio]
budini
, Paul Dubois, Chapus, above all Herbert 92f^'^^'f,
u o/lhe Jaa. Vol. Ill of JAimu.
«{P.ri
Ponscarmefl (the first to oppose the polishing of medals)
and later Degeorges, Chaplains, and Daniel Dupris,
Oscar Roty, by far the most distinguished of the
French medallists, won distinction. He excels not
onl^ as a portraitist, but more particularly in the com-
position of the reverse: his fine allegories (e. g., on the
medal for merit in connexion with the nlucation
of girb^the Republic teaching maidens, the future
mothers of men) recall the artists of the Quatlrocenlo,
which he carefully studied, but did not, as a rule, ,
directly imitate. Just as the execution of the medal no'wu
is preceded by long and careful deliberation as to how
the fundamental idea is to be worked out (Ponscar-
mes seems to have led the way in this) bo the execu- *^^^
tion itself receives to the very last moment the most ,„ij^
careful attention. Only the artist's hand must touch Sehaiu
his work. The
French medal has
thus attained great
results, even when
judged merelj; on its
technical merits.
Independently of
the French move-
ment, a medallic re-
vival has begun in
Austria. Anton
ScharfT brought
about a restoration
of the medallic style
and an emancipa-
tion from the rigid
conventional forms;
working side by side with him are Josef Thautcnheym, is. und it. JoMrhundtru (BcrGr
the elder, Stefan Schwartf, a maat«r of the technique •'^rSl^*??''™"'*'?^,'."""'
of the chiselled medal, and Franz XaverPawlik. S*. S/^^'i^~
oently Rudolf Marschall has won a hi^ reputation ' - '
as a portraitist, and received the commission to exe-
cute medals for both i«o XIII and Pius X. The
French and Viennese medals have called forth in other
countries an activity which has already resulted
many beautiful specimens of medallic -- •
, 1880): Lbno*-
! (PuH, 1878-79} ; Cobbh. Z><1-
frappta KUf rem '
EHaKL-SEIHITIU,
, — , ,_ , — ^1-1905): Ideu. TVaiM
la numKTnolwiK modmw emlmpomim (Piria. 1897-99)!
HamilKxit of tilt CBiam a} Ortal Britain ami IriLind
u moirtn-dflt IParis, 1891-1905): Ii>»
O XIII BT Rddou MABaCKAl
sexe- "l^^^'P^i"'
— aaiutt H plague""
daiileura ^na
1904 ; UcdaUie tUuKraliar
.rii. IDOl); LoimB, Witmr
t, 1902).
AOQ. V. LOEHR,
(LeipiiB. 1892): Hau
mn/rt IB^rlin, 1889); ■
1. 1808): Bab
(iWL.._. .
AiiBaoKU, Manuale de N^miimaliat (MlLio. 1395):
Pooii, Coin, and Mulala (London. 1894); E, and F. Gnbcchi.
Guida nunitmaliai untzeriaU |Mil(Ji, 1003); Hikkth, Bibluilheca
■nniamoficii omnium gtnlium (Nurambcrg. 1760) ; Lipiuus. Bibli-
aUca ntinvvi (Lcipiifl. 1801); LranUANM, BiiliaUax numono
(1800-06). Oo AbbnviBtioiu: Schmid. Clatit rmmUrnaliea
(Ehcaden. 1840) : Rehtimahh, Kv-miimatudiet Lrtendert LetHan
iem ViBdotto'i md dtr Neuuil 12 pvU, Berlin. 1 800-60. nipple-
DHDt. 1878) ; ScHUCIIIsm. £nUdnuv der Abkarlunnen auJ Uan-
•en, 3nl ed. by Paluiahh (Berlin, 1890) " ' '
aUrenaluramm (Leipii*. 1901)- Dictionu.__.
TVoiU del mmnaia (Puia. 1704); Schwidbb, HaadiMrlttinirk
der ofammlen Uantkundt (HatlB wd Bertin. 1811. 1815); Am-
•BOflou. Vooabalarifaa dei numiemoiiei in tttlt lirigrte (MLlan,
1897). Periodicili: Hi^ontche ManAetueliiningm (1729-50);
NumitmaUKlu Zritung {Wameame. ISU-ia); BUOer /Or MUnt-
frtmde (Leipuf, 1805—);
1868—); ZiaSirift far A -
-' - • ViteratuMaU (BerUn, 1880—): Birli<
-) : Birlintr
rrankfurler
«l (1870— ); ZeilK^ri/l imd MilteUmngen
ur jFordniKW der JAliu- trnd JVedaiUmhirutt (1S9D— ) :
MliUeilwiftn dtr bavriithm rtamiimaMieckiH OteMKhafi (1872—);
Jtm* nmunafifiu {Puia. IS56— ). formerly Rmu de la nurnie-
MolttwyraBcaiu (Bin*, 1835-56); Yearbiidi of Ibt SoeilU fian-
fsin da nimunuiliaiH- (1800 — ) ; BvlIMn tii<<miU>imaJ de mimie-
■uficw (Puia, 1902—): H"^ I'e'f nuatiinatiqiu (Tirlemoat,
(baa Brawalii 1812— )i BvUtUn mmiatl de luaiiiimatiqitt c(
Nunc Dlmittls (The Canticle of Simeon), found
in St. Luke's Gospel (ii, 29-32), is the last in historical
sequence of the throe great Canliptcsof the New Tes-
tament, the other two being the Ma^ificat (Canticle
of Mary) and the Benedictus (Cantinle of Zachary),
Ail three are styled, by way of eminence, the " Evan-
gelical Canticles" (see Canticle). The title is
formed from the opening words in the Latin Vulgate,
genauj Uan- " Nunc dimittiH BCFvum tuuiu, Domine" etc. ("Now
's^'^i^i?^ ^^"^ ^°^'- dismiss thy servant, O Lord" etc.). The
circumstances under which Simeon uttered his song-
Eetition, thanksgiving, and prophecy are narrated
y St. Luke (ii, 21-35) (see Candlemas). The
words follovring those quoted above, "according to
,_. . . thy word in peace", are explained by v. 26: "And
~ij« ^Si*" ^^ ^^ received an answer from the Holy Ghost,
SrJ^S^. that he should not see death, before he had seen the
Christ of the Lord." Brief though the Canticle is,
it abounds in Old-Testament allusions. Thus, in
the following verses, " Because my eyes have seen thy
salvation" alludes to Isaias, lii, 10 rendered afterwards
by St. Luke (iii, 6), "And all flesh shall see the salva-
tion of God". Verse 31, "Which thou hast prepared
before the face of all peoples " accords with the Psalm-
Mimcio 160 Mimcio
ist (xcvii, 2) J and verse 32/' A light to the revelation Frequentlv thejr were given the right of granting oer-
of the GentileSy and the glory of thy people Israel'', tain privileges, favours, and benefices. During the
recalls Isaias, xlii, 6. Great Western Schism and the period of the rSorm
The text of the Nunc Dimittis is given in full in the councils (fifteenth century), such embassies were more
brief evening praver found in the Apostolic Con- frequently resorted to by the Holy See. Then were
stitutions (Book Vll, xlviii) (P. G., I, 1057). In the also gradually established permanent diplomatic rei>-
Roman Office, the canticle is assi^ed to Complin, resentation at the various courts. With previous
If St. Benedict did not originate this canonical Hour, forms of papal representation as a precedient and
he gave to it its liturgical character; but he neverthe- modelled upon the permanent diplomatic legations of
less did not include the Canticle, which was after- temporal sovereigns, there finally arose in the six-
wards incorporated into the richer* Complin Ser- teenth century the permanent nunciatures of the
vice of the Roman Rite, where it is preceded by Holy See.
the beautiful responsory, "In manus tuas, Domine, Tne exact date of the establishment of many of the
commendo spiritum meum'' (Into thy handig, O Lord, nunciatures is not easv to determine, as it is impossi-
I commend my spurit) etc., with the Antiphon follow- ble to fix exactly in all cases when an earlier t3rpe of
in^, ''Salva nos, Domine, vigilantes, custodi nos dqr- papal envo^ was replaced by a nuncio proper, and e»-
mientes" (O Lord, keep us' waking, guard us sleeping) pecially as in the beginning we find interruptions in
etc. — all this harmonizing exauisitely with the spint the succession of envoys who, owing to their powers
of the Nunc Dimittis ana with the general character and their office, must be regarded as real nuncios. The
of the closing Hour of the Office. In the blessing of necessity of resisting Prot^tantism was a special fac-
the candles on the feast of the Purification of the tor in the increase of the nunciatures. After the
Blessed Virgin, the Canticle, of course, receives great Council of Trent they became the chief agents of the
prominence both in its text and in the references popes in their efforts to check the spread of heresy and
to Simeon in the preceding prayers. Its last verse, to carry out true reform. The fact that in 1537 the
"Lumen ad revelationem'' etc., forms the Antiphon papal correspondence with foreign powers, previously
which not only precedes and follows the Canticle, carried on by the pope's private secretaiy, was handed
but also precedes every verse of it and the Gloria over by Paul III to the vice-chancellor, Cardinal Alex-
Patri and Sicut crat of the concluding doxolog^y. The ander Famese, was the chief element within the curia
symbolism of the Canticle and of its Antiphon is which led to the permanence of nunciatures. Thereby
further emphasized by the lighted candles of Candle- the political correspondence of the Holy See lost its
mas. The complete Canticle also forms the Tract in somewhat private cnaracter, and was entrusted to the
the Mass of the feast, when the 2 February follows secretariate of state, with which the nuncios were
Septuagesima. henceforth to be in constant communciation. The
For a fuller explanation of the Nunc Dimittis. the following popes also employed extraordinary envoys for special
commentanea (in Engliah) may be conauited: Corneuus a t>,,«^^..^»« a «V.-,rn. t «.«-«;«; a»n4- 4>X T7««.:.I» u«. acL«.«^
Lapidh. St. Luke's Go^i, tr. Mobsman (London. 1892). 113-116; Purposes. ^Angjelo Leomni, sent to Vemce by Alexan-
McEyillt. An Szpontum of the Goepei of St. Luke (New York, der VI m 1500, 18 Commonly regarded as the first nun-
1888). 61, 62: Bbbbn, AHarmmizedjBxjwntum of the Four Ope- cio, as we understand the term to-day. In Spain the
pete, I (Rochester, N. Y., 1899), 209-16; Mabbach, Carmtna ««ii«,«A^fc ««««,««! «r *u« ^^^»\ ^^^vJL^,^^m n;^.,«»«:
Sbnpturorum (Striburg, 1907). 438-40 (gives detaUed references 5?"®ctol-;general of the papal exchequer, Giovamii
to the use of its verses in Mass and Office) ; The Office of Compline, RuffO del Teodoli, was also given diplomatic pOWerS :
in Latin and Ei^iieh, fceordir^f to the Roman Riu,vithftM Orego- he resided in the country, and discharged these two
nan Notation (Rome, 1907) ; Squibb in Gbovb, Diet, of Music and ^m^^^ f«^««% i kaa ♦** i KtQ Ji^ i Ki o a a T.;<i ai.»«.<wMi^««
Mueiciane, gives s. v. Nunc DimiUis, an expla^tion of its use in offices from 1506 tO 1618 Or 1619. As hlS SUCOesSOrS
Anglican Evensong; Husbnbbth, The Mueal for the Use of the Were appomted COllectorS-general With fiscal, and DO-
Laity (London. 1903), 662-66, for the prayers and canticles on the litical representatives with diplomatic powers, SO that
feast of the Punfioatoon Henry ^^^ thenceforth the Spanish nunciature may be i^
garded as permanent. The beginning of a papal nun-
Nuncio, an ordinary and permanent representative ciature in Germany dates from 1511 when Julius II
of the pope, vested with both political and ecclesias- sent Lorenzo Campeggio to the Imperial Ck>urt. His
tical powers, accredited to the court of a sovereign or mission was ratified in 1613 by Leo X. and from 1530
assigned to a definite territory with the duty of safe- a nuncio was permanently accredited. The nuncios
guarding the interests of the Holy See. The special often accompanied Emperor Charles V, even when he
character of a nuncio, as distinguished from other papal resided outside the empire. Another German nuncia-
. envoys (such as legates, collectors), consists in this: ture was established in 1524^ when Lorenzo Pimpinella
that his office is specifically defined and limited to a was sent to the court of King Ferdinand of Austria,
definite district (his nunciature), wherein he must re- The first real nuncio in France was Leone Ludovico di
side; hb mission is general, embracing all the interests Canossa (1514-17). The French nunciature contin-
of the Holy See; his office is permanent, requiring the ued from the Council of Trent to the Revolution,
appointment of a successor when one incumoent is re- After the Council of Trent a number of new nun-
oafled^ and his mission includes both diplomatic and matures were erected. In Italy diplomatic represen-
ecclesiastical powers. Nuncios, in the strict sense of tatives were appointed for Piedmont, Milan^ Tuscany
the word, first appear in the sixteenth century. The (Florence), ancf for Naples, where the nunciature un-
office, however, was not created at any definite mo- derwent tne same development as in Spain. The
ment or by any one papal ordinance, but gradually nuntiits entrusted with the duty of collecting the papal
developed under the influence of various historical taxes received also diplomatic powers, and was recog-
factors into the form in which we find it in the six- nized in this capacity by Philip II in 1569. Portu-
teenth century. The first permanent representatives gal and Poland likewise received permanent nuncios
of the Holy See at secular courts were the apocriaarii shortly after the Council of Trent. To foster Catho-
(q. v.: see also Legate) at the Byzantine (Jourt. In lie revival new nunciatures were erected in the southern
the Middle Ages the popes sent, for the settlement of parts of the German Empire. Thus, in 1573, Barto-
important ecclesiastical or political matters, legates lomeo Portia was made nuncio of Salzburg, Tyrol^ and
(Ugati a latere^ q. v.) with definite instructions and at Bavaria, although no further successor was appomted
times with ordinary jurisdiction. The officials, sent after 1538. In 1580 Germanico Malaspina was ap-
f rom the thirteenth century for the purpose of collect- pointed first nuncio of Styria, but this nunciature was
ing taxes either for the Roman Court or for the cm- discontinued in 1621. Bishop Bonhomini arrived in
sades, were called nuntiif nuntii ajmtolici. During Switzerland in 1579, and up to 1581 with great seal
the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries this title was and success introduced ecclesiastical reforms. In
given also to papal envoys entrusted with certain 1586 Giovanni Battista Santonio succeeded him,
oth^ affairs of an ecclesiMtical or diplomatic nature, whereupon the Swiss nunciature became permanent.
Nimoio 161 Nimoio
f
ia Cologne a nunciature wu erected in 1584 for north- was re-eftablished after the Revolution, after Cazdi-
western Germany and the Rhine, but in 1596 the nal Caprara had first been sent thither as %aiu< a la-
Netherlands was detached from the Nunciature of Co- tere by Pius VII. Since the rupture of diplomatic re-
logne and received its own nuncio, who was to reside in lations between France and the Holy See m 1904, this
Brussels (Nunciature of Flanders). The jurisdiction office has had no incumbent; (3) Madrid, which, since
of the Nunciatiu^ of Flanders extended also to the the Council of Trent, has been the pennanent resi-
linglish missions. Thus, toward the end of the six- dence of the papal nuncio for Spain. It has a special
teenth century, nimciatures were fully developed. tribunal, the Hota, which serves only as a coiu^ of ap-
A dispute concerning the rights of the pope in the peals from the diocesan and metropolitan courto, but
erecting of nunciatures and the competency of the cannot handle any cases of first instance. Litigants
nuncios themselves arose in 1785, when Pius Yl deter- are free to appeal from its decisions to the sovereign
mined to establish a new nimciature in Munich at the pontiff: (4) Lisbon, which had at first a nunciature
request of Charles Theodore, Elector of Bavaria. The only of the second class. It included a special court
elector desired the appointment of a special nuncio, for ecclesiastical matters, but this was abolished in the
because princes subject to the emperor alone were beginning of the nineteenth century. From the sec-
bbhops of Bavarian dioceses, but did not reside in ond half of the sixteenth century Portugal always had
Bavaria, thus greatly impeding the exercise of ecclesi- a nuncio, although disputes arose at different times,
astical administration. The three spiritual electors The nunciatures of the second class are: (1) the Swiss
(the Archbishops of Cologne, Maine, and Trier) pro- nunciature which, in the eighteenth century, com-
tested on the Kroimd that thereby their metropohtan prised the Dioceses of Constance, Basle, Ciore, Sion,
rights would be violated. The pope, however, ap- and Lausanne. Since the religious troubles of 1873
pointed Zoglio, titular Archbishop of Athens, as nun- there has been no incumbent; (2) since the beaming
cio. and to him Charles Theodore ordered his clergy of the nineteenth century the only nimciature m Ger-
to nave recourse in future in all ecclesiastical matters many has been that of Munich (the last nuncio of
within his jurisdiction. The three electors, imbued Cologne was Annibale della Genga, later on Pope Leo
with Febronianism (q. v.), formed a coalition with the XII) ; (3) Brussels, the residence of the Nuncio of Bel-
Archbishop of Salzburg, hoping to recover their pre- gium as successor of the former Nuncio of Flanders,
tended primitive metropolitan rights by ignoring the During the time of the French occupation this position
nuncio and by giving decisions and granting dispensa- was vacant. It was only in 1829 that Coppacini was
tions on their own authority, even in cases canonically sent to Brussels as internuncio; in 1841, it was again
reserved to the pope. As Kome refused to support raised to a nunciature. Fomari, the first nuncio, was
them, they appealed to Joseph II, who, in accordance succeeded in 1843 by Gioacchino Pecci, afterwards
with his principles, heartily approved of their efforts. Leo XIII. In 1880 the Liberal Ministry severed all
pledged them his full support, declared that he would diplomatic relations with the Holy See; the old status
never allow the jurisdiction of the bishops of the em- was restored, when in 1885 the Catholic party re-
pire to be curtailed, and that consequently he would gained power; (4) Brazil. In 1807 Lorenzo Caleppi,
recognize the nuncios only in their political character, the Nuncio of Portugal, followed John VI in his fli^t
At theCongress of Ems (q. v.), the three elector arch- to Brazil. In 1829 a special internuncio, Felice Os-
bishops passed resolutions embodying their conten- tini, was appointed for Brazil; this marks the begin-
tions. Despite this protest, Pacca ana Zo^lio contin- ning of diplomatic relations between the Holy See and
ued to exercise their spiritual jurisdiction m Cologne the other states of South America. In 1902 the papal
and Munich respectively, received appeals from the Internuncio of Brazil was raised to the digmty of
decisions of ecclesiastical courts, and granted dispen- nuncio.
sationa in cases reserved to the pope. ^ On the other Theintemunciaturesare: (1) the Intemunciature of
hand the four archbishops arbitranly extended their Holland and Luxemburg. Since the separation of
own authority, granting dispensations from solemn these countries, the internuncio receives distinct ere-
religious vows as well as from matrimonial impedi- dentil letters for the two governments. From the
ments, and erecting ecclesiastical tribunals of third time of the Peace Conference at the Hague Holland
instance. The emperor brought the controversy be- has only a charge d'affaires; (2) the Intemunciature
fore the Impeded Diet of Ratisbon in 1788, but with- of Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay, which was
out definite results. The archbishops^ opposed both erected in 1900. There had been accreted to these
by the cathedral chapters and the suffragan bishops, countries a papal delegate since 1847, and an inter-
renewed communications with the pope, who on 14 nuncio, Mgr Barili, hadf been sent in 1851 to what was
Nov.. 1789, issued an extensive document giving a de- then New Granada. The Apostolic delesates form a
tailed exposition of the rights of the Holy S^ and lower rank of papal representatives of diplomatic and
thoseof itsenvo3rs (Ss. D. N.Piipp. VI. Responsioad ecclesiastical character. There are five Apostolic
MetropoUtanos Moguntino, Treviren., Colonien. et Delegations in South and d^ntral America: (1) Chile,
Salisburgen., supre Nuntiaturis apostoUcis, Rome, (2) Columbia, (3) Costa-Rica. (4) Ecuador, BoUvia.
1789). Frederick William II. King of Prussia, also and Peru, (5) San Domingo, Haiti and Venezuela, all
recognized the jurisdiction of tne Nuncio of Cologne in erected during the nineteenth century. Owing to re-
the territory of Cleves, and in Mainz his ambassadors peated religious troubles these delegations have often
opposed the pretentions of the emperor. The French oeen vacant. Costa-Rica has been without a delegate
revolution ended the dispute. Owing to the political for a considerable period. It is necessary to distin-
development of Italy in the nineteenth century, the guish these Apostolic delegations of a diplomatic ehajv
papal nunciatures disappeared completely. With the acter from those which are merely ecclesiastical,
dittolution of the Holy Roman Empire the Imperial The powers to papal nuncios correspond to the two-
German nunciature became the Austrian nunciature, fold character of tneir mission. As the diplomatic
when Francis II assumed the title of Emperor of Aus- representatives of the pope, they treat with the sov-
tria. The partition of Poland ended the nunciature ereigns or head of republics to whom they are accred-
tiiere. The first state outside of Europe to receive a ited. With their mission they are given special cre-
papal representative was Brazil. At first an inter- dentials as well as specif instructions, whether of a
nuncio was assi^ed to that country, but of late years public or of a private nature. They also receive a
a nuncio has resided there. secret code and enjoy the same privileges as ambassa-
At present there are four papal nunciatures of the dors. Their appearances in public are regulated in
first class, four of the second, two intemundatures, conformity with general diplomatic customs. They
and several delegations. The nunciatures of the first also have certain distinctions, especially that of being
ekun are: (1) Vienna; (2) Paris, where the nunciature ez-offieio dean of the entire diplomatic body, within
XI.— 11
NUNOIO 162 MimCIO
their nunciature, and therefore on public occaaiona which had any connexion whatever with their corn-
take precedence of all diplomatic representatives. In- mission. The objects of the reports are: (1) to give
temuncio and delegates enioy a sinular right of prece- the most exact information possible concerning all
dence over all other diplomatic representatives of political and ecclesiastical occurrences which mi^t be
equal rank. This privilege of papal envoys was ex- of importance to the pope or the cardinal secretary of
pressly recognized by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 state; (2) to give exact information conceming the
and is universally observed. Nimcios enjoy the title action the nimdos have taken with respect to such
of ''Excellency" and the same special honours as am- occurrences; (3) to send news conceming the princes
bassadors. In addition to their diplomatic position to whose courts they are accredited, and conceming
nuncios have an ecclesiastical mission, and possess or- the persons who are in personal contact with the
dinarjr ecclesiastical jurisdiction. The latter point is princes, or appear at court on account of political mat-
especially stated in the ** Responsio " of Pius VI to the ters, or in any way have a share in ecclesiastical and
Rnenish archbishops, and was reaffirmed by Pius IX political affairs. In doin^ this attention is naturally
in a letter to Archbishop Darboy of Paris in 1863, as paid both to the .instructions that had been given to
also in a declaration of the Cardinal Secretary of State the nuncio before he left for his post, and to the letters
Jacobini addressed to Spain, 15 April, 1885. The regularly received from the office of the papaJ secre-
ample ecclesiastical faculties, granteid in the Middle tarv of state, from the pope, or from other officials.
Ages to the legates a latere and other papal envo3r8, Taken in a wider sense, nunciature reports also include
hid led to abuses; the Council of Trent, therefore, en- those letters of the nimcios conceming the affairs of
acted that papal envoys (le^ati a latere, nuncii. guber- their nunciatures, addressed to cardinals or others hav-
natores ecclesiastici, aut alii quarumcumque laculta- ing high official rank in the Curia. From the first
turn vigore) were not to impede bishops or to disturb half of the sixteenth century, when the bureau of the
their ordinary jurisdiction nor to proceed against papal secretary of state was fully developed and the
ecclesiastical persons until the bishop had first been permanent nunciatures received tneir ultimate oreani-
applied to and had shown himself negligent (Sess. sation, the reports of the nuncios were sent regularly
AAlV.,cap.xxderef.). (from the middle of the sixteenth century, often
Apart from the special faculties in conferring ecclo- weekly). They were written sometimes in Latin,
siastical benefices and in granting spiritual favours, the sometimes in Italian. If important matters were
nuncios had the power of instituting proceedings and treated, especially those concerning which negotia-
^ving decisions in cases of ecclesiastical administra- tions needed to be carried on in the most secret man-
tion and discipline reserved to the pope. The nuncia- ner possible, the nuncio employed the cipher given
tures had special courts, principally for cases of ap- him Wore goin^ to this position,
peal. To-day such a court is attached only to the Although the mdividual dispatches vary greatly in
Nunciature of Spain. In all other points nuncios en- ' worth, yet, as a whole, the nunciature reports form a
joy essentially the same rights in ecclesiastical mat- very important source from the sixteenth century (es-
ters. They are the representatives of the pope, and pecially during the sixteenth and seventeenth centu-
as such are the organs through which he exercises his ries) both for tne history of the Church and for politi-
ordinary and immediate supreme jurisdiction. It is cal history. Onlv a very small proportion either of
their special duty to supervise ecclesiastical adminis- the reports made by papal legates in the second half of
tration, and on this they report to the cardinal sec- the fifteenth centuiy or in the early years of the six-
retaiy of state ; they grant dispensations in cases teenth centuiy have been preserved. From the sec-
reserved to the pope, carry on the process of inf orma- ond decade of the sixteentn centunr a much greater
tion for the nomination of new bishops, give permis- number survive, and from the middle of this centuiy
sion for reading forbidden books, and enjoy the privi- the reports of individual nuncios frequently exist in
lege of granting minor indulgences. In special cases unbroKen sequence. Most of the manuscript reports
they are delegated for the settlement of important ec- are in the Vatican archives, and are classined in six-
clesiastical affairs. In virtue of their position certain teen series, according to the nunciatures. The classi-
ecclesiastical honours are due to them as laid down in fication does not agree, however, with the present ar-
the ** Cseremoniale Episcoporum *\ Pius X introduced rangement of the nunciatures, the series given being
a change in the practice hitherto followed with regard as follows: Spain, Portugal, France, Belgium, Eng-
to nuncios, so that now they hold their position longer land, Germany (the imperial nunciature), Colore,
than formerly, and a nuncio of the first class, after his Bavaria, Switzerland. Poland, Savoy^ Genoa, Vemce,
recall, is not regularly raised to the cardinalate. Florence, Naples, ana Malta. Individual reports are
PXBPBR, Zur BnMehungBgetch, der Mndigen Nuntiaiurm (Frei- also in other divisions of the archives. The nuncia-
^S^-i^^^^Z'li^AJSS^SSrSS^^J!^^ tuw reporte brought together In the^archiv«of the
■Id, 1910); KiCHARO.
9U0d'hut,eceU9.,yil
noneiature de France
103 sqq.: Mbxster, x^w <T»rM«u*<»r wr» «*«»»«• •>» mv. «»#«». au %, , i . < xi i j* ~ i i_*
Hiator. Jahrb., XIV (1803), 70^82; Iduc, Zwr awinitchgn Nw^ ally brought together and preserved m a papal archive,
tiaiurim 16, i*. 17. Jakth. in R6m, QuatiaUeh,, Yll (1893), 447- but was frequently purlomed by the copyists, cardi-
ILi^SSSllSS'SwiaS.'IS l^r^^li^r^^l^ 5»> ^»7?!S^' *"i *^*^ aecretaneB just «. the lettem
tapM. LtMtm K. NunHen in DeuUchland, Prankreich u. Spanim, dispatched from Rome Were retamed by the nuncios
mw dar Mitu dea 16. Jahrh., I (MaoBter, 1897); Makbb, Lm and their heirs, and thus became dispersed to some ex-
origtnet de la noneiature de Flandre in Rente d'hiOoire eedie., VII x^^i. ;« /«»«;i,, L-„u*\>1^^im Fav ovamrklo t>iA mvkofAr ruLrt
(1906), 66*^. 8W^-26) ; db Hikotosa, Loe deevaehoe de la Di^ tent m family archives. Jf or example, tne neater part
mada poruificia en Eapaiia, I (Madrid, 1890): BAuifOAsnN, Der of the nunciature reports pertauimg to the reign ot
Papet, die Regiaruno u. VervaUung dar hi, Kvdu in Rom (MOn- p^ul III (1534-49) are nOW in the state archives of
ohen, 1904) , 447 sqq. Naples, to which they came along with the archives of
Nunciature Rbpobtb, the official reports concern- the Famese familjr. Other collections of reports are
ing their entire field of work sent bsr the papal nuncioe to be found in various Italian archives. The ^ports
and legates (or their representatives) to the pope preserved are either the origpnal drafts msae by the
or the cardinal secretaiy of state. The contents nuncios themselves, or the original letters drawn up m
of these dispatches are in accordance with the com- accordance with these, or copi«i of the onginal let-
mission received by the legate or nuncio. The re- ters. As regards the reports written in cipher, a key
ports of the nuncios fillinp; permanent nunciatures, can generally be found. ... •
on whom rested the protection of all the interests of the On account of the great historical importance of
papacy within their special territory, relate to all the the reports an effort has been made, since the opening
more important eccledastical or political questions of the Vatican archives for general research, to pub-
163
liflh them together with supplementaxy documents Cardinal Salviati. Ancel, meanwhile, began the nund-
(eepecially the instructions and letters sent to the atures during the reign of Paul IV, and edited (vol. I,
nuncios). Heretofore more has been done, in the way pt. i) the di^atches of Sebastiano Gualterio and Ce-
of publication, for the German nunciatures than for sareBrancato (1554-7). The general reports of Otta-
the others. H. L&mmer published a series of nuncia- vio Mirto Franeipani and Fabio della Lionessa, the
ture reports from Germany as early as 1860 in his nuncios in Flanders (1605 and 1634), have been pub-
" Monumenta V/iticana historiam ecclesiasticam sae- lished by Cauchie in the " Analectes pour servir k rhis-
culi XVI illustrantia"; upon the opening of the Vati- toire eccl^siastique de la Belgique" (Louvain). The
can archives, the assistant archivist^ Father Balan, publication of the dispatches or the papal nunciature
brought out further material pertaimng to the same m Spain has been commenced by Hinojosa, "Los
subject in his work " Monumenta reformationis Luth- Despachos de la Diplomacia Pontincia en Espafia'', I
eranse" (Ratisbon, 1883-4). Father Dittrich treats (Madrid, 1896). So far no comprehensive publica-
the reports sent by the nuncio Giovanni Morone from tion of tJiis kind has been imdertaken for Italy, al-
the Diet of Ratislion (1541) in the ** Historischee Jahr- though individual reports have been published. Tolo-
buch der Gorresgesellschaft", IV (1883), 395-472, mei has treated the Venetian nunciature during the
618-73; and, as a complement to this, edited the pontificate of Clement VII, " La nunziatura di Vene-
" Nuntiaturberichte Morones vom deutsohen K6ni0»- zia nel pontificato di Clemente VII" (Turin, 1892),
hofe" for the years 1539-40 in ''Quellen und Forscn- and Curasi has edited the dispatches that have bran
ungen aus dem Gebiete der Geschichte". I (Pa- preserved of the l^ation of Giacoroo Gherardi, '*Di8-
derbom, 1892). In the mean time three nistorical pacci e letere di Giac. Gherardi, nunzio pontificio
institutes at Rome (the Prussian, the Austrian, and a Firenze e Milano, 11 settembre, 1487-10 ottobre,
that of the Gorresgesellschaft) divided among them the 1490", in ''Studi e Teeti"^ fasc. xxi (Rome, 1909).
publication of all the nunciature reports sent from the Besides these comprehensive publications various
German Empire for the period of the sixteenth and historians in treating the sixteenth and seventeenth
the first half of the seventeenth centuries. These centuries in their works have made use of and pub-
societies have already published a large number of lished individual dispatches of this kind.
volumes: the first divimon, extending to 1559, is being , 8«« *!» intPoduotipnB to the different pubUcaUona of the nun-
published by the Prussian Institute; there tave ai? «**™ «p*»^ •^ ^ bibliography of the arucle Nimcio.
peared so far vols. I-IV, VIII-X, and XII, comprising •'• ■*^* ^^^^^sch.
the nunciatures of Vergerio, Morone, MigganelU, __ /^t x -«._ ...
Varallo, Poggio, Bertano, and Camiani, the legations Nunei (Nonius), Pbdro. mathematician and as-
of Famese,Xervini, Campegio, Aleander, andSfon- tronomer, b. at Alcacer^o-Sol, 1492; d. at Coimbra.
drato (Gotha-BerUn, 1892—). The second division 1577. He studied andwit lawiages, philcwophy, and
covering the period 1560-72, was undertaken by the medicme at Lisbon and mathematics at Salamanca.
Austrian Institute; up to the present vols. I and III, In 1519 he went as inspector-general of customs to
containing the reports of the nuncios Hosius and Bel- Goa, India, returning to become in 1529 royal coemog-
fino, have appeared (Vienna, 1897-1903). A third rapher. After lecturing for three years at Lisbon, a
division, covering the years 1572-85, was also assigned profeasorBhip of higher mathematics was established
to the Prussian institute which has already issued this »<>' ^^^ ^^ ^'^^ University of Counbra, which he held
series (Berlin, 1892—) : vol. I, containing the struggle f^m 1544 to 1562. His utterances on science plunged
over Cologne: vol. II, containing the Diets of RatistSn ^™ ^^ discussions with foreign savants, particularly
(1576) and oi Augsburg (1582) ; vols. III-V, contain- ^^^ French mathematician, Oronce Fine. Having been
ing the nunciature of Bartolonueus of Portia. At this *^<»r "^ ^^^ reigning family, he was enabled to spend
^nt begin the publications of the Institute of the his last years in ease.
Gdrreegesellschaft, which has so far edited in four To mathematics, astronomy, and navigation,
volumes the reports of the nuncios Bonomi (Bonho- Nunez made important contnbutions. He devised a
mini), Santonio, Frangipani, Malaspina, and Sega, method for obtaining; the highest common divisor of
and the nunciature correspondence bfCaspar Gropper ^^^ algebraic expressions. In his " De crepusculis " he
(Paderbom, 1895—). The period assigned to this announced a new and accurate solution of the astro-
institute covers 1585-1605. With 1606 begins an- nomical problem of minimum twilight and suggested
other period (the fourth division), assignea to the ^^ instrument for the measurement of angles. The
Prussian Institute and covering the seventeenth cen- noniusy never in common use, consisted essentially of
tury. Of this division two volumes have been pub- fortynrix concentric circles divided into quadrants by
Ushed containing the reports of the nuncio Paletto *^o diameters at right an^es to each other, each quad-
(Berlin, 1895 — ). In thw wav the material concern- rantal arc being divided mto equal parts, the number
ing the German nunciatures for the period from the of parts diminishing from ninety for the outermost arc
bc^iioining of the sixteenth to the middle of the seven- ^ forty-five for the innermost. If one side of any
teenth century, that is for the age of the Reformation, a^gle '^ made to coincide with one of the radii, the
will be available at a not far distant date. vertex of the angle falling at the centre of the circles,
Professors Reinhard and Steflfens of Fribourgimder- ^^^ o^^r side of the angle will fall on or near some
took the editing of the nimciature reports for Switeer- PO^^^ o^ division of one of the arcs. If then a is the
land and began with Nuncio Bonomi (Bonhomini), of number of parts intercepted and n is the whole num-
whose reports one volume has been issued (Solothum, ber of parts in the relevant arc, the magnitude of the
1907); the introductory volume completed by Stef- an^^e will be 90X -£ degrees. In ''De arte navigandi''
fens after Reinhard's death has since appeaiM (Solo- he announced his discoveiy and analysis of the curve
thum, 1910). As regard other countries the reports of double curvature called the rumbua, better known
of the nuncio Andrea da Burgo, who was in Hungary as loxodromef which is the line traced by a sMp cutting
during the years 1524-6, have been issued in the the meridians at a constant an^^e. His collectea
"Monumenta Vaticana Himgarise", second series, worics were published under the title ''Petri Nonii
vol. I: '^Relationee oratorum pontificiorum" (Buda- Opera" (Basle, 1592). Among them are: "Tratado
do B^e da lua e o primeiro
Claudio Ptolomeo Alexan-
'De crepusculis liber unus"
the nimeiatures during the pontificate of Clement VII (Lisbon, 1542) ; "De arte atque ratione navigandi"
and has iMued so far vol. I (Paris, 1906), covering the (Coimbra^ 1546); "De erratis Orontii Finei"TCoim*
ritis de
>ra em
years 1525-7, and including the nunciatures of Capino bra, 1546): "Annotatio in extrema verba capitij
da Capo and Roberto Acciainolo, and the legation of cUmatibis" (Cologne, 15(36); "livro de algebra
mnre
164
arithmetica e geometria" (Antwerp, 1567); "Annotar
Qdes & Mechuiica de Aiistoteles* e &b theoricas dos
planetas de Purbachio com a arte de Navegar" (Coim-
bra. 1578).
MoNTucLA. Hutoirt dm maih, (Paris, 1700, 1802) ; Navabbbtb,
ReeherdiM aw let progrh de Vattronomie el dee edeneee nauHquee
•n Bepaone, Fr. tr. ds MornAS (Paris. 1839); Stocklxb, Bneaio
hiatonoo ethre a oriffem e progreeeoe doe matKemtUicae em PortugaL
Paxtl H. Linehan.
Nuns. I. Origin and Histobt. — ^The institution of
nuns and sisters, who devote themselves in various re*
ligious orders to the practice of a life of perfection,
dates from the first agjes of the Church, and women
may claim with a certain pride ^at they were the first
to embrace the religious state for its own sake, with-
out regard to missionarv work and ecclesiastical func-
tions proper to men. St. Paul speiJos of widows, who
were called to certain kinds of church work (I Tim., v,
9), and of virgins (I Cor., vii), whom he praises for their
continence and thdr devotion to the things of the
Lord. In the earliest times Christian women di-
rected their fervour, some towards the service of the
sanctuary, others to the attunment of perfection.
The virgins were remarkable for their perfect and per-
petual chastity which the Catholic Apologists have
extolled as a contrast to pagan corruption (St. Justin,
"ApoL", I, c. 15; Migne,^P. G.", VI, 350; St. Am-
brose, "De Virginibus", Bk I, c. 4; Migne, "P. L.",
XVI, 193). Many also practised poverty. FromiJie
earliest times they were called the spouses of Christ,
according to St. Athanasius, the custom of the Church
("Apol. ad Constant.", sec. 33; Mi^e, "P. G.".XXV,
639). St. Cyprian describes a virgin who had broken
her vows as an adulteress ("Ep. 62", Migne, "P. L.",
lY , 370) . Tertullian distinguishes between those vir-
gins who took the veil publicly in the asSen^bly of the
faithful, and others known to God alone; the veil
seems to have been simply that of married women.
Virgins vowed to the service of God, at first continued
to hve with their families, but as early as the end of
the third century there were community houses known
as xcip$€vQvtt\ and certainly at the be^nning of the
same century the virgins formed a special class in the
Church; receiving Holjr Communion before the laity.
The office of Good Friday in which the virgins are
mentioned after the porters, and the Litany of the
Saints, in which they are invoked with the widows,
show traces of this classification. They were some-
times admitted among the deaconesses for the baptism
of adult women and to exercise the functions which
St. Paul had reserved for widows of sixty years.
When the persecutions of the third century drove
many into the desert, the solitary life produced many
heromes; and when tne monks b^an to live in monas-
teries, there were also communities of women. St.
Pachomius (292-346) built a convent in which a num-
ber of religious women lived with his sister. St. Je-
rome made famous the monastery of St. Paula at Beth-
lehem. St. Augustine addressed to the nuns a letter
of direction from which subsequently his rule was
taken. There were monasteries of virgins or nuns at
Rome, throughout Italy, Gaul, Spain, and the West.
The great founders or reformers of monastic or more
generally religious life, saw their rules adopted by
women. The nuns of Egypt and Syria cut their hair,
a practice not introduce imtil later into the West.
Monasteries of women were generally situated at a
distance from those of men; St. Pachomius insisted-
on this separation, lUso St. Benedict. There were, how-
ever, common houses^ one wing being set apart for
women and the other for men, more frequently adjoin-
ing houses for the two sexes. Justinian abolished
these double houses in the East, placed an old man
to look after the temporal affairs of the convent, and
Appointed a priest and a deacon who were to perform
tnor duties, out not to hold any other communication
^mth the nuns. In the West, such double houses ex-
isted antone the hospitallers even in the twelfth cen-
tury. In the eiji;hth and ninth centuries a number of
clergy of the principal churches of the West, without
bdng bound by religious profession, chose to live in
community and to observe a fixed rule of tife. This
canonical life was led also by women, who retired from
the world, took vows of chastity, dressed modestly in
black, but were not bound to give of their property.
Continence and a certain religious profession were re-
quired of married women miose nusbands were in
Sacred Orders, or even received episcopal consecra-
tion.
Hence in the ninth century the list of women vowed
to the service of God included these various classes:
virgins, whose solemn consecration was reserved to
the bishop, nuns bound by religious profession, canon-
esses living in cpmmon without religious profession,
deaconesses engaged in the service of the church, and
wives or widows of men in Sacred Orders. The
nuns sometimes occupied a special house; the en-
closure strictly kept in the East, was not considered
indispensable in the West. Other monasteries al^
lowed the nuns to so in and out. In Gaul and Spain
the novitiate lasted one year for the cloistered nuns
and three years for the others. In early times the
nuns gave Christian education to orphans, young
girls brought by their parents, and especially girls in-
tending to embrace a religious life. Besides those who
took the veil of viijgins of their own accord, or decided
to embrace the religious life, there were otners offered
by their parents before they were old enoi^ to be
consulted. In the West under the discipline in force
for several centuries, these oblates were considered as
bound for life by the offering made by their parents.
The profession itself mi^t be exproraed or implied.
One who put on the religious habit, ^d lived for some
time among the professed, was herself considered as
professed. Besides the taking of the veil and simple
profession there was also a solemn consecration of
virginity which took place much later, at twenty-five
years. In the thirteenth century, the Menmcant
Orders appeared characterised by a more rigorous
poverty, which excluded not only private property,
but also the possession of certain kinds of property
in common. Under the direction of St. Francis of
Assisi, St. Claro founded in 1212 the Second Order
of Franciscans. St. Dominic had given a consti-
tution to nuns, even before instituting his Friars
Preachers, approved 22 December, 1216. The Car^
melites ahd the Hermits of St. Auffustine also had cor-
responding orders of women: and the same was the
case with the Clerks Regular dating from the sixteenth
century, except the Society of Jesus.
From the time of the Mendicant Orders, founded
specially for preaching and missionary work, there
was a great difference between the orders of men and
women, arisLog from the strict enclosure to which
women were subjected. This rigorous enclosure
usual in the East, was imposed on idl nuns in the West,
first by bishops and particular councils, and af terwaids
by the Holy See. Boniface VIII (1294r-1309) by his
constitution "Periculoso", inserted in Canon Law
[c. un, De statu regularium, in VP (III, 16)1 made it
an inviolable law for all professed nuns; and the Coun-
cil of Trent (Sess. XXV, De Reg. et Mon., c. v) con-
firmed that constitution. Hence it was impossible
for religious to undertake works of charitv incompat-
ible with the enclosure. The education of young girls
alone was permitted to them, and that under some-
what inconvenient conditions. It was also impossible
for them to organize on the lines of the Mendicant
Orders, that is to say to have a superior general over
several houses and members attached to a province
rather than to a monastery. The difficulty was some-
times avoided by having tertiary sisters oound only
by simple vows, and dispensed from the endosure.
The Brsviary commemorates the services rendered
mnre
165
Ninni
the Order of Mercy by St. Mary of Cervellione. St.
Piufl V took more radical measures by his constitution
"Circa pastoralis", of 25 May, 1666. Not only did
he insist on the observance of tne constitution of Boni-
face VIII, and the decree of the Council of Trent, but
compellea the tertiaries to acc^t the obligation of
solemn vows with the' pontifical enclosure. For
nearly three centuries the Holy See refused all aporo-
bation to convents bound by simple vows, and Urban
Vm by his constitution '^Pastoralis" of 31 May,
1631 abolished an Endish teaching congregation,
founded by Mary Ward in 1609, which had simple
vows and a supenor seneral.
This strictness lea to the foundation of pious as-
sociations called secular because they had no per-
petual vows, and leading a common me intended for
their own personal sanctification and the practice of
charity, e. g. the Daughters of Charity, founded by
St. Vincent de Paul. The constitution of St. Pius Y
was not always strictly observed; communities ex-
isted approved by bishops, and soon tolerated by the
Holy oee, new ones were formed with the sanctions
of the diocesan ordinaries. So great were the services
rendered by these new commimities to the poor, the
sick, the young, and even the missions, that the Holy
See expr^sly confirmed several constitutions, but for
a long time refused to approve the congregations them-
selves^ and the formula of commendation or ratification
contained this restriction cUra tamen approhationem
conaervatorii (without approbation of tne congre-
gation). As political difficulties rendered less easy
the observance of solemn vows, especially for women,
the Holy See from the end of the eighteenth century
declined to approve any new congregations with sol-
emn vows, and even suppressed m certam countries,
Belgium and France, all solemn professions in the old
orders of women. The constitution of Benedict XVI.
"Quamvis justo" of 30 April, 1749, on the subject ot
the Congregation of Endisn Virgins was the prelude to
the leoslation of Leo XlII, who by his constitution
"Concutte'' of 8 December, 1900^ laid down the laws
common to congregations with simple vows, dividing
these into two great classes, congregations under dioc-
esan authority, subject to the bishops, and those
under pontifical law.
U. Various Kinds of Nuns. — (1) As regards
their object they may be purely contemplative, seeking
personiu perfection by close union with God; such are
most of the strictly enclosed congregations, as Pre-
monstratensian Canonesses, CarmeUtes, Poor Clares,
CoUettines, Redemptoristines; or they may combine
this with the practice of works of charity, forei^
missions, like the White Sisters of Cardinal Lavigene,
and certain Franciscan Tertiaries: the education of
young girls, like the UrsulineS and Visitandines; the
care of the sick, orphans, lunatics, and agjed persons,
like many of the congregations called Hospitallers, Sis-
ters of Charity, Dau^ters of St. Vincent de Paul, and
little Sisters of the Poor. When the works of mercy
are corporal, and above all carried on outside the con-
vent, the congregations are called active. Teaching
communities are classed rather among those leading a
mixed life, devoting themselves to works which in
themselves require union with God and contempla-
tion. The constitution "Conditce" of Leo XIIl (8
December, 1900) charges bishbps not to permit sisters
to open houses as hotels for the entertainment of
strangers of both sexes, and to be extremdy careful in
authorising congregations which live on alms, or nurse
sick persons at their homes, or maintain infirmaries
for tne reception of infirm persons of both sexes, or
flick priests. The Holy See. by its Rei^ulations (N^or-
oue) of 28 Jime, 1901, declares that it does not ap-
prove of congregations whose object is to render cer-
tain services m seminaries or colleges for male pupils,
or to teach children or young people of both sexes; ana
it disapproves their undertaking the direct care of
young infants, or of l3nng-in women. These services
should be given only in exceptional circumstances.
(2) As regards thdr origin^ congregations are either
connected with a first order or congregation of men, as
in the case of most of the older congregations^ Carmel-
ites^ Poor Clares, Dominicans, Reformed Cistercians
of La Trappe, Redemptoristines etc., or are foimded
independently, like the Ursulines, Visitandines, and
recent institution. In the regulations of 28 June.
1901, Art. 19, 52, the Holy See no longer approves of
double foundations, which establish a certam subor-
dination of the sisters to similar congregations of men.
(3) As regards their /uridiooj condition, we distinguish
(a) nuns properly so-called, having solemn vows with
papal enclosure, whose houses are monasteries: (b)
nuns belonging to the old approved orders with solemn
vows, but taking only simple vows by special dispensa-
tion of the Holy See; (c) sisters with sunple vows de-
pendent on the Holy See; (d) sisters imder diocesan
government. The house of sisters under simple vows,
and the congregations themselves are canonically
called conservatoria. These do not always fulfil all the
essential conditions of the religious state. Those
which do are more correctly called relieious congrega-
tions than the others, which are called pice congregc^
tioneB, picB sodeUUea (pious congregations or pious soci-
ties.) Nuns of the Latin Church only are considered
here.
III. Nuns Profeblt So Called. — Nuns prop-
erly so-called have solemn vows with a strict enclos-
ure, regulated by pontifical law which prevents the
religious from gomg out (except in very rare cases, ap-
proved by the regular supenor and tne bishop), and
also the entrance of strangers, even females, under
pain of excommunication. Even admission to the
grated parlour is not free, and interviews with regulars
are subject to stringent rules. Though some mitiga-
tions have been introduced partly by local usage,
partly (in the case of certain convents in America) by
express concession of the Holy See. The building
should be so arranged that the inner courts and gardens
cannot be overlooked from outside, and the windows
should not open on the public road. By the fact of
their enclosure, these monasteries are independent of
one another. At the head of the community is a su-
perior often called the abbess, appointed for life by
the chapter, at least outside Italy, ror in Italy, and es-
pecially in the two Sicilies, the constitution '^Exposdt
debitimi" (1 January, 1583) of Gregory XIII requires
that they should be re-elected eveiy three years (see
''Periodica de Religiosis", n. 420, vol. 4, 158). The
election must be confirmed by the prelate to whom the
monastery is subject, the pope^ the bishop, or the regu-
lar prelate. The bishop presides over the ballot, ex-
cept in the case of nuns subject to regulars, and he has
always the right to be present at the election. The
E resident collects the votes at the grating. Without
aving Jurisdiction, the abbess exercises authority
over all m the house, and commands in virtue of theur
vows. Monasteries not exempt are subject to the
jurisdiction of the bishop; exempt monasteries are
S laced, some imder the immediate authority of the
[oly See, others under that of a re^ar First Order.
In the absence of any other formal direction, the Holy
See is understood to delegate to the bishop the annufd
visitation of monasteries immediately subject to the
pope^ to the exclusion of other superiors. This visitsr
tion IS made by the regular prelate in the case of mon-
asteries dependent on a First Order; but the bishop
has in all cases authority to insist on the maintenance
of the enclosure, and to control the temporal adminis-
tration; he also approves the confessors.
The erection ot a monastery reciuires the consent of
the bishop, and (at least in practice nowadays) of the
Apostotic See. The bishop^ by himself, or in consulta-
tion with the regular supenor, determines the number
of nuns who can be received according to the amount
166
of thdr oidinaiy revenues. The xeoent Oomicfl of
Biflhops of Latin America, at Rome in 1809. required
tiiat toe number should not be less than twelve. It is
sometimes permitted to receive a certain number of
supernumeraries who pay a double dowry, never less
than four hundred crowns, and remain supernume-
raries all their lives. According to the decree of 23
May, 1659. candidates must be at least fifteen years
old. The aecree "Sanctissimus" of 4 January, 1910,
annuls the admission to the novitiate or to any vows,
if granted without the consent of the Holy See, of
pupils expelled for any grave reason from a secular
school, or for any reason whatever from any institu-
tion preparatory to the religious life, or of former nov-
ices or prof essea sisters expelled from their convents.
Professed sisters dispensed from their vows cannot,
without the consent of the Holy See, enter any congre-
flsition, but the one they have quitted (see Novicb;
rosTULAMT; "Periodica de Religioms", n. 368, vol. 5,
98). The admission is made by the chapter, but, be-
fore the clothing, and also before tiiie solemn prof e»-
mon, it is the duty of the bishop, by himself or Of he is
prevented) by his vicar-general or some person dele-
gsited by either of them, to inquire into the question of
the candidate's relipous vocation ^ and especially as to
her freedom of choice. The candidate must provide a
dowry of at least two hundred crowns unless the foun-
der consents to accept a smaller sum. With certain
exceptions, the dowry of choir sisters cannot be dis-
pensed with; it must De paid before the clothins, and
mvested in some safe ana profitable manner. On sol-
emn profession, it becomes the property of the con-
vent, which has, however, no rignt of ahenation; it is
returned as a matter of equity to a regions who en-
ters another order, or to one who returns to the world
and is in want.
After the novitiate the religious cannot at first, ac-
cording to the decree ''Perpensis" of 3 May, 1902,
take any but simple vows whether p^petual or for a
year only, if it is customarv to take annual vows. The
admission to vows is maae by the chapter, with the
consent of the regular superior or the bishop. Some
writers hold that the bishop is bound, before this pro-
fession, to make a fresh inquiry into the vocation of
the novice, and this inquuv does not dispense from
that which the Council of Trent prescribes before sol-
emn profession (see the answer of 19 January, 1909;
"Periodica de ReUgiosis"; n. 317, vol. 4, 341). This
period of simple vows ordmarily lasts for three years,
out the bishop or the regular prelate may prolong it in
the case of nuns who are under twenty-five years.
During this period, the relijgious keeps her property,
but makes over the admimstration of it to any one
she may choose. She is bound to the rules and the
ohoir, but not to the private recitation of the Divine
Office^ she can take part in chapters, except in those
in which others are admitted to vows; ^e cannot be
elected superior, mother-vicaress, mistress of novices,
assistant, counsellor, or treasurer. She participates in
all the indulgences and spiritual privileges of those
who have taken their solemn vows; and although the
solemnly professed take precedence, once the solemn
Srofession is made, the seniority is regulated by the
^ ate of simple profession, without ngard to any delay
in proceeding to solenm profession. The dispdosation
of vows and dismiBsal of nuns are reserved to the Holy
See. The outward solemnity of profession takes place
at the first simple profession; the other takes place
without anv solemmtv. Only the prelate or the ordi-
nary can aamit to the latter, but a consultative chapter
is held, whose decision is announced by the superior.
Solemn profession carries with it the inability to poe-
sess property (except in case of a pap^ indult such as
that enjoyed by Belgium and pernaps also Holland),
annuls a marriage previously contracted but not con-
summated, and creates a diriment impediment to any
subsequent marriage. Nuns are generally obliged to
recite the Divine Office, like religiouB orders of men;
but the Visitandines and some monasteries of Ursu-
lines recite only the little Office of the Blessed Virgin,
even in choir. The obligation of this office, even
choral, does not bind under pain of mortal sin, as the
Holy See has declared for tne Ursulines; whether it
can be omitted without venial sin depends appai^
ently on the constitutions.
Tne bishop appoints the ordinaiv confessor, also
the extraordinary or additional confessors of monas-
teries subject to him, and approves the confessor
nominated by the regular prelate of a monastery sub-
ject to a First Order. The approbation for one mon-
astery is not valid for another. As a rule there should
be only one ordinary confessor, who should be changed
ev^^ three years. Since the Council of Trent (Sess.
XXv De Reg., c. x), a confessor extraordinary should
visit the monastery two or three times a year. Bene-
dict XIV, by his Bull "Pastoralis" of 5 August, 1748,
insisted on the appointment of a confessor extraordi-
nary, and also on the provision of facilities for sick
nuns. More recently, the decree " Quem ad modum "
of 17 October, 1890, ordains that, without asking for
any reason, a superior shall allow her subjects to con-
fess to any priest amon^ those authorized oy the bish-
ops, as often as they thmk it necessary for their spirit-
ual necessities. Besides the ordinary or extraordmary
confessors, there are additional confessors, of whom
the bishop must appoint a sufficient number. The
ordinary confessor cannot be a religious except for
monasteries of the same order as himself; and in that
case the extraordinary confessor cannot belong to the
same order. The same decree gives to confessors the
exclusive right of regulating the communions of the
nuns, who &ve the privil^e of communicating daily
since the decree ''Sacra Tndentina" of 20 December,
1905 (see "Periodica de Relij^osis", n 110, vol. 2, 66),
and it forbids siiperiors to interfere imasked in cases
of conscience. The subjects are free to open their
minds to their superiors but the latter must not,
directly or indirecuy, demand or invite such confi-
dence.
IV. NUNB OF THE OlD ObDSBS WITHOUT SOLSMN
VowB. — Since the Preaich Revolution, various an-
swers of the Holy See have gradually made it clear that
neither in Belgium nor in france are there any longer
monasteries of women subject to papal enclosure, or
bound by solemn vows. (Cf . for fVance the reply of
the Penitentiary of 23 December, 1835; for Belpum
the declaration of the Apostolic visitor Corselis of
1836; Biziarri, "QoUectanea, 1st ed., p. 504, note;
Bouix, '' De r^laribus ' '.vol. 2, 123 sq.). After Ions
deliberation, the Sacred Congregation of Bishops ana
Regulars decided (cf . letter of 2 September, 1864, to the
Archbishop of BsJtimore) that in the United States
nuns were under simple vows only, except the Visitan-
dines of Georgetown, Mobile, Kaskaafeia, St. Louis,
and Baltimore, who made solemn profession by virtue
of special rescripts. It added that without special
indiut the vows should be simple in all convents
erected in the future. Since then the monastery of
Kaskaskia has been suppressed. The Holy See per-
mitted the erection of a monasteipr of Visitandmes
with solemn vows at Springfield (Missouri). Accord-
ing to the same letter, the Visitandines with solemn
vows must pass five years of simple profession before
proceeding to solemn profession (Biszarri, ''Collec-
tanea'', Isted., 778-91). Exceptin the case of a pon-
tifical indult placing them in subjection to a first order
these nuns are boimd by the following rules: (a) The
bishop has full jurisdiction over them ; he maydispense
from all constitutiona not reserved to the Holy See,
and from particular impediments to admission, but
may not modify the constitutions. The vows are re-
served to the Holy See, but the French bishops have
received power to dispense from all vows except that of
chastity. The bishop presides and confirms all ele^
Nvm 167
dons, and haa the right to Fequire an aoeoimt of the of euperior, or for any other grave reason a|iproved by
temporal adminiatration. (b) The superior retains the Holy See. The general chapter elects by an
such power as is adapted to the vows and the necessi- absolute majority of votes in secret oallot the superior
ties of community life, (c) The obligation of the general, the counsellors or assistants general, the sec-
Divine Office is such, as imposed by the rule; tiie en- retary gjeneral, and the treasurer general, and deliber-
closure is of episcopal law. (d) Tlie vow of poverty ates on important matters affecting the congregation,
does not prevent the possession of property. As a In man^ cases especially when there is a question of
rule, dispositions of property '' inter vivos " and by will modif ymg the constitutions, the permission and con-
cumot DO licitly xnade without the consent of the firmation of the Holv See are required. The capitular
superior or the bishop. Unless forbidden bv the decrees remain in force till the next chapter. The
bishop, the superior may permit the execution of such bishop as delegate of the Holy See, presides over the
instruments as are necessary for the purpose, (e) In- elections in person or by his representative. After
dulicenoes and spiritual privileges (among which may the ballot he declares the election valid, and an-
be reckoned the use of a special calendar) remain nounces the result. The provincial chapter, com-
intact. (f ) In principle, the prelate of the First Or- posed of the provincial, the superiors of houses con-
der is without authority over the nuns. taining at least twelve nuns, and a delegate from each
V. Rbuoigub Congreqatigns and Pious So- principal house (as above) has no other office,
ciETOBB UNDBR PONTIFICAL Attthoritt. (a) Cori' accoroing to common law, but to depute two sisters
gregoHona, — Since the constitution ''Conditse'' of 8 to Uie general chapter.
December, 1900, and the Rc^latipns of 28 June, The superior general is elected for six or twelve
1901, we possess precise rules by which to distinguish years; in the former case she may be re-elected, but
the congregations governed by pontifical law. . Before for a third consecutive term of six years, or a second of
formally approving a congregation and its constitu- twelve years, she must receive two-thirds of the votes,
tions, the Holy See is accustomed to nve its commen- and the consent of the Holy See. She may not resign
dation first to the intentions of the founders and the her office except with the consent of the Sacred Con-
purpose of the foundation, and then to the congrega- gregation, which has the power to depose her. The
tion itself. The second decree of commendation has house in which she resides is considered the mother-
the effect of bringing the congregation into the number house, and the permission of the Holy See is necessary
of those which are governed by pontifical law. and for a change of residence. She governs the congr^^
especially by the second part of the constitution "Con- tion accoraing to the approved constitutions, and is
dits". Bizzarri in his "CoUectanea" gives a list of bound to make a visitation every three years either
congregations so commended up to 1864 (1st ed, 861 personally or by a deputy, to exercise a general control
sqqT)* This ^probation is not usually grant^ until over thie temporal administration, and to submit to
the congregation has existed for some time under the the Sacred (jongregation an official report counter-
authority of the bishop. The congregations are con- signer^ by the ordinary of the principal house. (See
stituted on the model of the newer religious orders, the instruction accompanying the decree of 16 Julyi
that is to say they group several houses, each govemea 1906, ''Periodica de Keligiosis", n. 134, vol. 2, 128
by a- local supenor, under the indirect authority of a sqq.). The superior general nominates to the mffer-
superior general; many, but not all, are divided into ent non-elective offices, and decides the place of resi-
provinces. Many form communities of tertiarles. dence of all her subjects. The counsellors general as-
who as such have a share in the spiritualprivil^es ot sist the superior general with their advice, and in many
the order to which they are affiliated. Except m the matters the consent of the majority is required. Two
case of a special privilege, like that which p&ces the of them must live with the superior general, and the
Daiighters of Charity under the Superior (general of rest must be accessible. According to the regulations
the Friests of the Mission (see decree of 25 May, 1888) of 1901, the approval of the ^eraicouncil is required
the Holy See no longer permits a bishop, or the dele- for the erection and suppression of houses, the erection
g^te of a bishop, or the superior general of a congrega- and transfer of novitiates, the erection of new prov-
tion of men to be superior over a congregation of sis-, inces, the principal nominations, the retention of a
ters. Before the regulations of 1901 the rules of new local supenor for longer than the usual term of office,
congregations coffered in many respects. The details the dismissal of a sister or novice, the deposition of a
of internal government which follow apply to newly superior, mistress of novices or counsellor, the provis-
established congregations rather than to the older ional appointment of a counsellor deoeasea or deprived
ones, like the Laidies of the Sacred Heart. of office, the nomination of a visitor not a member of
The government of the congregations is vest^ in the council, the choice of a meeting place of the gen-
the general chapter, and in the superior general as- eral chapter, the change of residence of the superior
sisted by a council with certain rights reserved to the general, the execution of all contracts, the auditmg of
bishops, under protection and suiireme direction of accounts, all pecuniary engagements, the sale or mort-
the Sacred Connegation of Religious. This is the gage of immovable property, and the sale of movable
only oompet&Qt Congregation since the reform of the property of great value. For an election there must
Roman C^uria by the constitution '^Sapienti " of 29 be a full meeting of the coimcil, and provision must be
June, 1908. The general chapter induoes in all cases made to replace any members who are prevented from
the superior general, her counsellors, the secretary attending. In case of a tie, the superior has a casting
general, the treasurer general, and it the congrega- vote.
tion is divided into provmces, the provincial superiors. The secretary general keeps the minutes of pro-
and two delegates from each province, elected by the oeedings, and has charge of the archives. The treaa-
pjovincial chapter. If there are no provinces, the urer general administers the property of the whole
general chapter includes (besides those mentioned congregation. The provinces and the nouses have also
above) all superiors of houses containing more than their own property. The Holy See insists that the
twelve nuns, accompanied by one religious under per^ safes containing valuables shall have three locks, the
petual vows elected by all the professed sisters (includ- keys of which shall be kept by the superior, the treas-
mg those under temporary vows) of such houses. The urer, and the oldest of the counsellors. Inheradndnis-
less important houses are grouped among themselves tration the treasurer must be guided by the complica-
f or this election, or annex^ to a principal house, ted rules of the recent instruction "Inter ea" of 30
This chapter ordinarily meets every six or twelve July, 1909. which refer especially to pecuniary engage-
years, being summoned by the superior general or ments. Tne consent of the Holy See is required before
mother vicaress; but an extraordinary meeting may any liability can be incurred exceeding ten thousand
be called on the occurrence of a vacancy in the office francs, and in case of smaller liabilities than this but
lltT6ftO
168
ITUBIICBIBO
■till of any coofllderable amount, the sup^ors must
take the advice of their councils. A council should at
once be appointed if there is none already existing (cf .
"Periodica de Religiosis'', n. 331, vol. 5, 11 sqq). The
bishop must test the vocation of postulants before
they take the veil, and before profession: he presides
over dhapters of election, permits or forbids collections
from door to door; is responsible for the observance of
partial enclosure, such as is compatible with the ob-
jects of the conj;regation. No nouse can be estab-
li^ed without his consent. To him also belongs the
supreme spiritual direction of the communities, and
the nomination of the chaplain and confessors. The
Holy See reserves to itself the vows, even temporary
ones. The dismissal of a professed sister under per-
Setual vows must be ratified by the Holy See. The
ismissal of a novice or of a professed sister under tern*
porary vows is within the power of the general coun-
cil, if justified by grave reasons : but this niflmiflHal does
not rdieve from vows for which recourse must be had
to the Holy See. The Holv See alone can authorize
the suppression of houses, tne erection or transfer of a
novitiate, the erection of a province^ the transfer of a
mother-house, and any important ahenations of prop-
erty, and borrowings above a certain sum.
Tne Holy See permits, though it does not make oblig-
atory, the division of a community into choir sisters
or teaching sisters, and lay sisters. Though not op-
posed to the formation of associations which help the
work of the congregation and have a share in its mer-
its, it forbids the es&blishment of new third orders. A
period of temporary vows should precede the taking of
perpetual vows. Such is the general law. At the
expiration of the term, temporary vows must be re-
newed. The vow of poverty does not generally forbid
the acauisition and retention of rights over property,
but only its free use and disposal. A dowry is gener-
ally required, of which the community receives the in-
come onlv, until the death of the sister, and the fruits
of their Labours belong entirely to the congregation.
The vow of chastity creates only a prohibitory impedi-
ment to marriage. The bishops generally regulate the
confessions of the religious imder simple vows, by the
same rules as those of nuns in strict enclosure; but in
public churches sisters may go to any approved con-
fessor. In all that concerns communions and direc-
tion of conscience, the decrees '^Ouem ad modum"
and "Sacra Tridentina'' apply to these congregations
as well as to monasteries of nuns. These religious con-
gregations have not generally any obligation of choir,
but recite the Little Office of the Blessed Virgin and
other prayers. They are bound to make a daily medi-
tation of at least half an hour in the morning, some-
times of another half hour in the evening, and an
annual retreat of eight days.
(b) Puma iocietiea which can only be called congre-
gations by a wide extension of the word, are those
which have no perpetual vows, such as the Daughters
of Charity, who are free for one day in each year, or
those which, if they have perpetual vows, have no out-
ward sign by which they can be recognized: this single
fact is sufficient to deprive them of the character of
reUgious congregations (see answer of 11 August, 1889,
"De ReUgiosis Institutis'', vol. 2, n. 13).
VI. Diocesan Congregations. — For a long time
the bishops had great latitude in approving new con-
gregations, and gave canonical existence to various
charitable institutions. In order to avoid an excessive
increase in their number, Pius X by his Motu Proprio
"Dei Providentis" of 16 July, 1906, required the pre-
vious authorization of the Sacred Congregation before
the bishop could establish, or allow to be established
any new (uocesan institution ; and the Sacred Congre-
gation refuses to authorize any new creation except
after approval of the title, habit, object, and work of
the proposed community, and forbids that any sub-
stantial change should be made without its authority.
Notwithstanding that pontifical intervention, the con*
gregation remains diocesan. The bishop approves the
constitutions only in so far as they are in accordance
with the rules approved by the Holy See. As it re-
mains diocesan we may conclude that the Roman dis-
ciplinary decrees do not affect it unless this is clearly
stated. Diocesan congregations have the bishop as
their first superior. It is his duty to control admis-
sions, authorize dismissals, and dispense from vows,
except that one reserved to the Holy See, the absolute
and perpetual vow of chastity. He must be careful
not to infringe the rights acquired by the community.
Not only does he preside over elections but he confirms
or annuls them, and may in case of necessity depose the
superior, and make provision for filling the vacancy.
These congregations are sometimes composed of
houses independent of one another; this is frequently
the case with Sisters HospitaUers, and sometimes sev-
eral houses and local superiors are grouped under one
superior general. Some of the congregations are con-
fined to one diocese, while others extend to several dio-
ceses: in the latter case, each diocesan ordinary has
under him the houses in his dioceses with power to
authorize or suppress them. The congregation itsdf
depends on the concurrence of the biuiops in whose
dioceses any houses are situated; and this concurrence
is necessary for its suppression. Such is tiie common
law of the constitution "Condite''. Before it can •
spread into another diocese, a diocesan congregation
must have the consent of the bishop to whom it is sub-
ject, and often by agreement among bishops a real
superiority is reserved to the bishop of the diocese of
ongin. As to the laws by which they are governed, a
great number of congregations, especially those de-
voted to the care of the sick in hospitals, follow the
rule of St. Augustine and have special constitutions;
others have only constitutions pecuUar to themselves;
others again form communities of tertiaries. The
curious institution of Beguines (q. v.) still flourishes
in a few cities of Belgium.
HUtorical: Baaai:, Lw Mo%ne» d'OrierU anUr%eur» au eonciU d§
ChalcMdoine (461) (Parb. 1900): L« Monaehinne A/rieain.l\'
VI, 5 (Paris, 8. d.) ; Butler, The Launae Uitt. of PaUadiut (Cam-
bridge, 1898); Db BncK-TiimKBROBCK, Bxamen HUtorieum tt
eanontcum Hbri R, D, Verhoeten, De RegtUarium el Saeularium
iwribiu 0f offieiu, I (Ghent, 1847) : Duche8NX, Lm ariginee du euiu
ehrHien (Vana); Funk, LehrbtuA der Kirchengtteh. (Padert>om,
il898): Gasqubt, Saggio itcrico delta Coatttuzione monaatica
Rome, 1896) : Hbxmbuchbb, Die Orden und KongregaHcnen der
Zatholisehen Kirche (3 vol.. Paderbom. 1896-1908); HiLTOT.
Hial. dee ordree monoHiquea^ reUgieux et mUUairee (8 yol., Paria,
1714-19) ; Ladkuss, Etude eur le cinobitieme Pakhomten pendant It
IV»e%icle et la premih-e nuritU du V* (Louvain, 1898): Mabdt.
Lee Moinee de Constantinople depute lajondation de la viuejuequ'd
la tnort de PhoHue (Paris, 1897) , (cf . Parsoire infra) ; MABrtNS,
Commentariue in regulatn S.P, BenedicH. De antiquie monaehorum
ritibue; Pabooirb, Lea dUnUe du monachieme d Conetantinople ii&
Revue, dee queatione hi^oriquea (vol. 65, 1899); ScHiEwxBTt, Dae
morgenl&naiadu MSnchtwn (Mams, 1904) ; SPBBmsNHom, XH*
Entwieldtmg dee aUen MSnchtuma in Jtalien ton eeiner ereten An^
fdngen bia turn Aufireten dee hi. Benedict (Viemia, 1894) ; 'I^oiiAa->
8IM, Vetua et nova Eedeaim diaeiplina, 1. 1, 3; Wilpbbt, Die Gottge~
vfeihten Jungfrauen in der ereten Jt^rkunderten der Kirche (Frei-
burg im Br., 189^ ; Doctrinal, besides the general works of the
classical authors: Babtxbn, Directoire eanoniq^e d Vuaage dee Con^
grigationa d vceux aimplea (Maredsous, 1911); Battandieb, Ouidm
eanoniqiM pour lea ConaiittUiona dea Inatitute d vcrux aimj^ (4th
ed.. Paris, 1906); Bouix, Tnutalua de iure regtdarium (2 vols..
Paris, 1856) ; Pblui arius, Tradatua de Monialibua (1761) ; Piat,
Prcelectionea iuria Regularium (2 vol., Toumai, 1898J ; RoTARXTTa*
Theologia moralia reoularium, 3 vols.; Tamburini, De iure abba-
tiaaarum el aliarum Monialium; Vbbmxbbsch in De Religioeia JW-
atHutia et Peraonia 2 vols. (1st vol., 2nd ed., 1907: 2nd vol., 4th
ed., 1910) ; De Religioeia et Miaaionariia Periodica, ab anno 1906,
A. Vermberbgh.
Nuoro. See GAi;rELU-NnoRO, Diocese of.
N\iptlal Blessing. See Mabb» Nuptial.
Nuremberg (NthiNBERo), second largest dt^ in
Bavaria, situated in a plain on both sides of the river
Pegnitz. Of uncertain origpn, it is first mentioned as
Noremberc in a document issued by Emperor Henry
III at a diet held in the town. The palace was recon-
structed as a fortified castle between 1025 and 1060L
nie population increased when Henry IV transferred
(1002) from Fiirth to Nuremberg the right to hold a
lair and to coin money. The cult of it« patron St.
Sebald, also helped its development. In timee of war
the emperorg often found refuge in the town, for
which Henry V zranted it freedom from custom
duties (1112). Eug Lothair (1112-1137) claimed
Nuremberg as part of his empire, while the Hohen-
atoufen brothers, Conrad and Frederick, claimed it
M part of their inheritance under the Salic law. In
1130 the city surrendered to the em^wror and the
Guelph Henry. The latter poeseesed it until 1138,
when it reverted to the empire, Conrad III liked to
t the flourishini
Qfor
Nuremberg under Frederick BarbarosBa, who built
a splendid new imperial castle adjoining the old castle
of the burggravea (Burggriffen). From the end of the
eleventh century the city was independent of the bu^
graves, who, in the early times, in their capacity as im-
perial ofScialB, exercised juris^ction in all judicial and
military matters and appropriated two-thirds of all
mnal and civil capes. When
neys colleeted ii
the burggraves (at
first descendants of
the house of Roaba
in Lower Austria,
and, when it became
«ztinct in 1100, the
house of Zollem) en-
deavoured to extend
their private poase«-
Bona at the expense
of the empire, the
emperors of the
twelfth century took
over the administra-
tion of the imperial
poesesaions belong-
it^ to the burp, and
installed a castellan
or overseer in the
imperial castle. This
castellan not only
administered the im-
perial lands sur-
rounding Nurem-
beM, but levied taxes
ana constituted the
highest judicial court in matters relating t« poaching
ai^ forestry ; he also was the appointed protector of
tbe various ecclesiastical estabnshments, churches,
and monasteriM, even of the Bishopric of Bamberg.
The privileges of this castellanship were transferred to
, the city during the last years of the fourteenth, and
the first years of the fifteenth centuries. The strained
relations between the burggravea and the castellan
finally broke into out open enmity, which greatly in-
fluenced the history of the city.
In 1219 Nuremberg became a free imperial city,
when Frederick II presented it with a most important
charter, fredng it from all authority excepting that of
the emperor himself. The adminiatration was en-
trusted to a council, presided over, since the middle of
the thirteentii centurv, bv the ReichasehuUheiss. The
"SchAffenkolleKium , who aaaiated tliis official in his
Judicial work, also sat in the council. The council be-
came more and more independent, and in 1320 was
Invested by Louis the Bavarian with aupreme juris-
diction. This conflicted with the rights of the Sthid-
iheits (usu^ly a knight) , whose appointment, however,
reetedwiththecounciluFterl396. This accumulation
of rights and privileges made the power of the ooundl
eauu to that of the sovereign or territorial lords,
while tHe acquisition of the imperial forest near Nurem-
berg hod furnished a bams for future development.
Untal the middle-of tfae thirteeqth century, the Klnna
(little) or rd^ning oounul consisted of thirteen ma^^
trates and thirteen counrallots; towards the end of the
century were added eight members of the practically
unimportant QrotMe (great) council, and, since 1370,
eight representatives of the artisans' associations.
The members of the council were chosen by the people
usuallyfromthewealthier class; this custom led to the
establishment of a circle of "eligiblee", to which the
artisan claw was atronaly opposed as being politically
aa illegal element. With the increasing importance
of handicraft a spirit of independence developed
among the artisans, and they determined to have a
voice in the government of the city. Jn 1349 the
members of the trade unions unsuccessfully rebelled
against the patricians. Their unions were then dis-
solved, and the oligarchic element remained in power
while Nuremberg was a free city.
Ecclesiastically speaking, Nuremberg belonged first
to the Bishopric of Eicbst&tt, and from 1015 to that
of Bambei^. In place of the oldeat chapel in Nurem-
'.Urskapelle, a church was consecrated in
'' " ■'" -eplacedbya ■'■
1070 to St. Sebaldua; (Ls
fice in the thirteenth century.
'he second church in
importance was the
Lorenzkirche, built
about 1278. There
also arose the Gothic
St. Jacob's Church
(twelfth century),
which was trans-
ferred to the Teu-
tonic Knights in
1209; the Scots Ab-
bey (1140); the mon-
asteriea and chapels
of the Franciscans,
1227 (thirteenth cen-
tury), the-Augustin-
ians (1218); the Do-
minicans (1248); the
Carmelites (1255);
the Carthusians
(1382); the Order of
Mary Magdalene
(Reuerinnen) incor-
porated with the
Poor Clorea in 1279,
and the cloister of St.
Catherine, a society
Thehospitalof the Holy Ghost wasfounded
1334-30. At tiie beginning of the fourteenth centui^
Nuremberg had become wonderfully developed.
Charlee IV conferred upon it the right to conclude alli-
ances independently^ thereby placing it upon a politi-
cally equal footing with the prmcea of the empire. The
city protected itself from hostile attacks by a wall and
successfully defended its extensive trade against the
barons. Frequent fights took place with thebui^gravee
without, however, inflicting lasting damage upon the
city. AflerthecaBtlehadl)eendestroyedbyfireinl420
during a feud between Count Frederick (nnce 1417
Margrave of Brandenbui^) and the Duke of Bavaria-
Ingolstadt, the ruins and the forest belonpng to the
castle were purchasedby thecity (1427), which thereby
became master of all that lay within its boundaries.
The imperial castle had been ceded to the city by Em-
peror Sigismund in 1422. on "ondition that the imperial
suite of rooms should be reserved for the emperor.
Through these and othe' acquisitiona the city accu-
mulated considerable te ritory. In 1431 the popula-
tion was about 22,800 i .eluding 7146 perw>n8 qualified
to bear aims, 381 secular and regular priests; 744 Jews
and non-citicens. The Hussite wars, the plague of
1437, the fights with tJie burggraves (then also mar-
graves of Brandenburg, Anspach, and Bayreuth, r^
duced it to 20,800 in 14S0.
M the begimung of the mxteenth century Uie war ol
HUREBIBIBO
. i to
Nuremberg {the ally of Duke Albert of Bavaria-Mu-
nieh), BO that it posseesed more (25 eg. miles) than any
imperial free city; it was called the Empire's Treasure
Box on account of its political importance, ita indus-
tri^ power, and superior culture. It had uov reached
the pmnacle of its eplendour. As an indicatioD of its
importance as an art and science centre during the
fourteenth, fifteenth and nxteeath centuries, it records
such names as Peter Viacher, Adam Krafft, Veit Stoes,
Michael Woh^emuth, Albert DUrer, Hans Sachs,
Conrad Celtes, Wilhbald and Charitas Pirkheimer,
oount of these mnovations, were suspended, pending
the settlement of the whole religious question by a
gre&t council to be called within the year. The aid
against the Turks which the emperor and king desired
was granted. By consent of the Lutherans the follow-
ers of Zwingli were exempted ftom the provisions of
this peace. During this period Nurembeiv remained
as neutral as possible, so as not to quarrel with the em-
peror and yet to retfun its whole creed of the Gospel;
it therefore accepted the interim regulation. During
the revolution of the princes agmnst Charles V, in
1552, Nuremberg endeavoured to purchase its neu-
traUty by the payment of 100,000 gulden; but Mai-
grave Albert Alciniadea, one of the leaders of the re-
volt, attacked the city without declaring war and
forced it to conclude a aisadvantageous peace. At the
Religious Peace of Augsburg the possessions of the
Protestants were confirmed by the emperor, their re-
ligious privileges extended and their independence
from the jurisdiction of the Bishop of BamberR af-
firmed while the secularizing of the possessions o? the
monasteries was approved.
The unsettled stat« of affairs in the first half of the
sixteenth century^ the revolution in commerce and
trade due to the discovery of America and the circum-
navigation of Africa, and the difficulties in trade
caused by the territorial sovereigns, were responsible .
for the decline of the importance and affluence of the
city. During the Thirty Years' War it did not always
succeed in preserving ita policy of neutrality. Fre-
Juent quartering of Imperial, Swedish and League sol-
iers, war-contributions, demands for arms, semi-
compulsory presents to commanders of the warring
armies and the cessation of trade, caused irreparable
damage to the city. The population, which in 1620
had been over 4S,000. sank to 25,000.
After the religious war Nuremberg remained aloof
from the quarrcb and affairs of the world at lane; but
contributions were demanded for the Austrian War of
Succession and the Seven Years' War, the former
amounting to six and a half million guldens. Restric-
tions of imports and eroorts deprived the city of many
markete for its manufactures, especially in Austria,
Prussia and Bavaria, and the eastern and northern
countries of Europe, The Bavarian elector, Charles
Theodore, appropriated part of the land which had
been obtained in the war of succession in Landshut
and which ever since had been claimed by Bavaria;
Johann Milller (Regiomontanus), Hartmann Schedel,
Martin Behaim and others.
In 1521 Luther's creed was preached by some of the
clerey, among whom was Andrew Oaiander, preacher
at 8t. Lomzkirche; there was also a distinct leaning
towards the new teaching among the members of the
council. They prohibited processions, passion plays
during the Easter tide, and other celebrations. After
1524 the possessions of the monasteries and cleri-
cal institutions were confiscated; in 1525 the coun-
cil accepted Luther^s religion; the Dominicans, Car-
melites and Minorites were forbidden to preach or to
hear confesaons; a preacher was placed over convents
and the reception of any more novices forbidden.
About the middle of the sixteenth century the city
had become almost Prote. tant; only the members of
the Teutonic Knights rema led faithful; they suffered
many restrictions and the Ic a of their church. After
the Diet of Augsburg, 1529, vhen most of the Prot-
estant estates of the empire formed the Lca^e of
Smalkald, Nurembei^ did not join. The Diet of
Nuremberg, 1532, gave religious freedom at least for a
time: Protestants were allowed to continue the inno-
vations already introduced by them and all proceeseii
begun against them in the Imperial Chamber, on ao-
cornorat«d m the Kingdom of Prussia, but Frederick
Wifliam II refused the request, fearing to offend Aus-
tria, Russia, and France, At the imperial diet in 1S03
the independence of Nuremberg was affirmed. But
on the signing of the RheinbuTtd (Rhenish Federation)
12 July, 1806, the city was handed over to Bavaria
8 Sept. Its poDulation was then 25,200 and its public
debt twelve ana a half million guldens. After the fall
of Napoleon its trade and commerce revived; the skill
of its inhabitants together with its favourable situation
soon rendered the city prosperous, particularly after
its public debt had been acknowledged as a part of the
Bavarian national debt. Incorporated in a Catholic
country the city was compelled to refrain from further
discrimination against the Catholics, who had been
excluded from the rights of eitiienship. Catholic ser-
vices had been celebrated in the city by the priests of
the order of the Teutonic Knights, often under great
difficulties. Their possessions having been confiscated
by the Bavarian government in 1806, they were given
the ^raucnJctrc^ on the Market in 1809; in 1810 the
first Cathohc parish was established, which in 1813
numbered 1010 souls.
In 1817 the city was included in the department
Reattitrei* (later Mittelfranken). The establishment
of railways and the joining of Bavaria to the German
Customs Uuioa (i^Uverein), commerce and industry
NUSOO
171
opened the way to great prosperity. In 1852 there
were 53,638 inhabitants, 46,441 Protestants and 6616
Catholics. Since that time it has become the most
important industrial cify of Bavaria and one of the
mcMt prosperous towns of southern Germany. In
1905 its population, including several incorporated
suburbs, was 291,351--86,d43 Catholics, 196,913 Prot-
estants, 3738 Jews and 3766 members of other creeds;
the presedt population is estimated at 340,000.
Nuremberg belongs to the Archdiocese of Bamberg
and possesses notable churches. For want of means
the building of churches could not keep pace with the
growth of the community; this conoition rendered
difficult the work of ministry. The Catholic churches
at present accommodate barely 8000 people, while
the Catholics in the city number over 90.000. The
most beautiful church is the Liebfrauenkircne (Church
of Our Dear Lady), built 1315-61 in Gothic style; it is
one of the greatest ornaments of the city (Essenwein,
''Die Liebfrauenkirche in NUmbeig", Nuremberg,
1881). Other churches are, the St. Eusabethenkirche,
A mighty edifice, in antique style, begun in 1784, secu-
larized in 1806, purchased by tne Catholics in 1885
(Schrdtter. ''Die Kirche der heilisen Elisabeth in
Ntbnberg", Nuremberg, 1903); the St. Klarakirche, a
Gothic structure, built in 1339, turned over to the
Catholics in 1857; the Hers-Jesu-kirche, a basilica in
early Gothic style, erected 1898-1902; the Walpurgis-
kapelle in the castle, dating from the thirteenth cen-
tury; the temporary structures: St. Joseph (1897-8);
St. Anthony (1899-1900); St. Karl Borrom&us (190^-
4) : and a new church at present being erected.
Roth. OmcH, det NUmbergtchen HaiuMa (4 voU., Leipsict 1800-
2); Mabx. Getch. der Rncfuttadt N, (NQrnberg. 1856) ; Ohillakt,
N. hisl. u. topog. nock dtn dUetten vorhandtnen QtuXUn u. Urkunr
den (Munich, 1863) ; Chroniken der deuteehen StddU, Mil, X. XI
Xeipsic, 1862-74): Hbrold, AU-N. in aeinen QoUeedieneten
Gateraioh, 1890);. Roth, Die BinfUhrung der Refomuxiion in N,
wanburg. 1885); MuMiCENHorF, AU-N. (Bamberg, 1800);
DBM. Die Burg tu N. (Namberg, 1802); Idbm, N, Ureprung u.
Alter in den DarHeUunQen der Oeeehichtechreiber u. m Lidlite der
Geeth. (NQrnberg. .1908); KuUurgeachichU. Bilder aue N*e Ver^
gangenheU (14 parte, NQrnberg, 1894-1902); Rossbl, AU^N,
(Namberg, 1895); RncKS, Oeeeh. der Reieheetadt N. (NQrnberg,
1896) ; RiB. N. (Leipsig. 1900), dealing with the hist, of art: Von
8CHT7H, Die Stadt N*e%tn Jubilaumajakr 1906 (NQrnberg, 1906);
Mbter, Qeech. der Burggrafechafi N. u. der evdtem Markgrafeehaf'
ten Anebdeh u. Bayreuth (TQbingen. 1908) : ScHBOrrBB, Geeeh, der
atadt N. (NQrnberg, 1909); Wbus. Qeedi, der Stadi N. bie eum
Uebergang der Reieheetadt an doe Kdnigreich Bay em 1806 (NQrn-
berg. 1909); Die kaihoL Kirchen in N, (NQrnberg, 1909); MitteiL
deeVereinefUr die Geech, der Stadt N. (IS vola.. NQrnberg, 187»-
1909).
Joseph Linb.
Nusco, DiocBSB OF (Nuscana), in the province
of Avellino. Italy, suffragan of Salerno, dates from
the eleventn centiiry. Among its bishops were Guido
(1004); St. Amatus (1167), author of a history of the
Normans in Apulia and Calabria: Roger (1198), who
restored the cathedral; Cardinal Retro Paolo Parisio
(1538), who presided at the Council of Trent; Fran-
cesco Arcudio (1639), a Theatine; Fulgenzio Arminio
Monforte (1669), an Augustinian. In 1820 Monte-
martino was united to Nusco. St. John, a Benedic-
tine (1084), was first Bishop of Montemartino; fortv of
his successors are known. Nusco has 19 parishes,
with 38,300 inhabitants, and 4 reUgious houses.
CAPFBLLrm, Le Ckieee d'ltaUa, XX.
U. Bbnioni.
NuBsbaum, Johann Nepomttk yon, Crerman sur-
feon, b. at Munich 2 Sept., 1829; d. there 31 Oct.,
890. He made his studies in the University of Mu-
nich where he was a pupil of Thiersch and later the
clinical assistant of Von Rothmund. He received his
doctor's degree in 1853, the subject of his dissertation
being "Ueber Cornea Artificialis". The following
four years he spent in foreign travel, stud3ring surgery
under N^laton, Chassaignac, and Maisonneuve in
Paris, Langenbeck in Berun, and Textor in WUrzburg.
In 1857 he became a Privai-dooent (with a thesis on the
treatment of various conditions of the cornea). In
1860 be was appointed ^rafeosor of surffefy at tlie
Univenity of Munich which office he held for nearly
thirty years. His lectures were noted for their prac-
tical character. He studied under Spencer Wells in
England which enabled him to greatly aid the devel-
opment of pelvic surgery. Later he learned antisepsis
from Lister and was instrumental in introducing it
into the sui]gical clinics of Germany. His best-known
work, ''Leitfaden lur antiseptischen Wundbdiand-
lung" (Hints for the antiseptic treatment of wounds),
went through five editions and was translated into a
number of foreign languages. Altogether his publica-
tions number almost 100, the best known d which
deal with ovariotomy, the transplantation of bone,
radical operation for nemia, and phases of the treat-
ment of cancer. During the war of 1871 Nussbaum
was consultant surgeon-general to the Bavarian
troops. Throughout his life he was a Catholic and
died pronouncing the words ' ' Praised be Jesus Christ ".
Paobl. Biograph, Diet, der hervorrag* Aerste dee 19. Jahrh. (Ber-
lin, IGOl); Idsm. Biograph. Lex, der hervorrag, Aerete (Berlin);
Knsller, Deu Chrietentum ynd die Vertreter der neueren Naturwie*
emuehajt (Frolburc, 1904). JamES J. Walsh.
Nutter, John, Venerable. See Hatdock, George,
Venerable.
Nutter, Robert, Venerable, English mart3rr; b.
at Burnley, Lancasnire^ c. 1550: executed at Lancas-
ter, 26 July, 1600. He entered Brasenose College,
Oxford in 1564 or 1565, and, ¥dth his brother Jo&i,
also a martyr (see Hatdock, George), became a
student of the English College, Reims. Having been
ordained priest, 21 Dec, 1581, he returned to England.
On 2 Feb., 1583-4 he was committed to the Tower,
where he remained in the pit fortv-seven da^s, wear-
ing irons for forty-three days, apcf twice subjected to
the tortures of "the scavengers dau|^ter' . On 10
November, 1584, he was again consigned to the pit,
where he remained imtil, on 21 Jan., 1584-5, he, with
twenty other priests and one layman, was shipped
aboard the "Mary Martin" of C!plchester, at Tower
Wharf. Landing at Boulocpe, 2 Feb., he revisited
Reims in July, out, on 30 November, was again
committed to prison in London, this time to New*
gate, under the alias of Rowlev. In 1587 he was
removed to the Marshalsea, and thence, in 1589-90,
was sent to Wisbech Castle, Cambridgesnire. There,
in 1597, he signed a petition to Father Garnet in fa-
vour of having a Jesmt superior; but, on 8 Nov^ 1598,
he and his fellow martyr. Venerable Edward Tnwine,
with others, besought the pope to institute an arch-
priest.
Venerable Edward Thwino was the second son of
Thomas Thwing, of Heworth, near York, and Jane
(n6e Kellet, of York), his wife. He was at the English
College, Reims, 12 July to 12 August, 1583; and 20
July, 1585, to 2 Sept., 1587, having spent the intervid
with the Jesuits at Pont-A-Mousson. On 2 Sept.,
1587 he set out for Rome, returning to become a reader
in Greek and Hebrew, and a professor of rhetoric and
logic. He was ordained priest at Laon in the following
December. On 4 Nov., 1592, he went to Spa suffering
from ulcer in the knee. He returned to the English
College, which had in the meantime been transferred
from Reims to Doucu, and went on the mission in
1597. He seems to haye been immediately arrested
and sent to Wisbech, whence he and Nutter escaped to
Lancashire, were arrested, Mayt 1600, tried at the
next assizes and condemned for being priests. Both
suffered on the same day. '
Catholie Record Society Pubiieatione (London, privately printed
1906—). I. 110, II. 248. 262. 260. 270. 273. 277. 279. 282: III. 16.
166. 384. 386. 388; Challonvb. Memoire of Mieeionary Prieete, I,
120-21; Kifox, Firti and Second Diaries of the Bnglith College,
Doiiat, pMsim; Gillow. Bibl. Diet. Bng. Cath., V. 203; Wadw-
WBIORT, Yen. John Nutter in Catholie Truth Soeiety*e penny
biograpfUee; Holunbhbd. Chronidee, IV (London. 1807-8),
664-7; FosTBR. GUner'e VieitaHon of Yorke (London, privsteyr
printed 1876). 230; O^ord Hietorieai Society Pvbliealione, LY
(Oxford. 1910). 33. JoHN B. WaINBWBIGHT.
172 HYBSA
«
Vvcj^mBf WiLBBunm. historian, b. 18 Augat^ Baiig;w^o. TtlBmiderthecareof theWhlteFatlMn
1823, at Avenhom in Holland; d. 10 December, 1894, and was foimded by Father Lediaptoia in June, 1889,
at Westwoud near Horn. Having completed ms Hu- at Mponda, Nyaamland. This region paBsing under
manistic studies in Enkhuizen, he studied medicine at British control, the missionaries movea to Mambwe
Utrecht, 1842, received the degree of M.D. in 1848, between Nyassa and Tanganika in 1891, but, findiifg
and began practising in Westwoud. He devoted some the region desolated b^ the slave-hunters, they pro-
of his spare time to literature and history, and he pub- ceedea to Ubemba, a high plateau to the west wnere
hshed, in 1856, a volume of poems entitled: ''De the Congo rises, in December, 1894, Fr. Van Oost
laatste Dochter der Hohenstaufen", on subjects settled at Kaiambi in Panda, with permission of the
chiefly ^ro™ ^® Middle Ages. Then came a series of chief Mkaca, but was expelled by Mkaca's suzerain,
historical works, first among which was "Het Katho- Kiti-Mkulu. Fr. Dupont, however, succeeded in
licismus in betrekking met de beschaving van Eu- founding; a permanent station there in July, 1895.
ropa" (Amsterdam, 1856-1857, in 2 volumes), a hi»- The natives are well-built and warlike; they are being
torv of the influence of Catholicism upon the culture taught agriculture by the fathers. On 13 Februaiy,
and civilization of European nations. In several 1897, the mission was made a vicariate Apostolic, ^.
pamphlets and in that voluminous work, "Geschiede- Joseph Dupont (b. at Geet^, Maine et Loire, France,
nis aer Regering van Pius IX" (Amsterdaxn, 1862- in 1855) being appointed superior and consecrated
63), he treated the Roman question of 1859. Mischief titular Bishop of Tibaris. When King Momamba was
work, "Geschiedenis der nederlandsche Beroerten in dying in 1898, he asked Mgr Dupont to become king;
de XVI. eeuw" (Amsterdam, 1865-70, in 8 parts), a tiae bishop accepted the post temporarily to prevent
history of the revolutionary wars of tne Netherlands the customary hecatomb following the sovereign's
from 1559 to 1598, discloses no new sources, but ex- death. In 1904 the soutii-eastem part of the vicar-
amines facts with sagacity and impartiality, and ar- iate was formed into the Prefecture Apostolic of Shir4.
ranges them with skill, thereby showing to the Catho- The population is about 1,000,000, speaking KibCT[iba
lies what rights they were entitled to in the State, and Kinyassa; catechumens, 30,000; baptised, 2000;
New editions appeared in 1886 and 1904. Somewhat missionary priests. '50; Missionary Sisters of Our Lady
as a sequel he wrote: ''Geschiedenis der kerkelijke en of Africa, S} catecnists, 127; churches, 9; chapels, 25;
poUtidce geschillen in de republiek der seven veree- stations, 6 m Ubemba and 3 in Angoniland; schools,
nigde provincien (1598-1625)" (Amsterdam, 1886-87 34: orphanages; 4.
in two parts). Intended for popular reading are: „™"='» ^^*f«^ ^"'^"••jt^ ?*"^Li?^^» ^^^^^
'' Algemeen Geschiedenis dee nederlandschen Volks- ^y^^'^^ "^"^ ^ ^^^ 0^ (i^'^^o°. iwe)-
van de vroegste tijden tot op onze dagen " (Amsterdam, ^* ^' J*i^ci!.RLBAN.
1871-82, in 20 parts; new edition, 1896-98, in 24 Nyitra. See Neutra, Diocesb of.
parts); "Geschiedenis van het nederlandsche Volk van __ ., .^ j.«. -
1815 tot op onze dagen" (Amsterdam, 1883-86. in 4 ^ywa, a titular see in Cappadocia Prima. suffraMi
parts; 2nd edition 1898); and the widely read: "Vader- pfC^esarea. It is mentioned by Ptolemy (V, vii, vm).
landsche Geschiedenis voor de jeugd^' (Amsterdam, m the "Itmermmn Antonmi" m the "Synedemus"
1870; 25th edition, 1905, by G. F. I. Douwee). He of Hieroclw (699). and the Greek "Notitue episco-
published a number of pamphlets and articles in peri- patuum", but its history and exact location are im-
odicals on topics of the times, especially in "Onze ^oto. It should be rought on the south bank of the
Wachter", edited by him from 1871 to 1874 in coUabo- KisJ Irmak (ancient Halys), ten miles above Kessik
ration with Schaepmann. He was an energetic de- Keupru (Ramsay, "Asia Minor", 287, 30j5). Teaer
fender of the rights and the privileges of Catholics, and ( Asie Mmeure '\ Paris, 1862, 588) wrongly identifies
one of the first to champion the freedom of the Catho- it with Nev Sheu-. Hamilton (Researches, II, 265)
lie Church in the Netherlands. Catholics erected a speaks of a modem village called Nirse, or Nissa, but
monument to him in the church at Westwoud and set the maps show no place of this name. Le Quien
aside the surplus of the money contributed as a per- (Oriens Christ., I, 391) names ten bishops of Nyssa.
petual fundi called "Nuyensfund", to aid the work of Tbe last qualified as metropolitan in the sixteenth
Catholic historians of the Netherlands. century, is certainlv only a titular bishop. To the
Gobbib, Dr» w. J. F. Nuyena, bMchouwd in hH Ueht tan Hjn list may be added Joannicius, who lived in 1370
ivd (Nimwegen, 1908). Patricius ScHiiAGBR. (Miklosich and Mtlller, "Acta patriarchatus Con-
stantinopolitani", Vierma, 1860, 1) 537). About this
Nyasta, Vicariate ApoflTOUC of, in Central time Nyssa must have disappeared; but its name
Africa, bounded north by Uie Anglo^German frontier, still recalls the memory of the glorious Doctor, St.
east by Lake Nyassa, south by the Anglo-Portuguese Gregory,
frontier, west by a line running northward past Lake S. PltauDibB.
o
Oakeley, Fredsbick, b. 5 Sept., 1802, at Shrewe-
bury; d. 30 Jan., 1880, at Islington, the youngest son
of Sir Charles Oakeley, Bart, he graduated at Christ-
church in 1824, and three years later was elected
Fellow of Balliol. where he afterwards became the close
friend of W. G. Ward, with whom he joined the
Tractarian party. In 1839 he became incumbent of
Marsiu^t Cnapel, the predecessor of the well-known
All &ints, Margaret Street, London, soon noted for
its high church services; he was a frequent visitor to
Oxford, and stood by Ward at the tmie of his con-
demnation in 1845. He defended Tract XC and in
consequence his bishop suspended him. He retired
to Newman's community at Littlemore, and a few
weeks later followed him into the Catholic Church.
After a short course of theoloiry at St. Edmund's Col-
December). Some medieval churches had twelve
greater antiphons, adding to the above (1) "O Rex
Pacifice", (2) "O Mundi Domina", (3) "O Hierusa-
lem", addressed respectively to Oiu- Lord, Our Lady,
and Jerusalem. Gu^ranser gives the Latin text of all
of these (except the "O Mundi Domina"), with ver-
nacular prose translation (''Liturgical Year''^ Advent.
Dublin, 1870, 508-531), besides much devotional ana
some historical comment. The Parisicm Rite added
two antiphons C'O sancte sanctorum" cmd "O paator
Israel ") to the seven of the Romcm Rite and began the
recitation of the nine on the 15th of December. Prose
renderings of the Roman Breviary O's will be found
in the ^larque6s of Bute's translation of the Roman
Breviary (winter volume). Gu^ranger remarks that
the antiphons were appropriately asfflgned to the Vea-
lege, he was ordained by Dr. Wiseman in 1847. The per Hour because the Saviour came in the evening
n^ thirty-three years were spent as a canon of the nour of the world (vergerUe mundi veaveref as the
Church sings) and that they were attached to the Mag-
nificat to honour her through whom He came. By ex-
ception to the rule for ferial days, the seven cmtiphons
aro simg in full both before and after the canticle.
"In some Chtirches it was formerly the practice to
and Platonic Ethics" (Oxford. 1837): "Whitehall sing them thrice: that is, before the Canticle, before
Sermons" (Oxford, 1837-9) "The Subject of Tract the Gloria Patri, and after the Sicuterat"(Gu6ranger).
XC examined" (London, 1841) ; "Homilies" (London, There are several translations into English verse, both
Westminister chapter and missionary rector of St.
John's, Islington. Short-sighted, small of stature,
lame, he exercised a wide influence by his personality,
his writings, and the charm of his conversation, ms
diief works are: Before his conversion: "Aristotelian
1842); "Life of St. Augustine" (Newman's series,
Toovey, 1844). After his conversion: "Practical Ser-
mons (London, 1848); "The Order and Ceremonial
of the Mass" (London, 1848) : "The Catholic Florist"
(London, 1851) ; "The Church of the Bible" (London,
1857); "Lyra Liturgica" (London, 1865); "Historical
Notes on the Tractarian Movement" (London, 1865);
"The Priest on the Mission" (London, 1871).
Diet, of Nat. Biog., a. v.; Bibl. Diet. Bng. Cath., s. v.: Wabo,
Os^ord MnemerU: The Catholic Revival (London, 1889 and 1893) ;
MosLBT, AtmtnMoencM (1882) ; BBOWNSt Annalt of Tradarian
Movement; Obituary notioee in Tablet, Weeklv Reoieter,
Bernard Ward.
O Antiphonfl (Roman Breviary: Ardivhona mor
lores f "greater antiphons"), the seven antiphons to the
Magpincat in the ferial Office of the seven days pre-
oeeding the vi^ of Christmas; so called because all
begin with the mterjection " O ". Their opening words
are: (1) "O Sapiential' (2) "O Adonai", (3) "ORadix
by Catholics and non-Catholics, the most recent beins
that in Dom Gregory Ould's "Book of Hymns"
(Edinburgh, 1910, no. 5) by W. Rooke-Ley, in seven
quatrains together with a refrain-quatrain giving a
translation of the versicle and response ("Rorate",
etc). The seven antiphons have been foimd in MSS.
of the eleventh century. A paraphrase of some of
these is found in the hymn " Veni, veni, Emmanuel"
given by Daniel in his "Thesaurus Hymnologicus"
(11, 336) and translated by Neale in his "M^eval
Hymns and Sequences" (3ra ed., London, p. 171) and
others, and used in various hymn-books (Latin text
in " The Roman Hymnal", New York, 1884, 139).
Neale supposed the hymn to be of the twelfth century,
but it has not been traced back further than the fiijst
decade of the eighteenth century. For first lines of
translations, see "Julian's Diet, of Hymnol." (2nd
ed., London, 1907, 74, i; 1551, i; 1721, i). For the
Christ under one or other of His Scriptural titles, they
conclude with a distinct petition to the coming Lord
(e. g.: "O Wisdom . . . come and teach us the way of
prudence"; "O Adonai . . . come and redeem us by thy
outstretched arm": "O Key of David . . . come and
lead from prison tne captive sitting in darkness cmd
in the shadow of death" etc.). Couched in a poetic
and Scriptural phraseology they constitute a notable
feature of the Advent Offices. These seven antiphons
are found in the Roman Breviary; but other medieval
Breviaries added (1) "O virgo virginum quomodo
fiet" etc., still retained in the Roman Breviary as the „, r>-« . . « « .^ ^ . . ^. -.. ^
proper antiphon to the Magnificat in the second Ves- ^S^xSo^^'&efT^ ^~^ "" ^ "^^^ Arutphone
1907) imder "O" in the Index Alphabeticus,
Thubbton, The Great Antiphone, Heralde of Chrietmae in The
Month (Deo.. 1905), 616-631, gives liturgical uses, literaiy illu»-
trationst ana peculiar customs relating to the antiphons; ques-
tions the view of Cabbol, L*Avent Liturgimu in Revue BhUdxotine
1905), n. 4, that they do not antedate the ninth oentuiy, ^ves
much illustration (notablv from The Chriet of Cynewxdf written
circa 800) to show that they "are much older", and knows "no
vaUd reason for regarding them as posterior to the rest of the
Roman Antiphonary or to the time of Pope Gregory himself";
Cabbol in Did. cTcareMologie et liturgie ehraienne, s. v. Atent, re-
peats (col. 8229) his view, but in a foot-note refers the reader to
Tbubstok's article in The Month; Batlxy tOreater Antiphone of
Advent in Pax (an Anglican periodical, 6 I>ec., 1905). 231-239;
Stalbt, O Sapientia in Church Timee (13 Dec, 1907), p. 812;
H. T. Henbt.
pers of the feast Expectatio Partus B.M.V. (18 De-
cember), the prayer of this feast being followed bv the
antiphon "O Adonai" as a commemoration of the
fericQ office of 18 December; (2) "O Gabriel, nimtius
ocslomm", subsequently replaced^ almost umversally,
by the thirteenth-century antiphon, "O Thoma discovered. Oates was b. at Oakham^ Rutlandshire,
Ifidyme", for the feast of the Apostle at. Thomas (21 in 1649. His father, Samuel Oates, is said to have been
173
Ofttes's Plot, a term conventionally used to desig-
nate a "Popish Plot" which, during the reign of
Charles II of England, Titus Oates pretended to have
OATBS'S PLOT
174
OATBS'S PLOT
a ribbon-weaver in Norfolk who, having taken a do-
nee at Cambridge, afterwards became a minister of
the Established Church.
Titus Gates b^;an his career at Merchant Taylors'
School in 1665, when he was sixteen. He was ex-
pelled two years later and went to a school at Sedles-
combe, near Hastings, whence he passed to Cambridge
in 1667, being entered as a sizar in Gonville and Caius
College, whence he afterwards migrated to St. John's.
His reputation at Caius, according to a fellow student,
was that of "the most illiterate dunce, incapable of
improvement"; at St. John's, Dr. Watson wrote of
him: ** He was a great dimce, ran into debt, and, being
sent awa^ for want of money, never took a degree' .
''Removing from there", says Echaid, "he supped
into Orders", and was preferred to the vicarage of
Bobbing in Kent, on 7 March, 1673. At this time or
earlier, according to the evidence of Sir Denis Ash-
bumham at Father Ireland's trial, "he did swear the
Peace against a man" and was forsworn, but they did
not proceed upon the indictment. Next year he left
Bobbing, with a licence for non-residence and a repu-
tation for dishonesty, to act as curate to his father at
Hastings. There father and son conspired to brinjs
against Wm. Parker, the schoolmaster, an abomi-
nable charee so manifestly trumped up that Samuel
was ejected from his living, while Titus, charged with
gTJury, was sent to prison at Dover to await trial,
aving broken jail and escaped to London, unpur-
sued, he next procured an appointment as chaplain on
board a king's ship sailing for Tangier, but within
twelve months was expelled from the Navy.
In August. 1676, he was frequenting a club which
met at the Pneasant Inn, in Fuller's Rents, cmd Uiere,
for the first time, he met Catholics. His admittance
into the Duke of Norfolk's household, as Protestant
chaolain. followed almost immediately. On Ash
Weonesoay, 1677, he was received into the Catholic
Chiu*ch. The Jesuit Father Hutchinson (aiitu Berry)
was persuaded to welcome him as a repentant prodigal
and Father Strange, the provincial, to give him a tnal
in the English College at Valladolid. Five months
later, Oates was expelled from the Spanish college a|[id,
on 30 Oct., 1677. was sent back to London. In spite
of his disgrace, tne Jesuit provincial was persuaded to
give him a second trial, and on 10 Dec. he was ad-
mitted into the seminary at St. Omers. He remained
there as "a younger student" till 23 Jime. 1678.
After being expelled from St. Omer's also, ne met
Tonge, proDably an old acquaintance, and conceived
and concocted the story of the "Popish Plot".
Israel Tonge was, as Echaid describes him, "a city
divine, a man of letters, and of a prolifick head, fill'd
with all the Romish plots and conspiracies since the
Reformation". There is some evidence and con-
siderable likelihood that he not only suggested the
idea of the plot to Oates by his talk, out actually co-
operated in its invention. At Stafford's tritd Oates
declared that he never was but a sham Catholic. If
this be true, we may accept Echard's assertion as
proballe: that Tonge "persuaded him [Oates] to in-
sinuate himself among the Papists and ^et particidar
acquaintance with them". Moreover, it is credibly
reported that, at a great supper eiven in t^e city by
Alderman Wilcox in honour of Oates, when Tonge
' was present, the latter's jealousy led to a verbal quar-
rel between the two informers, and Tonse plidnly told
Oates that "he knew nothing of the plot, but what
he learned from him". Tonge may or may not have
helped Oates in the manufacture of his wares; but he
unooubtedly enabled him to bring them to market
and dispose of them to advantage. With the hdp of
Kirkby, a man associated with the roy^ laboratory,
he succeeded in bringing the plot before the careless
and sceptical notice of King Charles.
Oates^ depositions, as they may be read in his "True
and Exact Narrative of the £Lorrid Plot and Con-
spiracy of the Popish Party against the Life of Bia
Sacred Majesty, tne Government and the Protestant
ReUgion, etc., published by the Order of the Right
Honorable the Ix)rds Spiritual and Temporal in Par-
liament assembled ", are in themselves clumsy, puerile,
ill-written, disjointed libels, hardly worth notice but
for the frenzied anger they aroused. The chief items
tell of a design to assassinate the king, or rather a
complication of plots to do away with ^'48" or "the
Black Bastard" — His Majesty's supposed designa-
tions among the Catholic conspirators. Pickering, a
Benedictine lay brother, and Grove (Honest William),
a Jesuit servant, are told off to shoot him with
"jointed carabines" and silver bullets, in considera-
tion of £1,500 to be paid to Grove and 30,000 Masses
to be said for Pickering's soul. To make more cer^
tain of the business, the king is to be poisoned by Sir
George Wakeman. the queen's physician, at a cost
of £15,000. Furtnermore he is to oe staboed by An-
derton and Corners, Benedictine monks. All these
methods failing, there are in the background four
Irish ruffians, hired by Dr. Fogarthy, who "were
to mind the King's Postures at Winsdor" and have
one pound down and £80 afterwards in full discharge
of tneir expenses. There is some frivolous taUc of
other assassinations — of the removal of the Prince of
Orange, the Duke of Ormonde, Herbert, Lord Bishop
of Hereford and some lesser fry. And Oates himself
is offered and actually accepts £50 to do away with
the terrible Dr. Tonge. "who had basely put out the
Jesuits' morals in English".
Summins up the plot with the help of someone more
scholarly than himself, Oates makes the following
declaration: "The General Design of the Pope, Society
of Jesus, and their Confederates in this Plot, is, the
Reformation, that is, (in their sense) the Reduction of
Great. Britain and Irdand, and all His Majesties Do-
minions by the Sword (all other waves and means being
judged by them ineffectual) to the Romish Reliraon
ana Obedience. To effect this design; 1. The Pope
hath entitled himself to the Kingdomes of England and
Ireland, 2. Sent his Legate, the Bishop of Caasal
in Italy into Ireland to declare his Title, and take
possession of that Kingdom. 3. He hath appointed
Cardinal Howard his Legat for England to the same
purpose. 4. He hath given Commission to the Gen-
eral of the Jesuites, andby him to WhiUf their Provin-
cial in Englandf to issue, and they have issued out, and
S'ven Commissions to Captain Generals, Lieutenant
ener^, etc., namely, the General of the Jesuites hath
sent Commissions from Rome to Langhom their Ad-
vocate General for the Superior Officers: And While
hath given Commissions here in England to Colonels,
and inferior Officers. 5. He hath by a Consult of the
Jesuits of this Province Afieemblea at London, con-
demned His Majesty, and ordered Him to be assassi-
nated, etc. 6. He hath Ordered, That in case the
Duke of York will not accept these Crowns as forfeited
by his Brother unto the Pope, as of his Gift, and settle
such Prelates and Dienitanes in the Church, and such
Officers in Commands and places Civil, Naval and
Military, as he hath commissioned as above, extirpate
the Protestant Religion, and in order thereunto ex
postfatio, consent to the assassination of the Kin^ his
Brother, Massacre of His Protestant Subjects, ming
of his Towns, etc.^ by pardoning the Assassins, Mur-
derers and Incendianes, that then he be also poysoned
or destroyed, after they have for some time abused
His Name and Title to strengthen their Plot, weak-
ened and divided the Kingdoms of England. Scotland,
and Ireland thereby in Civil Wars and Rebellions as
in His Father's Time, to make way for the French to
seize these Kingdoms, and totally mine their Infantry
and Naval Force."
Besides this Papal, there appears also another
French plot, or correspondence (an afterthought, sug-
gested to Oates by the discovery of Coleman'aletten),
*i
OATKS'S FLOT
175
OATKS'S PLOT
earned on by Sir Ellia Layton, Mr. Goldman and
others. Under ordinarv circumfltances so flimsy a
fabric would have been Drought to the ground by the
first breath of criticism. But it was taken up by the
Whig Party and made into what Echard calls ''a po-
litical contrivance". Shaftesbury, their leader, used
it for all its worth.. It was quite oonunonly called
"the Shaftesbiu^ Plot''. Whether, as some believe,
he had a hand in constructing the plot or not, very
much of the blame of its consequences must rest upon
the use he made of it. Chiefly bv the influence and
machinations of Shaftesbury ana his party. Parlia-
ment was incited to declare that "there nath been and
still is a damnable and hellish Plot, contrived and
carry'd on by popish recusants, for the assassinating
and murdermg the King ana for subverting the
government and rooting out and destr^ng the Prot-
estant Religion.'' Many who, with EUiot, thou^^t
Oates's stories of the ''JfifiOO Black-hiUa, the Army
of Spanish Pilgrima and idUitary commiseians from
Generid lyOlwa (S.J.) so monstrously ridiculous that
tiiey offer an intolerable affront to the understandmg
of any man who has but a very indifferent account
of the affairs of Euroj)e*\ nevertheless thought also
that, "because His majestv and coimcil have declar'd
there is a PopUh-Flot, therefore they have reason
to believe one.
Oates had now become the most popular man in the
country and acclaimed himself as "the Saviour of the
Nation". He assumed the title of "Doctor", pro-
fessing to have received the degree at Salamanca, a
city it is certain he never visited; put on ei)iscopal at-
tire; was lodged at Whitehall ; went about with a body-
guard; was received by the primate: sat at table with
peers; and, thou^ snubbed bv the King, was solemnly
thanked by Parliament, which granted him a salary of
£12 a week for diet and maintenance, occasional gifts of
£50 or so, and drafts on the Treasury to meet his bills.
Yet, Oates would have forsworn himself to little pur-
pose but for the mysterious death of Sir Edmund
Berry Godfrey, the magistrate before whom Oates's
depositions had been sworn. The WhigiParty put the
blame of this crime — ^if murdte it was — ^upon the
Catholics. Godfrey had been a friend to Catholics
rather than an enemy, and had made use of the infor-
mation received from Oates to do them a service: no
good could come to them, and no harm to their ene-
mies, by robbing the magistrate of the copy of Oates's
deposition which he retained. Moreover, both his
pockets and his house were undisturbed by the sup-
posed assasains. Nevertheless the unanimous verdict
was murder, the murder of a good Protestant and a
magistrate who had to do with the plot. "The capi-
tal and the whole nation", says Macaulay, "went mad
with hatred and fear. The penal laws, which had
begun to lose something of their edge, were sharpened
anew. Everywhere justices were busied in searching
houses and seising papers. All the gaols were filled
with Papists. Lonaon had the aspect of a city in a
state of siege. The train bands were under arms all
night. Preparations were made for barricading the
great thoroughfares. Patrols marched up and down
the streets. Cannon were planted round Whitehall.
No citisen thought himself safe unless he carried under
his coat a small flail loaded with lead to brain the
Popish assassins." For awhile, every word that Oates
said was believed. The courts of law, before which
the arrested Catholics were brought^ were blind and
deaf to his shufflings and contradictions and lies.
Other disreputable witnesses were picked up in the
gutter or prisons and encouraged to come forward,
and were paid huidsomely for brin^^ng additional
perjuries to corroborate those of their chief. The
lord chief justice on the Bench would listen to nothing
which discredited the king's witnesses; and although,
in trials where the prisoners were denied counsel, ne
himself dbould, by ancient custom, have looked to
their interests, he exerted the full authority of the
Court to bring about their condemnation. Sixteen
innocent men were executed in direct connexion with
the Plot, and eight oHiers were brou^t to the scaf-
fold as priests in the persecution of Catholics which
followed from it. The names of those executed for
the plot are: in 1678 Edward Coleman (Dec. 3); in
1679, John Grove, William Ireland, S.J. (Jan. 24),
Robert Green, Lawrence Hill (Feb. 21), Henry Berry
(Feb. 28). Thomas Pickering. O.S.B. (May 14), Rich-
ard Langnom (June 14), John Gavan, S.J., William
Harcourt, S.J., Anthony Turner, S.J., Thomas White-
bread, S.J., John Fenwick, S.J. (June 20): in 1680,
Thomas Thwing (Oct. 23), William Howani, Viscount
Stafford (Dec. 20); in 1681, Oliver Plunket, Arch-
bishop of Arma^ (July 1). Those executed as
priests were: in 1679, William Plessinston (July 10),
Philip Evans, John Lloyd (July 22), Kicholas Post-
eate (Aug. 7), Charles Mahony (Aug. 12), John Wall
(Francis Jolmson), O.S.F., John Kemble (Aug. 22),
Charles Baker CDavid Lewis). S.J. (Aug. 27).
It remains to oe said about "the Popish Plot" that,
since the day when its inventor was discredited, no
historian of any consequence has professed to believe
in it. A few vaguely assert that there must have been a
plot of some sort. But no particle of evidence has ever
been discovered to corroborate Oates's pretended reve-
lations. A contemporary Protestant nistorian says:
"After the coolest and strictest examinations, and
after a full length of time, the government could find
very little foundation to support so vast a fabrick, be-
sides down-right swearing and assurance: not a eun,
sword or dagge'r; not a flask of powder or a dark lan-
thom, to effect this villany; ana excepting Coleman's
writings, not one scrap of an original letter or commis-
sion, among the great numbers alleged, to uphold the
reputation of the discoveries." Since then tne public
and private archives of Europe have been liberally
thrown open to students, and the most of them dih-
gently examined; yet, as Mr. Marks, also a Protestant,
wrote a few years ago: "Through all the troublous
times when belief in the Popish Plot raged, one
searches in vain for one act of violence on the part of
(Catholics. After the lapse of two hundred years, no
single document has come to light establishing in any
one particular any single article of the eighty-one."
In Januai^, 1670, Oates, whose reputation was al-
ready declinmg, together with his partner, Bedloe,
laid an indictment before the Privy Council in thir-
teen articles, against Chief Justice Scroggs, because of
the part he took in the acquittal of WakemStU, Mai^
shall, Rumley, and Corker; and in the same year, the
Rev. Adam Elliot was fined £200 for saying that
" Oates was a perjur'd Rogue, and the Jesuits who suf-
fered, justly died Martyrs.'' But in August, 1681,
Israel BacluiDUse, master of Wolverhampton Gram-
mar School, when charged with a similar libel was ac-
quitted. In the same year, Oates was thrust out of
Whitehall, and next year (Jan., 1682) Elliot prose-
cuted him successfully for perjury. In April, 1682, his
pension was reduced to £2 a week. In June of that
year he was afraid to come forward as a witness against
Kearney, one of the four supposed Irish ruffians de-
nounced by him in his depositions. Then, while King
Charles was still living, he vainlv presented petitions
to the king and to Sir Leoline Jenkins against the plain
speaking of Sir Roger L'Estrange, and two months
later (10 May), he was himself committed to prison
for calling the Duke of York a traitor. On 18 June,
he was fined bv Jud^e Jeffreys £100,000 for acandcdum
magnatum. Then, m May, 1680, he was tried for per-
jury, and condemned to be whipped, degraded, and
pilloried, and imprisoned for life. Jeffreys said of him :
He has deserved more punishment than the laws of
the land can inflict."
When William of Orange came to the throne, Oates
left prison and entered an unsucceasf ul appeal in the
OATHB 176 OATHB
House of Lords against his sentence. Later, he ob- licit, and an act of virtuf , under certain conditions,
tained a royal purdon and a pension, which was with- It is, in effect, an act of homage rendered by the crea-
drawn in 1693 at the instancy of Queen Maiy, whose ture to the wisdom and omnipotence of the Creator —
father, James II, he had scandalously attacked. After it is therefore an act of the virtue of religion; mc»^
Nf ary's death, he was granted from the Treasury £500 over, it is an excellent way of affordii^ men security
to pay his debts and £300 per annum during the life- in their mutual intercourse. It is justified in the Ola
time of himself and his wife. In 1690 he was taken and New Testament; the faithful and the Church from
up by the Baptists, only to be again expelled the min- Apostolic times to the present day have employed
istry, this time for ** a discreditable intrigue for wring- oaths; and canonical legislation and doctrinal decrees
ing a legacy from a devotee". In 1691 he attempted have aflSimed their lawfulness. Improper iise is often
cmother fraudulent plot, but it came to nothing. He made of oaths, and the habit of swearing may easily
died in Axe Yard, on 12 July, 1705. lead to abuses and even to perjury. In counselling
Besides the ** Narrative of the Horrid Plot and Con- men " not to swear at all '^ (Matt., v^ 34) Christ meant,
spiracy of the Popish Party" (London, 1679), Oates as the Fathers and ecclesiastical wnters explain, to be
wrote "The Cabinet of Jesuits' secrets opened" (said «o truthful that men could believe them without need
to be translated from the Italian), '^ issued and com- of oath to confirm what they say. He did not forbid
pleted by a gentleman of Quality" (London, 1679), the use of oaths under proper conditions, when neces-
''The Pope's Warehouse; or the Merchandise of the sary to satisfy others of our truthfulness. These con-
Whore ot Rome" (London, 1679), dedicated to the ditions are (Jer., iv, 2): (1) Judgment, or careful and
Earl of Shaftesbunr, "The Witch of Endor; or the reverent consideration of the necessity or utility of
witchcrafts of the Koman Jezebel, in which you have the oath; for it would be showing a want of the respect
an account of the Exorcisms or conjurations of the due to (jod, to invoke Him as witness in trivial mat-
Papists", etc. (London, 1679); "I&IkCip Bo^iXori), or the tens; on the other hand, it would be wrong to require
Picture of the late King James drawn to the Life" a g^ve or extreme necessity. To swear without a
(Part I, London, 1696; Parts II, III. and IV, 1697). sufficient reason, beine an iole use of (jod's name, is
Pollock, rA« PopuhPiot (London. 1903) : Mammm^wko KUUd venial sin; (2) truth, for what we affirm should be in
S%r Edmund Berry Godfreyf (London, 190«) ; State TruiU; Swj- «nnfnrmit v with t>iP tnith nnnnpniiPnf 1 v in ojkat* nf
coifBB in Did. Nat. Biog., s. v.: CoBBrrr, PariiamefUttry Hiatory, coMormity wiin inc truin. ^nsequentiv in case 01
IV: CHABLn DoDD. Church Hiatory of Enoiand, III (London, an assertory Oath, our affirmation must be truthful,
lit!}'' SALMON, Bzaminaticn of Burnet' • niaiary, II (London, and in a promissory oath we must have the intention
1724); Eluot. A Modnt V\ndxcat%on of T^ua Oataa (London, ^a Arkintr vrliof «ta oka nw^^nimnw Tr>. orwr^txm ft^lt^A-^
1682)1 FOLBT. Racorda S. /., V (London. 1879); MacauLlt. Lik- ®^ ^^}^, ^'^ ^? "? pronusmg. To SW^ falsely
aAUD, Buum, Hiatory of Enyiand. CuTHBERT Almond. Constitutes the sm of perjurv, always mortal m its
nature: for it is an insult to the Divine Truth to call
Oaths. — I. Notion and Divisions. — ^An oath is God in witness to a lie; besides, such an act is likely
an invocation to (jod to witness the truth of a state- to do injunr to the common good; see the propositions
ment. It mav be express and direct, as when one condemnedbylnnocentXI, prop, xxiv; (3) justice re-
swears by Cxod Himself; or implicit ana tadt, as when quiring : (a) in the case of an assertory oath, that it be
we swear by creatures, since they bear a special rela- lawful to make the affirmation which one wishes to
tion to the Creator and m^iifest His majesty and the corroborate; failure to observe this condition is a
supreme Truth in a special' way: for instance, if one venial sin, as when boasting of some evil deed one
swear by heaven, the throne of God (Matt., v, 34), should swear to it; it is a grievous sin, if one employs
by the Holy Cross^ or by the Gospels. Imprecatorv an oath as the means and instrument of sin, at least
oaths are also tacit (see below). To have cm oatn of mortal sin, for example, to make a person believe a
in foro intemo, there must be the intention, at least p&ve detraction; (b)'in the case of a promissory oath,
virtual, of invokins the testimony of God, and a word justice requires that one be able to assume licitly the
or siffn bv which the intention is manifested. Oaths obligation of doing the thing promised. It is a mor-
may be: (l) assertory — or affirmative — ^if we call God tal sin to promise an oath to do a grievously illicit
to witness the assertion of a past or present fact; thing; ana it is, in the opinion of St. Alphonsus
promissorv, if we call Him to witness a resolution Uji^ori, a mortal sin to swear to do a thing which is
which we bind ourselves to execute, or a vow made to illicit though not grievously so.
Him, or an agreement entered into with our neighbour. III. Obligation Arising from a Promissory
or a vow made to (jod in favour of a third party ; every Oath.— In a promissory oath, we call on God not only
promissory oath includes of necessity an assertory as a witness of our desire to fulfil the promise we make,
oath (see below). A promissory oath accompanied by but also as a guarantee and pledge for its future exe-
a threat against a third part^ is said to be commina- cution; for at the proper moment He will require us,
tory; (2) contestatory — or simple — ^If there is a mere under pun of sin against the virtue of religion, to do
invocation of the Divine testimony; imprecatory — or what we have promised in His presence; whence it
execratory — as in the formula ''So hdp me (Sod''; follows that it is a sin against religion not to perform,
if at the same time we call upon God as a judge and when we can, what we promised under oath: a mortal
avenger of perjury, offering Him our property and sin if the matter is grave; a venial sin (according to
especially our me and eternal salvation, or those of the more common and more probable opinion), if the
our friends, as a pledge of our sincerity. Thus the ex- matter is not ^ave. Certain conditions are requisite
pression: ''Upon my soul'', often used without any before a promissory oath entails the obligation of ful-
mtention of swearing, may be either contestatory — filling it, notably the intention of swearing apd of
the soul being in a special manner the image of God — binding oneself, full deliberation, the lawfulness of
or execratory — if we wish to call down upon our soul making the promise, as well as the lawfulness and pos-
Divine punishment, either temporal or eternal, in case sibility of executing it, etc. Several causes may put
we be wantiti^ in sincerity; (3) private, if used be- an end to this obligation: intrinsic causes, such as a
tween private mdividuals; public, if exacted by public notable change occurring after the taking of the oath,
authorities; public oaths are divided into: (a) doctrinal, the cessation of the fiiud cause of the oath; or ex-
by which one declares that he holds a given doctrine, trinsic causes, such as annulment, dispensation, oom-
or promises to be faithful, to teach, and to defend a mutation, or relaxation granted by a competent au-
given doctrine in the future; (b) political, which have thority, a release, express or tacit, either by the person
as their object the exercise of any authority whatso- in whose favour the obligation was undertaken, or by
ever, or submission to such an authority or laws; (c) a competent authority to whom the beneficiary is sub-
judicial, which are taken in courts of justice either by ject.
the parties to the suit or the witnesses thereof. ^ g^ ^^^ ^^,^ ^„ ^^^ theology. espeouUly: St. Thomas
II. Lawfulness and CONDmONS.—An oath is Aquinas, .Sum. rJbeof.. II-II. Q. Ixniz. Q. zoviii; Br. Auvomus
OATH 177 0ATB8
Lrouou. ThMl, mor,, Ub. IV, tract. II. cap. ii: Noumr. Th4»u, was no law to enforce an answer, there was no spedflo
Mor„ II (7th ed.). nn. 243 aqq.; Lbhmkuhl, Thsci, mor., I (2iid np„«Uv fnr rt^fuM] T\uf ihmu^ who rtkfusu^ fn s^nawAi'
ed.). nn. 662 mq.; Goxpfbbt, Der Bid (Main*, 1883); Slatbr. penalty lorreiusai. isut inose wnoretuseatoanswoT,
A Manual of Moral TheUogy, I (New York. 1909). 240 aqq. were decned as traitors; and then proceeded against to
A. Vandbb Hebren. the uttermost by other persecuting laws. Those who
r%«4.u iLrTaa^TTT>T T™«n <^^ ^T^^fr c\ Kf^ MiaarkTTi>T ^ ^^'^ auswors showed any loyalty to the Holy See
Oath, Missouri Test. See Test Oath, Missoubi. ^ere in the same pUght, a mark for persecution tiU
Oaths, English Post-Refobmation. The Englis^ they bent or broke. But those who answered disre-
Reformation having been imposed by the Crown, it spectfully, were treated less cruelly,
was natural that submission to the essential points of Towards the end of EUzabeth's reign, a split began
its formularies should have been exacted with some in the Catholic rapks on this subject. Some of the
solemnity, by oath, test, or formal declaration, and priests who had joined in the well-known Appeal
that these should change with the varying moods of against the archpnest Blackwell had afterwards pre-
those who dominated in the State. sented to Elizabeth a "Protestation of Allegiance''
I. — Oath of Royal Suprem act. — ^This oath was (Tiemey-Dodd, infraj iii, Ap. 188). Declarations of
imposed in March 1534 (26 Henry VIII, c. 1). The loyalty there had been before in plenty: those made
title ''Supreme Head" luul first been introduced by by the martyrs being often extraordinarily touching.
HenryVIIIintoadecreeof convocation, 11 February, But the signatories of 1603, perhaps stimulated by
1531; and had been strenuously resisted by the clergy. Cisalpine ideas, for the Protestation was drawn up
Tliough it did not as yet have any religious significance, in Paris, besides protesting their loyalty, went on to
and might be a matter of compliment only, it mi^t, withhold from the pope an3r possible exercise of the
the^ feared, receive another interpretation later. But deposing power. Before this Catholic loyaUsts had
acting under the advice of Fisher, Warham, and only denied the validity of the deposition pronounced
others, whose orthodoxy is above suspicion, they subn- by Pius V. Several reasons seemed to justify this
mittea after adding the conditional phrase, ''quantum rrotestation, at the time it was made (see Bishop,
per legem Dei licef . Two years later a change had William), though unfortunate developments fol-
taken place, which had previously seemed inconceiv- lowed later.
able. The king had actually broken with ,the pope, II. — Oath of Allegiance of James I (1606) also
and Parliament had enacted that the king should be called the Oath of Obedience. After the Gunpow-
" taken, accepted and reputed the only supreme head der Plot (q. v.) a systematic effort was made to perse-
on Earth of the church of England" by every one of cute Catholics at eveiy turn from the cradle to the
his subjects. But no formula for the oath was grave, by penalizing Catholic baptisms, marriages,
laid down in the Act, and great differences seem to burials, as well as education, acquisition of property,
have prevailed in practice. Many long "acknowledg- Ac. An attempt was also made to divide and dis-
ments of supremacy" are extant (Camm, "English grace Catholics in the matter of allegiance. It was
. Martyrs", 1, 401) but it would seem that most people known, from the "Protestation", that there were dif-
were only asked to swear to the Succession, that is to ferences of opimon on the subject of the pope's depos*
the king's marriage with Anne Boleyn, which the pope ing power, and an oatb of allegiance was drafted to
condemned, and which therefore involved the suprem- make capital out of those differences (for the author-
acy, thou^ the form of the Oath of Succession pre- ship of the formula, see Thurston infray and Tiemev-
served mThe Lords' JoumdUj refers to the supremacy Dodd, iv, 71). The more important clauses are the
with insidious Ughtness. We do not know what was following: — "I, A. B., do truly and sincerely acknowl-
its form, when Fisher and More refused to sign it. edge, Ac. that our sovereign lord, King James, is law-
They were ready to accept the succession of Anne ful and rightful King Ac. and that the pope neither of
Boleyn's children, but refused the supremacy (Bridg- himself nor by any authority of Churcn or See of
ett, in/ra 264-86) . Rome, or by any other means with any other, has any
The Act of Supremacy was repealed by Queen Mary power to depose the king Ac, or to authorize any f or-
(1 Ph. and M. c. 8) and revived by Elizabeth (1 EUz. c. eign prince to invade him Ac. or to give licence to any
1). The formula then adopted ran: "I, A. B.. do ut- to bear arms, raise tumults, ac. Ac. Also I do swear
terly testify and declare in my conscience, that the that notwithstanding any sentence of excommunica-r
Queen's Highness is the only supreme Grovemor of the tion or deprivation I will bear allegiance and true
Realm ... as well in all Spiritual or Ecclesiasticiil faith to his Majesty &c. &c. And I do further swear
thinim or caus^ as Temporal, Ac. &c. &c. So help that I do from my heart abhor, destest, and abjure, as
me God." This was not to be proposed at once to impious and heretical this damnable doctrine and posi-
every one; but was to be taken by the clergy, and by tion, — that princes which be excommunicated by the
all holding office under the Crown; by others, when pope may be deposed or murdered by their subjects or
asked. This moderation in exacting the oath helped oy any other whatsoever. And I do believe that the
to prevent an outcry against it^ and enabled the Uov- pope has no power to absolve me from this oath. I do
emment to deal with the recalcitrant in detail. Many swear accoroing to the plain and common sense, and
years elapsed, for instance, before it was imposed on understanding of the same words Ac. Ac. &c." (3
the oraduates of the universities. The last laws passed James I, c. 4). This oath was proclaimed law on 22
by Elizabeth against Catholics (1592-3) enjomed a Jime, 1606.
new test for Recusants (35 Eliz. c. 2). It comprised Ol^ectums. — On 22 September following the pope
(1) A confession of "grievous offence against God in condemned the formula, "It cannot be taken, as it
contemning her Majesty's Government"; (2) Royal contains many things evidently contrary to faith and
Supremacy; (3) A clause against dispensations and salvation." It was prudent of the pope, not to at-
dissimulations, perhaps the first of its sort in oaths of tempt to enumerate the objectionable points, for this
this class. The success of EUzabeth's "settlement of would have increased the tension, and it is even now
religion", had been really due to her alliance with the difficult to specify them, partly because of the ambi-
party afterwards called Puritans, and they were not ^ty of the terms used; partly because of the deceitful
in love with the supremacy, or unaware that it was mterpretation put upon them by the English authori-
unpopular and tyrannical. ties. For James now hypocritically asserted that his
in order to excuse their persecutions they there- oath was not meant to encroach upon anyone's con-
fore preferred (especially after the excommunication scientious convictions. Hereupon mininuzers began
of the queen) to make an informal test by asking the to maintain that the words of the oath miajbi be inter-
suspected person whether he would fi^dit against the preted by the intention of the law-(pver, that the oath
pope, if he sent an army to restore Catholicism. The might therefore be tsdcen. But it is necessary here to
Catholics called this the " bloody question". There advert to the Church's doctrine concerning veracity in
XI.— 12
OATHB 178 OATB8
oalhi. Tbeae we believe to be addreased to €iod him- intended to throw doubt upon the lojaXty of Catho-
0elf and to be accepted in the predae aenae of the lies, and so to divide and disgrace tliem, and this it
words pronounced. If King James had made his actually did. Like aO religious testa imposed by enfr-
subjects swear qiedfically " in the sense by him mies it was something, not to amend, out to avoid
explained", the oath mig^t peiiiaps have been en- altogether.
dured, but when he made them "swear according to D. — The DUhonour to the Holy 5#e. — ^This oath and
the plain and oomjnon sense, and understanding of the aO those of a similar character amount to a statement
same words", to what was mjurious to Cathofic con- beforehand of "the conditions under niiich the Holy
sciences, this could not be tolerated. Of the many See will be disobeyed '\ and Rome has ever considered
objections raised against the oath, the following are such proposals as dishonourable to herself, iust as a
perhaps the chief. nation would consider it a dissrace to la^ down b&-
K.-^hiectionable Wordg. — The most objectionable forehand the terms under whidi her soldiers were to
words were those in which the deposing power was capitulate.
sworn to be "impious, heretical and damnable." In £!. — The Controoeny. — ^The archpriest BlackweO.
previous centunes g^ierations and generations of then head of the English clergy, had at first disapproved
loyal subjects, and numberless patriots and lawyers, of the oath, then allowed it, then after t^e pope's
and doctors and saints of the Church (with exceptions. Brief disallowed it again, and finally bcang arrested
of course, but upon the whole in a larxe majority) had and thrown into prison, took the oath, reljdnjs on
considered that this power was a valuable safeguard James's statement that no encroachment on conscience
for liberty both refi^ous and civil. In later days was intended, and recommended the faithful to do
some people might think it out of date, inapplicable, the like. The pope at once issued a new Brief (23
extinct, perhaps even a mistake. But to call God to August, 1607), repeating his prohibition, and on 28
witness that one execrated it as "impious, heretical Sept., 1607, Cardinal Bellarmme wrote to BlackweU
and damnable ", was what no God-fearing adherent of exhorting mm to obey the Brief at any cost. As this
theoldFaith,wno knew what he said and to whom he also proved ineffectual a new arehpriest, George
spoke, could conscientiously do. Indc^ anyone who Birkhead, or Birkett, was appointed 1-10 Feb., 16(S.
carefully weighs the terms of this oath, will see that and Blackwell was informed that his faculties would
the rights of the pontiff are so unreservedly denied, be taken away if he did not retract in two months,
that no room whatsoever is left for the assertion of This, however, he still refused to do, and. much to
ecclesiastical liberties. This shows the afllnities of the Kin^ James's satisfaction, continued to defend his
oath with Gallicanism (q. v.), which was acquiring opimon for three years before he was finally sus-
such vogue upon the continent in those days. The pended. Blackwell's example, as may be imagined,
Sorbonne, on 30 June, 1681, very shortly before ap- had but 'too great an influence, and he found succes-
proving the Gallican articles, censored the English sors in his unfortunate apostolate for many a year
oath, and found in it very little to object to (Butler, I, afterwards.
35 1 ) . The words here under discussion also evidently Meantime James had himself undertaken to answer
presume that he who takes the oath believes in the the missives sent to Blackwell. This he did anony-
" Divine right of kings". mously in a tract with ^e quaint title, " Triplici nodo,
B. — The Deposing Power, — While all Catholics triplex cuneus" ("A triple wedge for a triple knot", i.e.,
would condemn the extreme statements just men- for two Bri^s and the Cardinars letter). This was
tioned, as to the deposing power, there were also many answered by Bellarmine, also anonymously, " Respon-
at that time, and they of the highest name, who con- sio ad librum: Triplici nodo, triplex cuneus" (1608).
sidered any denial of that power as illicit. Two or James now dropped his anonymity, and reprinted his
three generations only had passed since the discipline tract with a " Ftemonition to Christian Princes ", and
of papal deposition for extreme cases of misgovern- an appendix on his adversaries' supposed mistakes
ment had been generally accepted. In some parts of (Jan., 1609). Upon this, Bellarmine published, now
Europe it was still the law. Many, and PaufV with also using his own name, his "Apologia pro resppn-
his medieval ideals was among them, had not yet per- sione ad librum Jacobi I" (1609). James opposed to
ceived that this discipline would never be in vogue this a treatise by a learned Scottish Catholic, W. Bar-
again, even in Catholic countries. This explains why clay, "De potestate papie" (1609). Barclay was a
Bellarmine, Persons, and several other early oppo- decided Gallican, and Bellarmine's answer, " Tracta-
nents of the oath went further in their condemnation tus de potestate summi pontificis in rebus temporali-
of it than later theologians would have done. At the bus" (1610), gave such offence to the gallicanising
same time it is a mistake to suppose that Catholic re- party in France, that it was publicly burnt in Paris by
the Catholic writers, like Preston and others who request of the pope. At every stage of the contest be-
wrote in defence of the oath, or who had Gallican lean- tween the two champions a host of minor combatants
ings. such as Charles Butler and Canon Tiemey (But- joined the fray. Here it must suffice to enumerate
ler, 1 , 369. 396 ; IV, 120, Ac. ; Tiemey-Dodd, IV, 78 n., the chief names. On the Catholic side. Cardinal Du-
81 n.). We have seen on the contrary that there perron, Leonard Lessius, Jacob Gretser, Thomas
were from the first English Catholic Non-jurors who Fitsherbert, Martin Becan, Caspar Scioppi, Robert
explicitly rejected the deposing power. Doctor Wil- Persons, Adolph Schulckenius (who according to Som-
liam Bishop, for instance, did this, but still underwent mervogel is an independent writer, not a pseudonym
imprisonment for refusing the oathj and he was after- for Bellarmine, as has been asserted), N. Coeffeteau,
wards made a bishop by the Holy See. A. Eudsemon Joannes. On the other side Bishop
C— Fraudulent Object of the Oath.— It was always Lancelot Andrewes, William Barlow, Robert Biirlull,
known that the loyalty of the Catholic body was un- Pierre du Moulin, and especially the Benedictine
impeachable. The reign of Charles I and the fall of Roger Widdrington, vere Preston. Most of the Prot-
thc Stuarts showed that is was really far stronger than estant books written in Latin, together with all the
that of any other religious body. The Oath of AUe- publications of Preston and Barclay, were put upon
?;iance was designed to obscure this. As a man's repute the Roman Index.
or veracity may be impaired by prolonged examina- F. — Subsequent History, — Some ideas of the press-
tion on the subject of mental reservation and the like, ure caused hv the oath may be gathered from the
and by exacting oaths about truthfulness, so these Acts of the Venerable martyrs, Drury, Atkinson, Al-
elaborate protests against the deposing power were mond, Thulis, Arrowsmith, Herat, Gervaae, Thomas
0ATB8
179
OATHS
Qamettf Gavan, and Heath j the laat two have left writ-
ings agfl^t it. Another illustration will be found
in the nistoiy of the first Lord Baltimore, whose at-
tempt to settle in Virginia, where the oath had
been introduced in 1609, was defeated by it. The
second Lord Baltimore, on the other hand, ordered
his adventurers to take the oath, but whether he
insist€Ki on this is uncertain (Hugnes, "Soc. of Jesus
in N. America'', pp. 260-1, 461 and pmHm), King
Charles I generally recognised that Cathohes could
not conscientiouslv take the Oath of Supremacy, and
frequently exerted his prerogative to help them to
avoid it. On the other hand his theory of the Di-
vine right of kings induced him to favour the Oath of
Allegiance, and ne was irritated with the Catholics
who refused it or argued against it. Urban VIII is
said to have condemned the oath 8;^ain in 1626 (Reusch.
327), and the controversy continued. Preston still
wrote in its defence; so also, at King Charles's order,
did Sir William Howard (1634) ; this was probably the
future mart3rr (q. v.). Their most important oppo-
nent was Father Edward Courtney (vere Leedes; cf.
Gillow, ** Bibl. Diet.", s. v. Leedes, £dwaid), who was
therefore imprisoned by Charles. The matter is fre-
quently mentioned in the dispatches and the "Rela-
tione" of Panzani (q. v.), the papal agent to Queen
Henrietta Maria (Maziere Brady, '^ Catholic Hier-
archy", Rome, 1883, p. 88).
III. Oath of Abjttration ttndkr the Common-
wealth, 1643. — ^When the Puritan party had ^uned
the upper hand during the civil wars, the exaction of
the Oaths of Supremacy and Allegiance fell into desue-
tude, and they were repealed by the Act of February,
1650, and thdr place taken by an "engagement of
allegiance" to the Commonw^th. But the lot of
the Catholics was not only not ameliorated Uiereby;
it was made far worse by the enactment of an "Oath
of Abjuration". This was passed 19 August, 1643,
and afterwards, in 1656, reissued in an even more ob-
jectionable form. Everyone was to be "adjudged a
Papist" who refused this oath, and the consequent
penalties began with the confiscation of two thiitis of
the recusanrs gpods, and went on to deprive him of
almost every civic right. Monstrous as the enact-
ments were, their barbarity caused some shame among
the more nigh-minded, and in practice they were
sparingly enK>rced. Tnev checked the gallicanizing
party among the English Catholics. wUch had at
first been r^idy to offer forms of suomission similar
to the old oath of Allegiance, which is stated (Reusch,
335) to have been condemned anew about this time
by Innocent X. The chief writer on the Catholic
side was the lawyer Austin, who generally used the
pseudonym Birchley.
IV. The Test Oath, 1672, 1678. also known as
the Declaration or Attestation Oath. — ^The first
Parliament after the Restoration revived the Oaths of
Supremacy and Allegiance, which were taken on 14
July, 1660. The Catholics in England being at first
in some favour at Court, managed, as a rule, to escape
taking it. In Ireland the old controversy was revived
through an address to the Crown, called "The Irish
Remonstrance", which emphasised the principles of
the condemned Oath of Alle^ance. It haa been
drawn up by a Capuchin fnar (who afterwards
left the order), called Peter Walsh (Valesius), who
gubUshed many books in its defence, which pub-
cations were eventually placed upon the Index.
(Maziere Brady, "CathoUc Hierarchy", Rome, 1888,
p. 126.) After the conversion of James, then Duke
of York, the jealousy of the Protestant party in-
creased, and m 1672 a Test Act was carried by
Shaftesbury, which compelled all holders of office un-
der the Crown to make a short "Declaration against
Transubstantiation", vis., to swear that "there is not
any transubstantiation in the sacrament of the Lord's
Supper^ ... at or after the consecration ihateoi by
any person whatsoever" (25 Chss. II,' c. 2). This
test was effective: James resigned his post of Lord
High Admiral. But when the country and the Pariia-
ment had gone mad over Oates's plot, 1678, a much
longer and more insulting test was devised, which
added a further clause that "The invocation of the
virgin Mary, or any Saint and the Sacrifice of the
Msss . . . are superstitious and idolatrous . . and
that I make this declaration without any evasion,
equivocation, or mental reservation whatsoever, and
without any dispensation already granted me by the
pope, &c.f &c. (30 Chas. II, ii. 1). In modem times,
the formula has become notorious (as we shall see)
under the title of "the King's Declaration". At the
time it was appointed for office holders and the mem-
bers of both Houses, except the Duke of York. On
the death of Charles, James II succeeded, cmd he
would no doubt have gladly abolished the anti-Catho-
lic oaths altogether. But he never had the oppor-
tunitv of bringing the project before Parliament. Of
the (5aths of Supremacy and Allegicmce we hear less
in this reigxi^ but the Test was the subject of constant
discussion, for its form and scope had been expressly
intended to hamper a reform such as James was insti-
tuting. He freea himself, however, more or less from
it by the Dispensing Power, especially after the decla-
ration of the judges, June, 1686, that it was contrary to
the principles of the constitution to prevent the Crown
from using the services of any of its subjects when
they were needed. But the Revolution of 1688
quickly brought the Test back into greater vogue than
ever. The mst Parliament summoned after the tri-
umph of William of Orange added a clause to the Bill
of Rights, which was then passed, by which the Sov-
ereign was himself to take the Declaration (1 W. & M.,
sess. 2, c. 2.). While the Test was obligatory on hold-
ers of every sort of office, there was little need to insist
on the old Oaths of Supremacy and Allegiance. They
were therefore cut down to a line or two, and joined
with the oath of fidelity to King WilUam (1 W. & M.,
sess. 1, c. 8). Bv this unworthy device no Catholic
could ever be admitted to accept the new regime,
without renounci^ his faith. This law marks the
•consummation of English anti-Catholic legislation.
V. The Irish Oath of 1774 to Emancipation,
1829. — ^For ninety years there seemed no hope of ob-
taining legislative relief from the pressure of the penal
laws, and the first relaxations were due to external
pressure. In 1770 General Burgoyne had proposed to
tree Catholic soldiers from the obligations of the Test,
but in vain. In 1771, however, it was necessary to
pacify Canada, and the Quebec Act was passed, the
first measure oi toleration for Catholics sanctioned by
Parliament since the da3rs of Queen Mary Tudor.
Soon after began the war of American Independence,
the difficulties of which gradually awakened EInglish
statesmen to the need of reconciling Catholics. The
Irish Government took the first step by undoing Wil-
liam Ill's wicked work of joining the profession of
fidelity to the sovereign with the rejection of papal au-
thority. In 1774 an oath was proposed of allegiance
to King George (§ 1) and rejection of the Pretender
(§ 2), but without prejudice to thepope's spiritual au-
thority, or to any dogma of the Faith. The alleged
malpractice of no faith with heretics" was renounced
(§ 3), so was the deposing power (§ 4), but without the
objectionable words, '' impious, damnable and hereti-
cal." The "temporal and civil jurisdiction of the
pope, direct and mdirect within the realm" was also
abjured (§ 5), and the promise was given that no dis-
pensation from ^is oath should be considered valid
(§ 6). This Irish Oath, of 1774, was accepted by the
legislative authorities as proof of loyalty, cmd it was
freelv taken, though several clauses were infelici-
touuy worded, though no advantage accrued from so
doing. In 1778 however, the first Relief Bill, also
called Sir G«orge Savile's Act, to reUeve the English
0AZ4GA 180 OAZ4GA.
Catholics from the worst oonsequences of the penal and Mn Redmond, but without the desired effect,
laws, came before the En^^ish Parliament, uid in it After the death of Kins Edward VII, however, King
was embodied the Irish Oath (18 George III, c. 60). George V is believed to nave urged the Government to
This Act was passed with little difficulty, and the oath brin^ in a repealing Act. This was done and pubho
was taken without remonstrance by the clergy of all opimon, after some wavering, finally declared itself
schools. strongly on the side of the JBill, which was carried
The relief given by the Bill of 1778 was so imperfect throiigh both Houses by large majorities, and received
that further legislation was soon called for, and now Royal Assent on 3 August, 1910, thus removing the
the disadvantages of the ^tem of tests were acutely last anti-Catholic oath or declaration from the English
felt. A conmiittee of lay Catholics, with GaULcan pro* Constitution,
clivities. who afterwards characteristically called them- QBNMAL.-^8ee th« srtiol«s B«ixAMninB; Burm, Charlw;
-ii™ *Lr J^:-lir:rr^r^«K\^^ ♦!.-» Challokbb; Enqlulnd sinct th» Refokmation: Fuhbr. John;
selves the Cisalpme Club were nCKOtiatrng with the Milkm; Pothteb. For the full tezte of the Aci of Parliament
Government (see Butler, CharUBS). To them it was aee Ths statutes at Large (London. 1702— ); BcOBXLL, CoUeetum
represented that if more conoe»amB were requir«l ^^'fj^^ <^^ '^jS^i.T'S:^^.^ iietS^
more assurances dlOUld be given. They W«« accord- ^^^^^ Parliamenlarti DAota; JownaU of (A. Hmm of Lord; and
the Irish Oath, but declaimed agamst them and others ^j^^ ^i^^ ^z ike Church in England (London, I8fi7); Gxixow,
of the same kind in strong but imtheological language. Bibl, Diet.; Diet. Nat, Biog.
It reintroduced, for instance, the objectionable terms _, P^S?H?^^™*-"~l-;;®"^°*"'f^**'i*- Joffn Fish^ (Lao^
tf *'^""**^^^ *"{ ™j j'^^' JTuiI^" I^ nT-*!. don. 1888); Qaxbdnbr. LoUardy and the Reformation xn England
"impious, heretlfcal and damnable" of James's Oath (London. 1908): Camm. Lives of English Martyrs (London. IWH).
of Allegiance. That complications might have ensued II.— Tibbnbt. Dodd^s Church History of England, IV (London.
from signing such a document was not difficult to fore- J^fii^S"^'^ ^JXfu r^Al^Mi^jAi^^ l^llS^^
see. Nevertheless, the committee msiSted (1; that x>, /acofco /. cum Card. R. Bdlarmino dumOante (PariB. 1900).
words would be tmderstood in a broad popular way. III. — ^Bibcblbt ivere Austin). The Catholique*s Plea (London,
jmd(2)that toobtaintheReUef Act itmurt signed ^^^I^d^j.^^j^^^
instantly. To prevent such a misfortxme, it was freely tHUBWON. Titus Oatee's Test (London. 1909) ; Idbm in The Tablet
signed by laity and clergy, and by the four vicars (London. 13 August. 1910). 292. v.— Mzlkeb. SuppUmenuay
Apostolic, but two of these recalled their names. ^Tl^' ''^,S^^nfn^fx^^t''^iMis?^\^'^I: fx
A^i^HW'*.^^, "^ • * " t- J 1. ua • J Ai. and Timee of BtshopChaUoner (Ijonaont 1909); WAMii, Davm of the
When, however, the signatures had been Obtamed, the Catholie Rental (London. 1909); Linoabd. The Catholic Oath in
new Relief Bill was brought forward by Government, The Catholie Mise^lany (1832. 1833). III. 368; IV. lOO. VI.—
with an oath annexed founded on the Protest (hence ^^ ^mSh'Sl^iSuc^Js^hM^w^S^ %08^'
called the "Protestation Oath"), which excluded from fiBiDOBrr, The RdigUms Test Acts in The Month (London. May!
relief those who would not swear to it, and accept the 1895). 68; Idbm. The English Coronation Oath in The Month (Lon-
name of "Protesting Catholic Dissenters". A crisis 1J2;,fe^i^®&' I^LSf^"?' ^** **^ Dedaration in The
had arisen for the CathoUc Church in England; but ^"^^ ^^~*°^ ^"^^ ^^^^' ^^' j h. Pollen.
with the crisis came the man. It was John Milner (q. ' . ' *
v.), then only a country priest^ to whose eneigy and Oazaea (or Amtbquibra), Archdiocese of.
address the (ussijpation of this danger was chieny due. situated in the southern part of the Republic of
The Second Rehef Act, therefore, passed (1791) with- Mexico, bounded on the north by the Bisnoprio of
out changing the previous oath, or the name of Catho- Huajuapam and the Archbishopric of Puebla, on the
lies. Thou^ the Emancipation Bill was eventually east by the Bishopric of Vera Cniz, on the west by
carried without any tests, this was not foreseen at first, that of Tehuantepec, and on the south by the Pacific
The Catholic Committee continued its endeavours for Ocean. When tne conquest of New Spain was ao-
disarminff Protestant prejudices, but their [proposals oomptishod. Hemto Cort^ sought the aid of the
(like the Veto) too oftcGi savoured of Gallicanism. So powerful Tlaxcaltecas, who had established a repub-
too did the oath annexed to the bill proposed in 1813. uc and were at war with the Aztec Emperor Mocte-
which from its length was styled the '^ Theological zuma. Out of gratitude to the Tlaxcidtecas, the
Oath". Eventually, owing to the Krowing influence first bishopric that was founded on the American
exercised by Daniel O'Connell and the Irish, Catholic continent was called Tlaxcala, that of Mexico was
Emancipation was fully, if tardily, granted without second, and later that of Guatemala. Oaxaca, the
any tests at all in 1&29. fourth in the oider of succession, was established,
Vl. Repeal of the Statutort Oaths against under the name of Antequera, by Paul III, 21 July,
CATHOLicrrr, 1867-1910.— The Relief Bills, hitherto 1535, the first bishop, the Right Rev. Juan L6pes
mentioned, were generally measures of rdief only, de ZAiate, having been preconized that same year,
leaving the old statutes, oaths, and tests still upon From then to the present day only thirty bishops
the Statute Book, and some of the chief officers of have governed the diocese, the last being the Most
State had still to take them. The actual repeal of the Rev. Eulogio G. GUlow, preconized 23 May, 1887.
disused tests and oaths of William III have only taken On 23 June, 1891, Antequera was raised to the rank
place in quite recent times. In 1867 the Declaration of an archbishopric by Leo XIII, and has, at the
was repealed (30, 31 Vict., c. 75). After this, the only present time as suffragan dioceses, Chiapas, Yucatan,
person bound to pronounce the oath was the king Tabasco, Tehuantepec, and Campeche.
nimself at the commencement of his reisn. In 1871 Prior to the Conquest the religion of the entire
the Promissory Oaths Bill removed all the old Oaths extensive region now comprised in the Archbishopric
of Allegiance (34, 35 Vict., c. 48). In 1891 the first of Antequera, or Oaxaca, was idolatry in vanous
attempt was made by Lord Herries in the House of forms, according to the different races that popu*
Lords to get rid of the king's Declaration, but the lated this district, the Mixteca, Zapoteca, Afixe, an-
amendments offered by Government were so insignifi- thinanteca predominating, although twenty-two en-
cant that the Catholics themselves voted against their tirely different dialects are known among them,
being proposed at all. In 1901 strong resolutions The famous ruins of Afitla indicate that the most
were passed against its retention by the Canadian venerable priest of the entire American continent
House of Commons, as also by its hierarchy, and resided there, one who was greatly venerated not
these were emphasized by similar petitions from the only by the different villages of the ancient Anahuac,
Iderarchies of Australia, and the Catholics of the but by others; as those of Peru. We know from
Rngliah colonies. In 1904, 1905, cmd 1908 bills or history that when the conquerors landed in Vera
motions to the same effect were introduced by Lord Cruz, Mootezuma consulted the High-Priest Achiuthu
Braye, Lord Grey, Lord Uandaff , the Duke of Noif olk» who aonounoed to him that the oracle had predicted
OBADXAH
181
OBI
-^On
the end of hia empire. Abjectly crushed, the Em-
peror yielded to the ^paniaras. The kings of
Zaaohila and Tehuontep^c received baptism and
submitted to the mild yoke of the Church. After
the conquest of Moctezuma's empire the Spaniards
who penetrated to Tenochtitl^ were amazed to see
the wealth that Moctezuma had accumulated, and in
all probability knew that a great part of the gold
came from Oaxaca. This would explain why from
the first they turned their footsteps towards Oaxaca,
where the first Mass was celebrated on 25 Nov.,
1521, feast of St. Catherine, martyr. Beginning then
development was very rapid, as much perhaps from
the fact that Cort^ was created Marqms of Valle de
Oaxaca, in recognition of his distinguished services,
as because of the rich mineral resources of the coun-
try, whose importance was such that it ranked next
to the City of Mexico itself. Missionaries of the
different reli^ous orders were introduced: Francis-
cans, Domimcans, Augustinians, Jesuits, Friars of
the Order of Mercy, Carmelites, Brothers of St. John,
Bethlehemites, and Oratorians. All these congrega-
tions built handsome churches in the capital of
Oaxaca, which are still in existence, with their con-
vents and subordinate houses annexed. The Do-
minicans laboured most zealously for the conversion
of the natives by means of missions and parochial
work. Four Bisnops of Oaxaca have been drawn
from that order, while foiu- other orders have each
contributed one.
The archbishopric at the present time comprises
besides the metropolitan chapter, which is composed
of the dean, archdeacon, and chanter, a theological
censor, a canon penitentiary, and six other canons.
There is a master of ceremonies, a priest sacristan of
the main cathedral, and four choir chaplains. The
ecclesiastical government consists of a vicar-general,
a secretary of the Executive Council, and two assist-
ants. The duties of the Provisorato are discharged
by the provisor, fiscal promoter, defender of the
Holy* Office, and diocesan attorney. There is also
a Conmiission of Rites, composed of fomr ecclesiastics,
one of Christian Doctrine under the charge of six
ecclesiastics, and a School Board made up of three
clergymen and two laymen.
There are 3 parishes in the dty each with its
respective chiurcn, and 19 other churches, that of
St. Dominic being notable for the beauty of its
architecture and the richness of its ornamentation.
The cathedral, which has a nave and four aisles, is
remarkable for the exquisite style and omateness of
its decorations, the beauty of its altars, sacred vessels,
and vestments, the present bishop having devotea
great thought and expenditure to improvements of
this kind, which increase the dignity of the service.
There exist in the archdiocese 25 foranias (deaneries)
which comprise 132 parishes and 223 priests.
Only within recent years have there been any
Protestants in Oaxaca; these hold their services in
private houses. It is not easy to give exactly the
number of Catholics belong^g to the archbishopric,
because they are chiefly natives who live in the rural
districts and surroundms mountains, but the popu-
lation is estimated in 1910 at 1,041.035. The State
does not sanction the existence of religious communi-
ties of men or women. Since they must cairy on their
various works without attracting public notice, it is
difficult to give statistics either of their number, or
of the institutions imder their care. So, too, wUle the
parochial schools are steadily increasing it is almost
mipossible to give their exact number. In the city
of Oaxaca (in 1910 pop. 37,469) there is a seminary
divided into three sections: ordained students
(dericalea), seminarians Ueminariatas), and prepanb*
tory students {apostolieoi), of whom 102 are interna,
under the charge of 6 Paulist Fathers, 6 assistant
professors, and 3 coadjutor brothers. The College
of the Holy Ghost, established to train the sons of
the best families for various careers, has 70 boarders
and 250 day scholars under the direction of 8 eccle-
siastics and several professors. There are 3 select
academies for young women, with an attendance of
600; 6 free schools for boys, with 1600 pupils, and
4 for girls, with 700. Among the charitable institu-
tions under Catholic control are a day nursery ac-
commodating 80 children under the care of 5 nurses,
a charity hospital with 24 beds. 12 for men and 12
for women, and a home for tne poor with about
90 inmates.
OiLLOw, AwunieM HiUdrioM (Mezioo, 1880); Battandub.
Ann, Poniif. (PariB, 1006). .
EULOOIO G. GiLLOW.
Obadiah. See Abdias.
Obaiine, Monastebt of, Diocese of Tulle, founded
by St. Stephen of Obazine about 1 134. After his ordi-
nation St. Stephen, with another priest, Pierre, besan
the eremitical life. They attracted a number of fol-
lowers and with the sanction of Eustorge, Bishop of
Tulle, built a monastery on a site granted them by the
Viscount Archambault.
Before 1142 they had no established rule; however,
in this year. St. Stephen was clothed with the regular
habit. He nad Cistercian monks train his followers in
their mode of life, and affiliated his abbey to Citeaux
(1147). The number increasing, several foundations
were made. Among the most illustrious abbots of
Obasine were Francois d'Escobleau (d. 1628), Arch-
bishop of Bordeaux, and Charles de la Roche-Aymon
(d. 1777), Cardinal Archbishop of Rennes. The
monastery was confiscated by the Government during
the Revolution (1791). 'The abbatial church, partly
restored, now serves as a parish church.
Lx Nain, Hist, de Citeaux (Paris. 1606-7); Guibxbt, Notice «iir
U Cartulaire d'Obanne (TuUe, 1800) : Vie de S. Etienne d'Obanne
rTuIle, 1881); Gallia ehrist., II; Manrique, Annalee eieterc.
CLyaoMt 1642); Janaubchbx, Originee eistere. (Vienna, 1877);
UXMBIQUXS, Mcndogium eielere. (Antwerp, 1630).
Edmond Obrecht.
Obba, titular see in Byzacena, northern Africa, of
unknown history, although mentioned by Pol)rbius
(Xiy, vi, under the name of Abba), and Titus Livius
(XXX, vii) . Situated on the hi^way from Carthage
to Theveste (Tebessa), seven miles from Lares (Lor-
beus) and sixteen from Althiburus (Henshir Me(tina),
it is the modem Ebba. Three bii^ops are known,
Paul, present at the (Council of Carthage in 225, prob-
ably tne Paul mentioned in the Martsnrology for 19
January; Felicissimus, a Donatist. present at the con-
ference at Carthage in 411; and Valerianus, at the
Council of Constantinople, 553.
TouLOTTX, OSog. de FAfrtgue chritienne: ProeonetUaire (Rennec
and Paris. 1892). 225.
S. P^TRinlis.
Obedience (Lat. obcedire, "to hearken to", hence
''to obey") is the complying with a command or pre-
cept. It is here regaraed not as a transitory and iso-
lated act but rather as a virtue or principle of righteous
conduct. It is then said to be the moral habit by
which one carries out the order of his superior with
the precise intent of fulfilling the injunction. St.
Thomas Aquinas considers the obligation of obedience
as an obvious consemience of the subordination estab-
lished in the world by the natural and positive law.
Tlie idea that subjection of any sort of one man to an-
other is incompatible with human freedom — a notion
that had vogue in the religious and political teachings
of the post-Keformation period — ^he refutes bv show-
ing that it is at variance with the constitutea nature
of thinn, and the pomtive prescriptions of Almighty
God. It is worthv of note that whilst it is possible
to discern a general aspect of obedience in some acts of
all the virtues, in so far as obedience stands for the ex-
ecution of anvthing that is of precept, it is con-
templated in this article as a defimtely special virtue*
OBBDHNCB 182 OBBDDBNGX
The element that differentiates it adequately from and, as a rule, also the performance of spiritual or oor-
other sood habits is found in the last part of the defini- poral works of mercy and charity; (c) the express or
tion weadv given. Stress is put upon the fact that miplied contract with an order (formerly also with a
one not only does what is actually enjoined but does person), which accepts the obligation to lead him to the
it with a nund to formaUy fall in with the will of the end for which he accepts its laws and direction. Re-
commander. It is in other words the homage rendered Ugious obedience, Uieref ore, does not involve that ex-
to authority which ranks it as a distinct virtue, tinction of all individuality, so often allied against
Among the virtues obedience holds an exalted place convents and the Church; nor is it unfimited, for
but not the highest. That distinction belonfps to the it is not possible either physically or morally that a
virtues of faith, hope, and charity (q. v.) which unite man should give himself up absolutely to the guidance
us immediately with Almighty God. Amongst the of another. The choice of a superior, ^e ^ect of
moral virtues obedience enjoys a primacy of honour, obedience, the authority of the nieran^cal (Jnurch,
The reason is that the greater or lesser excellence of a all exclude the idea of arbitrary rule,
moral virtue is determined by the greater or lesser I. — The Canonical Rvle of Obedience, — ^A. — TheSu-
value of the object which it qualifies one to put aside periors. — By Divine law, r^fldous persons are subject
in order to give oneself to God. Now amongst our to the hierarchy of the Churdn; first to the pope, then
various possessions, whether goods of the bod^, or to the bishops, unless exempted by the pNope from
goods of the soul, it is dear that the human will is the episcopal junsoiction. This nierarchy was instituted
most intimately personal and most cherished of all. by Christ in order to direct the faithful not only in the
So it happens that obedience, which makes a man yield way of salvation, but also in Chri^ian perfection. The
up the most dearly prized stronghold of the individual vow of obedience in the institutes approved by the
soul in order to do the good pleasure of his Creator, Holy See is held more and more to be made equally to
is accounted the greatest of the moral virtues. As to the pope, who communicates his authority to the
whom we are to obey, there can be no doubt that first Roman congregations entrusted with the direction of
we are bound to offer an unreserved service to Al- religious orders. The superiors of the different or-
mig;hty God in idl His commands. No real difficulty ders, when they are clerics and exempt from episcopal
agunst this truth can be gathered from putting in jurisdiction, similarly receive a part of this authority;
jiuctaposition the unchangeableness of the natural law and every one who is placed at the head of a commu-
and an order, such as that (^ven to Abraham to slay nity is invested with tne domestic authority necessary
his son Isaac. The conclusive answer is that the ab- for its good government; the vow by wmch the re-
solute sovereignty of God over life and death made it ligious offers to God the obedience which he promises
right in that particular instance to undertake the kill- to his sui>eriors confirms and defines this authority,
ing of an innocent human being at His direction. But the right to demand obedience in virtue of the
On the other hand the obligation of obedience to su- vow does not necessarily belong to all superiors; it
Eeriors imder God admits of limitations. We are not is ordinarily reserved to the head of the community;
ound to obey a superior in a matter which does not and in order to enforce the obligation, it is necessary
fall within the limits of his preceptive power. Thus for that the superior should make known his intention to
instance parents, although entitled beyond question bind the conscience; in certain orders such expressions
to the submission of their children until they oeoome as "I will"^ ''I command", have not such binding
of age, have no right to command them to many, force. The instructions of the Holy See require that
Neither can a superior claim our obedience in contra- the power of binding the conscience by command i^all
vention of the dispositions of a higher authority, be employed with the utmost prudence and discretion.
Hence, notably, we cannot heed the behests of any hu- "Br^The limits of the ohligaUon. — ^The commands of
man power no matter how venerable or undisputed as superiors do not extend to what concerns the inward
against the ordinances of God. All authority to which motion of the will. Such at least is the teaching of
we bow has its source in Him and cannot validly be St. Thomas (II-II, Q. cvi, a. 5, and Q. clxxxvi, a. 2).
used against Him. It is this recognition of the au- * Obedience is not vowed absolutely, and without limit,
thority of God vicariously exercised through a human but according to the rule of each order, for a superior
agent that confers upon tne act of obedience its special cannot command anything foreign to, or outside, his
merit. No hard and fast rule can be set down for de- rule (except in so far as he may grant dispensations
termining the degree of guilt of the sin of disobedience, from the rule). No appeal lies froin his order, that
Regarded formally as a deliberate scorning of the au- is to say, the obligation of obedience is not suspended
thority itself, it would involve a divorce l^tween the by any appeal to higher authority; but the inferior has
soul and the supernatural principle of charity which is always the ri^t of extra-judidal recourse to a higher
tantamount to a grevious sin. As a matter of fact authority in the order or to the Holy See.
many other things have to be taken account of , as the H* — The Moral Significance, — The religious is
greater or less advertence in the act, the relatively im- bound morally to obey on all occasions when he is
portant or trifling character of the thing imposed, bound canomcaUy, and whenever his disobedience
the manner of enjoining, the right of the person who would offend against the law of charity, as for instance
commands. For such reasons the sin will frequently by bringing discord into the community. By reason
be esteemed venial. of the vow of obedience and of the religious profession
RicKABT, AQuimu sthicut (London. 1896) ; St. Tboiias a deliberate act of obedience and submission adds the
JteL'\i;Sri^»SLS?1%. S^^i^Sii^SS: •^^nt ^f,'^ «» «' ^. ^^^ f reUgion to tie other
York. 1890). ments of the act. This extends even to the obedience
Joseph F. Dblant. of counsel which goes beyond matters of regular ob-
servance, and is also limited by the prescriptions of
Obedience, Religious, is that general submission hi^er laws, whether human or Divine,
which religious vow to God, and voluntarily promise to III. — The Evangelical Foundation, — The evanselical
their superiors, in order to be directed by them in the foundation of religious obedience is first of all found
ways of perfection according to the purpose and oonsti- in the p^ect accord of that obedience with the spirit
tutions of their order. It consists, according to Lessius of the Gospel. Freedom from ambition which leads
(DeJustitia, II, xlvi, 37), in a man's allowing himself to a man to choose a position of inferiority, implies a
be governed throughout his life by another for the sake spirit of humility wnich esteems others as superior,
of God. It is composed of three elements: (a) the sacri- and willingly yields them the first place: the sacrifice
fice offered to God of his own independence in the of his own independence and his own will presupposes
generality of his actions, at least of such as are ex- in a hish d^ree that spirit of self-denial and mortifica*
terior; (b) the motive, namely, personal perfection, tion which keeps the passions under proper restraint;
0BEDIINTUBXI8 183 0BXDZSNTIABIE8
the readiness to accept a common rule and direction dience, it was already manifested in the docility with
manifests a spirit of union and concord which gen- which their imitators placed themselves under the
eroualy adapts itself to the desires and tastes of others; guidance of some older man. St. Cyprian, in his
eagerness to do the will of God in all thinppB is a mark letter ''De habitu vireinum", shows us that at Rome
of the charity towards God which led Christ to say " I the virgins followed tne direction of the older women,
do always the things which please my Father " (John, Obedience was then looked upon as a sort of education,
vii, 29). And since the Church has invested superiors from which those were dispensed who were considered
with her authority, religious obedience is supported perfect and ripe for a solitary life. This idea is found
by all those texts which reconmiend submission to also in the fint diapter of the Rule of St. Benedict,
lawful powers, and especially by the following: ''He St. Pachomius (a. d. 292-346) understanding the im-
that heareth you, heareth me" (Luke, x, 16). portance of obedience in conmiunity Ufe miuie it the
PhUoaophicaUy religious obedience is justified (a) foundation of the religious life of the cenobites,
by the experience of the mistakes and illusions to preaching by his own example, and inculcating upon
which a man relying on his own unaided opinions is all superiors the necessity of a scrupulous observance
liable. The relwous proposes to rule his whole life of the rules of which they were the guardians. The
by devotion to God and his neighbour; how shall he monks (cf. Cassian, "Institutions") thus saw in per-
best realise this ideal? Bv regulating all his actions feet obedience an excellent application of their uni-
by his own judsment, or D^ choosing a prudent and yersal spirit of self-renunciation. Later, St. Bernard
enlightened guide who will give his advice without any insisted on the complete suppression of self-will, i. e.,
consideration of himself? Is it not clear that the latter of that will which sets itself in opposition to the de-
alternative shows a resolution more sincere, more gen- signs of God and to all that is commanded or desired
erous, and at the same time more likely to lead to a for the good of the community. The obedience of the
successful issue? This obedience is justified idso (b) Eastern monks was imperfect and defective by reason
by the help of example and counsel affdrded by com- of the facility with which they changed from one su-
munity life and the acceptAnce of a rule of conduct, the perior or monastery to another. St. Benedict, in con-
holiness of which is vouched for by the (Church; (c) sequence, advancing a step farther, introduced a new
lastly, since the object of religious orders is not only rule binding his monks by a vow of stability. A cer-
the perfection of their members, but also the perform- tain choice of rules still existed, which seemed likely
ance of spiritual and corporal works of mercy, they to be hurtful to the common life, for some monasteries
need a union of efforts which can only be assured by had various sets of rules, each set having its own ob-
religious obedience, just as military obedience is indish servants. The reforms in the Order of St. Benedict
penaable for success in the operations of war. brought into existence monastic congregations known
Religious obedience never reduces a mem to a state by the identity of their observances, and these were
of passive inertness, it does not prevent the use of anv the forerunners of the mendicant orders with their
faculty he may possess, but sanctifies the use of all. ^ rules wliich have become canonical laws. St. Thomas
It does not forbid any initiative, but subjects it to ' thus had before him all the material necessary to en-
a prudent control in order to preserve it from indiscre- able him to treat fully of the subject of religious obe-
tion and keep it in the line of true charity. A member dience in his " Summa Theologica ", in which he makes
of a rdigious order has often been compared to a dead it clear that the vow of obedience is the chief of the
body, but in truth nothing is killed by the reUgious vow vows of religion.
but vanity and self-love and all their fatal opposition 8t. Thomas, Summa Tkeologica, ll-Ih QQ. lO* et 186; Idem.
tptheDivJnewiU. If superiors and subjectohaveaome- ^;^JZ^^ ^ZSi^:: S Siii^^^ATl^i^Z
times failed to imderstand the practice of rehglOUS portion of the Summa Theol. dted above; BxLLARMiftK, Conirov.
obedience, if direction has sometimes been indisCTeet, ^ ^**!^;^y^*:\}' 2. $; ^S? SvAum, Derdufione, tr. 7, X. and tr.
these are ^a«ddent«l imperfections from which no X^i^^S^i^2]k'^iJ^.'^Poi^.'^^\L^^^^^
human institution is free. The unbounded zeal of 1896; French tr. by Klsin); Maionkn, L« P. Hecker eM-41 un
men like St. Francis Xavier and other saints who loved «»*»^' ^^f^\}^^\' La?«u«. ?^* *vrUanobiiwme PMomim
their rule the. prominent p«t which rehgious have ^f^^S^ ^ JH^^I^Tli^:^^^^^^?^;
taken in the mission field, and their successes therein, Harnack, Dm Mdnehtum, tnne IdeaU und teine Ge»eh,
the sava^ge war which the enemies of the Faith have A. Vermeersch.
at all times wa^ed against the religious orders; all
these thin^ furnish the most eloquent testimony to Obedientiaries, a name commonly used in medie-
the happy influence of religious obedience in develop- val times for the lesser officials of a monastery who
ing the activity which it sanctifies. The Repression were appointed by will of the superior. In some cases
"blind obedience '' signifies not an unreasoning or un- the word is used toinclude all those who held office be-
reasonable submission to authority, but a keen appre- neath the abbot, but more frequently the prior and
dation of the rights of authority, the reasonableness sub-prior are excluded from those signified by it. To
of submission, and blindness onlv to such selfish or the obedientiaries were assigned the various duties
worldly considerations as would lessen regard for pertaining to their different offices and they poidsessed
authority. considerable power in their own departments. There
At present, reli^ous have taken a far greater part was always a ri^t of appeal to the abbot or superior,
than formerly in civil and public life, personally ful- but in practice most details were settled by the "cus-
filling all the conditions required of citisens, in order to tomary " of the monastery. The list that follows
exercise their right of voting and other functions com- gives the usual titles of the obedientiaries, but in some
patible with their profession. Obedience does not in- monasteries other names were used and other official
terfere with the proper exercise of such rights. No positions may be found: thus, for example, to this day,
political system rejects the votes of persons in de- m the great Swiss monastery of Einsiedeln the name
pendent positions, but all freely permit the use of "dean" is given to the official who is called prior in all
any legitimate influence which corrects to some extent other Benraictine houses.
the vicious tendency of equalitarianism: the influence (1) The "cantor", or "precentor", usually as-
of reli^oua superiors is limited to safeguarding the sisted by the "sub-cantor'% or "wiccentor" (see
higher interests of religion. As to the functions to be Gantob). (2) The sacrist, or sacristan^ who had
fulfilled, the superior, by the very fact of permitting charge of the monastic church and of all things neces-
his subjects to undertake them, grants all the liberty sary for the services. He had, as a rule, several assist-
that is required for their honourable fulfilment. ants: (a) the subsacrist, also known as the secretanr,
HUUmcaUy. ^Though St. Paul and the other early the "matricularius", or the master of work; (b) the
hermits were not in a position to practise reUgious obe- treasurer; (c) the "revestiariua". (3) The cellarer,
^yaatAUKfUiw^nKjf
184
OBLATU
or bunar, who acted as chief purveyoT of all food-
Btufifs to the monastery and as general steward. In
recent times the name procurator is often found used
for this officiid. He had as assistants: (a) the sub-
cdlarer; (b) the "granatorius''. Chapter xxxi of St.
Benedict's Rule teUs " What kind of man the Cellarer
ought to be''; in practice this position is the most re-
sponsible one after that of abbot or superior. (4)
The refectorian, who had charge of the fra^^ or re-
fectory and its furniture, including such thmgs as
crockery, cloths, dishes, spoons, forks, etc. (5) The
kitchener, who presided over the cookery department,
not only for the community but for all guests, de-
pendants, etc. (6) The novice master (see Novice),
whose assistant was sometimes called the '^zelator".
(7) The infirmarian, besides looking i^ter the sick
brethren, was also responsible for the quarterly "blood
letting" of the monlos, a custom almost universal in
medieval monasteries. (8) The guest-master, whose
duties are dealt with in chapter uii of St. Benedict's
Rule. (0) The almoner. (10) The chamberlain, or
"vestiarius".
Besides these officials who were appointed more or
less permanently, there were certain others appointed
for a week at a time to carry out various duties.
These positions were usually filled in turn by all below
the rank of sub-prior, though very busy officials, e. g.,
the cellarer, might be excused. The chief of these
was the hebdoinadarian, or priest for the week. It
was his duty to sin^ the conventual mass on all days
during the week, to mtone the "Deus in adjutorium"
at the beginning of each of the canonical hours, to
bless holy water, etc. The antiphoner was also ap-
pointed for a week at a time. It was his duty to re^d
or sing theinvitatory at Matins, to give out the first
antiphon at the Psalms, and also the versicles, respon-
Boria after the lessons etc. The weekly reader and
servers in the kitchen and refectory entered upon their
duties on Sunday when, in company with t^e servers
of the previous week, they had to ask and receive a
special olessing in choir as directed in chapters xxxv
and xxxviii of St. Benedict's Rule. Nowadays the ten-
dency is towards a simplification in the details of mo-
nastic life and coxisequently to a reduction in the
number of officials in a monastery^ but all the more
important offices named above exist to-day in every
monastery though the name obedientiaries has quite
dropped out of everyday use.
Gasqubt, EnglUh Montutte Life (London, 1004). 59-110; Cu9-
Utmary of . , , 8t. AuguAine^a, Canterbury, and St, Peter'e, Wett^
minater, ed. Thompson (London. 1902); The Aneren Rivle, ed.
MoBTOif (London. 1853); Fbasxt, MonaaticUm (London, 1808),
175-252. See bibliography appended to MoNAvncuai, Wbotbbn,
and alao to the articles on the various monastic orders.
G. Roger Hudlbston.
Oberamxnergau. See Passion Plats.
Oblate Sisters of Providence, a congregation of
negro nuns founded at Baltimore, Md., by the Rev.
Jacques Hector Nicholas Joubert de la Muraille, for
the education of coloured children. Father Joub^
belonged to a noble French family forced bv the Revo-
lution to take refuge in San Domingo. Alone of his
family, he escaped from a massacre and went to Balti-
more, entering St . Mary's Seminary. After his ordina-
tion he was given charge of the coloured Catholics of St.
Mary's chapel. Finding he was making no headway as
the sermons were not remembered and there were no
schools where the children could be tau^t, he formed
the idea of founding a religious community for the
purpose of educating these children. In this he was
encouraged by his two friends, Fathers Babade and
Tessier. He was introduced to four coloured women,
who kept a small private school, and lived a retired life
with the forlorn hope of consecrating their lives to
God. Father Joubeft made known to them his plans
and they offered to be at his service. With the ap-
proval of the Archbishop of Baltimore a novitiate wae
bepun and on 2 Jiily, 1829, the first four asters. Miss
Elisabeth Lange of Santiago, Cuba, Miss Mary Komne
Bowies of San Domingo, Miss Mary Frances Balas
of San Domingo, Miss Mary Theresa Duchemin of
Baltimore maoe their vows. Sister Mary Elisabeth
was chosen superior, and Rev. Father Joubert was ap-
rinted director. Gregory XVI approved the order
October, 1831 under the title of Oblate Sisters of
Providence. At present the sisters conduct schools
and orphanages at Baltimore, Washington, Leaven-
worth, St. Louis, Normandy (Mo.), and 4 houses in
Cuba, 2 in Havana, 1 in Santa Clara, 1 in Cardenas.
The mother-house and novitiate is at Baltimore.
There were 130 sisters, 9 novices, and 7 postulants
in 1910.
HmcBncKBB, Die Orden u. Kong. d. kath, Kirche, III (Pader-
bom. 1908), 573; CaUiolic Diredory (1910).
Magdalen Gratin.
Oblatei of Hary Immaeulate. — ^I. Name and
Oriqxn. — The first members of this socie^, founded
in 1816, were known as ''Missionaries of Provence '\
They received the title of "Missionary Oblates of
Mary Immaculate" and approbation as a congrega-
tion under simple vows in a Brief of Leo XII dated 17
February, 1826. The founder, Charles Joseph Eugene
de Masenod (b. at Aix, 1 August, 1782), left France at
an early age on accoimt of the Revolution, and re-
mained four years at Venice, one at Naples, and three
at Palermo, before returning to Paris, where he en-
tered St. Siilpioe in 1808. He was ordained priest at
Amiens on 21 December, 1811. In 1818 he had gath-
ered a small community aroimd him, and made his
rdigious profession at the church of the Mission, Aix,
with MM. Mounier. Tempier, Mye, and Moreau as
fdlow-priests, and MM. Dupuy, Courtds, and Su-
zanne as scholastic students. He became Vicar-Gen-
eral of Marseilles in 1823. titular Bishop of Icosia and
coadjutor in 1834, and Bishop of Marseilles in 1837.
In 1856 he was named senator and member of the
Legion of Honour by Napoleon III, and died in 1861,
having been superior-general of his congregation from
1816 to that date.
II. Membebs and Organization. — ^The congrega-
tion consists of priests and « lay-brothers, leading a
common Ufe. The latter act as temporal coadjutors,
farm or workshop instructors in industrial and refor-
matory schools, and teachers and catechists on the
foreign missions. The central and supreme authority
of the society is two-fold : (1) intermittent and extraor^
dinary, as vested in the general chapter meeting
once m six years, and composed of the general admin-
istrators, provinciais, vicars of missions, and delegates
from each province or vicariate; (2) ordinary, as
vested in the superior-general elected for life by the
gjeneral chapter, and assisted by a council of four as-
sistants and a bursar-general, named for a term of
years, renewable by the same Authority. The general
administration was situated at Marseilles until 1861.
when it was transferred to Paris; the persecutions of
1902 obliged its removal to Li^e in 1903, whence it
was transferred to Rome in 1905. The congregation
is officially represented at the Holy See by a procura-
tor-general named by the central administration Mliis
authority also elects the chaplain-general of the HoW
Family Sisters of Bordeaux, founded by Abb6 de
Noailles, and by him confided to the spiritual direct
tion of the Oblate Fathers. Until 1851 all Oblate
houses were directly dependent on the central admin-
istration. The general chapter held in that year di-
vided its dependencies into provinces and misaonary
vicariates, each having its own provincial or vicar
aided by a council of four oonsultors and a bursar. At
t^e head of each regularly constituted house is placed
a local superior aided by two assessors and a bursar,
all named by the provincial administration. The edu-
cational establishments also possess a special council
of professors and directors,
0BLATK8
185
0BLATK8
m. Rbgruiting is made by means of jimior-
ates, novitiates, and scholasticates. (a) Junicrates or
Apostolic Sckods. — ^The first establishment of this de-
scription was founded in 1841 by the Oblates of Notre
Dame des Lumidres near Avimon, and their example,
soon followed by the Jesuit Fathers at Avignon, oe-
came widely adopted in France. The congregation
has at present thirteen juniorates situated: at Ottawa,
Buffalo, San Antonio (Texas), St. Boniface (Mani-
toba) and Strathcona (Alberta) in the new world; St.
Charles (HoUcmd), Waereghem (Belgium), Sancta
Maria a Vico and Naples (Italy), Urmieta (Spain),
and Belcamp Hall (Ireland) in Europe; Colombo and
Jaffna in the Island of Ceylon, (b) Novitiates are
fed from the juniorates, and also from colleges, semi-
naries, and gymnasia. They are at present thirteen
in nimiber and situated at Lachine (Canada), Tewks-
bury (Massachusetts), San Antonio (Texas), St.
Charles (Manitoba), St. Gerlach, Htinfeld, and Maria
Engelport (Germany), Niewenhove (Belgiimi), Le Bes-
tin (Luxemburg), St. Pierre d'Aoste (Italy), Urmieta
vSpain), Stillorgan (Ireland), and Colombo (Ceylon),
(c) Scholasticates receive novices who have been ad-
mitted to temporal vows at the end of a year's proba-
tion. The first scholasticate of the congregation was
dedicated to the Sacred Heart at Montolivet, Mar-
seilles, in 1857; it was transferred to Autim in 1861,
to Dublin in 1880, to St. Francis (Holland) in 1889,
and to Lidge in 1891. The ten establishments at
present occupied are situated at Ottawa, Tewksbuiy,
San Antonio, Rome, Lidge, Hiinfeld, Stillorgan, Turin,
and Colombo (2).
IV. Ends and Means. — The congr^ation was
formed to repair the havoc caused by the french Rev-
olution, and its v6ry existence so soon afterwards was
a sign of religious revival. Its multiple ends may
thus be divided: (a) Primary: (1) To revive the spirit
of faith amonp rural and mdustrial populations by
m 3ans of missions and retreats, in which devotion to
tb e Sacred Heart and to Mary Immaculate is recom-
mended as a supernatural means of regeneration.
"He hath sent me to preach the Cxospel to the poor",
has been adopted as the device of the congr^ation.
(2) Care of young men's societies. Catholic clubs, etc.
•(3) Formation of clex^ in seminaries, (b) Secondary
or Derived. — To adapt itself to the different circum-
stances arising from its rapid development in new
countries, the congregation has necessarily extended
its sphere of action to parochial organization, fo the
direction of industrial or reformatory schools, of estab-
lishments of secondary education in its principal cen-
tres, and of higher institutions of leaming, sucn as the
University of Ottawa (see Ottawa, University or).
V. Prominent Members. Past and Present. —
(a) Superior Generals: Mgr ae Masenod (1816); Very
Rev. J. Fabre (1861); L. Soullier (1893); C. Augier
•(1898); A. Lavillardiftre (1906): Mgr A. Dontenwill
(1908). (b) Oblate Bishops: (1) Deceased: de Mas-
enod, Bishop of Marseilles; Guibert (1802-86), Cardi-
nal Archbisnop of Paris; Semeria (1813-68), Vicar
Apostolic of Jaffna; Guigues (1805-74), first Bishop of
Ottawa; Allard (1806-89), first Vicar Apostolic of
Natal; Faraud (1823-90), first Vicar Apostolic of
Athabaska-Mackenzie; D'Herbomez (1822-90), first
Vicar Apostolic of British Columbia; Bonjean (1823-
92), first Archbishop of Colombo: Tachd (1823-94),
first Archbishop of St. Boniface; Bal&in (1828-1905),
Archbishop of Auch; M^lizan (1844r-1905), Arch-
bishop of Colombo; Grandin (182^1902), first Bishop
of St. Albert: Glut (1832-1903), Auxiliary Bishop of
AthabaskapMackenzie; Jolivet (1826-1903). Vicar
Apostolic of Natal; Durieu (1830-99), first Bishop of
New Westminster; Anthony Gaughren (1849-1901),
Vicar Apostolic of Orange River Colon v; (2) Liidng:
Dontenwill, Augrustin, titular Archbishop of Ptole-
mais, and actual superior general; Langevin. Arch-
biflliop of St. Boniface (consecrated 1895); Coudert,
Archbishop of Colombo (1898); Grouard, Vicar Apos-
tolic of Athabaska (1891); Pascal, Bishop of Pnnce
Albert (1891); Joulain, Bishop of Jaffna (1893); Legal,
Bishop of St. Albert (1897); Brevnat, Vicar Apostolic
of Mackenzie (1902) ; Matthew Cvaughren, Vicar Apos-
tolic of Orange River Colony (19QQ); DelaUe, Vicar
Apostolic of Natal (1904) ; Miller, Vicar Apostolic of
Transvaal (1904) ; Joussard, Coadjutor of Athabaska
(1909); Cenez, Vicar Apostolic of Basutoland (1909);
Fallon, Bishop of London^ Ontario (1910); Charlebois,
first Vicar Apostolic of ]&eewatin, Canada (1910).
VI. Principal Undertakings. — (a) General. (1)
In canonically constituted countries a parish church
or public chapel is attached to each establishment of
Oblates. The parishes are all provide with schools,
while manv have colleges or academies and a hospital.
Several of the parochial residences (e. g., Buffalo,
Montreal, Quebec, etc.) serve as centres for mission-
aries who assist the parochial clex^ by giving retreats
or missions and taking temporary charge of parishes.
(2) In new or missionary countries, the posts are con-
sidered as fixed residences from which the missionaries
radiate to surrounding fields of action (e. g., Edmonton
and Calgary, Alberta). Each of these centres pos-
sesses fuUy e«]uipped schools, whilst many have con-
vents, boardinff schools, ana hospitals. Instruction
is (pven in English, French, or native tongues by re-
ligious communities or by the fathers and brothers
themselves. Indigenous mission work is carried on
by the periodical recurrence of missions or retreats, and
the r^fular instructions of catechists. The printing
press is much used, and the congregation has pub-
lished complete dictionaries and other works in the
native idioms among which it labours.
(b) Special, — (1) Canada. — Until recent years the
> evangelization of the Canadian West and of British
Columbia was the almost exclusive work of the Oblate
Fathers, as that of the extreme north still is. Cathe-
drals, churches, and colleges were built by them, and
often handed over to secular clergy or to other reli-
S'ous communities (as in the case of the St. Boniface
ollege, which is at present flourishing under the di-
rection of the Society of Jesus). The Archiepiscopal
See of St. Boniface since 1853, and the episcopal Sees of
St. Alb^t, Prince Albert, with the Vicariates of Atha-
baska and Mackenzie since their foundation, have
been, and are still occupied by Oblates. That of New
Westminster ceased to be so m 1908. The Diocese of
Ottawa had an Oblate as first bishop, and owes the
foundation of most of its parishes and institutions to
members of the congregation, who have also founded
a number of the centres m the new Vicariates of Temis-
kaming and the Gulf of St. Lawrence, as well as in the
Diocese of Chicoutimi. Among the recent labours of
the Oblates in the West a speciid mention must be
given to the religious organization of Germans, Poles,
and Ruthenians. The new Vicariate of Keewatin
(1910) is entrusted to an Oblate bishop, whose mission-
aries are devoted to the regeneration of nomadic In-
dian tribes. (2) South Africa. — The Oblates have
founded and occupy the four vicariates Apostolic of
Natal, Orange River, Basutoland' and Transvaal, as
also the Prefecture Apostolic of Cimbebasia. Its
members served as mihtary chaplains on both sides
during the Boer war. (3) Asia. — The immense Dio-
ceses of Colombo and Jaffna, with their flourishing
colleges and missions, are the achievement of the en-
terprising zeal of Oblate Fathers under Mgr Bonjean,
O.M.I. (4) Western Australia. A missionai^ vicar-
iate was founded from the British Province in 1894,
and is actively engaged in paroclual and reformatory
work.
VII. Establishments of Education and Forma-
tion.— (a) For the Congregation. (1) Scholasticates
affording a course of two years in philosophy and so-
cial science (three years in Rome), and of four years in
theology and sacred sciences according to the spirit
OBLATKS
186
OBLATtS
and method of St. Thomas. The Roman scholajstics
follow the programme of the Gregorian University,
and graduate in philosophy, theology, canon law, and
Scripture. The scholastics at Ottawa graduate in
philosophy and theology at the university, of which
they form an integral part. (2) Novitiates giving
religious formation with adapted studies. (3) Junior-
ates providing a complete classical course prepara-
torv to the sacred sciences. The Ottawa juniorists
make their course at the neighbouring university, and
graduate in the Faculty of Arts, (b) Higher Edvr
(3), British Columbia (3), and Australia (1). Hiera
are also about fifteen Indian boarding-«chooLi in the
Canadian West. (5) Reformatory schools at Glen-
cree cmd Philipstown and Maggona in Ceylon.
VIII. Celebrated Sanctuaries and PiLaBUf-
AGES.— (a) Of the Sacred Heart,— (1) The Basilica of
the National Vow at Paris, a world centre of adoration
and reparation, was directed by Oblate Fathers from
1876 until the expulsions of 1902. (2) The construc-
tion of a similar basilica for Belgimn was entrusted to
them by Leopold II in Jem., 1903. (3) The parishes
STATISTICS
Qeneral Adminiatration, Rome
^ France.
EimoPB "
Central Province -
Northern
Britiflh
German
^Belgian
Italy. . . .
. Spam . . .
France. .
Belgium.
Jersey...
En^and.
Ireland..
Scotland.
Wales. . .
Housea
««
NoaixR .
Amxbioa
London (Ontario), Diocese of . . . .
Canadian Province ] §n2rio".'.'.!
United SUtes— First Prov. (North)
" —Second " (South)
Manitoban Province
Alberta-Saskatchewan, Vicariate
of (Dioceses of St. Albert and
Prince Albert)
Athabaska, Vicariate Apostolic of
Mackensie.
British Columbia, Vicariate Apoe-
tolio of
Keewatin, Vicariate Apostolic of. .
Yukon, Prefecture Apostolic of. . .
AaxA. Vicariate of Mi»- j Arohd. of Colombo
■ions of Ceylon. ) Diocese of Jaffna. .
(Natal, Vicariate Apootolic of.
Kimberley "
Basutoland"
Transvaal "
Cimbebasia"
GcBANiA. Vicariate of Missions: Australia. .
Total
10
9
I
12
5
3
■ «
11
8
10
21
42
10
9
8
9
5
71
18
10
9
10
9
2
Scho-
lasti-
cates
1
1
301
Junior-
ates
3
2
8
1
1
1
1
1
15
Novi-
ciates
2
3
3
1
1
1
1
t •
15
Semi-
naries ■
and
Colleges
1
2
12
Univer-
sity
Indus-
trial
and
Reform-
atory
Schools
3
3
1
3
3
15
Bishops
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
14
Priests
6
107
101
57
84
37
130
50
54
76
90
24
19
35
8
12
178
35
18
22
20
20
6
1195
Broth-
40
67
37
95
28
45
20
12
17
38
22
12
II
0
12
4
8
7
1
17
478
cation. — (1) Concerning the Ottawa University eee
the special article. (2) Grand Seminaries. — -Until
the persecution of 1902 the congregation was in chai]ge
of these establishments at Marseilles, Freius, Ajaccio,
and Romans. It is at present entrusted with those
of Ajaccio, Ottawa (in connexion with the university),
San Antonio, Colombo, and Jaffna. The two last-
named are occupied in the formation of a native clergy
and have alre^uiy provided over forty priests, (c)
Secondary education: (1) classical colleges with a
course in English are provided at Buffalo, St. Albert
(Alberta), San Antonio, St. Louis (British Columbia),
St. Charles (Natal). Two important institutions at
Colombo are affiliated to the University of Cambridge;
most of the professors have been in residence there,
and prepare their pupUs for the London matriculation
and Cambridge Local examinations. (2) Prepara-
tory seminaries are established at St. Albert, San An-
tonio, Ceylon (2), cmd New Westminster. (3) Nor-
mal schools for lay teachers are conducted at Jaffna
and Cevlon. (4) Industrial schools with full instruc-
tion in farming and craftsmanship by lay brothers and
aanstants in Manitoba (3), AlbertanSaskatchewan
of St. Sauveur, Quebec, and St. Joseph's, Lowell, are
important centres of Sacred Heart devotion in the
New World, (b) To the Blessed Fir^n.— Until the ex-
pulsions of 1902 the Oblates directed the ancient pil-
grimage shrines of Notre Dame des Lumi^res, Avi-
non; N. D. de TOsier, Grenoble: N. D. de Bon Seoours,
Viviers; N. D. de la Garde (Marseilles); N. D. de
Talence and N. D. d'Arcachon, Bordeaux; N. D. de
Sion, Nancy; and the national pilgrimage of N. D. de
Pontmain near Laval, erected after the Franco-Prus-
sian war. During several years they revived the an-
cient glories of N. D. du Laus. Gap; N. D. de Clery,
Orleans; N. D. de la Rovdre, Mentone. In Enfland
they have the restored pre-Ref ormation shrine of Our
Lady of Grace at Tower Hill, London, and in Canada
the shrines of Our Lady of the Rosary at Cap de la
Madeleine, Queb^, and Our Lady of Lourdes at Ville
Marie and Duck Lake^ Saskatoon. In Ceylon they
have the national pilgrimage to Our Lady of Madhu.
(c) To various Saints. — The ancient sanctuary of St.
Martin of Tours was re-excavated and revived by
Oblate Fathera under Cardinal Guibert in 1862
(see "IJfe of lAon Papin Dupont", London, 1882).
OBLATKS
Ceylon poaseasea votive churchea to St. Anae at Co-
lombo and St. Anthony at Koohchikadai, and the
Canadian West that of St. Anne at Lake St. Anne,
which ia largely frequented by Indiana and haU-fweeda,
aa well aa white people.
IX. Foundation or HsuaiouH CouunrnriBs. —
Sist«iB of the Holy Namea of Jmub and Mary (Lon-
geuil, 1S43); Grey Nuna of Ottawa, aeparated from
the Montreal community by Biabop Gmgues in 1S45;
Oblate Slaters of the Sacred Heart and Mary Immacu-
late founded at St. Boniface by Arcbbiahop Langevia
(1905) ; and a community of over 300 native maters,
and one of teaching brothera of St. Joseph in Ceylon.
X. Apobtolate of the Prbsb. — (a) Perutdicalt
on the Work of the Confp'tgation: "Miasiona des O. M.
I.", printed at Rome for the congregation only; "Pe-
tit«8 annalea dea O. M. I," (Li^); "Maria Immacu-
lata" (German). HUnfeld, New Brunawiok; the "Mia-
aionary Record , Htartod in 1891, was disoontinued in
1903. (b) General Newtpapera, etc.: the " North West
Review" (Winnip^), "Weetem Catholic" (Vancou-
ver), "Patriote de I'Oueet" (Duck Lake, Saska-
toon), "Ami du Foyer" (St. Boniface), "Die West
Canada" (German). "Gaseta Katolika" (Poliah),
and a recently eetablished Ruthenian journal (Win-
nipeg), "Kitchiwa Match Sacred Heart Review in
Cria" (Sacred Heart P. O. Alta), "Cennad Llyde-
wig, Messenger of the Catholic Church in Welah-Eng-
lUh^' (LlaanrWBt, North Wales); "Ceylon CathoUe
Meaaenger", separate editions m T^ngliah and Cin-
galese, and the ''Jaffna Guardian" in fWUsb-Tamil;
ParoctuaJ Bulletins at St. Joseph's, Lowdl, Mattawa
(Ontario), and St, Peter's, Montreal.
In connexion with the table given on page 186, the
following mints may be mentioned; (1) the "houses"
are parocnial eetabliahinentB or misnonary centres,
not mission posts; (2) the table ia calculated according
to the provinces or vicariates of the congregation,
which are not always coterminous with eccleaiaatical
divisions; (3)thefiguiesgtvenforFraiicerepre8entthe
state of atfairs before 1G02. Since that date a large
number of relif^ous remain in France, though isolated.
Several establishments have been traosfored to Bd-
pum, Italy, and Spain; (4) acholaatios, novioee, and
ninioriata are not mcluded.
I. FOUHD. ~ ~ -----
ISM); Coon'aiJM!ul>/A4'iif^^^ir''
Uinimam Labam (3 vols., London, 1S79); Btrnx, Biitiap dt
Mamodi Hii ItiTttr Ia/i and Virtuu. tt. Da waoH (London, 1S09):
Wunofu dH 0. U. I. fMilu annaUt: Uiinonnni Ruvrd, Mitnoni
CaUicti^ua ty vdIl. Ptria). puam.
II. Ahhuca ahd CANtD*.— MoBic*. Hul. o/tU CaOi. Churuk
iit IPutom Cojiado (2 vol*., Toronto, igiO); T*ch*, .4 Patto/Ou
HiH, at tlu ScIukU in UaKiuba (at. Bonilua. 1S93) ; Idih, VinaC
araitf USiSSS) it UUntmi dam It N.O.dt rAmtrimu (Mon-
tinl. taaei ; Mouci. .411 Pay dt Final noir (Puii. iSn) : Dia-
SOUBU Aim FoDKNBT, La Ract Franeam m Amtrioma IMontru],
ISIO), Til; PAUun, Siminuemtt <^ a Taat Miitianary (Su
Aotooio, 1899).
8*e llio the foUowina utietn: BAanrouHn ; Bloob IxnuH*;
BuTtiH Colcubia; Coiaubo; jArrHA; Miauom. Catbouc
ImuK. OF CANAn*; Cahada.
F. Blanchin.
Obl&tM of St. Ambron uid St. Oharisa. Se«
Ahbbosianb.
ObUitM of Saint ftuuda d» BalM, a oongre-
Stion of prieets founded originally by ^nt fS-ancis
Sales at the requeat of Sunt Jane de Chantal. The
cstablidunent at Thonon was a preparatory step toward
carrying out his design, the accomplishment of which
wasprevented by his death. With S^nt Jane Frances
de Cnantal's encouragement and assistance, Raymond
Bonal of Adge, in France, carried out his plan but this
eonraegation died out at the beginning of the eight-
eenth century. Two hundred years later '"
iPi
Founder tnd Fint Oowrml of the OUatca
of St. Fnneia de S*1m
Abb^ Louis Alexander
the Semi nary of Troves. Ii
Baint Bernard's College, i
1869 Father Bnasonbeftan
ear Troyes. In September,
S7 OBLATIB
1871, Father Gilbert (d. 10 November, 1909) joined
him, and Mgr Ravinet, Bishop of Troyea, received
them and four companions into the novitiate. The
Holy See apprpvea temporarily their constitutions,
21 Dec., 1875. The first vows were made 27 Au-
gust, 1876. The definitive approbation of their con-
stitution was ^ven on 8 December, 1897, The
members of the institute are of two ranks, clerics and
lay-brothers. The postulate lastc from six to nine
months; the novitiate from one year to ei^teen
mouths. For the _
first three years
nual, after that
perpetual. The in-
stitute is governed
by a superior gen-
eral elected for life,
and five counsel-
lors general elected
at each general
chapter, which
takes place every
ten years. The
congregation grad-
ually developed in
France, It num-
bered seven col-
lies and five other
educational houses
when the Govern*
ment closed them
all, 31 Sviy, 1903.
The founder re-
tired to Plancy
where he died 2
February, 1908. The mothei^house was transferred
to Rome, and the congr«^tion divided into three
provinces, Latin, German, and English. The first com-
prises France,Bdpum,ItB!yi Greece, and South Amer-
ica; the second Austria, the German Empire and the
southern half of ite South-west African colony; the
third, England, United States, and the north-western
part of Cape Colony. Each province is administered
Dy a provincial, appointed by the superior general
and his council for ten years. He is assisted by three
counsellors elected at each provincial chapter, which
meets every ten years, at an interval of five yeais be-
tween the regular general chapters.
'The lAtin province has a scholasticate at Albano.
In 1909 the cnurch of Sts. Celaus and Julian in Rome
was ^ven to the Oblates. The novitiate for the Latin
and German provinces ia in Glove (Umbria). The
Ecole Commerciale Ste Croix, in Naros (Greece), has
about fifty pupils, and the College St. Paul at Pirteus
(Athens) about two hundred. Four Fathers, sta-
tioned in Montevideo (Uruguay) are occupied with
miasion work. They have a flourishing Young Men's
AMOciation. In Brazil, three Fathers have the dis-
trict of Don Pedrito do Sul (11,000 square mUes with
a Catholic population of 30,000). The headquarters
of the Uruguay-Brazil misdon is at Montevideo,
Uruguay. One Oblate ia atationed in Ecuador, where
before the Revolution of 1897 the congregation had
charge of the diocesan seminary of Riobamba, several
colleges, and parishes. In 1909 a school for the
congregation wsa opened at Dampicourt, Belgium,
The German province has a preparatory Bch«il ot
about forty atudents in Schmieding (Upper Austria).
They have charge of St. Anne's (Frencn) church in
Vienna, also the church of Our Lady of Dolours in
Kaaagraben, Vienna, which is served by six Oblates.
At ^Ttatetten, the Archduke Francis Ferdinand
gave them charge of the pariah (1907) and assisted
them to build a school. With the consent of the
German Government. Cardinal Fischer gave them
the church of Marienburg in 1910. Several- Father*
0BLAT18 188 OBLATI
are engaged in mifision work. The EngHah province of lay membership, with a share in the prayers and
founded its novitiate in Wihnington^ DiBlaware, good works of the brethren.
23 September, 1903, and transferred it to Childs, Canonically. only two distinctions were ever of any
Md. (1907). A scholajsticate is attached. The consequence :nr8t, that between those who entered re-
Fathers in Wilmington conduct a high school for Hgion ''per modum professionis" and ''per modum
boys, and are chaplains of several religious com- simplicis conversionis^' the former being monachi and
munities, the county alms-house, the state insane the latter o62a/i; secondly, that between the oblate who
hospital, the Ferris Industrial School for boys, and was "mortuus mundo'' (that is, who had given him-
the county and state prison. In 1010 the parish of self and his goods to religion without reservation), and
St. Francis de Sales^ Salisbury, Md. (1209 square the oblate who retained some control over his person
miles with a population of 70,()00), was confided to and his possessions — ^the former only (plene ooUUtu)
the Oblates. was accounted a persona ecdesiasiica, with enjoyment
In Walmer (Kent, England) they have a board- of ecclesiastical privileges and immunity (Benedict
ing school for bovs, the chaplaincy of the Visita- XIV, "DeSynodo Dioce.", VI).
tion Convent and Academy of Koselands, and a small Conoregations of ObX/ATES. Women*. — (1) The
parish in Faversham. To this province belongs the first society or congregatipn of oblates was that
Vicariate Apostohc of the Orange River. (For the founded in the fifteenth century by St. Frances of
\icariate Apostolic of the Orange Iliver and the Apos- Rome, to which the name of OoUatines has been given —
toUc Prefecture of Great Namaqualand, see Orange apparently by mistake. St. Frances, wife of Lorenxo
RrvER, Vicariate Apostolic of the.) Ponzani, gathered around her (in 1425, according to
rr^^SiSv ^iL^ 3t.Prani:oU de Saiu (1909). I, J28 ajq.. 487; BaiUct) a number of widows and girls, who formed
1^164, 275; (Exarf de 8U de Chantal, ed. Plom, IV, 693; VII, fhpm«plv«iintx» nanpiPtvnr nonfi^f^rnitv In 1A^^ aj>
e02; Caihoiie nww, LXXIV. 234-245; Echo of the Obtatea of jne™eive8mwasociety or comrawmity. ini4«M,as
at, Francia de Salee, 1. 6-8, 145-51. their own annals Witness, she settled them m a house
J. J. IsENRiNQ. called Tor de' Specchi. at the foot of the Ci^itol, ^v-
ing them the Rule of St. Benedict and some constitu-
OblatM of Saint Frances of Rome. See Frances tions drawn up under her own direction, and putting
OF Rome, Saint; Oblati. them under the guidance of the Olivetan monks of S.
Maria Nuova. in the same year she asked confirma-
Oblati, OblataB, Oblates, is a word used to de- tion of her society from Eugenius IV, who commis-
ecribe any persons, not professed monks or friars, who sioned Gaspare, Bishop of Cosensa, to report to him
have been offered to (jod, or have dedicated them- on the matter^ and some days later granted the request,
selves to His service, in holy reUgion. It has had various with permission to make a beginning of observance
particular uses at different periods in the history of in the house near S. Maria Nuova, while she was seek-
the Church. The children vowed and given by their ing a more commodious habitation near S. Andrea in
parents to the monastic life, in houses under the Rule Vinci. They have never quitted their fint establish-
of St. Benedict, were commonly known by the name ment, but have greatly enlarged and beautified it.
during the century and a half when the custom was The object of the foundation was not unlike that of the
in vogue, and the councils of the Church treated them Benedictine Canonesses in France — ^to furnish a place
as monks — that is, until the Council of Toledo (656) of pious seclusion for ladies of noble birth, where
forbade their acceptance before the age of ten and they would not be required to mix socially with
l^ranted them free permission to leave the monastery, an>r but those of their own class, mieht retain and in-
if they wished, when they reached the age of puberty, herit property^ leave when it suited them, marry if
At a later date the word ''oblate" was used to describe they should wish, and, at the same time, would have
such lay men or women as were pensioned off by royal the shelter of a convent enclosure, the protection of
and other patrons upon monasteries or benefices, the habit of a nun, and the smritual advantages of a
where they lived as in an almshouse or hospital. In life of religious observance. They made an oblation
the eleventh century, it is on record that Abbot Wil- of themselves to God instead of binding themselves
ham of Hirschau or Hirsau, in the old Diocese of bv the usualprofession and vows. Hence the name
Spires, introduced lay brethren into the monastery, of oblates. Tne observance has always been suflS-
Tney were of two kinds: the fratres harbaH or conversi. ciently strict and edifying, though it is permitted to
who took vows but were not claustral or endosea each sister to have a maid waiting on her in the convent
monks, and the d^atit workmen or servants who vol- and a lackev to do her commissions outside. They
untarily subjected themselves, whilst in the service of have a yearns probation, and make their oblation, in
the monastery, to religious obedience and observance, which they promise obedience to the mother presi-
Afterwards, the different status of the lay brother in dent, upon the tomb of St. Frances of Rome. There
the several orders of monks, and the ever-varying are two grades amongst them: the "Most Excellent'',
regulations concerning him introduced by the many who must be princesses by birth, and the "Most lUus-
reforms, destroyed the distinction between the con- trious'', those of inferior nobility. Their first presi-
verstLs and the oblatus. The Cassinese Benedictines, dent was Agnes de Lellis, who resigned in favour of
for instance, at first carefully differentiated between St. Frances when the latter became a widow. After
eofwersi, commissi^ and obUUi; the nature of the vows her death, the Olivetan general. Blessed Geronimo
and the forms of the habits were in each case specifi- di Mirabello, broke off the connexion between the
cally distinct. The conoersus^ the lay brother prop- oblates and the Olivetans. The convent and treasures
erly so called, made solemn vows like the choir monks, of the sacristy have escaped appropriation by the
and wore the scapular; the commissus made simple Italian government, because the inmates are not, in
vows, and was dressed like a monk, but without the the strict sense, nuns.
scapular; the obUUus made a vow of obedience to the (2) Differing little from the Oblates of St. Frances
abbot, gave himself and his goods to the monastery, in their ecclesiastical status, but unlike in every other
and wore a sober secular dress. But, in 1625, we find respect are the Donne ConvertUe deUa Maddalenay un-
the conioersus reduced below the status of the oommi»- der the Rule of St. Augustine, a congregation of fallen
•tM, inasmuch as he was permitted only to make simple women. They had more than one house in Rome,
vows and that for a year at a time; he was in fact un- Without any previous noviceship, they promise obedi-
distinguishable, except by his dress, from the oblatus ence and inake oblation of themselves to the monas-
of a former century. Then, in the later Middle Ages, tery of St. Mary Magdalene and St. Lucy. At Or-
obkUus, confrater, and danatus became interchange- vieto there are similar houses of oblate penitents
able titles, given to any one who, for his generosity or under the Rule of Mount Carmel.
special service to the monastery, received the privilege , (3) The CongregaHon of Philippines (so named
OBLATION 189 OBUOATION
after St. Philip Neri, their protector), founded by Obligation, a term derived from the Roman dvO
Rutilio Brandi, had the care of 100 poor ^Is, whom law, defined in the ''Institutes" of Justinian as a
they brouf^ht up until thev either married or em- "legal bond which by a legal necessity binds us to do
braced rehgion. These oblates began religious ob- something according to the laws of our State'' (III,
servance at S. Lucia della Chiavica, were transferred 13). It was a relation by which two persons were
to Monte Citorio, and, when the convent there was bound together (obligati) by a bond which the law
pulled down by Innocent XII in 1603, returned to S. reco^zed and enforced. Originally both parties were
Lucia. They adopted the Augustinian Rule. considered to be under the obligation to each other;
(4) The DaugMers of the Seven Dolours of the Blessed subsequently the term was restricted to one of the
Virgin, a development out of some confraternities of parties, who was said to be under an obligation to do
the same name, founded by St. Philip Benizzi, estab- sometlung in favour of another, and consequently
lished a house at Rome in 1652. Their object was to that other had a correlative right to enforce the f ulm-
take in infirm women who would not be received in ment of the obligation. The transference of the term
other congregations. The^ followed the Augustinian from the sphere of law to that of ethics was easy and
Rule and promised stabihty, conoersio morumf and natural. In ethics it acquired a wider meaning and
obedience according to the constitutions. was used as a synonym for duty. It thus became the
CoNORBOATioNB OF Oblatbb. Mbn. — (1) Earliest centre of some of the fundamental problems of ethics,
in origin of the societies or congregations of priests The question of the source of morsu obligation is per-
known as oblates is that of St. Charles Borromeo. It is haps the chief of these problems^ and it is certamlv
an institute of regular clerks, founded by the saint in not one of the easiest or least important. We all
1578 for the better administration of his diocese and acknowledge that we are in general under an obliga-
to enable the more spiritual-minded of his clergv to tion not to commit murder, but when we ask for the
lead a more detached and unworldly life. The3rlive, sround of the obligation, we get almost as many dif-
whenever and wherever it is possible, in common, ferent answers as there are svstems of ethics.
They make a simple vow of obedience to their bishop The prevailing Catholic doctrine may be explained
and, by doing so, bind themselves to exceptional in the following terms. By moral obligation we under-
service and declare their willingness to undertake ataxid some sort of necessity^ imposed on the will, of
labours for the salvation of souls which are not doing what is good and avoiding what is evil. The
usually classed among the duties of a parish priest, necessitv, of which there is question here, is not the
From their constitution it is evident that their use- ph3rsical coercion exercised on man by an external and
fulness and development, and even existence, depend stronger physical force. If two strong men seize me
on the bishop and the interest he takes in them. At by the arms and drag me whither I would not go, I
present, they are nowhere a large or important body, act under necessitv or compulsion, but this is not the
and perhaps do not meet wim the encouragement necessity of moral obligation. The will^ which is the
they deserve. seat of moral obligation, is incapable of being physicall v
(2) The greatest and best-known congregation of coerced in that manner. It cannot be forced to will
oblate priests, that of Mary Immaculate (O.M.I.), what it does not will. It is indeed possible to conceive
is dealt with in a special article. Connected with that the will is necessitated to action by the antece-
the institute and under its direction are the Oblate dent conditions, llie doctrine of those who deny free
Sisters of the Holy Family. will is easily intelligible althoug|h we deny that it is
(3) The Oblates of Mary, not to be confounded true. The will is indeed necessitated by its own na-
with those of Mary Immaculate or with the Marists, ture to tend towards the ^jood in general : we can&ot
are a society of Piedmontese priests fotmded in 1845. wish for what is evil unless it presents itself to us under
Thev have houses at Turin, No vara, and Pinerolo, and the appearance of good. We also necessarily wish
send missionaries to Bunna, Ava, and Pegu in the for happiness, and if we found ourselves in presence of
East Indies. some object which fuU^ satisfied all our desires, and
(4)* By a decree of Pope Leo XIII, dated 17 June, contained in itself nothing to repel us, we should be
1898, the Oblati seculares O.S.B. — ^that is, those who necessitated to love it. But in this life there is no
h&ve received the privilege of the scapular, and, for such object which can fully satisfy all our desires
their friendliness and good offices, have been admitted and thus make us completely happy. Health,
as confratres of any Benedictine monastery or congre- friends, fame, wealth, pleasures, singly or all com-
gation — are now granted all the indulgences, graces, bined, are incapable of filling the void in our hearts.
at the same time, be tertiaries of the Franciscan or any defects and tne evil which the pursuit or possession of
other order^ it is ''consruous" that they should have them entails. Considered with their defects, they
peculiar privileges. He, therefore, grants them the repel as well as attract us; our wills therefore are not
general absolution which tertianes are able to receive on necessitated to full and deliberate action,
certain days during confession, with the plenary in- The necessity, then, which constitutes the essence of
diligence annexed to it {adhibita formtda pro Tertiariis moral obligation must be of the kind which an end
prfgserivta) : the special plenary indulgence at the hour that must be attained lays upon us of adopting the
of death (observetur ritus et formula a constitutions necessary means towards obtaining that end. If I am
P. P. Bened. XIV "Pia Mater''); an indulgence of bound to cross the ocean and I am unable to fly, I
seven vears and seven quarantines every time they must go on board ship. That is the only means at my
hear Mass corde saUem coniriti — ^in a word, all and each disposal for attaining the end which I am bound to
of the privil«ces and favours granted to the lay tor- obtain. Moral obligation is a necessity of this kind,
tiaries of St. Francis and of other orders. It is the necessity that I am under, of emplo3dng the
BAhrorr, iriai,de»ordrea num.: Uiain,l>%d.d€aord,rd.:Gomm' necessary means towards the obtaining of an end
Lm, Diet, eneud. d€ la thiol, eaih., a. ▼. OUak; Calmst. CommerU, which is also necessary. The necessity, then, which
tfkSi£-(^S^ii.^W^^r^ iM. <W« ». Kon>r^. *r , oblijfation lays upon U8 is the neceadty, not of
J. C. Almond. ^'^^ determinism of nature, nor of the ph^rmcal coercion
of an external and stronger force, but it is of the same
Oblation. See Hoer (Canonioo-Litubgicaii). general character as the necessity that we are under
1
OBUOATIOK 190 OBUQATION
of employmg the necessary meana in order to attain and Inttdtionism. On the contrary, it is in the strici-
an end which must be obtained. There is, however, est sense rational. It asserts that we can know God.
a special quality in the necessity of moral obUgation our Creator and Lord, that we can know ourselves ana
which is peculiar to itself. We all appreciate this the bonds that bind us to God and to oiu* fellow-men.
when we say that children are "obliged*^ to obey their We can know the actions which it is right and beoom-
parents, that they "ought" to obey them, that it is ing that such a being as man should perform. We can
their "duty" to ao so. We do not simpler mean by and do know that God, Whom as our Creator and
those assertions that obedience to parents is a neoes- Lord we are bound to obey, commands us to do what
saiy means towards their own education, and for is right and forbids us to do what is wrong. That
securing the peace, harmony, and affection, which is the eternal law, the Divine reason, or the Divine
should reign m the home. We do not simplv mean will, which is the source of all moral obugation. Moral
that the happiness of parents and children depends precepts are the commands of God, but they are also
upon such obedience. Although society at large is the behests of right reason, inasmuch as they are
much concerned that children should be trained in merely the rules of ri^t conduct by which a being
respect and deference towards lawful authority, yet such as man is should Be guided,
even the demands of society do not explain what we An objection is sometimes urged against the method
mean when we affirm that children are obUged to obey of analysing moral obligation which we have followed,
their parents. There is a peremptoriness, a sacredness, It is said that moral obligation cannot be explained as
a universality about the obligation of duty, which a moral necessity of adopting the necessary means to
can only be explained' by calling to mind what man is, the end of moral action, for it may be asked what
what is his origin, and what is his destiny. Man is a is the moral obUgation of the end itself. The Utili-
creature, made by God his Creator, with Whom he is tarians, for ex^imple. maintained that the end of
destined to live for all eternity. That is the end of human action should be the greatest happiness of
man's life and of his every action, imposed on him the greatest number. But a man may well ask,
by his Maker, who in making man ordered eveiy fibre why he should be bound to direct his actions towards
of his nature to the end for which he was made. That securing the greatest happiness of the greatest num-
doctrine explains the peremptoriness, the sacredness, ber. It is plain what answer should be given to
the universality of moral obligation, made Imown to such a question on the principles laid down above,
us, as it is, by the dictates of conscience. The doc- God is our Creator and Lord, and as such and because
trine has seldom been put in clearer or more beautiful He is good. He has every right to our obedience and
language than by Cardinal Newman in his Letter to service. We need not gp beyond the preceptive will
the Di^e of Norfolk (p. 56): — of God in our analysis; it is obligatory upon us from
"The Supreme Being is of a certain character, the very nature of God and our relation to Him. The
which, expressed in human language, we call ethical, rules of morality are then moral laws, impoising on us
He has the attributes of justice, truth, wisdom, sane- an obUgation derived from the will ot God, our Crea-
tity. benevolence and mercy, as eternal characteris- tor. Tnat obUgation is the moral necessity that we
tics in His Nature, the very liaw of His being, identi- are under of conforming our actions to the demands
cal with Himself; and next, when He became Creator, of our rational nature and to the end for which we ex-
He implanted this Law, which is Himself , in the in- ist. If we do what is not conformable to our rational
teUigence of aU His rational creatures. The divine nature and to our end, we violate the moral law and
Law then is the rule of ethical truth, the standard do wrong. The effect on ourselves of such an action
of right and wrong, a sovereign, irreversible, absolute is twofold according to Catholic theology. A bad
authority in the presence of men and Angels. "The action does not merely subject us to a penalty assigned
eternal law,' says St. Augustine, 'is the Divine Reason to wrongdoing, the sanction of the moral law. Be-
or Will of God. commanding the observance, forbid- sides this reatus pcbtubj there is also the reaiu8 culpa
ding the disturbance, of the natural order of thin^.' in every moral transg^:ession. The sinner has com-
'Tiie natural law.' says St. Thomas, 'is an impression mitted an offence against God, something which dis-
of the Divine Light in us, a participation of the eternal pleases Him, and which puts an end to the friendship
law in the rational creature.' This law, as appre- which should exist between the Creator and creature,
hended in the minds of individual men, is called 'con- This state of enmity is accompanied, in the super-
science'; and though it may suffer refraction in passing natural order to which we have been raised, by the
into the intellectual medium of each, it is not thereby privation of God's grace, and of the rights and priv-
so affected as to lose its character of being the Di- ileges annexed to it. This is by far the most impor-
vineLaw,butstillhafl.assuch, the prerogative ot com- tant of the effects produced on the soul by sin, the
manding obedience. The Divine Law,' says Cardinal liabiUty to punishment is merely a secondary conse-
Gousset, 'is the supreme rule of actions; our thoughts, auence of it. This shows how far from the truth we
desires, words, acts, all that man is, is subject to the should be if we attempted to explain moral obUgations
domain of the law of God; and this law is the rule of by mere UabiUty to punishment which wrongdoing
our conduct by means of our conscience. Hence it entails in this world or in the next.^
is never lawful to go against our conscience; as the The sense of moral obUgation is an attribute of
Fourth Lateran Council says, 'Quidquid fit contra con- man's rational nature, and so we find it wherever we
scientiam, sedificat ad gehennam.' . . . The rule and find man. However, in the early history of ethical
measureof duty is not utility, nor expedience, nor the speculation the notion is not prominent. Before
happiness of the greatest number, nor State conven- pnilosophers began to inquire into the meaning and
fence, nor fitness, order, and the pukhrum. Con- origin of moral obUgation, they busied themselves
science is not a long-sighted selfishness, nor a desire to about what is the good, and what the end of human
be consistent with oneself; but it is a messenger from activity. This was the question which occupied the
Him who both in nature and in grace, speaks to us philosophers of ancient Greece. What is the highest
behind a veU, and teaches and rules us by His repre- gpod for man? In what does man's happiness con-
sentatives. Conscience is the aboriginal Vicar of sist? Is it pleasure, or virtue practised for its own
Chi ist, a prophet in its informations, a monarch in its sake or for the gratification and self-esteem that it
peremptoriness, a priest in its blessings and anathe- brings to the virtuous man? With the exception of
mas, and even though the eternal priesthood through- the Stoics, the Greek philosophers did not much dis-
out the Church could cease to be, in it the sacerdotal cuss the question of duty and moral obUgation. They
principle would remain and would have a sway." thought that, of course, when a man knew where his
An injustice would be done to the foregoing doo- highest good lay, he could not but pursue it. Vice
trine if it were classed with Mystidflm, innate ideas, was really ignorance, and all that was neoessary to
OBUQATION 191 OBUQATION
flubdue it was a training in philosophy. But the first is oalled Christian liberty. Christian liberty, how-
?rinciple of the Stoics was : "life according to nature ". ever, interpreted by private judgment, developed into
'hat was the "becoming", the "proper" thin^, various systems of so-called mdependent morality,
whether it brought pleasure or pam, which the Stoic Thomas Hobbes (1588-1679) is justly regarded as
philosopher indc^ reckoned of no importance, and af- one of the chief pioneers of modem thought. Accord-
fected to despise. This philosophy appealed' power- ing to Hobbes, man in the state of nature seeks noth-
fully to the native sternness of tne Roman character, ing but his own selfish pleasure, but such individual-
and it was oonsiden^ly influenced and developed by ism naturally leads to an internecine war in which
the ideas of Roman jurisprudence. Thus the treatise ever^ man's hand is against his neighbour. In pure
of Panffitius, a Stoic of the second century before self-mterest and for self-preservation men entered into
Christ, "On the Things That Are Becoming", was a compact by which, they agreed to surrender part
paraphrased by Cicero in the next century, and be- of their natural freedom to an absolute ruler in order
eame his well-known treatise "On Duties . Cicero to preserve the rest. The State determines what is
remarks, and the remark is significant, that Pansetius just and unjust, right and wrong; and the strong arm
had not given a defimtion of wnat duty is. According , of the law provides the ultimate sanction for right
to Cicero it has reference to the end of good actions, conduct. The same fimdamental principles form the
and is expressed in precepts to which the conduct of groundwork of the empirical philosophy of Locke and
life can be conformed in sul its particulars (De ofl^ciis, a long train of followers down to the present day.
I. iii). The working out of the doctrine concerning Some of these followers indeed denied that all the
tne law of nature is oue to a large extent to the Roman motives that influence man's conduct are selfish: they
lawyers, and Costa Rosetti, a recent Austrian writer insist on the existence of sympathetic and social feel-
on ethics, could find no words more suited to sum up ings in men, but whether selfisn or social, all are rooted
the common Catholic teaching on the point than a in a sensist philosophy. The lineal descent of these
passage from Cicero's "De republica (III, xxii). views may be traced from Hobbes and Locke, through
We cannot do better than give a translation of the Hume, Paley, Bentham, the two Mills, and Bain, to H.
passage here, as it will ^ow dearly how fully the doo- Spencer and the Evolutionists of our own day. This
trine of a law of nature imposing a moral ob^gation sensist philosophy, of course, has had its opponents,
on man had been developea before it was adopted by Cudworth and the Cambridge Platonists strove to de-
the Fathers (Lactantius, "Dediv. inst.", VI, viii) : fend the essential and eternal distinction of good and
"Right reason is a true law, agreeing with nature, evil by reviving Platonism. Butler insisted on the
infused into all men, unchanging, eternal, which sum- claims of conscience, while the Scotch school. Price,
mons to duty by its commands, deters from wrong Reid, and Dugald Stewart, postulated a moral sense
by forbidding it, and which nevertheless neither analogous to the sense of beauty, which infallibly in-
commands and forbids the ^ood in vain, nor prevsdls dicat^ the right course of conduct. In Germany,
with the bad by commandmg and forbidding them. Kant formulated his ethical system to counteract
It is not permitted to abrogate this law, nor is it al- the scepticism of Hume. Moral obligation, accord-
lowed to derogate from it in anything^ nor is it possible ing to nim, is derived from the categorical impera-
to abrogate it wholly. We can neither be released tive of the autonomous reason. Kant's philosophy,
from this law by popular vote, nor should another be through Fichte and Schelling, gave birth to the pan-
sought for to gloss and interpret it. It is not one theism of He^el. A small but influential school of
thing at Rome, another at Athens; one thing now, and English Hegelians, represented by such men as T. H.
another afterwards; but one, eternal, and immutable Green, Bradley, Wallace, Bosanquet, and others, re-
law will govern all men for ever, and there will be one, gard conscience as the voice of man's true self, and
the common master and ruler of all, God. He it was man's true self as ideally one with God. English
that proposed and carried this law, and whoever does philosophic thought is thus divided into the schools of
not yield obedience to it will revolt against himself. ' Materialism and Pantheism, much as Epicureanism
and by offering an affront to the nature of man he will and Stoicism divided the ancient world. Pragina^
thereoy suffer the greatest penalties, even if he avoids tism, a product of American thought, may without in-
other supposed sanctions. justice oe compared to the scepticism of the Athenian
The Stoic indeed understood this doctrine in a pan- Academy. Each and all of these systems contain
theistic sense. His god was the universal reason of grave errors about the nature of man and about his
the world, of which a particle was bestowed on man at position in the world, and so it is no wonder that they
his birth. It only needed the Christian doctrine of a lail to account for moral obligation. (See Deter-
to turn it into the Catholic doctrine of moral obli|;a- Obligations, Profbbbional. — ^The office of a judge,
tion which has been analysed above. In the tracing inasmuch as he is appointed by public authority to
of Christ, right conduct is summed up in the ohs/erv- administer justice according to the laws, demands in
ance of the conoimandments. Those commandments the first place competent Knowledge of the laws
constitute the law of God, which He came not to de- which are to be admmistered. Not less important in
stroy but to fulfil. He required their observance un- a judge is a lofty sense of Justice and an upneht char-
der the most terrible sanctions. St. Paul, of course, acter which cannot be deflected from the path of duty
only preached the doctrine of his Master. The legalism by either fear or favour. The judge, too, must em-
which he rejected was the ceremonial and the merely ploy at least ordinary diligence m the conduct of the
outward observance of the Pharisees, not the intemai cases that come before him, so that as far as possible
and the external observance of the moral law. Al- a just sentence may be arrived at. He must not
though the Gentile had not the moral law written on transgress the limits of his authority, and he must ob-
tablets of stone, yet he had it written on the fleshy serve the rules of procedure laid down for his guidance,
tablets of his heart, and his conscience bore witness These obligations of a judge follow from the nature
to it, as did that of the Jew (Rom., ii, 14). This is the of his office, and he bmds himself implicitly to fulfil
doctrine still taught in the Catholic Church. It de- them when he accepts that office. Judges also usually
rives straight from Christ and His Apostles, though it take an oath by which they expressly bmd themselves
uoften expressed in the language of Stoicism, intei^ to administer justice uprightly, without fear or favour,
preted according to the exigences of Christian doo- Selling justice for bribes is rightly regarded as a hei-
tiine. Since the Reformation it has been the fashion nous offence in a judge, and besides bemg liable to se-
with many to reject it as legalism in favour of what vere punishment, it mvolves the obligation of making
^
OBUOATIOH 192 OBUQATIOH
reatjtutioii, ss there is no just title to retun the price tion to doit, aa when one's office compdsoae to under-
of jiutice. Natural equity requirce thst all should take the task, or the defence of the innocent or the
be presumed to be innocent who have not been proved pubUc good requires it, or a precept of obedience com-
to be guilty of crime, and so a judge must give those mands it. Thus bj^ ecdeeiaatical law heretics and
who are accused the benefit of the doubt, when the priesta guilty of solicitation in the sacred tribunal are
crime imputed to them cannot be clearly proved. In to be denounced to the ordinary.
civil actions he is bound to give sentence according to - The defendant in a criming trial ia not himself sub-
the meritfl of the case, and so in default of certainty wct«d to examination, according to English law, unleM
of right, he must decide in favour of the part^ who he oBen himself voluntarily to ipve evidence, and then
has tne better clium. What has been said of judges he may be examined like a witness. In canon law
is apphcable in due measure to magistrates, referees, the accused is examined, and the question arises
arbitrators, and jurymen, all of whom are invested whether be is bound to tell the truth against himself,
with some of the functions of a judge. He is bound to tell the truth if he is interrogated ao-
Advocatea and lawyers are persons skilled in the cording to law; canon law prescribes that when there
law who for payment undertake the legal business of ia gemipUna probalio of the crime and this ia made
elienta. They are oblieod to have the knowledee and clear to the defendant he should be interrogated,
skill which are required for the due discharge of their The defendant may in self-defence make known the
office, and which they impUcitly profess to have when secret crime of a witness against him, if it realty con-
they offer their services t« the public. They must also duces to his defence; but, of course, he may never im-
employ at leaat ordinary diligence and care in the con- pute false crimes to anybody. A cnminal may not de-
duct of the business entruated to them. They must fend himself against lawful arrest^ for that would be
' keep faith with their clients and use only just means to to reaiat lawful authority, but he is not com[)elled to
obtain the objects which they desire. As they act deliver himself up to justice, and it ia not a sin to es-
for and in the name of their clients, they must not cape from justice if he can do so without violence.
undertake a cause which ia clearly unjust, otherwise The law prescribes that he shall be kept in durance,
they will be guilty of co-operating in injustice, and not that be shall voluntarily remain in cuetodv. A
will be boundto make restitution for all the unjust criminal lawfully condemned to death is not obliged
damage which they cause to otbera. However, pre-, to save his life by escape or other means if he can do
viouscertaintyof thejusticeof acauseisnotneceesaty so; he should submit to the execution of the sentence
in order that a lawyer may rightly undertake it; it passed upon him, and may do ao meritoriously,
will be sufficient if the justice of the cause to be under- Charity or obedience may impose an obligation to
taken is at least probable, for then it may be hoped give evidence in a court of justice. If serious harm
that the truth wiU be made clear in the course of the can be prevented by offering one's self as a witness,
trial- As soon as an advocate is satisfied that his therewillasarulebeanobligation todoso, andobedi-
eUent haa no case, he should inform him of the fact, ence imposes the obligation when one IB summoned by
and should not proceed further with the case. An ad- lawful authority. A witness is bound by his oath and
TOcate may alwaya undertake the defence of a crimi- by the obedience due to lawful authority to tell the
nal, whether he be guilty or not, for even if hia de- tnith in answer to the questions lawfully put to him.
fence of a real culprit is successful, no great harm will He is not bound to incriminate himself, nor, of course,
usually be done by a guilty man escaping the punish- ma^ the seal of confession ever be broken,
ment which he deserves. To justify a criminal ac- The canon law lud it down that the testimony of
cuaation of another there must be morally cert^n two witnesaes of unsuspected character was neces-
evidence of his guilt, as otherwise there will be danger sary and sufficient evidence of anv fact alleged in a
of doing serious and unjust harm to the reputation of court of justice. The testimony of a solitary witness
one's neighbour. was not usually sufficient or admissible evidence of a
From the'Decree of the Holy Office, 19 Dec., 1860, -crime, and in keeping with this the theologians decided
in answer to the Bishop of Southwark, it is clear that that a solitary witness should not declare what he
in England an advocate may undertake a case where knew of a crime, inasmuch as he was not lawfully
there is Question of judicial separation between hus- interrogated. English law, however, with most
band and wife. Even in an action for divorce in ft modem eystema, admits the testimony of one wit-
civil court he may defend the action aj^dnat Uie plain- ness, if credible, as sufficient evidence of a fact, and
tiff. If the marriage has already been pronounced null so as a rule there will be an obligation on such a one
and void by competent ecclesiasticu authority, a of answering according to his knowledge when qitee-
Catholic advocate may impugn its validity in the civil tioned lawfully in a court of justice.
courts. Moreover, for just reason, as, for example, A doctor who holds himself out as ready to imder-
to obtain a variation in the marriage settlement, or to take the care of the sick muat have competent knowl-
prevent the necessity of having to maintain a bastard edge of his profession and must exercise his office at
child, a Catholic lawyer may petition for a divorce in least with ordinary care and diUgence; otherwise he
the civil court, not with the intention of enabling his will sin against justice and charity in exposing himself
cUent to marry again while his spouse ia still living, to the risk of seriously injuring his neighbour. Unless
hut with a view to obtaining the civil effects of divorce he is bound bv some special agreement he is not ordi-
in the civil tribunal. This opinion at any rate is de- narily obliged to undertake any particular case, for
fended as probable by many good theologians. The there are usually others who are willing and able to
reason ia becauae marriage ia neither contracted nor ^ve the necessary assistance to the sick. Even in
dissolved before the civil authority; in the formalities time of pestilence he will not commit sin if he leave
imecribed for marriage by civil law there ia only ques- the neighbourhood, unless he ia bound to remun by '
tion of thecivil authority taking cwnizanceof who are some special contract.
married, and of the civil effects which flow therefrom. He should not make exorbitant charges for his ser-
Incanonlawexcommunicaledandinfamouspersons, vices, nor multiply visits uselessly and thus increase
ftMomplices, and others are debarred from prosecuting hia fees, nor call m other doctors without necessity-
criminals, but as a general rule any one who has full On the other hand, even at serious inconvemence, be
use of his senses may prosecute according to American should visit a patient whose case he baa undertaken
and English law. Nobody should undertake a prose- when called as far as is reasonable, and he should be
cution when greater evil than good would follow from ready to call in other doctors for consultation when
it, or when there is not moral certunty as to the guilt necessary or when he is asked to do so. Be is some-
-^ *^t accused. However, it may be done for the times bound by the general law of charity to give his
*. the public good, and there may be an obliga- aanstanoe gratu to t£e poor.
O'BRABIN 193 O'BBUADAIB
He maj not neglect safer remedies in order to try wear over the grey habit of the Third Order of St.
those which are less safe, but there is nothing to pre- Francis a black cross on the left side of the breast, to
yoit him from prescribing what will probably do good distinguish them from similar congelations. Since
if it is certain that it will not do harm. In a desperate the French Revolution they have entirdy disappeared.
case, with the consent of the sick person and of his ^^ Hsbbbra t Maldonado, Viday Virtude* dd . . . Benwr-
relations, he may make use of what will probably do ^i^^^Obreg&n (Mwinci, 1634); db (Jubebnatw, Orhus^vj*^
J Au u iZ^ ^^XL^ZZ^ ui J u H*""""'^ "" OM, II (Lyons. 1686), 940; Ratiinokb, GetcA. der kvrchL%eKtn
jgOOd thou^ It may also probably do harm, provided Armenpfitg^ (2 ed.. Freiburg, 1884), 509.
that there is nothing better to be' done in tne circum- Lxvartus Ouqbb.
stances. It is altogether wrong to make experiments
with doubtful remedies or operations on living human Obroption (Lat. ch and repere^ "to creep over")»
beings; fiat experimentum in carpore vili, a canomcal term applied to a species of fraua by which
When the patient is in danger of death, the doctor an ecclesiastical rescript is obtained. Dispensations
is bound out of charity to warn him or those who at- or graces are not granted unless there be some motive
tend on him, that he may make all necessary prep- for requesting them, and the law of the Church re-
arations for death. (See Abortion; Anjbsthebia; quires that the true and just causes that lie behind the
Craniotomy ; Hypnotism. ) motive be stated in every prayer for such dispensation
Teachers hold the place of parents with regard to or grace. When the petition contains a statement
those committed to their charge for ^e purpose of in- about facts or circumstances that are supposititious or,
struction. They are bound in justice to exercise due at least, modified if they really exist, the resulting re-
care and diligence in the discha^ of their office, script is said to be vitiated by obreption. If, on the
They must have the knowledge and skill which that other hand, silence had been observed concerning
office demands. something that essentially changed the state of the
Cbonik, The Scienetfof Bthiet (London. 1909); Mbtbb. irutUw- case, it is called subreption. Rescripts obtained by
SS:Sfj^<iS[r^)fB7iS2;J.?l?iS'^X;.'«^1^tS( obreption or subreption.are. ndl anf void when the
1892), U. iU, 14; viii, 527; Huntbb. Roman Law (London, 1885) ; motive cause of the rescript IS affected by them. If it
Blatbb, a Manual of Moral Thealoffy, I (New York, 1908); aee is only the impelling cause, and the suDstance of the
Bjbhof: Cblibact; Clbbicb; PBiwraooD; Rbugious; Vowb. petition is not affected, or if the false statement was
1 . olateb. made throu^ ignorance, the rescript is not vitiated.
rkfv..*^!.. Tw^-^^^,.^ T • u rx J A 1.1. X As requests for rescripts must come through a person
O'Bradn, TiGmRNACH, Irish annalist and Abbot -^ ecdfesiastical authonty, it is his duty to i^or^him-
l^ ^^J^^'^^^^^T''''''^' ^'}^\ u^'"^^ *! self of the truth or falsity of the causi alleged in the
^"'"^K^.^S?^ ?i ^"^/^ ^""^^K *?!?* ^1® """fu petitions, and in case they are granted, to ^ that the
)^^L^r.ATt, V^l^}S P'r? ""^ the eleventh SonditioM of the rescript are fulfilled,
century and that he came of a Connaught family. taunton, T^ Law o/tA€(&Aurcfc (London. 1906) ;LAUBBimuB,
His Annals " (among the earnest of Irish annals) are In$t%tutione» JurU BeduiatHd (Freibms, 1903).
of the greatest value to the historian of Ireland be- William H. Fanning.
cause of the author's attempt to synchronize Irish ^
events with those of the rest of Europe from the O'Brien, Terence Albert, b. at Limenck, 1000;
earliest times to his own day. His learning is shown ^' there, 31 October, 1651. He joined the Domini-
by his quotations, among others, from the works of cans, receiving the name Albert at Limerick^ where his
the Venerable Bede, Josephus, Eusebius, and Orosius, ^^le, Maurice O'Brien, was then prior. In 1622 he
not to speak of the Vulgate. But his sources for studied at Toledo and after eijjht years returned to
the Irish portions of the "Annals "are not now discov- Limerick, to become twice pnor there and once at
erable because of the loss of the Irish manuscripts Lorrha, and in 1643 provincial of his order in Ireland,
from which he drew his information. Only fragments His services to the Catholic Confederation were highly
of Tighemach's "Annals" are now extant; these are valued by the Supreme Council. At ROme he re-
in a vellum of the twelfth century and one of the ceived the degree of Master in Theology, and on his
fourt^ATiih r^ntiirv in thfi RndlAian T.ihrArv Oxford, retum made a visitation of two houses of his province
>)llege
hedby
tores " 11825), "bu^O'ConoTs text "iTf i5 "of errors. Supreme Council at the end of 1645, wid recommended
They have recently been published and translated by by the nuncio Rinuccini. Subsequently, at the peti-
Whitley Stokes in the "Revue Celtique" (vols. XVI, tion of many bishops, Rinuccim wrote (17 March,
XVII, XVIII). Two pages in facsimile are given in 1^46) that Burgat, Vicar-General of Emly, was a suit-
Gilbert's "National Manuscripts of Ireland", part I. aWe person for the coadjutorship. In August he re-
P'CuuT, LoetuTtB on the Manuacnpi MaieriaU of Aneieru iritk newed his recommendation of Father Terence O'Brien,
Bittory (DubUn, 1873), 67. ^ho was named coadjutor with the right of succession,
Joseph Dunn. in March, 1647, and eight months later was conse-
^. . , _ _ ^ „ crated by kinuccini. Throudiout the ensuing troubles
OhTtgODlBBB (or Poor Infirmarians), a small con- he adhered to the nuncio. He signed the declaration
srmtion of men, who professed the Rule of the Third against Inchiquin's truce in 1648, and the declaration
OrdCT of St. Francis, founded by Bernardino Obre- agamst Ormond in 1650. When Limerick was be*
§6n (b. 5 May, 15^ at I^ Huelgas near Burgos, gigged in 1651, he urged a stubborn resistance and so
pam; d. 6 Aug., 1699). Of a noble family Obreg6n embittered the Ormondists and the Parliamentarians,
was an officer in the Spanish army, but retired and that in the capitulation he was excluded from quarter
dedicated himself to the service of the sick in the hos- and protection. The day after the surrender, he with
pitals of Madrid. Others became associated with him Major General PurceU and Father Wolf were dia-
m hospital service and in 1567 by consent of the papal covered in the pest-house, brought before a c»urt mar-
nunrao at Madrid the new congregation was founded, tial and ordered for execution, which took place on the
To the three ordinary vows was added that of free following day.
i^AiL. rvuZUji -^»~r~f T . I , ,?5i; «M*u wro Q^ Martyrs (Dublin. 1896); db Buroo, H%btmta D
Indies. ObregOn went to Lisbon, 1592, and there (Cologne. 1762) ; Walbr in in«A £ec{. Aec.. Feb., 1894.
founded an asylum for orphan boys: returning to
Spain he assisted King Philip II in his last illness O'Bruadair, David, an Irish poet, b. about 1625,
(1598). Paul V, 1609, allowed the Obregonians to most probably in the barony of Banymore, Co. Cork,
XI.— 13
OBSERVANTS 194 6'CiJJJiaHAN
but according to many authorities in that of Connello, first volume has appeared (1910). is in course ofpub-
Co. Limerick; d. January, 1608. He was well edu- lication by the present writer lor the Irish Texts
cated in the Irish, Latin, and English languages. His Society, London.
historical poems show the influence of Geofifrey Keat- O'Gbadt. Cataiooue of Iriak MSB. in BritUk Muwum, 617.
ing, his favowite Irish author He wrote elegies on ^^T^^S^^TSJ^iSriSSc^r"^.^^
the deaths of many histoneally promment members ^Dublin, 1S20), i. d. czcvi; Htdb, uurary Ui^wy of inUmd
of the leading Munstcr families, especially the Bourkes (I^°4?«^» 18?>)' *^AJ3y%o%* ***** ^ ''"*** ^*'««»*»"«t H
ofCahirm^e,theFit«geraldsofClaonghlais,andthe (l>ubhn and London. 1908). i8»-97. ^^^ ^^^^^^^^^
Banys of Co. Cork, who later befriended him in his ''^^ mach-rlban.
poverty. All his poems, whether historical, social, or Observants. See Friars Minor, Order of.
elegiac, are maxk^ by a freshness rare in ^.seven- obsession. See Possession, Demoniacal.
teenth century and they furnish many mterestmg de- ^»'«w»»w— i^»^ * v«x3««o.vr«, «i»vF *«v.
tails about the life and manners of his time. Two of O'Callaf han^EDMnND Bailbt, physician, publicist,
his epithalamia, a form of composition rare in Irish and histonan, b. at Mallow, Cork. 29 Feb.. 1797; d.
literature, have been preserved. They were written at New York, 29 May, 1880. His eldest brotner Theo-
to celebrate the marriages of the sisters, Una and dore held a commission in the English army; the othera,
Eleanor Bourke of Cahirmoyle. His satires when di- Eugene and David, became oriests and were distin-
rected against the Cromwemim Planters or the Duke guished for their learning. On completing his educar
of Ohrmonde and his flatterers are bitter, but lifter tion in Ireland, Edmund went to Pans (1820) to study
and more humorous when treating themes of local medicine. In 1830 he settled in Montreal and besides
interest, as in the case of his witty proverbial "Guagan the practice of medicine, took an active part in the
GUog''^ or his mock-heroic defence of the smit^ of National Patriotic movement and in 1834 became ed-
Co. Limerick. His reli^ous poems exhibit great itor of its organ the ''Vindicator". Elected to the
bcAuty and depth of feehng, especially the poem on Provincial Parliament in 1836 he held a conspicuous
the Passion of Christ. Others like those on tne schi»- position in debate for popular rights, took a leading
matieal movement of the Remonstrants (1666-70) part in the unsuccessful insurrection of 1837, was at-
and on the Oates Plot (1678-82) are polemical and con- tainted of treason, fl^ to the United States, remained
tain details not found elsewhere. nearly a year the guest of Chancellor Walworth in
His political poems treating the events of Irish hi»- Saratoga, and in 1^8 resumed the practice of medi-
tory from the Cromwellian Plantation (1652) to the end cine in Albany, where he edited the ' ' Northern Light ",
of the War of the Revolution (1691) reveal his great an industrial journal.
political foresight and independent views. His *' Suim The anti-rent agitation of the time led him to study
Purgadorabhfearn-Eireaim"summari2es the history the land-rights of the Patroons. Attracted by the
of Ireland from 1641 to 1684, and a series of poems rich but neglected old Dutch records in the possession
commemorates the exciting events of the leigp. of of the State, he mastered the Dutch language and in
James II (1685-91). Being written from a national 1846 published the first volume of "History of New
and Catholic standpoint, these poems, owing to the Netherland'', the first real history of New York State,
dearth of Irish documents relating to tnat period, are The result of its publication was the official commis-
invaluable for the light which they throw upon the sion of J. R. Broohead by the New York State L^gs-
sentiments of the Irish nobles and people durmg that lature to search the archives of London, Paris, and The
half-century of war, confiscation, and persecution. Hague, and to make copies of documents bearing on
Despite his enthusiasm for the national cause, O'Brua- New York colonial history. These documents were
dair is no mere eulogizer, and in "An Longbhriseadh'' publi^ed in eleven quarto volumes (1855-61) under
(The Shipwreck, 1691), he criticizes the army and its the editorship of O'Callaghan and are a monument of
leaders sev^ely. He warmly defended the conduct of care and ability. In 1848 he was made keeper of the
Sarsfield in the negotiations preceding the close of the historical MSS. of New York State^and in this capac-
war (1691). His views upon this subject, when com- ity served for twenty-two years. He was the first to
Sared with those of Colonel O'Kelly in his " Macarise call public attention to the value of the Jesuit Rela-
Ixcidium'', enable us to appreciate better the diver- tions, and read a paper before the New York Histori-
gence of opinions in Irish military circles in regard to cal Society, giving description of their purpose and
the acceptance of the terms offerea. O'Bruadair was a scope. James Lenox began to coUect tne scattered
'" Lenox Library in New York, contains
iete set or series of printed Jesuit Rela-
Lwaites edition in seventy-three volumes
guage classical, and his vocabulary extensive; but a was based on the Lenox set of the French, Latin, and
fondness for archaic expressions prevented most of Italian texts. O'Callaghan dedicated to Lenox his
his poems frona being popular in the succeeding " List of the editions of the Holy Scripture and parts
centuries. He is copious in illustration, careful to thereof IMnted in America Previous to 1860". An
avoid repetition, and never sacrifices reason to- edition of this work with annotations by Lenox is in
rhythm. Though he was an expert scribe and an in- the Lenox Library, New York,
dustrious copyist of ancient historical MSS., the only In 1870 O'Callaghan we^t to New York and as-
existing manuscript in his handwriting seems to b!e sumed the' task of editing its municipal records, but
H. 1. 18 fol. 4 to 14 in the library of Trinity College, through difficulties about financial resources they
Dublin. It contains three of his latest poems (1693- were never published. Though highly esteemed for
4)^ some genealogical matter taken from '^Leabhar his medical learning, O'Callaghan's ^reat claim on
Ins Ui Mhaoilchonaire" and the ''Rental" of Baron the gratitude of posterity is his historical work.
Bourke of Castleconnell. Co. Limerick. Most of his The clearness of ms style with accuracy of detail
poems are preserved in tnree early manuscripts: 23 M. gave authority to his writings, which contain a mine
25-23 M. 34, by Eoghan O Caoimh (1702), and 23 L. of original information about New York colonial
37, by Seaghan Stac (1706-9), both in the Library of history.
the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, and Add. 29614, Published works: ''History of New Netherland"
by Seaghan na Raithineach (1725)^ in the British (New York, 1846-9); "Jesuit Relations" (New York,
Museum. Others are to be found m various MSS. 1847); "Documentary History of New York "(Albany,
in the above-mentioned libraries and in those of 1849-51); "Documents relating to the Colonial His-
Trinity College, Dublin^ Maynooth, while a few arc tory of New York" (Albany, 1855-61); "Remon-
preserved in MSS. in pnvate hands. A complete col- strance of New Netherland from original Dutch
lectioa of his writin^i with translation, of which the MSS." (Albany, 1856); "Commissary WUson's Or-
O'OABOLAN
195
OCCASIONALISM
derly Book" (Albany, 1857): ''Catalogue of Historical
papers and parchments in New York State Library''
(Albany, 1849): "Orderly Book of Lieut. Gen. John
Burgoyne" (Albany, 1860); "Wolley's two years'
Journal in New York" (New York, 1860); "Names
of persons for whom marriage licenses were issued
previous to 1784" (Albany, 1860); "Journal of the
Legislation Council of the State of New York, 1601-
1775" (Albany, 1860); the companion work: "Min-
utes of the Execution Council of the State of New
York",^be^un by the state historian Mr. Paltsits in
1910; "Origin of the Legislation Assemblies of the
State of New York" (Albany, 1861); "A list of the
Editions of Holy Scripture and the parts thereof
printed in America previous to 1860" (Albany, 1861);
"A Brief and True Narrative of hostile conduct of the
barbarous natives towards the Dutch nation", tr.
from original Dutch MSS. (Albany, 1863); "Calendar
of the Land Papers" (Albany, 1864); "The Register
of New Netherland 1626-74'^ (Albany, 1865); "Cal-
endar of Dutch, English, and Revolutionary MSS. in
the office of the Secretary of State" (Albany, 1865-
68); "New York Colonial Tracts", 4 vols.: (1) "Jour-
nal of Sloop Mary"; (2) "Geo. Clarke's voyage to
America"; (3) "Voyages of Slavers"; (4) "Isaac
Bobin's letters 171^30" (Albany, 1866-72): "Laws
and Ordinancesof New Netherland 1638-74" (Albany,
1868); Index to vols. 1^ 2, 3 of transl. of Dutch MSS.
(Albany, 1870); "Copie de TroisI Lettres Rentes on
ann^espar le Rev. P. C. Lallemant" (Albany, 1870);
"Relation de ce qui s'est pass^ en la Nouvelle France
en I'ann^ 1626" (Albany, 1870); "Lettre du Rev. P.
Lallemant 22 Nov., 1629" (Albany, 1870); "Lettre
du P^reCharlea Lallemant 1627 " (Albany, 1870) ; " De
Regione et moribus Canadensium^ auctore Josepho
Juvencio" (Albany, 1871); "CanadicsMissionisRela-
tio 161 1-13^' (Albany, 1871) : "Missio Canadensis, epis-
tola ex Portu-regali in Acadia a R. P. Petro Biarao"
(Albany, 1870); "Relatio Rerum Gestacum in Novo-
Francica missione annis 1613-4" (Albany, 1871);
"Records of New Amsterdam 1653-74", tr. by O'Cal-
laghan were published by Berthold Femon (New
York, 1897).
O'Caijaohan, a ColUition of MSS, and Letter* in the Library
of Congre9»t WcuhiMton^ D. C, 2 voU. of documents and 9 vols,
of oorrenwndenee; Shba in Maganne of American Uietory, V, 77;
Walbh in Reecrdt of Amer. Cathcl. Hiet, Soc, (March. 1905);
Bibl. Bull., no. 26 (Albany, 1901) ; Report of Bbodhkad aa acent to
procure and tranaoribe documents in Europe relative to Colonial
History of New York; New York StaU Senate Doe., no. 47.
John T. Dribcoll.
O'Carolan, Torloqh (Irish, Toirdhbalbhach
0 CearbhallXin). usually spoken of as the ''last of
the Irish bards", b. in the County Meath, Ireland,
in 1670; d. at Ballyfamon, 1737. He early became
blind from an attack of small-pox. Descended from
an ancient family, he achieved renown as a harper.
His advent marks the passing of the old Gaelic distmc-
tion between the bani and the harper. C!elebrated
as poet, composer, and harper, he composed probably
over two hundrea poems, many of them of a lively,
Pindaric nature, and mostly addressed to his patrons
or fair ladies belonging to the old county families,
where he loved to visit and where he was always a
welcome guest. His poems are fuU of curious turns
and twists of metre to suit his airs, to which they are
admirably wed, and ver^ few are in regular stanzas.
There are a few exceptions, as his celebrated "Ode
to Whiskey", one of the finest Bacchanalian songs
in anv language, and his more famous but immea^
surably inferior ''Receipt for Drinkins". His harp
is preserved in the hall of the O'Conor Don at
Clonalis, Roscommon. Hardiman printed twenty-
four of his poems in his "Irish Minstrelsy", and
the present writer has collected about twelve more,
which seem to be all that survive of his literarv
output. Moore utilised many of his "planxties"
lor his "Melodies", aa in "The Young May
Moon", "O Banquet Not", "Oh, the Sight En-
trancing". No complete and accurate collection
of his airs has been made, though many of them
were introduced into ballad operas. The follow-
ing note in Irish in the writing of his friend and
Satron Charles O'Conor occurs in one of the Stowe
ISS: "Saturday the XXV day of March, 1738,
Toirrdealbhach 0 CerbhalMin, the intellectual sage
and prime musiciiein of all Irelimd died to-day. in the
68th year of his age. The mercy of God may nis soul
find, for he was a moral and a pious man."
Walub, Jrieh Barda (DubUn. 1786); O'Rkxllt, Iriek Writere
(Dublin, 1820) ; Qolosmith, Beeaye; Hardimak, Itieh Minetrday,
I (London, 1831) — ^this volume contains a portrait of Carolan
**from an original painting"; Grattan-Fiood, A Hiatory of Irieh
Mfuie (Dublin. 1905), zzi; O'Cabolan. CoOeeHon (Dublin. 1747^
QrattanrFlood says ne has traced five other editions between the
years 1780 and 1804) ; O'Nsxm Irish Folk Mueie (ChioaffK 1910).
Douglas Htde.
OccadonaliBm (Latin occasio) is the metaphysical
theory which maintains that finite things have no
efficient causality of their own, but that whatever
happens in the world is caused by Grod, creatures be-
ing merely the occasions of the Divine activitv. The
occasion is that which by its presence brings about the
action of the efficient cause. This it can do as final
cause by alluring the effici^^t cause to act, or as sec-
ondary efficient cause b}r impelling the primary cause
to do what would otherwise be left undone. Occasion-
alism was foreshadowed in Greek pl^losophy in the
doctrine of the Stoics who regarded God as pervading
nature and determining the actions of all beings
through the ftmdamental instinct of self-preservation.
It appeared openly in the Arabian thoueht of the
Middle Ages (cf . Stein, II, 193-245 infra) ; but its full
development is found only in modem philosophy, as
an outgrowth of the Cartesian doctrine of the relation
between body and mind. According to Descartes
the essence of the soul is thought, and the essence
of the body extension. Body and soul therefore
have notJung in common. How then do they in-
teract? Descartes himself tried to solve this problem
by attributing to the soul the power of directing the
movements ofthe body. But tnis idea conflicted with
the doctrine involved in his denial of any immediate
interaction between body and mind. Tne first step
toward a solution was taken by Johannes Clauberg
(1625-65). Acc6rding to him all the phenomena of
the outside world are modes of motion and are caused
by God. When therefore the mind seems to have
acted upon the outside world, it isi& pure delusion.
The soul, however, can cause its own mental processes,
which have nothing in common with matter and its
modes of action. Matter, on the other hand, cannot
act upon mind. The presence of certain changes in
the bodily organism is the occasion whereupon the
soul produces the corresponding ideas at this partic-
ular time rather than any other. To the soul Clau-
berg also attributes the power of influencing by means
of the will the movements of the body. The Occasion-
alism of Clauberg is different from that of later mem-
bers of the school; with him the soul is the cause which
is occasioned to act — with the others it is Grod.
Louis de la Forge (Tractatus de mente humana,
1666) is regarded by some as the real father of Occa-
sionsklism. His starting-point was the problem of the
relation between energy and matter. Following the
Cartesian method, he argued that what cannot be
dearly and distinctly conceived cannot be held as true.
We can form no clear idea of the attraction exerted by
one body on another at a distance nor of the energy that
moves a body from one place to another. Such an
energy must be something totally different from mat-
ter, which is absolutely inert: the union between mat-
ter and energy is inconceivable. Matter then, cannot
be the cause of the physical phenomena; these must
be produced by God, the first, universal, and total
cause of all motion. In his theory of the union be-
OCCASIONS
196
OCCASIONS
tween body and soul, de la Forge approached the
later Leibnizian doctrine of a pre-established har-
mony. God must have willed and brought about the
union between body and soul, therefore He willed to do
all that is necessary to perfect this union. The imion
between body and mind involves the appearance of
thou^ts in consciousness at the presence of bodily
activities and the sequence of bodily movements to
carry out the ideas of the mind. God willing the
union between body and mind willed also to produce.
. as first and universal cause, the thoughts that should
correspond to the organic movements of sensation,
and the movements which follow upon the presence
of some conscious processes.. But there are other
movements for whicn the soul itself is responsible as
efficient cause, and these are the effects of the spon-
taneous activity of our free will.
The Occasionalism of Arnold Geulincx (1624-1669)
b ethical rather than oosmolosical in its inception.
The first tract of his ''Ethics^' (Land's ed. of the
Opera^ The Ha^^e, 1891-93) is a study of what he
termed the cardinal virtues. These are not prudence,
temperance, justice, and fortitude. Virtue according
to (jeulincx is the love of God and of Reason (III,
16-17; 29). The cardinal virtues are the properties
of virtue which immediately flow from its venr essence
and have nothing to do with anything external. These
properties are diligence, obedience, justice, humility
(III, 17). The division which Geulincx makes of
humility is one of fundamental importance in his phi-
losophy. It divides his view of the world into two
parts— one, the understanding of our relation to the
world, and the other, the concept o^our relation to God.
Humility consists in the knowledge of self and the for-
saking of self. I find in myself nothing that is my own
but to know and to will, I therefore must be conscious
of all that I do, and that of which I am not conscious is
not the product of my own causality. Hence the uni-
versal principle of causality — quod nescis quo modo fiat,
nan fads — ^if you do not know now a thing is done then
vou do not do it. Since then, the movements of my
body take place without my knowing how the nervous
impulse passes to the. muscles and there causes them
to contract I do not cause my own bodily actions. '' I
am therefore a mere spectator of this machine. In
it I form naught and renew naught, I neither make
anything here nor destroy it. Everything is the
work of someone else '' (III, 33) . This one is the Deity
^ho sees and knows all things. The second part of
Geulincx's philosophy is connected with Occasional-
ism as the effect with the cause. Its guiding principle
is: Where you can do nothing there also you should
desire nothing (III, 222). This leads to a mysticism
and asceticism which however must not be taken too
seriously for it is tempered by the oblig[ation of caring
for the body and propagating the species.
Nicolas Malebrancne (q. v.) developed Occasional-
ism to its uttermost limit, approaching so near to Pan-
theism that he himself remarked that the difference
between himself and Spinoza was that he tausht that
the universe was in God and that Spinoza said that God
was in the universe. Starting out with the Cartesian
doctrine, that the essence of the soul is thought and that
of matter is extension, he sought to prove that crea^
tures have no causality of their own. Experience seems
to tell us that one body acts upon another, but all that
we know is that the movement of one body follows upon
that of another. We have no experience of one body
causing ^e movement of another. Therefore, says
Malebranche, one body cannot act upon another. By
a similar argument he attempts to prove that body
cannot act upon mind. Since expenence can tell us
only that a sensation follows upon the stimulus, there-
fore the stimulus is not the cause of the sensation.
He uses the argument of Geulincx to prove that mind
cannot act upon body. Not only is there no interac-
tion between body and mind, and between one body
and another, but there is no causality within the mind
itself. Our sensations, for example, are not caused
by bodies, and are independent of ourselves. There-
fore they must be proauced by some higher being.
Our ideas cannot be created by the mind. Neither
can they be copied from a present object, for one
would have first to perceive the object in order to copy
it, after which the production of an idea would be
superfluous. Our ideas cannot be all possessed as
complete products from the beginning, because it is
a fact that the mind goes throu^ a process of gradual
development. Nor can the mind possess a faculty
that produces by a sufficient causality its own ideas,
because it would have to produce also the ideas of ex-
tended bodies and extension is excluded from the
essence of the mind and therefore from the scope of
its causal efficiency. If then there is no way of ac-
counting for ideas and sensations either by the effi-
ciency of the mind itself or by that of the outside world
they must be produced by God. the infinite, omni-
present, universal Cause. God knows all thmgs be-
cause He produced all things. Therefore the ideas of
all things are in God, and on account of His most in-
timate union with our souls the spirit can see what is
in God.
Among the Occasionalists is also mentioned R. H.
Lotze (1817-81). His Occasionalism is really only a
statement that we are ignorant of any interaction be-
tween body and mind, or between one material thing
and another. He is not an Occasionalist in the meta-
physical sense of the word. In estimating the value
of the Occasionalistic position we must realize that
it sprang from a twofold problem, the interaction of
booy and mind and the relation of body, mind, and
world to God, the first cause of all. The success of
the Occasionalist answer to the first difficulty was de-
pendent upon the fate of the Cartesian plulosophy.
if man is composed of two absolutely distinct sub-
stances that have nothing in common, then the con-
clusion of the Occasionalists is logically necessary and
there is no interaction between body and mind.
What appears to be such must be due to the efficient
causality of some external being. This difficulty was
not felt so keenly in Scholastic philosophy because of
the doctrine of matter and form, which explains the
relation oi body and soul as that of two incomplete
but complementary substances. Very soon, too, it be-
gan to lose its hold upon modem thought. For Car-
tesianism led, on the one hand, to a Monistic Spirit-
ualism and, on the other, to Materialism. In either
ease the very foundations of Occasionalism were under-
mined. In its attempt to solve the second difficulty,
Occasionalism did not meet with any particular suc-
cess. From its doctrine of the relation between body
and soul it argued to what must be the relation be-
tween God and the creature in general. The super-
structure could not stand without the foundation.
St. Thomas, Summa, I, Q. ov, a. 5; Katsebuno, Die Idee der
KaumliUU in den Lehren der Oecaeionaliaien (Heidelberg, 1896);
MOllbr, Johannes Clauberg und aeine Stellung im Cartenaniamue
mil btsonderer BerUekeiehtigung eeinee VerhdUnieeee au der oeoa-
aionalistiachen Theorie (Jena, 1801) ; Pflbxdbbkr, Arnold GeuUnex
aU Hauplvertreter der okkaeioncUietiechen Mtiaj^yaik und Sthik
(TQbingen, 1882); lonu, LeibniU und Geulincx (TQbixigen. 1884);
Samtleben, Geulincx ein Vorgdnger Spinoaaa (Halle, 1885); SsT-
FABTH, Louie de la Forge und eeine Stellung im Occaeumaliemua
(Jena, 1887) ; Stein, Zur Geneeie dee Occaeionaliamue in Arehiv/Qr
Gesek. der Phil, I (1888), 53-61; Idem, Antike und mittelalUrliehe
Vorldufer dee Oceasionaliemue in Arch./. Geech. d. PhiL, II (1889,
193-245) ; Tuck, LoUee Stdlung eum Oeoaeumaliemue (Hamburg,
1897): see also bibliography under Malbbbanche.
Thomas V. Moore.
Oecasions of Sin are external circumstances
whether of things or persons which either because of
their special nature or because of the frailty common
to humanity or peculiar to some individual, incite or
entice one to sin. It is important to remember that
there is a wide difiference between the cause and the
occasion of sin. The cause of sin in the last analysia
OCCLEVE, 197 00CI7LT
Is the pervene human will and is intrinsic to the hu- linked with those of Lydgate; the two poets were fol«
man composite. The occasion is something extrinsic lowers and enthusiastic admirers of Qiaucer. It is
and, given the freedom of the will, cannot, properly most probable that Occleveknew Chaucer personaUv,
speaking, stand in causal relation to the act or vicious as he has left three passages of verse about mm, and, m
hiabit which we call sin. There can be no doubt that the MS. of the ** De Regimine", a portrait ofChaucer
in general the same obligation which binds us to re- (the only one we possess), which he says he had
frain from sin requires us to shun its occasion. Qui painted ''to put other men in remembrance of his per-
tenetur ad finem^ tenetur ad media (he who is bound son". He was a true Chaucerian as far as love and
to reach a certain end is bound to employ the means admiration could make him, but he was unable to im-
to attain it). Theologians distinguish between the itate worthily his master's skill in poetry. Occleve
proximate and the remote occasion. They are not has left us a body of verse which has its own interest,
altogether at one as to the precise value to be attrib- but none of which, as poetry, can be placed much
uted to the terms. De Lugo defines i)roximate occa- above mediocrity. Nevertheless, there are many
sion (De pcenit . , disp. 14, n. 149) as one in which men of things which give pleasure. There is his devoted love
like cahbre for the most part fall into mortal sin, or one to Our Lady, which causes some of the poems he wrote
in which experience points to the same result from the in her honour (especially ** The Moder of God ") to be
special weakness of a particular person. The remote among his best efforts. There is his admiration of
occasion lacks these elements. All theologians are Chaucer, already spoken of, and there is i^ sound
agreed that there is no obligation to avoid the remote morality, and a good deal of "the social sense" in the
occasions of sin both because this would, practically matter of his poems. Though he had no humour, he
speaking, be impossible and because they do not in- could tell a story well, and in several poems he enlists
volve serious danger of sin. As to the proximate oc- our erympathy by the frank recognition of his weak-
casion, it may be of the sort that is described as ness botn as man and poet.
necessary, that is, such as a person cannot abandon His work consists of: a long poem, ''De Regimine
or get rid of. Whether this impossibility be physical Principum" (the Government of Princes), adcuessed
or moral does not matter for the determination of to Prince Henry, afterwards Henry V; it is written
the principles hereinafter to be laid down. Or it in the seven-line stanza and contains much varied
may be voluntary, that is within the competency of matter, religious, moral, social, and political; two
one to remove. Moralists distinguish between a prox- verse stories from the "Gfesta Romanorum"; three
imate occasion which is continuous and one wnich, other poems of some length, largely autobiographical^
whilst it is unquestionably proximate, yet confronts "La Male R^le", "A Complaint", and "A Dia-
a person only at intervals. It is certain that one who logue"; " Ars sdendi mori" (the Art of learning to
is in the presence of a proximate occasion at once vol- die) a specimen of his work at its best, most of it in the
untary and continuous is bound to remove it. A re- seven-lme stanza, but with an ending in prose; many
f usal on the part of a penitent to do so would make it other poems, chiefly Ballades, and mostly short, with
imperative for the confessor to denv absolution. It is the exception of ' ' Cupid's Letter " and the interestiujg
not always necessary for the confessor to await the expostulation with Sir John Oldcastle concerning his
actual p^ormance of this duty before giving absolu- heresy, "O Oldcastle, alas what ailed thee To slip
tion ; he may be content with a sincere promise, which into the snare of heresie? ". All the above poems are
is the minimum to be required. Theologians agree contained in the Early English Text Society^s edition
that one is not obliged to shun the proximate out of Occleve's works (London, 1892-7).
necessary occasions. Nemo tenetwr ad impaasibUe (no , Fuknivall in Diti. Nat, Biog.,jX Mamied, I^ndpn. 1908);
one « bound to do what is imposmble) There is no }^^, t/SS.''™'TiS%.2;%Sf!&te«12:SV&
question here of freely castmg oneself mto the danger bridge, 1908).
of sin. The assumption is that stress of unavoidable K. M. Wabben.
circumstances has imposed this unhappy situation.
All that can then be required is the employlnent of Occult Art, Occultism. — Under this general term
such means as will make the peril of sin remote. The are included various practices to which special articles
difficulty is to determine ^en a proximate occasion of the Encyclopedia are devoted: Animism; Astrol-
is to be regarded as not physically (that is plain oqy; Divination; Fetishism. The present article
enough) but morally necessary. Much has been dealswiththeformof Occultism known as ''Magic",
written by theologians in the attempt to find a rule The English word moffic is derived through the Latin,
for the measurement of this moral necessity and a Greek, Persian, Assyrian from the Sumerian or Tu-
formula for its expression, but not successfully. It ranian word imga or emga ("deep", "profound"), a
seems to be quite clear that a proximate occasion may designation for the I^to-Chaldean priests or wizards,
be deemed necessary when it cannot be given up Magi becaipe a standard term for the later Zoroas-
without grave scandal or loss of good name or with- trian, or Persian, priesthood through whom Eastern oo-
out notable temporal or spiritual damage. cult arts were mtide known to the Greeks; hence ful^of
IfuHtutioruB (Louvaixi, 1898). c^m or a person endowed with secret knowledge and
Joseph F. Delant. power like a Persian magus. In a restricted sense
magic is understood to be an interference with the
Ocdcve (or Hoccleve), Thomas; little is known usual course of physical nature by apparently inade-
of his life beyond what is mentioned in his poems, equate means (recitation of formularies, gestures, mix-
He was b. about 1368; d. in 1450. The place of his ing of incongruous elements, and other mysterious ac-
birth and education is unknown. When about nine- tions), the knowledge of which is obtained throueh
teen he became a clerk in the Privy-Seal Office, a posi- secret communication with the force underlying the
tion which he held for at least twenty-four years. It universe (God, the Devil, the soul of the world, etc.) :
is recorded in the Patent Rolls (1399) that he received it is the attempt to work miracles not by the power oi
a pension of £10 a year. In his poem "La MaJe God, gratuitously communicated to man, but by the
R^le", written in 1406, he confesses to having lived use of hidden forces beyond man's control. Its ad-
a life of pleasure and even of dissipation, but his mar- vocates, despairing to move the Deity by supplication,
riage in 1411 seems to have caused a change in his seek the desired result by evoking powers ordinarily
career, and his poem "De Regimine Principum", reserved to the Deity. It is a corruption of religion,
written soon afterwards, bears witness to his reform, not a preliminary stage of it as Rationalists main-
In 1424 he was granted a pension of £20 a year for tain, and it appears as an accompaniment of decadent
life. His name and reputation have come down to us rather than ot rising civilization. There is nothing
OCCULT
198
OCCULT
to show tliat in Babylon, Greece, and Rome the use of
magio decreased as these nations progressed; on the
contrary, it increased as they declined. It is not true
that "rdigion is the despair of magic"; in reality,
magic is but a disease of religion.
The disease has been widespread; but if one land
may be designated as the home of magic it is Chaldea,
or Southern Babylonia. The earliest written records
of m^gic are found in the cuneiform incantation in-
scriptions which Assyrian scribes in 800 b. c. copied
from Babylonian originals. Although the earliest
religious tablets refer to divination and in the latest
Chaldean period astrology proper absorbed the en-
ergy of the Babylonian merarchy, medicinal magic
and nature magic were largely practised. The Baru-
priest as the diviner seems to have held the foremost
rank, but hardly inferior was the Ashipu-prieet, the
Eriest of incantations, who recited the magical formu-
iries of the "Shurpu", "Maklu", and "Utukku".
** Shurpu " (burning) was a spell to remove a curse due
to legal undeanness; ''Maklu" (consuming) was a
oounter-spell against wizards and witches; ''Utukki
limmuti" (evil spirits) was a series of sixteen formulsB
against ghosts and demons. The ^'Asaski marsuti"
was a series of twelve f ormulse against fevers and sick-
ness. In this case the evil influence was first trans-
ferred to a wax figure representing the patient or an
animal carcass, and the formula were recited over
the substitute. Ti'i tablets, nine in number, give
recipes against headache. The "Labartu" incanta-
tions repeated over little figures were supposed to
drive away the ogres and witches from chiloren. All
these formulae pronounced over the figures were ac-
companied by an elaborate ritual, e. g.. "A table thou
shalt place behind the censer which is before the Sun-
God (Statue of Shamash). thou shalt place thereon 4
jugs of sesame wine, thou snalt set thereon 3 X 12 loaves
of wheat, thou shalt add a mixture of honey and butter
and sprinkle with salt: a table thou shalt place behind
the censer which is before the Storm-God (Statue of
Adad) and behind the censer which is before Mero-
dach".
The magicians mentioned above were authorized and
practised ''white", or benevolent, magic; the ''Kash-
shapi", or unauthorized practitioners, employed
'' black " magic against mankmd. That tne latter had
Eretematural powers to do harm no one doubted;
ence the severe punishment meted out to them. The
Code of Hammurabi (c. 2000 b. c.) appointed the or-
deal by water for one who was accused of being a
sorcerer and for his accuser. If the accused was
drowned, his property went to the accuser; if he was
saved, the accuser was put to death and his property
went to the accused. This of course took place only
if the accusation could not be satisfactorily proven
otherwise. The principal god invoked in Chaldean
Magic were Ea, source of all wisdom, and Marduk
(Merodach) his son, who had inherited his father's
knowledge. A curiously naive scene was supposed* to
be enacted before the application of a medicinal spell:
Marduk went to Ea's house and said: " Father, head-
ache from the underworld hath gone forth. The
patient does not know the reason; miereby may he be
relieved? " Ea answered : '' O Marduk, my son, what
can I add to thy knowledge? What I know thou
knowest also. Go, my son Marduk"; and then fol-
lows the prescription. This tale was regularly re-
peated before use of the recipe.
Without su^^ting the dependence of one national
system of magic upon another, the similarity of some
ideas and practices in the magic of all peoples must
be noted. All rely on the power of words, the utter-
ance of a hidden name, or the mere existence of the
name on an amulet or stone. Magic was supposed
to be the triumph of intellect over matter^ the word
being the key to the mysteries of the physical world:
utter the name of a malignant influence and its power
is undone; utter the name of a benevolent deity and
force Koes out to destroy the adversaiy. The re-
peatea naming of Gibel-Nusku and his attributes de-
stroyed the evil influence in the wax figure represent-
ing the person concerned. The force of the Gnostic
lAO was notorious. In Egyptian magic a mere ag-
glomeration of vowels or ofmeaningless syllables was
supposed to work good or evil. Tlieir barbarous
sounds were the object of ridicule to the man of com-
mon sense. In many cases they were of Jewish, or
Babylonian, or Aramaic origin and because unin-
telligible to Eg3rptians, the words were generally cor-
rupted beyondrecognition. Thus on a demotic papy-
rus is found the prescription: "in time of storm and
danger of shipwreck cry Anuk Adonai (*«^*1K^^K) and
the disaster will be aveited" ; on a Greek pM)yTus the
name of the Assyrian Ereskihal is found as l^wv^ixaX.
So potent is a name that if an inscribed amulet be
washed and the water drunk, or the charm written
on papyrus be soaked in water and this taken, or if
the word be written on hard-boiled eggs without shell
and these eaten, preternatural powers come into play.
Another prevalent idea in magic is that of substitu-
tion: the person or thing to be affected by the spell
is replaced by his image, or, like the ' ufdiabtiu"
figures in Egyptian toinbs, images replace the pro-
tective powers mvoked, or lastly some part (hair, nail-
parings, guments, etc.) take the place of the whole
person. The almost universal "mag^c circle" is only
a mimic wall against the wicked spirits outside and
goes back to Chaldean magic under the name of
tisurtUf made with a sprinkling of lime and flour. If
the medical wizard or the IndSan sorcerer surrounds
himself or others with a rampart of Uttle stones, this
is again but the make-believe of a wall.
After Babylonia Egypt was foremost in magic; the
medieval practice of alchemy shows by its name its
Egyptian origin. Coptic exorcisms aejainst all sorts
of diseases abound amongst the pap3m pertiunin^ to
magic, and magic claims a great pait of ancient
Eg}i>tian literature. Unlike Babylonian magic, how-
ever, it seems to have retained to the last its medicinal
and preventive character; it rarely indulged in astrol-
ofy or prediction. Egyptian legend spoke of a magi-
cian Teta who woriced miracles bdfore Khuf u (Cheops)
(c. 3800 B. c), and Greek tradition tells of Nectane-
bus, last native King of Egypt (358 b. c), as the
greatest of magicians.
That the Jews wen prone to magic is evidenced by
the strict laws against it and the warnings of the
Prophets (Exod., xxii, 18; Deut., xviii, 10; Is., iii, 18,
20; Ivii, 3; Mich., v, 11; cf. IV Kings, xxi, 6). Neveiv
theless, Jewish magic flourished, especially just before
the birth of Christ, as appears from the Book of Enoch,
the Testament of the Twelve Patriarchs, and the
Testament of Solomon. Oriffen testifies tnat in his
d^ to adjure demons was looked upon as specifically
"Jfewish", that these adjurations had to be made in
Hebrew and from Solomon's books (In Math., xxvi,
es, P. G., XIII, 1757). The frequency of Jewish
magic is also corroborated by Talmudic lore.
The Aiyan races of Asia seem somewhat less ad-
dicted to magic than the Semitic or Turanian 'races.
The Modes and the Persians, in the earlier and purer
period of their Avesta religion, or Zoroastrianism, seem
to have a horror of magic. When the Persians, after
their conquest of the Chaldean Empire, finally ab-
sorbed Chaldean characteristics, the magi had become
more or less scientific astronomers rather than sor-
cerers. The Indians, likewise, to judge from the Rig-
veda, were originally free from this superstition. In
the Yajurveda, however, their litursical functions are
practically magic performances; and the Atharvaveda
contains little else than magical recitations against
every iU and for every happening. The Sutras, fi-
nally, especially those of the Grihya and Sautra ritual,
^ow how the higher aspects of reugion had been over-
OCCULT 199 OCCULT
^wn by magical ceremonies. Agaixust this degenenir good channs, Loki was a mali^piant spirit who har>
tion the Vedanta makes a vigorous stand and attempts assed mankind and with the witch Thock caused the
to bring the Indian mind oack to earlier simplicity death of Baldur (Balder) . The magic of the mistletoe
and purity. Buddhism, which at first disregarded seems to be an heirloom from earliest Teutonic times,
masic, fell a prey to the universal contagion, espe- The magic of the Celts seems to have been in the hands
ciidTy in China and Tibet. of the druids, who, liiough perhaps mainly diviners.
The Aryans of Europe, Greeks, Romans, Teutons, appear also as maj^cians in Celtic heroic literature.
Celts, were never so deeply infected as the Asiatics. As they wrote nothmg, little is known of their magical
The llomans were too self-reliant and practical to be lore. For modem magic amonest uncivilized races con-
terrified by magic. Their practice of oivination and suit especially Skeat's"MalayMagic'' (London, 1900).
auguries seems to have been borrowed from the Etrus- Maeic as a practice finds no place in Christianity,
cans and the Marsi; the latter were considered experts though the belief in the reality of magical powers has
in magic even during the empire (Verg., "Mn", been held by Christians and individual Christians
VII, 750, sqq.; Plinv, VII, ii; iCXI, xiii). The Dii have been given to the practice. Two main reasons
Aurunci, to avert calamities, used magical power, but account for the belief: first, ignorance of phvsical laws,
they were not native Roman deities. The Romans When the boundary between the ph;^sicaUv possible
were conscious of their common sense in these matters and impossible was uncertain, some individuals were
and felt themselves superior to the Greeks. In the supposed to have gained almost limitless control over
first century of our era Oriental magic invaded the nature. Their souls were attuned to the symphony of
Roman Empire. Pliny in his " Natural History " (77 the universe; they knew the mystery of numbers and
A. D.) in the opening cmapters of Bk. XXX^ gives the in consequence their powers exceeded the common
most important extant discussion on ma^c by any understanding. This, however, was natural magic,
ancient writer, only to brand all magic as imposture. But, secondly, belief in the frequency of diabolical in-
None the less his book is a storehouse of magic recipes, terf erence with the forces of nature led easily to belief
e. g.: "Wear as an amulet the carcass of a frog mmus in real magic. The early Christians were emphati-
the claws and wrapped in a piece of russet-coloured cally warned against the practice of it in the" Didache*'
cloth and it will cure fever" (Bk. XXXII, xxxviii). (v, 1) and the letter of Barnabas (xx. 1). In fact it
Such advice argues at least a belief in medicinal magic, was condemned as a heinous crime. Tne danger, how-
But among the Romans it may be said that magio ever, came not only from the pagan world out also
was condemned in eveiy age by many of the from the pseudo-Christian Gnostics. Althou^ Si-
best spirite of their day: Tacitus, Favorinus, Sextus mon Ma^ and Elymas, that "child of the devil".
Empiricus, and Cicero who even demurred against (Acts, xiu, 6 sqq.) served as deterrent examples for all
divination. Officially by many laws of the empire Christians, it took centuries to eradicate the propen-
against "malefici" and "mathematid" magic was sity to magic. St. Gregory the Great, St. Augustine,
forbidden under Augustus, Tiberius, Claudius, and St. Chrysostom, and St. Ephraem inveighed against
even Caracalla; unofficially, however, even the em- it. A more rational view of religion and nature had
perors sometimes dabbled m magic. Nero is said to hardly gained ground, when the Germanic nations
navestudiedit;butfailingto work miracles, he aban- entered the Church and brought with them the
doned it in disgust. Soon after the magicians found inclination for magic inherited from centuries of pa-
an imperial supporter in Otho, and tolerance under ganism. No wonder that during the Middle Ages
Vespasian, Haonan, and M. Aurelius, and even finan- wizardry was secretly practised in many places
cial aid under Alexander Severus. notwithstanding iimumerable decrees of the Qiurch
The Greeks regarded Thessaly and Thrace as the on the subject. Belief in the frequency of made
countries espedafiy addicted to ma^c. The goddess finally led to stringent measures taken against witch-
Hecate, who was thought to preside over magical craft (q. v.).
functions^ was originally a foreign deity and was Catholic theology defines magic as the art of per-
Srobablymtroduced into Greek mythology by Hesiod. forming actions beyond the power of man with the
he is not mentioned in the Iliad or Odyssey though aid of powers other than the Divine, and condemns it
magic was rife in Homeric times. The great mythical and any attempt at it as a grievous sin against the
sorceress of the Odyssey is Circe, famous for the well- virtue of religion, because all magical performances, if
known trick of chuiging men into beasts (O^d., X-XII) . undertaken seriously, are based on the expectation of
In later times the foremost magician was Medea, interference by demons or lost souls. Even if under-
priestess of Hecate; but the gruesome tales told of her taken out of curiosity the performance of a magical
express the Greek horror for, as well as belief in, black ceremony is sinful as it eitherproves a lack of faith
magic. Curse formuUe or magic spells against the or is a vain superstition. The Catholic Church admits
lives of one's enemies seem to have found no mistier in principle the possibility of interference in the
name than Hermes Chthonios. As earth-g^ he course of nature by spirito other than God, whether
was a manifestation of the world-soul and controlled good or evil, but never without God's permission,
nature's powers. In Eg3rpt he was identified with As to the frequency of such interference especially
Thoth, the god.of hidden wisdom, became the keeper by malignant agencies at the request of man, she
of magic secrete and gave his name to Trismegistic lit- observes the utmost reserve.
erature. Greece, moreover, welcomed and honoured „ R- Campbbll Thompson, Semitic Magic (London. 1908);
foreign maj^ciaM Apuleius by education an Athe- ^rSS^SS.^S!;l.'^.£*j2£*^S!Si.HC?;rt^^
man, m his " Golden Ass" (C. 150 a. D.), satmzed the York, 1Q05) ; Budob, BoypHan Maoie (London. ISdQ) ; ScHSBMAN.
frauds of contemporary wonder-workers but praised GritehMche Zauberpam/ri (Leipng. 1909); Kiuswcmui. GetcA.
the ,p.nmnem«r< from Penda When accused. of I^JJS^^^SlfSS^JJitSiriWSI^^
magic, he defended himself m his ''Apology" which hgion (London. 1910): Habbbt. La rdioim dn peupU* rum ciwili-
shows clearly the public attitude towaras magic in his •^ (Paria, 1907) ; Idbm, La Magie (Paris, 1908) ; Abt. Die ApoiogU
day. He quoted Plato and Arirtotle who gave cm. t^^^^."^ '■,^,'!;^''^!^^^^,^^^
dence to true magic. St. HippolytUS of Rome (A Magie aU NaturwUeeneehafi (2 vols.. 1899); Mathebb. The
Refutotion of All Heresies, Bk. IV) gives a sketeh of *«»* of Soared Magic (1468), reprinted (London, 1898); FBA8BB,
the ^rizardrv nntrf inAH tn f >»« nrA«»1rIanAo1r4n(r wnrlH T** Qeiden Bough: a Study in Magic and Rdigion (3 voIb., Lon-
i,ne wizarory pracusea m tne UreeiC-81>eaking woria. ^^^ jgoo). tBb last-mentioned work is indeed a storehouse of
ieutons and Celto also had their magic, though less ourioos information, but is to be used with tUt utmost caution,
is known of it. The magical element m the First as it is vitiated by the author's prejudices. Readers are warned
Edda And in +>i<» Rpnwnlf ia mmnlp unrf plnoAlv *^ti- against the following works, which are either books on conjurug
riuaa ana in xne iseowuit is simple ana closely con- ^^ productions of the Rationalmt Pbbss Agbnct: Cohtbbabb.
nected with nature phenomena. Woden (Wodan) Myth, Magic and Morale,- Etanb, The Old and New Magic;
who invented the runes, was the god for healing and A. Thompbgn. Magie aind Myttem* J. P, Ajudnpzbn.
OCCtmBEMCE
200
O'COMMILL
Occurrence (in Liturgt). — I. Definition. — Oc-
currence is the coinciding or occurring of two litur-
gical offices on one and the same day; concurrence is the
succession of two offices, so that the second vespers
of one occur at the same time as the first vespers of the
other. The chief causes of occurrence are: (1) the
variableness of the feast and cycle of Easter, while
the other feasts are fixed; (2) the annual change of the
Dominical Letter, whereby Sunday falls successively
on different dates of the same month (see Calendar;
Dominical Letter) . Occurrence may be acciderUal or
perpetual. (1) The calendar gives as a fixed feast
for 28* May the feast of St. Augustine of Canterbury;
on the other hand on 28 May, 1891, the table of mov-
able feasts marked that day as the feast of Corpus
Christi; thus on 28 May. 1801, these two offices fell on
the same day — that is tnere was an occurrence. But
as this coincidence was due to a variable cause, and did
not happen the following years, the occurrence was
acciderUal. (2) The patronal feast of churches is cel-
ebrated with an octave; in the case of a church hav-
ing St. Martin (11 November) as its patron, the octave
day (18 November) falls on a fixed feast marked in
the Calendar: '^ Dedication, etc . . ."; consequently,
there is in such a church each year a coinciding; of two
offices on 18 November; this occurrence is said to be
perpetual,
n. Rules to be Observed. — In case of an oc-
currence two questions arise: (1) Which office is to
have the preference? (2) What is to be done concern-
ing the less favoured office? (1) The two offices
must be compared from the point of view of dignity
and of necessity, taken either separately or together.
As to dignity, Christmas, the Assumi)tion, etc., prevail
over the feasts of saints { as to necessity, the first Sun-
day of Advent being privileged prevails (if it- falls on
30 November) over the Office of St. Andrew the Apos-
tle: a fortiori, an office favoured by both conditions
will be preferred . (2) As to the less favoured office, it is
treatea differently according as the recurrence is per-
g^tual or accidental . If perpetufd, the authority ofthe
oly See should intervene to operate a change that
will be effectual each year; the mention of the feast is
maintained on the day on which it falls, but the office
is changed to the first free day (a day not occupied bv
another office, double or semi-double); liturgists call
this change mutcUio (not translatio). When the oc-
currence is accidental, the compiler of the diocesan
ordo, with the approval of the ordinary, decides, in
conformity with the rubrics, what is to be done for
the year. Either the office in question is transferable,
in which the regulations of title X, ''De translatione",
are to be followed; or else it is not transferable, when
it must be seen if it is to be omitted completely, or if
a coinmemoration of it may be made on the day in
question. The whole matter is provided for in the
general rubrics of the Breviary.
To give an instance of concurrence, the ecclesiasti-
cal calendar marks the feast of St. Anthony of Padua
on 13 June, and that of St. Basil on 14 June; these two
feasts being of double rite have first and second Ves-
pers; on the evening of 13 Jime, therefore, the second
Vespers of St. Anthony and the first Vespers of St.
Basil happen at the same time, and there is said to be
a concurrence of the two offices.
Gavanti, Thetaunu »aer. rit. cum additionibtu Merali (3 vols.*
Venice, 1760); Gutetub, HwHohgia (Urbini, 1657); Menghini,
BlemerUa iuria litttni. (Rome, 1007) : Vak dxr Stappsn, Tractattu
dc offic, d%t, (Mechlin, 1808)
Fernand Cabrol.
Oeeanla, Vicariate Apoarouc of Central. —
The whole of Oceania had at first been entrusted by the
Propaganda 'to the Society of the Sacred Hearts of
Jesus and Mary (1825); but the territory proving too
lar^e, the western portion was af terwarcfs formed into
a vicariate Apostolio and given to the Society of Mary
(1836), Mgr rompallier being appointed vicar Apos-
tolic of Western Oceania. In 1842, the Propaganda
created the vicariate ApostoUc of Central Oceaniai
comprising; New Caledonia, the Tonga, Samoa, and
Fiji Islanos. By a further subdivision, the vicariate
included only the Tonga, the Wallis Islands, Futuna,
and Niu6. The Tonga Islands extend from 15® to
22® S. lat. and from 173*» to 176® W. long. Niu6 is
three hundred miles to the east. The Wiulis Islands
lie in 13® S. lat. and 178® Vf. long.; Futuna, m 40® 14'
S. lat. and 179® 33' W. long. These archipelagos ara
divided among several more or less constitutional,
monarchies; the Kingdoms of Tonga, Niu^, Wallis..
and the two Kingdoms of Futuna. Tonga and Niu£
are under British protectorate, Wallis and Futuna^
under French. Freedom of worship is theoreticalljr
recognized everywhere except in Niu6, which is ex*
clusively Protestant. Wallis and Futuna are entirely
Catholic. In Tonga there are Catholics, Methodists
belonging to the Sydney conference, independent
Methodists forming a national Churcn, some Angli-
cans, Adventists, and Mormons. The total popiua-
tion is 34,000. with 9200 Catholics. There are 35
churches; 21 European and 1 native Marist priests, and
3 native secular priests; 28 schools with 2039 chiloren;
2 coUeges; 1 seminary. The establishments for girls
are under the care of 52 Sisters of the Third Order of
Mary. The boys' schools are conducted by native
lay teachers; the colleges and the seininar]^ by priests.
The islands are divided into districts, with resident
missionaries who assemble every month for an ecclesi-
astical conference. There are annuid i^tieats for the
priests, for the sisters, and for the catechists, be-
sides general retreats for the faithful about every two
years. In each village there is a sodality of men
{Kan Apoeitolo) and another of women {Fakafeao),
The yearly number of baptisms averages.310; of mar-
ria|;es, 105. Mgr Bataillon was the first vicar Apos-
tolic, succeeded b^ Mgr Lamaze, at whose death
(1906) succeeded ms coadjutor, Mgr Amand Olier,.
S.M., the present (1910) vicar Apostolic. The vicar-
iate has given to the Church the proto-mart3rr oC
Oceania, Si. P. Chanel.
Manosret, Mgr Bataillon H lea mianona da VOdanie CerUraUt
(liQronB, 1884) ; Montat, Lea Tonga (Lybiis, 1893) ; Hkrvixb, Lea-,
Mxaaiana MariHea en Oetanie (Paris, 1902) ; Nicoubt, Le Martyr-
de Futuna (Boston, 1907) ; Proeeedinga of the Piret AuatrtUaeiam
Catholie Coruireaa (Sydney, 1900): Soanb Maua, CKet lea Aflri-
dionaux du Pacifique (Lyons and Paris, 1910).
JOSBPH BlXnC.
Oehrida. See Achrida.
O'Clwjf Michael. See Fottb Mastebs, Anstaxb
OFTHE.
O'Clery, Peregrine. See Fgttr Mastbbs, Ak-
NAL8 OF THE.
O'Connell, Daniel, b. at Carhen, near Cahirci-
veen, Co. Kerry, Ireland, 1775; d. at GeDo&, 1847.
The O'Connells, once great in Kerry, had suffered
severely by the penal laws, and the family at Carhen
was not rich. Aji uncle, Maurice O'Connell of Darry-
nane, resident in France, bore the expense of educat-
ing Daniel and his brother Maurice. In 1 791 they were
sent to the Irish Ck>llege at Li^e. but, Daniel being
beyond the prescribed age for admission, they pro-
ceeded to St. Omer's in Fiance, and after a year went
to Douai. Daniel gave evidence of industry and
ability at St. Omer's, but at Douai his stay was short,
for. owing to the French Revolution, the two O'Con-
nells returned home (1793). In 1794 Daniel became
a law student at Lincoln's Inn and in 1798 was called .
to the Irish Bar. The era of penal legislation in Ire-,
land had ceased, and already a serious breach had!
been made in the penal code. By a series of remedial!
measui'es, ending with the Catholic Relief Act of 1798,,
Catholics were placed in many respects on a level wsthi
other denominations, but were still excluded lh)ini
Parliament; from the inner bar, and from the higheir
civil and military offices; and the recall of FitudlBaDi
O'CONHIU
201
o'coMinu
(1796) and the events following showed that no fur- the Cfttholic leaden. O'Connell retorted by c&lling
ther concessioiu would be given. O'Connell could him "Orange Peel". O'Connell turned the Catholio
not see why Catholics who p^d taxes and were obe- Committee into the Catholic Board^ but Peelpro*
dient to the law should not have a share in the spend- claimed the Board as he had proclaimed the Com-
ing of the taxes and in the making of the laws. He mittee; and while O'Connell continued to Bsitat«,
det«st«d violence as a weapon of reform, respected Peel continued to pass acts and enforce them. Mean-
religion and the rights of property, and therefore time one not«d event happened which further en-
bated the French Revolution as he did the Rebellion dearedO'Connelltothepeople. The Dublin Corpora-
of 1798. The Union he abhorred because it destroyed tion had always been reactionary and bigoted, always
Ireland'sseparatenationality; andhehasrecordedhis the champion of Protestant ascendancy. O'Con-
angerathearingtheringinfof the bells of St. Patrick's nell in a pubhc speech in 1815 called it a "b^-
oaUiedral when the Act of Union was passed, and his garly corporation". The aldermen and counciUors
resolution to do Bomething to undo it. He believed were enraged and, finding that O'Connell would not
that moderation was the true character of patriotism, apologize, one of their number, D'Eeterre, sent him a
and that the rights of Ireland could be won by peace- cbalieuge. D'Esterre was a noted duellist and the
ful agitation, but he had no faith in the efficacy of hope was that if O'Connell attempted to fight there
agitation such as had been
carried on by the Catholic
body. Leaders like Lords
Trimlestown and Fingal at-
tracted no enthusiasm, and the
Catholic Committee,controlled
by such men and meeting Ut-
gether to present petitions and
moke periodic profeesioos of
loyalty, were simply ploughing
the sands. The support of the
masses should be enlisted, there
should be organisation and
vigour, and the CstboUcs
should demand concession not
as a favour but as a right.
O'Connell was the leader for
such a movement ; a man strong
in bod^ and nund, a great ora-
tor, debater, and lawyer, a
master of saroaam and invec-
tive: a man who could wring
trutn from a reluctant witness,
or curb the insolence of a par-
tiaan judge, or melt a jury by
his moviof; appeal. Address-
ing an audience of ooreUgionistA
he was unequalled. The peo-
ple felt proud of such a leader,
sjid were ready to follow wher-
ever he led.
O'Connell's firat appearance
«n a pubhc platform was in
DubUn (1800), when he de-
nounced the contemplated
Union, and declared that the
Catholics wanted no luch
Union, and that if a Union
1^^ l^n ■^iiL''V«*
would be an end to his career.
Tothe surprise of allO'Connell
met D'Esterre and shot him
dead. He bitterly regretted
the deed, and to the end .of
his days he never missed an
opportunity of assisting the
D'Esterre family. With all
his popularity, the Catholic
cause was not advancing. The
question of the veto was being
agitated, and in consequence
there was division and weak-
ness in the Catholic ranks.
O'Connell, though a fervent
Catholic, opposed the veto,
and declared that while willing
to have his religion from Rome
he must have nis politics from
home. In 1821 there was a
gleam of hope, when the new
King George IV visited Ireland.
As Prince of Wales he had been
the friend of the Liberal leaders.
and as such it was en>ected
that he would favour Liberal
measures. But he left Ireland .
without saying a word in fa-
vour of Emancipation.
At last O'Connell deter-
mined to rouse the masses in
earnest and, in conjunction '
with a young lawyer, Mr.
Shell, he founded, in 1823,
the Catholic Association.
The declared object was to
win Emancipation "by legal
" ' ' order to evade
OlMOSvlo Cematery, Dublin
, ... .0 be the altema- and constitutional n , .. ._ _
tive to the re-enactment of the penal laws they would the Convention Act the Association assumed n
prefer the penal laws. In the subsequent years he egated or representative character. It was a club,
regularly attended the meetings of the Catholic its members meeting weekly and paying an annual
Ccnnmittee and infused more vigour and energy subscription. O'Connell worked unceasingly to
into its proceedings, and by 1810 he had become the spread the organization, and though progress wasslow
most trusted anifpawerful of the Catholic leaders, success came at last; and by 1825 a vast organization
In 1810 he sent out a circular from DubUn inviting the had spread over the land, exercising all the powers of
people to form local committees in correspondence government. Ineachdistrict, usually under the pres-
with the central committee. The Government, afraid idency of the clergy, there was a branch of the Cath-
<ji having a national organization to deal with, pro- olic Association, where local grievances were venti-
clumed all such local committee meetings, under the latcd, and subscriptions received and sent to DubUn
Convention Act of 17S3; but the magistrates in many to the central association, whence came advice in diifi-
cases refused to carry out the proclamations, and culties and speakera for local meetings. In 1825 the
vhen the Dublin committee met, some of the l^iders Government, alarmed at the power ol an organization
were arrested and prosecuted. But O'Connell sue- wtuch was a serious rival to the executive, passed a
tearfully defended the first of the accused, Mr, Sheri- bill suppreesinK it. But O'Connell, experienced in de-
dan, feating Acts <m Parliament, changed the name to the
From 1812 te 1SI7 the Irish Government was little New Catholic Association, and the work of agitation
else than along-sustained duel between O'Connell and went on. As much aa five hundred pounds a week
the new chief secretary, Sir Robert Peel. Both were was subanibed, and in 1826 the Association feltstrong
able and determined, and between them began a per- enough to put up a candidate for Waterford, who
Bonal enmity which ended only with their lives. Peel succeeded against all the territorial influence of the
championed privilege and ascendency and attacked Beresforda; similar victories were won in Monaghan,
O'CONNELL
202
O'OONOB
Weetmeath, and Louth. In 1828 came the Clare
election when O'Connell himself was nominated. It
was known that he could not as a Catholic take the
Parliamentary oath; but if he, the representative of
6,000,000, were driven from the doors of Parliament
tBolely because of his creed, the effect on public opinion
would be great. O'ConneU was elected, and when
he presented himself in Parliament he refused to take
the oath offered him. The crisis had come. The
Catholic millions, organised and defiant, would have
Emancipation; tne Orangemen would have no con-
cession; and Ireland, in tne end of 1828, was on the
brink of civil war. To avoid this calamity Peel and
Wellington struck their colours, and in 1829 the Cath-
olic Relief Act was passed.
Henceforth O'Connell was the Uncrowned Kine of
Ireland. To recompense him for his services and to
secure these services for the future in Parliament, he
was induced to abandon the practice of his profession
and to accept instead the O Connell Tribute, which
from the voluntary subscriptions of the people brought
him an income of £1600 a year. His first care was
for Repeal, but his appeals for Protestant co-operation
were not responded to, and the associations he formed
to agitate the question were all proclaimed. In this
respect the Whigs, whom he supported in 1832, were
no Detter than the Tories. He denounced them as
"base, brutal and bloody *'; yet in 1835 he entered
into an alliance with them by accepting the Lichfield
House Compact, and he kept them in office till 1841.
During these years Drummond effected reforms in the
Irish executive, and measures affecting tithes, poor
law, and municipal reform were passed. But R^>eal
was left in abeyance till Peel returned to power, and
then O'Conneil established the Repeal Association.
Its progress was slow until in 1842 it got the support of
the Nation newspaper. In one year it advanced with
giant strides, and m 1843 O'Connell held a series of
meetings, some of them attended by hundreds of
thousands.
The last of these meetings was to be held at Clon-
tarf in October. Peel proclaimed the meeting and
prosecuted O'ConneU, and in 1844 he was convicted
and imprisoned. On appeal to the House of Lords
the judgment of the Insh court was reversed and
O'ConneU was set free. His health had suffered, and
henceforth there was a lack of energy and vigour in his
movements, a shifting from Repealto Federalism and
back again to Repeal. He also quarrelled with the
Young Irelanders. Then came the awful calamity of
the famine. O'Connell's last appearance in Parlia-
ment was in 1847 when he pathetically asked that his
people be saved from penshing. He was then se-
riously ill. The doctors ordered him to a warmer cli-
mate. He felt that he was dying and wished to die at
Rome, but got no further than Genoa. In accordance
with, his wish his heart was brought to Rome and his
body to Ireland. His funeral was of enormous di-
mensions, and since his death a splendid statue has
been erected to his memory in Dublin and a round
tower placed over his remams in Glasnevin.
O'Connell was married to his cousin Mary O'Con-
nell and had three daughters and four sons, all the
latter beine at one time or other in Parliament.
John O Connell, third son of the above; b. at
Dublin, 24 December, 1810; d. at Kingstown, Co.
Dublm, 24 May, 1868. He was returned M.P. for
Youghal (1832), Athlone (1837), and Kilkennv
(1841-47). As a politician he was not tactful, and,
came in conflict with the Young Ireland party. As a
writer his "Repeal Dictionary" (1845) showed much
literary and polemical power. In 1846 he published a
selection of nis fathers si>eeche6. prefaced bv a me-
moir. His "Recollections and Experiences during a
Parliamentafy Career from 1833 to 1848'' was issued
in two volumes (1849). As a Whig, and also a cap-
tain in the militia, he fell into disfavour with his lim-
erick constituents. He retired from politics 1857, and
accepted a lucrative Government appointment.
FiTiPATRicK, (yConruWt Corretpondenee (London. 1888):
Houston, O'ConnetTi Journal (London, 1006): Dunlop. O'Cm-
nett (New York. 1900); McDonaor. Life of 0*C<mn«U (London.
1903): O'Nbill DAUirr. Pertonal RecolUetioru q^ (TConfuU (Lon-
don, 1848) ; CuAACK, Life and Time* of (yConneU (London, 1872) ;
Cloncubbt, Per»onal ReeoUediont (Dublin, 1849); Dtttit,
Youno Ireland (London, 1890); Mitchkl, Hittory of Irdand
(London, 1869); FmPATKXCX, J>r. Doyle (Dublin, 1880); Lscxt,
Leadere of PuUie Cfpinum (London, 1871): Nkicottbs Oodrs,
CyConndl, ea vie, eon muvre (Paris, 1900) : Shaw IjirBTiuB, Peel
and (XConneU (London, 1887); John O'Conkbll, ReeotUctiime
fLondon, 1849); Maddkn, JrOand and He Rtdera (London, 1844);
CoiiCHHBTBB, Dwy (LondoH, 1861) ; Wtsk, Hietory etfthe Catholie
Aeeoeiation (London, 1829); D'Auton, Hikory of Ireland (Lon-.
don, 1910). E. A. D' Alton.
O'Connell, Dennis Joseph. See San Francisco,
Archdiocese of.
O'Connell, William H. See Boston, Archdio-
cese OF.
O'Connor, John Joseph. See Newark, Diocese
OF.
O'Connor, Patrick Joseph. See Armidale, Dio-
cese of.
O'Connor, Richard A. See Peterborough, Dio-
cese of.
O'Conor, Charles, b. in the city of New York, 22
JanuaiT, 1804; d. at Nantucket, Mass., 12 May, 1884.
His father, Thomas O'Conor, who came to New York
from Ireland in 1801, was ''one of the active rebels of
1798 '^ a devoted Catholic and patriot, less proud
of tiie kingly rule of his family than of the adher-
ence of the O'Conors to their ancient faith and patri-
otic principles. He married (1803) a daughter of Hugh
O'Connor, a fellow countryman, but not a kinsman,
who had come to the Unitea*State8 with his family in
or about 1790. Of this marriage Charles O'Conor
was bom.
In 1824, in his native city, he was admitted to the
practice of the law. In 1827 he was succoasful as
counsel in the case of a contested election for trustees of
St. Peter's Church in New York. From the year 1828
his rise in his profession was continuous. As early
as 1840 an interested observer of men and events.
Philip Hone, refers in his diary to ''an able speech'
by this "distinguished member of the New YorK bar "
(Tuckerman, 'T*he Diary of Philip Hone ", New York,
1880, II, 37) . In 1843 by the case of Stewart against
Lispenard, his professional standing became most se-
curely established. At the June term in this year
of the highest court of the State twenty cases were
argued. Of these he argued four. In 1846 he had
reached "the front ranks of the profession, not only
in the City and State of New York, but in tne United
States" (Clinton, "Extraordinary Cases", New York, I,
1 ) . Doubtless, to his repute as a jurist should be attrib-
uted his nomination by all political parties for the New
York State Ck>nstitutional Convention of that vear.
Subsequent to his very early manhood, office-holding
could not have attracted him. He once wrote that u
elected to office he would accept onlv, if impelled by
"a sense of duty such as might impel the conscripted
militia-map^." (see "U. S. Catholic Historical Maga-
zine", New York, 1891-02, IV, 402, and his response
to tender in 1872 of the presidential nomination,
ibidem, 399). (Donceming yoting for public officers
he expressed himself in a similar maimer, such vot-
ing being, he contended, "the performance of a
duty" ana no more a personal right than payment of
taxes or submitting to military service, although
termed " somewhat inaptly " afranchise (see " Addr^
before the New York Historical Society", New York,
1877) . During the convention "it was the wonder of
his colleagues, how in addition to the faithful work
performed in committee he could get time for the re-
search that was needed to equip him for the great
speeches with which he adorned the debates" (Alex-
O'COKOB 203 OCTAVABnTM
ander." A Political History of the State of New York", man with whom Samuel Johnson corresponded with
New York, 1906, II, 112). His views, however, were reference to Irish Uterature. Irish was his native
not those of the majority. First of a minority of only language, so that he was one of the last great Irishmen
six members he voted a«;ainst approving; a new StAte who continued the unbroken traditions of their race.
Constitution of which aHer it haa been m force niany His private diaries and note-books in which he jotted
years, he stated that it ''gave life, vigor and perma- down household affairs, expenses etc. (now preserved
nency to the trade of pontics, with all its attendant by his direct descendant the O'Conor Don H. M. L.
malpractice" (see Address, supra). at Clonalis) were written largely in classic Irish. His
Ii^table ainons cases previous to 1843 in which he best known work is his "Dissertations on the History
was counsel was Jack v. Martin, 12 Wendell 311, and 14 of Ireland" published in 1753 which led to his oorre-
Wendell 507; and during the twenty years following spondence with Dr. Johnson, who urged him to write
1843 the Mason will case as well as the rarish will case an account of pre-Norman Ireland. His collection of
(see Delafield 9. Parish, 25 New York Court of Appeals Irish manuscripts passed to his grandson, the ypunser
Reports, 9). Probably^ the most sensational of his cases Charles^ and later formed the renowned Stowe Cx>l-
durins the latter period was the action for divorce lection m the possession of the Duke of Buckingham,
brou^t against the celebrated actor, Eklwin Foirest, whose librarian the yoimger Charies became. This
O'Conor's vindication of the character of his client, collection, including the famous Stowe Missal and the
Mrs. Forrest, eticiting great professional and popular originM of the first part of the "Annals of the Four
applause (see Clinton, op. cit., 71. 73 JJ. S. Catholic Masters," was for years inaccessible to Irish scholars,
Historical Magazine, supra, 428). When in 1865 but has now been deposited in the Ro3ral Irish Acad-
after the overthrow of the Southern Confederacy, Jef- • emy. A man of affairs, he was one of the founders of
ferson Davis was indicted for treason, O'Conor be- the Roman Catholic Committee in 1757, and with
came his counsel. Among O'Conor's later cases, the Dr. Curry, may be looked upon as the real lay leaders
triids concerning property formerly of Stephen Jumel and representatives of the Irish Catholics during the
(see, for narrative of one of these, Clinton, op. cit., middle of the eighteenth century. Charies O'Oinor
c. ^CXIX) displayed, as had the Forrest divorce case, (^ndson of the above), wrote the "Memoirs of the
his ability in the capacity of trial lawyer and cross- Life and Writings of the late Charles O'Conor of Bel-
examiner, while one of the cases in which his learning anagaie". This is a very rare book, the author having
concerning the law of trusts apoeared was the case suppressed it, and destroyed the manuscript of the sec-
of Manice against Manice, 43 New York Court of ond volume when ready for press. Its destruction was
Appeals Reports, 303. In 1871, he commenced with a great loss to the Jiiah history of the period. The
enthusiasm as counsel for the State of New York pro- present O'Conor Don possesses many of his letters;
ceedings against William M. Tweed and others, ac- others are in the Gilbert Library now acquired by the
cused of frauds upon the City of New York, declaring Corporation of Dublin.
that for his professional services he would accept O'Currt. ManuMoripi MaieriaU (Dublin, 1878), p. IIS;
no eompenaatU. In the autunm of 1876 and whSe g:SS2SS;?'J/^''fe'X^SS."i^"*"' """ ' ^""
these proceedmgs were uncompleted, he was pros- •-»#"»% Douglas Htde.
trated by an illness which seemed mortal, ana the
cardinal archbishop administered the sacraments. OetaTarluxn K4?ir^""*"i a liturgical book,which
Slowly, however, he regained some measure of may be considered as an appendix to the Roman
strength, and, on 7 February, 1876, roused bjr a news- Breviary, but which has not tne official position of the
paper report, he left his bedroom to appear in court, other Roman liturgical books. The first mention of
"imexpected and phost-like" (accordmg to an eye- this book dates from Sixtus V. In order to intro-
witness), that he nusht save from disaster the prosecu- duce a greater variety in the selection of lessons,
tion of the cause of the State against Tweed (see Breen, he order^ the compilation of an Octavarium to oom-
"Thirty Years of New York Politics", New York, prise the lessons proper to each day of the octaves.
1899, 545-52). In 1877 he appeared as counsel be- The plan was not executed durine his pontificate
fore the Electoral Commission at the Citv of Washing- (1585--90). When the question of correcting the
ton. Hislast ^rears were passed on the tsland of Nan- Breviary was raised anew imder Clement VIII
tucket, where, in 1880^ he took up his abode, seeking (1592-1605), the projected Octavarium was again
''quiet and a more gemal climate . But even here he spoken of. The consultors, the most distinguiwed
was occasionally induced to participate in the labours of whom was Baronius, were in favour of the sug-
of his beloved profession. gested compilation. Gavanti. who was fdso a oon-
When he passed away, many seemed to concur in suitor, undertook the work, out his book did not
opinion with Tilden that O'Conor ''was thejn-eatest appear till 1628. Its title, which is descriptive^ is
jurist among all the Engtish-speaking race" (Bigelow, "Octavarium Romanum, Lectiones II et Ul Noo-
''Letters and literary memorials of SamuelJ.Tilden", tumi oomplectens, recitandas infra octavas Fes-
II, 643). torum. prsesertim patronorum locorum et titularium
,•£ m -5?^^*^*^ ^*^SiS^ ^'V^Tf'sJY' ^f"^ ^"^^^^ Eccleaarum bu« cum octavis celebrari debent, juxta
(New York. 1872), 200, 216; Lbwm. Great Ameriean LawyerB, rubncas Breviani RomMU, a Sacra Rituum Congrega-
V (Philadelphia, 1006). 83; Coudbrt. Addresaea, etc. (New tione ad usum totius orbis ecclesiarum approbatum '
X?'? ?2iJ^i?^'!;A^S^^' VJ^' ^"»*.!V ^^ Mattermeeea (St. (Antwerp, 1628). In addition to the letter of appro-
Paul, 1003), 11, 820; Hill, Decmve BcMlea of the Law (New York C„x' « Ji* -d^ Jr ^r tt,.K«« VTTT ot«^ ♦!»*» A^^l^^^^w*
and London). 212. 221. 226-7; Johnbgn. Reparu of auea decided bation, the Brief of Urban VIII, and the dedication.
by Chief Juetiee Chaee (New York, 1876). 1. 106. the book mciudes a few pages On the ondn, cause, and
Charles W. Sloane. rites of octaves. The body of the work consists of a
collection of reading, or lessons, for the feasts of the
O'Conor, Charles, often called "the Venerable", Holy Trinity, the Transfiguration, the Holy Cross,
b. at Belanagare, Co. Roscommon, .1710; d. 1791, was several feasts of Our Lady (Conception, Punfication,
descended from an ancient and princely Catholic Visitation, Our Lady of the Snows), the feasts of St.
family. Cultured, educated, an Irish scholar, O'Conor Michael, the Apostles, Saints Mary Magdalene, Mar-
was almost the only Irishman of his time who studied tha, John, Athanasius, Monica, Nereus and Achilleus,
the records of his country, and who did what he could the Seven Brothers. Apollinarius, the feast of the Be-
to preserve the Irish manuscripts. He scanned these heading of St. Jonn the Baptist, of Sts. Grqrory
witn a calculating and mathematical mind, contin- Thaumaturgus, Basil, Francis, Clement etc. Then
uaUy figuring up and noting upon the margins the follow the lessons for the commons. They are drawn
dates of kings, princes, prelates, foundations etc., and from the writinss of the Fathers, and are varied and
pointing out conflicting dates. He was the only Irish- well-selected. Numerous editions have appeared
OCTAVE
204
OCTAVE
once then, with occasional variations. One of the
mdst recent is by Pustet (Ratisbon, 1883) . The read-
ing of the Octavarium is not obligatory.
Zaocabia; Otu>ma§tiem, 62; Idbm, BiUuttKeoa RUtuUtBt I, 134;
BaaoBL, 2>M BmendaHon da fUmiaehen Brevier* unter Klenuma
VIII in ZeOaduift fOr' kathol. Theol., VIII (Innsbruck. 1884),
296. 300 aq.: BIumsb-Bibon, H%ttoir€ du BrMaire, II (Paris.
1906), 252, 273 sq. See also Octats.
Febnand Cabrol.
OetaT^. — I. Origin. — It is the number seven, not
eight, that plays the principal r61e in Jewish heortol-
ogy, and aonunates the cycle of the year. Every
seventh ^ay is a sabbath; the seventh month is sacred;
the seventh year is a sabbatical year. The jubilee
year was brought about by the number seven multi-
plied by seven; the feast of the Azymee lasted seven
days, like the paschal feast; the feast of Pentecost
was seven times seven days after the Pasch;* the
feast of the Tabernacles lasted seven days, the
days of convocation numbered seven (Willis, '^ Wor-
ship of the Old Covenant", 190-1; "Diet, of the
Bible", s. V. Feast and Fasts, I, 859). However,
the octave day, without having the sjrmbolic im-
portance of the seventh day, had also its r61e. The
eighth day was the day of circumcision (Gen., xxi,
4; Lev.^ xii, 3; Luke^ i, 59\ Acts, vii, 8 etc.). The
feast of the Tabernacles, which as we have said lasted
seven days, was followed on the eighth by a solemnity
which may be considered as an octave (Lev.^ xxiii, 36,
39; Num., xxix, 35; II Esd.. viii, 18); the eighth day
was the day of certain sacrinces (Lev., xiv, 10, 23; xv,
14, 29: Num., vi, 10). It was on the eighth day, too,
that tne feast of the dedication of the Temple under
Solomon, and of its purifications under Ezechias con-
cluded (II Par., vii, 9; xxix, 17). The ogdoad of the
Egyptians and similar! numerical phantasies among
other peoples had no influence on Christian liturgy.
Gavanti's opinion that the custom of celebrating the
octave of feasts dates back to the days of the Apostles
is devoid of proof (Thesaurus sacr. rit., 31 sq.;. At
first the Christian feasts have no octaves. Sunday,
which may in a sense be considered the first Christian
feast, falls on the seventh day ; the feasts of Easter and
Pentecost, which are, with Sunday, the most ancient,
form as it were only a single feast of fifty days. The
feast of Christmas, which too is very old, had origi-
nally no octave.
In the fourth century, when the primitive idea of
the fifty days' feast of the paschal time began to ^ow
dim, Easter and Pentecost were given octaves. Pos-
sibly at first this was only a baptismal custom, the
neophytes remaining in a kind of joyful retreat from
Easter or Pentecost till the following Sunday. More-
over, the Simday which, after the feasts of Easter and
Pentecost, fell on the eighth day, came as a natural
conclusion of the seven feast days after these two
festivals. The octave, therefore, would have in a
certain sense developed of its own accord. If this
be so, we may say, contrary to the common opinion
that Christians borrowed the idea of the octave
from the Jews, this custom grew spontaneously on
Christian soil. However, it must be said that the
first Christian octave known to history is the dedi-
cation of the Churches of Tyre and Jerusalem, under
Constantine, and that these solemnities, in imita-
tion of the dedication of the Jewish Temple, lasted
eight days (Eusebius, ''De vita Constant *'., Ill,
XXX sq.; Sozomen, "Hist, eccl.'', II, xxvi). This
feast may possibly have influenced the adoption
of the octave by the Christians. From the fourth
century onwards the celebration of octaves is men-
tioned more frequently. It occurs in the Apos-
tolic Constitutions, the sermons of the Fathers, the
Councils ("Const. Apost.", VIII, xxxiii; V, xx; Au-
gustine, "De div. temp.", i; "Ep.", Iv^ 32, 33 etc.;
"Peregrinatio Etherise", ed. Gamurrini, p. 100; cf.
Cabrol, "Etude sur La Peregrinatio", Paris, 1895, pp.
116-7; "ConcU. Matisc. II", ii; "ConcU. in Tnino",
Ivi).
II. Celebration of Octaves in Ancient and
Modern Times. — ^The liturgy of the octave assumed
its present form slowly. In the first period, that is
from the fourth to the sixth and even seventh century,
little thought seems to have been given to varying the
liturgical formulsB during the eight days. The saora-
mentaries of Gelasius and St. Gregory make no men-
tion of the intervening days; on the octave day the
oflice of the feast is repeated. The dies octava is in-
deed made more prominent by the liturgy. The Sun-
day following Easter (i. e. Sunday in albis) and the oc-
tave day of Christmas (now the Circumcision) are
treated very early as feast days by the liturgy. Cer-
tain octaves were considered, as privileged days, on
which work was forbidden. The courts and theatres
were closed ("Cod. Theod.", XV, tit. v de spect. 1^.
5; IX, de quaest. leg. 7; "Cone. Mog.", 813, c. Xxxvi).
After Easter, Pentecost, and Christmas had received
octaves, the tendency was to have an octave for all
the solemn feasts. Etheria si)eaks of the feast of the
Dedication (cf. Cabrol, op. cit.. pp. 128-9). Theo-
demar, a contemporary of Charlemagne, speaks only
of the octaves of Christmas and the Epiphany, but it
must not be concluded that he was ignorant of those
of Easter and Pentecost, which were more celebrated.
The practice of having octaves for the feasts of the
saints does not seem to be older than the eighth cen-
tury, and even then it was peculiar to the Latins.
From the ninth century it becomes more frequent,
The capitularies of Charlemagne speak of the octaves
of Christmas, the Epiphany, and Easter. Amalarius,
after mentioning the four octaves of Christmas, the
Epiphany, Easter, and Pentecost, tells us that it was
customary in his time to celebrate the octaves of the
feasts of Sts. Peter and Paul and other saints, "quo-
rum festivitas apud nos clarior habetur, . . . et
quorum consuetudo diversarum ecclesiarum octavas
celebrat" (De eccl. offic, IV, xxxvi). In the thir-
teenth century this custom extends to many other
feasts, under the influence of the Franciscans, who
then exerted a preponderating influence on the forma-
tion of the modem Breviary (Baumer-Biron, "Hist,
du Breviaire", II, 31, 71, 199). The Franciscan
feasts of Sts. FVancis, Clare, Anthony of Padua, Ber-
nadine etc., had their octaves. At the time of the
reformation of the Breviary (Breviary of St. Pius V,
1568) the question of regulating the octaves was con-
sidered. Two kinds of octaves were distinguished,
those of feasts of our Lord, and those of saints and the
dedication. In the first category are further dis-
tinguished principal feasts — those of Easter and Pen-
tecost, which had specially privileged octaves, and
those of Christmas, the Epiphany, and Corpus Christi,
which were privileged (the Ascension octave was not
privileged). Octaves, which exclude all or practi-
cally all occuring and transferred feasts, are called
privileged. The octaves of saints were treated al-
most l&e that of the Ascension. This classification
entailed the application of a certain number of ru-
brics, the details of which can be found in Baumer-
Biron, op. cit., II, 199-200. For the changes in-
troduced under Leo XIII, cf. ibid., 462, and also
the rubrics of the Breviary. Under Octavarium
RoMANUM there is an account of Gavanti's attempt
to provide a more varied oflice for the octaves.
The Greeks also .to a certain extent admitted the
celebration of octaves into their liturgy. However,
we must be careful not to confuse, as is too often done,
the apodosis of the Greeks with the octave. Al-
though having the same origin as the Latin octave,
the apodosis differs from the octave in this, that it
occurs sometimes on the eighth, and sometimes on the
fifth, the fourth, or the ninth (see P^trid^ in " Diet.
d*arch6ol. et de liturgie chr6t.", s. v. Apodosis).
Amalaiudb, Z>e eccUa, o^m, IV, zzzri; MierologtM, xliv, in
O'CULLBNAN
205
O'DALT
p. L.. CLI, 1010; Zaccaua. Onomastieon, 61; Idem, BiUtoiheca
rilualis, II, 414; Drb88XB, De fettxB di^nu ehntttanorum el eUmir-
earutn (WQrsburg, 1688) ; Grancolab, Cotmnentarixta hut. in brev.
rom. (Venice, 1734), 137; Hospxnian, Peata Chrutianorum hoe ett
dt origine, proffretru, eaeremoniia el ritibiu (Zurich, 1593), 26; Hrr-
TOBP, De diw. eath. ted. officiia et myleriia (Paris, 1610), 486 sq.;
Gavaicti, TheMunu aaeror. rituum cum adnol. merati, II, 31 aq.;
OxrrBTns, Heortdogia (Urbino, 1728), 113 sa.; Pittonxjb, Trada-
tua de oelavia fettarum qua in eedesia uniteraali ceMtranlur (Venioe,
1739): MabtAne, De anliq, ecdee. rii. (ed. 1788), III. zxv. n. 1,
pp. 182 sqq.; BIumsb-Biron. Hiet. du Brtviaire, II (Paris, 1893),
190 etc; Duchbsnb, Christian Worehipt Its Oriffin etc. (London,
1904). 287. ^ ^
Fbrnand Cabrol.
O'Cullenan, Gelasiub (Glaisnb), Cistercian,
Abbot of Boyle, Ireland, b. probably near Assaroe
Abbey, Ballyshannon, Co. Donegal; martyred, 21
Nov., 1580. Three of his brothers were Qstercian
abbots, and a fourth Bishop of Raphoe. Gelasius,
the eldest, studi^ at Salamanca University, went
thence to Paris where he took his doctorate at the
Sorbixme, made his monastic profession, and was
created Abbot of Boyle, Co. Roscommon. , This ab-.
bey had been confiscated and granted to Cusack,
Sheriff of Meath; but the Irish regulars continued to
appoint superiors to their suppressed houses. The
young abbot went immediately to Ireland and is said
to have obtained restoration of his abbey. He was.
however, seized at Dublin by the Government and
imprisoned with Eugene O'Mulkeeran, Abbot of Holy
Tnnity at Lough Key. Refusing to conform, they
were tortured and finally hanged outside Dublin.
21 November, 1580. 0*Cullenan's body was spared
mutilation through his friends' intercession. His
cloUies were divided as a martyr's relics among the
Cathofics.
Habtbt, Triumphalia Momuterii S. Crude, ed. Mxtbpht (Dub-
lin, 1895) ; O'Reilly, MemoriaU of those who suffered for the Catho-
lic Faith (London. 1868); Mttbpht, Our Martyrs (Dublin, 1896).
O'Cuny, Eugene (Eoghan O Comhraidhe), Irish
scholar, b. at Dunaha near Carrigaholt, Co. Clare,
1796; d. 1862. His father, a farmer of modest means,
was an Irish scholar, a good singer, and well-informed
aa to the traditions of his people. His son Eugene,
or Owen, grew up amid perfect Irish surroundings, and
soon learned to read the Irish MSS. which were still
common among the people. After the fall of Napo-
leon (1815), there followed a period of much agricul-
tural distress in Ireland, and the O'Curry farm was
broken up. In 1834 Eugene joined the number of
men engaged upon the topographical and histori-
cal part of the Ordnance Survey of Ireland, Petrie,
Wakeman, Clarence Mangan the poet, and last but
not least John O'Donovan (q. v.). In search of in-
formation concerning Irish places O'Curry visited the
British Museum (where he catalogued the Irish MSS.
for the authorities), the Bodleian Library at Oxford,
the Library of Trinity College, the Royal Irish Acad-
emy, and other places. But the Government, afraid,
it is said, of the national memories that the work was
evoking, abandoned the survey three or four years
later and dissolved the staff. The great collection of
materials, upwards of 400 quarto volumes of letters
and documents bearing upon the topography, social
history, language, antiquities, and genealogies of the
districts surveyed, was stowed away.
After this O Curry earned his livelihood by reading,
copying, and workine on the MSS. in Trinity (Dollege
and the Royal Irish Academy. The first Archseologi-
cal Society was founded in 1840. relying chiefly upon
the assistance of O'Curry and O'Donovan. In 1853
O'Curry joined the council of the Celtic Society and
Sublished for them two Irish texts^ the "^Battle of
f oyleana,'' and the ** Courtship of Momera'', with ex-
cellent translation and notes. In 1855 he was ap-
pointed professor of Irish history and archseology m
the recently founded Catholic University of Ireland,
whose first rector was John Henry (afterwards Cardi-
nal) Newman. His lectures, published at the expense
of the university (1860) under the title of "The Manu-
script Materials of Ancient Irish History'', proved an
invaluable mine of information upon the ancient MSS.
of Ireland and their contents — annals, genealogies,
histories, epics, historical tales, saints' lives, and other
ancient matters ecclesiastical and civil. "O'Curry",
writes D'Arbois De Jubainville (L'Epop^ celtique
en Irlande, p. xvi), "is the first man who studied at
their sources the epics of Ireland." His book was a
revelation, and opened up an entirely new world to
European scholare. It was followed by a series of
thirty-eight lectures "on the Manners and Customs of
the Ancient Irish", published later (1873) under the
editorship of Dr. W . K, Sullivan.
O'Curry, a self-taught man and with little or no
classical knowledge, was one of Ireland's most ener-
getic workers. Scarcely an Irish book was to be found
which he did not read and scarcely a rare manuscript
existed in private hands of which he did not make a
copy. In this way he gained an outlook over the field
of Irish literature, so full and so fai^reaching that '
though strides have been made in scientific scholarship
since his day, no one has come ever near him since in
his all-round knowledge of the literature of Ireland.
He transcribed accurately Duald MacFirbis's book on
Irish genealogies, the Book of lismore, and scores of
others. The last work he was engaged on was the
Brehon Laws (q. v.); of these he transcribed eight
large volumes, and made a preliminary translation in
thirteen volumes. O'CJurry was severely tried by
government officials who took upon themselves, in.
crass ignorance and in defiance of all rules of scholar-
ship, to dictate to the master how the translation and
compilation of the Brehon Laws were to be carried
on. O'Curry has left a fully written posthumous
statement of the incredible treatment to which he and
O'Donovan were subjected, and his account of how he
was the first scholar since the death of the great anti-
quarian, Duald MacFirbis (murdered in 1670), who
was able to penetrate and get a grip of the long for-
gotten language^ of the ancient law tracts, is one of the
most curious things in literature. Many men, such as
Todd, Petrie, Graves, Reeves, were deeply indebted to
O'Curry, for with a rare generosity he freely communi-
cated the treasures of his knowledge to all who asked
him.
Wbbb. Compendium of Irish Biog. (Dublin, 1878) ; Memoir in
Irish Monthly Magazine (April, 1874). Cf. also: Li^turee on the
Manuscript Matenale of Ancient Irish History (re-iMue, Dublin,
1878) ; On the Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish (3 vols.
Dublin, 1873) ; The BattU of Magh Leana etc. (DubUn, 1856).
Douglas Htde.
O'Daly, Daniel, diplomatist and historian, b. in
Kerry, Ireland, 1595; d. at Lisbon. 30 June, 1662. On
his mother's side he belonged to tne Desmond branch
of the Geraldines, of which branch his paternal ances-
tors were the hereditary chroniclers or oards. He be-
came a Dominican in Tralee, Co. Kerry; took his vows
in Lugo, studied at Burgos, gained his doctorate of
theology in Bordeaux, and returned as priest to Tra-
lee. In 1627 he was sent to teach theology in the
newly established College for Irish Domimcans at
Louvain. In 1629 he went to Madrid on business con-
nected with this college and, seeing that Philip IV of
Spain favoured the project, he, assisted by three of his
Irish brethren, establishea, in Lisbon, the Irish Do-
minican College of which he became the first rector.
He conceived the project of erecting, near Lisbon, a
convent of Irish Dominican nuns, to serve as a refuge
in time of persecution. Philip sranted permission to
do so on condition that he shoula raise a body of Irish
soldiers for Spanish service in the Low Countries.
O'Daly set sail for Limerick and got the men. On his
return to Madrid (1639), Belem on the Tagus, four
miles below the city, was selected as a site and, with
the assistance of the Countess of Atalaya> Uie oonvent
O'DALT
206
O DEUS
of Our Lady of Bom Successo was built. The king
had such confidence in him that he made him envoy to
Charles I of England, to the exiled Charles II, and to
Pope Innocent X (1650) . The Queen of Portugal also
sent him as envoy to Pope Alexander VIII.
In the year 1655 he was sent as envoy from John IV
of Portugal to Anne of Austria and Louis XIV to con-
clude a treaty between Portugal and France. Here
as elsewhere, success attended him; but while nego-
tiations abroad and matters of government at home
afforded opportunities of serving the House of Bra-
ganxa^ he would not accept any honour in return. His
acquaintances praise his straiflptf orwardness, honestv,
tact, and disinterestedness. He refused the Archbish-
opric of Braga and the Primacy of Goa and the Bishop-
ric of Coimbra: nor would he accept the titles of Privy
Councillor or Queen's Confessor, though he held both
offices. In 1665 he published ** Initium, Incrementum,
et Exitus Familis Geraldinorum. Desmonis Comi-
tum. Palatinorum Kyerriffi in Hibemia, ac Persecu-
tionis Hsereticorum Descriptio" etc., his work on the
Earls of Desmond, for which he availed himself of the
traditional knowledge of his ancestors. In the first
part he describes the origin of the Munster Geraldin^,
their var^ng fortimes, and their end in the heroic
Btrup;le for taith and fatherland. It is our chief au-
thority on this subject. The second part treats of the
cruelties inflicted on the Irish Catholics, and of the
martyrdom of twenty Dominicans, many of whom had
been with him in Lisbon. The work was translated
into French by Abb^ Joubert (1697), and into English
by the Rev. C. P. Meehan, Dublin (2nd edition an-
notated, 1878.) During these years his chief concern
was to put his college on a firm basis and to make it
render the greatest possible service to Ireland. Bom
Successo became too small for the number of students.
In 1659 he laid the first stone of a lar^ building
which was called Corpo Santo. To provide funds for
tihese houses he consented to become Bishop of Coim-
bra and, in consequence. President of the Privy Coun-
cil; but before the papal Bull arrived he died. His
remains reposed in the cloister of Corpo Santo until
the earthouake of 1755; the inscription on his tomb
recorded jbnat he was ''In variis Regum legationibus
f ehx, . . . Vir Prudentia, Litteris, and Religione con-
spicuus.' (Successful in embassies for kings . . .A
man distinguished for prudence, knowledge, and vir-
tue.) A few years after the catastrophe, on the same
spot, with the same name and object, a new college
and church arose, which, with Bom Successo, keep
O'DsJy's memory fresh in Lisbon to the present day.
MS. preserved in Bom SucoesBo; Letttr of O'Daly publiahed
by Mbbhan (1878); Babon (who uew O'Daly), lAlrrt guinque
apologetiei (FniB, 1666); Echaro. Script. Ord. Pned. (Paris,
1719-21): Hibemia Dominioana oonUuns much additiona- infor-
mation: Mbbhan. IrUrodudtion to hi9 trandation: Bblushbim,
0«»eh. aer kath. Kirehe in Ireland^ II, III (for an original letter of.
III. 766) : O'CoNNXLL, Dominic 0*D<Uy m Faith and Fatherland
(Dublin, 1888).
Reginald Walsh.
O'Daly, DoNOGH M6r (in Irish Donnchadh M6r
O DXlaigh), a celebrated Irish poet, d. 1244. About
thirty of his poems are extant, amounting to four or five
thousand lines, nearly all religious. O'Reilly styles
him Abbot of Bovle (Irish Writers, p. LXXXVIII) as
does O'Curry (Manners and Customs, III, p. 301) ; he
was certainly buried in the abbey there, but it cannot
be proved that he was an ecclesiastic. The religious
cast of his poetry would naturally account for his nav-
ing be»i accepted as one. According to O' Donovan
(Four Masters, ad an. 1244) he was the head of the
O'DaJys of Finnyvara of Burren in Clare^ where the
ruins of his house are still pointed out. He has often
been called the Irish Ovid, for the smoothness of his
verse. He was the second of six brothers, the third of
whom, Muireadhach "Albanach" or '^the Scotch-
man", was also a poet. The present writer has heard
0ome of O'Daly's verse from the mouths of the peas-
antry. Only two or three of his pieces have been pub-
lished, but "Professor Tomds O M^lle of Galway is
nowpreparing them for the press.
OlCBiLLT. Catalogue of Irish Writera (Dublin. 1820). p.
LXXXVIII; Htt>b, Hietory of Iriah Literature, p. 4W-8; Idbm.
Rdigume Song* of Connaeht, Vol. I; O'Curbt, Mannere and Cue^
tonu of the Ancient Iriaht III (Dublin). 301. For an account of
hia brother see The Tribee of Ireland^ ed. O'Domoyam (Dublin.
1852). p. 5.
Douglas Htds.
OddfellowB. See SociETiEft, Secbet.
O'Dea, Edwabd John. See Sbattle, Diocese of.
OdMcalchi, Benedetto. See Innocent XI, Pope.
Odescalchi, Carlo, cardinal, prince, archbishop,
and Jesuit, b. at Rome, 5 March, 1786: a. at Modena,
17 August, 1841 . His father, Duke of Sirmien, Prince
of the Roman empire, was a man of culture an^ at-
tended personally to Carlo's education. He early
manifested a religious vocation. Ordained priest, he
said his first Mass 1 Jan., 1809. He won the confidence
of many souls^ among others, a young cleric after-
wards Pius lA, and later he ordained priest Gioao-
chino Pecci, eventually Leo XIII. Odescalchi was in
the suite of Pius VII during the perilous times that pre-
ceded the pope's captivity, and after his release, he was
rapidly promoted, and sent twice on specifd missions
to Vienna. In 1823 he was created cardmal and inune-
diately afterwards Archbishop of Ferrara, but he re-
mained with the pope who was then dying. He de-
voted himself to his see with apostolic energy, until he
resigned (1826). Returning to Rome he was made
Bishop of Sabina, prefect of several congregations, and
became protector and promoter of many good works.
He was m the conclaves for the elections of Leo XII,
Pius VIII. and Gregory XVI. Cardinal Wiseman tes-
tifies to the general confidence reposed in his virtue
and high principle on these occasions. When the Soci-
et:^ of Jesus was restored by Pius VII (1814), Odescal-
cm had resolved to join it. and a cell had been pre-
pared for him at Sant' Andrea. But the pope would
not then allow him to enter, nor would Gregory permit
it (1837), a commission of four cardinals, appointed to
consider the question, having reported in the negative.
Finally, permission to resign the cardinalitial dignitjr
having been given in full consistory (1839), Odescalcm
entered the novitiate at Verona, and after a short pro-
bation was devoting himself to various ministries
when he died. As a youth he had published the not
unimportant '^Memorie istorico-critiche dell' Acade-
mia de' Lincei" (Rome, 1806) and as Bishop of Sa-
bina his ^'Massime sacerdotali" (Rome, 1834).
Berlxndm, Memorie edifioanti del P. C. Odeeealehi (Rome,
1842 ), Eng. tr. ed. Fabeb (London, 1840); Amqkumi-Rota,
Storia del R. P. C. Odetoalchi (Rome. 1850).
J. H. Pollen.
O Deus ^go Amo Te, the first line of two Latin
l3rrics sometimes attributed to St. Francis Xavier, but
of uncertain date and authorship. The one whose first
stanza runs: —
O Deus ego amo te,
Nam prior tu amasti me;
En libertate privo me
Ut sponte vinctus sequar te,
has four additional stanzas in similar rhythm, the last
three being apparently a paraphrase of part of a
prayer in the ^'tk)ntemplatio ad amorem spiritualem
m nobis excitandum " of St. Ignatius Loyola s Spiritual
Exercises:"Take,0 Lord, my entire liberty . . what-
ever I have or possess you have bestowed on mej back
to thee I give it all, and to the rule of thy will dehver it
absolutely. Give me only thy love and thy grace and
I am rich enough; nor do I ask anything more." The
hymn (probably first printed in the '^Symphonia Si-
renum' . Cologne, 1695) received in Zabuesnig's
"KatholischeKirchenges&nge" (Augsburg, 1822), the
title of "The Desire of St. Ignatius". Father Caa-
wall's beautiful version appeared in his "Masque of
O'DEVANY
207
ODILO
Mary" etc. (1858), and in his ''Hymns and Poems''
(1873); also in various Catholic hjrmnbooks (e. k.
"Roman Hymnal". New York, 1884; Tozer's "Cath-
olic Church H3na[mal ", New York, 1905; and in Quid's
"The Book of Hymns", Edinbundi, 1910). The
hymn was translated by J. Keble. J. W. Hewett, E. C.
Benedict, H. M. Macgill, S. W. Duffield.
The firat stanza of the companion hynm is: —
O Deus ego amo te,
Nee amo te ut salves me,
Aut quia non amantes te
^temo pimis igne.
There are four additional stanzas in irregular rhythm,
while a variant form adds as a final line: "£t solum
quia Deus es " (thus given in Moorsom's " A Historical
Companion to Hymns Ancient and Modem", 2nd ed.,
Cambridge, 1903, p. 176) . The hjmm has been appro-
priately styled the "love-fligh" of St. Francis Xavier
(Schlosser, "Die Kirche in ihren Liedem", 2nd ed.,
Freiburg, 1863, 1, 445, who devotes sixteen pages to a
discussion of its authorship, translations etc.l, who,
it is fairly certain, composed the original Spanish son-
net "No me mueve, mi Dios, para quererte" — on
which the various Latin versions are based, about the
year 1546. There is not, however, sufficient reason for
crediting to him any Latin version. The form given
above appeared in the "Coeleste Palmetum" (Co-
logne, 1696). An earlier Latin version by Joannes
Nadasi is in his "Pretiosse occupationes morientium"
(Rome, 1657), beginning: "Non me movet, Domine,
ad amandum te " . Nadaai again translated it in 1665.
F. X. Drebitka ("Hymnus Francisci Faludi", Buda-
pest, 1899) gives these versions, and one by Petrus
Possinus in 1667. In 1668 J. Scheffler gave, in his
"Heilige Seelenlust", a German translation — "Ich
liebe Gott, und zwar umsonst" — of a version begin-
ning" Amo Qeum, sed libere ' * . The form of the hynm
indicated above has been translated into English verse
about twenty-five times, is found in Catholic and non-
Catholic hynm-boolu. and is evidently highly prized
by non-Catholics. Thus, the Rev. Dr. Duffield, a
Presbyterian, speaks of both hymns in slowing terms,
in his " Latin Hymn Writers and Their flvmns^' (New
York, 1889): "From the higher critical standpoint,
then, these hymns are not unacceptable as Xavier's
own work. They feel as if they belonsed to his age
and to his life. They are transfused ana shot through
by a personal sense of absorption into divine love,
which has fused and crystallized them in its fiercest
heat" (p. 300). The Scriptural text for both hymns
might well be II Cor., v, 14, 15. or perhaps better still
I John, iv, 19 — "Let us therefore love God, because
God hath first loved us". The text of both hymns
is given in Daniel's "Thesaurus Hynmologicus , II,
335; of the second hynm, with notes, in March's
"Latin Hynms", 190, 307 etc.
H. T. Hbnbt.
O'Deranyv CoRNXuns (Conchobhab O'Duib-
hbannaigh), Bishop of Down and Connor, Ireland, b.
about 1532; d. at Dublin, 11 February, 1612 (N. S.).
He waa a Franciscan of Donegal Convent, and while in
Rome in 1582 was appointed Bishop of Down and
Connor, and consecrated 2 February, 1583. In 1588
he was committed to Dublin Castle. Failing to con-
vict him of anv crime punishable with death. Lord
Deputy FitzwiUiam sought authority from Burghley
to be rid of such an obstinate enemy to God and so
rank a traitor to her Majesty as no doubt he is ". He
lay in prison until November, 1590, being then re-
leased ostensibly on his own petition but doubtless
through policy. He was protected by O'Neill until
1607, and escai>ed arrest until the middle of 1611,
when, almost eighty years old, he was taken while
administering oonfinnation and again committed to
Dublin Castle. On 28 January, 1612, he was tried for
high treason, found guilty by the majority of a packed
Jury, and sentenced to die on 1 February (O. S.). Be
was drawn on a cart from the Castle to the gallows be-
yond the river; the whole route was crowded with
Catholics lamenting and be^n^ his blessing. Prot-
estant clergymen pestered lum with ministrations and
urged him to confess he died for treason. "Pray let
me be", he answered, "the viceroy's messenger to me.
here present, could tell that I might have life ana
revenue for poing once to that temple", pointing to a
tower opposite. He kissed the gallows before mount-
ing, ana then proceeding to exhort the CaUiolics to
constancy, he was thrown off. cut down alive, and
quartered. With him suffered Patrick O'Loug^ran,
a priest arrested at Cork. The people, despite the
guards, carried off the halter, his clothes, and even
fragments of his body and chips of the gallows. They
prayed all night by the remains, an infirm man was re-
ported cured by touching them, and Mass after Mass
was said there from midmght until day. Such was the
concourse that the viceroy ordered the members to be
buried on the spot, but next night the Catholics ex-
humed them and interred them in St. James's Church-
yard. A list of martyrs compiled by Dr. O'Devany
was used by Rothe in his "Analecta".
O'Lavebtt, Dioceae of Down and Connor^ V (Dnblin, 1896);
Rothe, AnaUda Nova et Mira, ed. Moran (Dublin, 1884);
O'RxiLLT. MemoriaU of thoae 10AO avjfertd for the Catholie Faith
(London. 1868); Mubpht, Our MariyrB (Dublin, 1896).
Odilia, Saint, patroness of Alsace, b. at the end of
the seventh century; d. about 720. According to a
trustworthy statement, apparently taken from an ear-
lier life, she was the daughter of the Prankish lord
Adalrich (Aticus, Etik) and his wife Bereswinda, who
had large estates in Alsace. She founded the convent
of Hohenburg (Odilienberg) in Alsace, to which
Charlemagne granted immunity, confirmed 9 March,
837, by Louis the Pious who enaowed the foundation
(Bdhmer-Mtihlbacher, "Rc^esta Imperii", I, 866,
933). A tenth-century "Vita" has been preserved,
written at the close of the centuiy. Accordmg to this
narrative she was bom blind, miraculously receiving
her sight at baptism. A shorter text, probably inde-
pendent of this, is contained in a manuscript of the
eariy eleventh century. Internal evidences point to
an original eighth-century biography. A further
" Vita' , that JT Vignier claimed to have discovered,
has been proved to be a forgery by this historian.
Her feast is celebrated 13 December; her grave is in
a chapel near the convent church on the Odilienberg.
She is represented with a book on which lie two eyes.
PnsTBK. LanedeSU OdiU in Anal. BolL, XIII (1894), &-&2;
Sbpbt. Oba«natiou$ aur la Ugmde ds SU OdiU in BibliotMaus ds
rteoUdeaChttfte; LXIII (1902), 517-36; Havbt. Vt^Mr; VtedeHU
OdiU in (Euwea de Julien Havetjl (Paria, 1896), 72-8; PorrHAST,
BibUdtheea hiUoriea medii cm, IT. 1497 aq., Bibliotheea hagiogra-
phiea laHna, ed. Bolu, II, 906 aq.; PvuTUt, Le duchi mtrovin-
gim d*AUac« etlawiede Sle OdiU (Paris and Nanoy, 1892) ; Wur-
TZBSB. Hi9l. de Stfi OdiU ou VAUaee cHrHienns au VII* tt VIII*
•ihcUa (6th ed. Qebweiler, 1896) ; Wklschinqbk, 8U OdiU in L—
SainU (Paris, 1901) ; WsHBicuamB, Die hL OdUia, ihn Legtnde u,
ihre Verehrung (Aucaburg, 1902).
J. P. KiBaCH.
OdUitnberg. See Hohenburg.
Odilo, Saint, fifth Abbot of Cluny (q. v.), b. c.
062; d. 31 December, 1048. He was descended from
the nobility of Auvergne. He early became a cleric
in the seminary of St. Julien in Brioude. In 991 he
entered Cluny and before the end of his year of pro-
bation was made coadjutor to Abbot Mayeul, and
shortly before the latter s death (994) was made abbot
and received Holy orders. The rapid development of
the monastery under him was due chiefly to his gentle-
ness and charity, his activity and talent for organizing.
He was a man of pra^rer and penance, zealous for the
observance of the Divine Office, and the monastic
spirit. He encouraged learning in his monasteries, and
had the monk Radolphus Glaber write a history of the
time. He erected a magnificent monastery building.
ODDt 208 OSINaTOH
end furthered the reform of the Benedictine monas- of priestly vocation, he was sent when nine years of age
teries. Under Alphonse VI it spread into Spain, to study Latin under hia uncle, cmi of Noailly, whoie
The rule of St. Benedict was substituted in Cluny for death soon ended this desultory teaching. Aitec two
the domestic rule of l^dore. By bringing the re- yeara at home, he studied the classicB at Roaone and
formed or newly founded monasteries ol Spain into Verriere and was a brilliant student of philosophy at
permanent dependence on the mother-house, Odilo L'Argenti^re and Alix. He was prompt to answtf
prepared the way for the union of monasteries, which Biahop Duboui^s appeal for volunteers for the
Hugo established for maintaining order and discipline. Louisiana misuon. Reaching New Orleans in June,
The number of monasteries increased from thirty- 1822, he was sent to the seminary of the Laxarista,
seventoBixty-five.ofwhich five were newly established The Barrens, 80 miles from St. LomSj Mo., to complete
and twenty-three had followed the reform movement. hiatheologicalBtudies. There he joined the Laiariata.
Some of the monasteries reformed by Cluny, reformed (Clarke in his lives of deceased bishops of the U. 8.
others; thus the Abbey of St. Vannes in Lorraine re- erroneously states that he entered at an earW age in
formedmanyon theFranco-Germanborderiand. On Paris.) He was ordained priest 4 May, 1K24, and
account of his services in the reform Odilo was called to parish duties were addea those of teaching. In
by Fulbert of Chartres the "Archangel of the Monks", vacation be nreached to the Indians on the Arkanaaa
and through his relations with the popes, rulers, and River, for whose converraon he was most eager.
prominent oishoiia of the time Cluny monasticism was ]S25hewasat times in charge of the seminary, coUe^,
promoted- He journeyed nine times to Italy, and and parish. He also f^ve missiona to non-Cathohos
took part in several synods there. John XIX and and to the Indians, until, his health failing, it was de-
Beneaiet IX both offered him the Archbishopric of cided to send him abroad, where he couldalso gathn*
Lfons but he declined. From 99S he gained influence recruits and funds for the missionB. Accompanying
with the Emperor Otto 111. He was on terms of in- Bishop Rosati to the second Council of Baltimore M
timacy with Henry II when the latter^ on political theolo^an, he was commissioned by the ooundl to
grounds, sought to imp^ the spiritual independence bring its decrees to Rome for approval. Two yean
of the German monasteries. For Germany the Cluny were spent abroad in the interest of "his poor Amei^
policy had no permanent success, as the monks there ica". Pastoral work, chiefly at Cape Girardeau, where
were more incUned to individu^sm. Between 1027 he opened a school (1838), and missions occupied the
and 1046 the relations between the Cluniac monks and next five years. Sent to Texas in 1840 as vice-pre-
the emperor remained unchanged. In 1048 Odilo was fectby his provincial visitor. Father Timon, whom the
presentat the coronation of Henry III in Rome, Rob- Holy See had made prefect Apostolic of the new r»-
ert II of France allied himself with the Reform party, public, he began the hardest kind of labour among
Theconclusionof thePeaceofGod~(TreUKaDei},for Catholics, many of whom had fallen away amid the
which Odilo had worked from 1041, was of great eco- disorders accompanying the change of government,
nomic importance. During the great famines of.that and among non-catnohcB and the fierce Comanchs
time (particularly 1028-33), he also exercised his Indians. His gentleness and self-sacrifice wrought
active charity and saved thousands from death. wonders. His great work was early recogniied anabe
He established All Souls' Day (2 Nov.) in Cluny was nominated to Mie coadjutorsnip of Detroit but
and its monasteries (probably not in 998 but after declined. A year later he was named titular Bishop
1030), and it was soon adopted in the whole church, of Claudiopohs and Vicar Apostolic of Texas. H«
Of hie writings we have but a few short and unim- was consecrated 6 March, 1842. He had already sue-
portant ones: a bfe of the holy Empress St, Adelaide ceeded with Father Timon'e help in having the Re-
(q. v.) to whom he was closely related; a short biogra- public recognize the Church's right to the poasessionB
pny of his predecessor Mayeul; sermons on feasts of that were hers under the Mexican government. In
the ecclesiastical year; some hymns and prayers; and 1845 he went to Europe and secured many recruits
a few letters from hia extensive correspondence. for his mission. In 1847 Texas was made a dioceee
Odilo and his confreres interested themselves in the and Bishop Odin's see was fixed at Galveston. On
church reform which began about that time. They the death of Archbishop Blanc of New Orlean^ he
followed no definite eccleeiastico-political programme, waa promoted to that see IG February, 1861. Nei-
but directed their attacks principally against individ- ther his age nor infirmities kept him from a vi^lant
ual offences such as simony, marriage of the cler^, care of his dock. War bad wrought havoc during his
and the uncanonical marriage of the laity. The H^y time in Texas, the civil war scourged his archdio-
See could depend above all on the religious of Cluny cese now. His influence was extraonmiai^ among the
when it sought to raise itself from its humiliating posi- Catholic soldieiB. Pius IX wrote to him in the South,
tion and undertook the reform of the Church. as to Archbishop Hughes in tlie North, to use their
He died while on a visitation to the monastery of influence for p^ce. Hia Apostolic labours were in-
Souvigny where he was buried and soon venerated terrupted only by journeys bo Europe in the interest
as a saint. In 1063 Peter Damien undertook the of his archdiocese. Despite greatly impaired healUi
process of his canonisation, and wrote a short life, an he went to the Vatican Council. At Rome he grew
abstract from the work of Jotsald, one of Odilo's ao ill that he was Eranted leave to return to Heaute-
monks who accompanied him on hia travels. In 1793 ville where he diecT
the reUcs together with those of Mayeul were burned , »""., ^^ ■'* ,■"?; Jm-^Vo™ jWm q-™, iMo), ti™utjd
bytherevoiStionari«"ontheaitarofthefatheriand'', ^^.r^i^-^d.^ ?Xw"^ "^ "^^T^i??!^:
The feast of St, Odilo was formerly 2 January, m 203^0: Didtcbbb, Li/e and Tima a/ m. S», JsAn Timm, I
Cluny, now it is celebrated on 19 January, and in ^^tioi8nhati^.6iM^ofaeC<uMieCk,.^i«anU«iud
Switzerland on 6 February. ^uue..lV.ism. B. Randolph.
RlNQHOu, Der Id. Abt. Odilo, tn •ntumi LAen und Wirlun
"""■■'™'^'-'?"-''^?lSS:i:^'^'uffli.%SS.T , (Mtoiton. W«™^ EngM Ben«iicti.., dn
... . _. -.yoM, 1S98). known as Walter OF EvBBHAM, by some writers con-
jiuENS LOrpLXB. founded with Wal/tbb op Etnbbau, who lived about
fifty years earlier, d. not eu^ier than 1330. During
iMABT,LazariBt missionary, first Bishop the first part of lus religious life he was stationed at
□d second Archbishop of New Orlsans, Evesham and later removed to Oxford, where he was
II, at Hauteville, Ambierle, Franoe: d. engaged in astronomical and mathematical work as
1870. Theseventhof ten children, like early as 1316. He wrote chiefiy on scientific subiecta:
sysheworkedonhisfather'sfarm. His his most valuable work "De Speculatione Musicea
for the poor bdng looked on as a mgn was first published in complete (orm in CousBunakcr'a
■i..n»3,).oni
ODO
209
ODO
"Scriptores"; other works are in manuscript only.
Tliis treatise, written at Evesham and therefore cer-
tainly before 1316, according to Riemann before 1300.
is a remarkable work in which the author gathered
together practically all the knowledge of the theory of
music possessed at his time and addfed some theoreti-
cal considerations of his own. A discusraon of his
work is given by Riemann, who claims for him the
distinction of having, before the close of the thirteenth
century, established on theoretical grounds the con-
sonance of minor and major thirds. Davey enimier-
ates the following works : " De Speculatione Musices *' ;
"Ycocedron", a treatise on alchemy; "Declaratio
motus octavfe spherse **'/* Tractatus de multiplicatiODC
specierum in visu secundum omnem modum"; "Ars
metrica Walteri de Evesham"; "Liber quintus geo-
metrise per numeros looo quantitatum"; "Calendar
for Evesnam Abbey".
Daybt, Hittory of Sngluh Mund (London, 1806); Idbm in
DiH. Nat. Biog., s. v. Walter of Bve»ham; ConsasMAJCSR, Scrip-
tcrum de Mwica Medii iff W runa teriet. I (Paris, 1864) ; Rxkhann,
GfchiehU der MurikUkearie (Leipsig, 1808).
Edward C. Philufs.
Odo, Saint, second Abbot of Cluny, b. 878 or 879,
probably near Le Mans; d. 18 November, 942. He
spent several years at the court of William, Duke of
Aquitaine, and e^terwards entered the Abbey of St.
Martin at Tours. About 909, he became a monk,
priest, and superior of the abbey school in Baume,
whose Abbot, Bl. Bemo, was transferred to Cluny in
910. He became Abbot of Baume in 924, and Bemo's
successor at Cluny in 927. Authorized by a privilege of
John XI in 931, he reformed the monasteries in Aqui-
taine, northern France, and Italy. The privilege em-
powered him to unite several abbeys under his super-
vision and to receive at Cluny monks from abbeys not
yet reformed; the greater number of the reformed
monasteries, however, remained independent, and
several became centres of reform. Between 936 and
942 he visited Italy several times, founding in Rome
the monastery of Our Lady on the Aventine and re-
forming several convents, e.' g. Subiaco and Monte
Cassino. He was sometimes entrusted with important
political missions, e. g., when peace was arranged be-
tween King Hugo of Italy and Alberic of Rome.
Among his writings are: a biography of St. Gerald of
Aurillac, three books of CotuUionea (moral essays,
severe and forceful), a few sermons, an epic poem on
the Redemption (Occupatio) in seven booKS (ed. Swo-
boda, 1900), and twelve choral antiphons in honour of
St. Martin.
Saokub, Die Cluniaceruer, I (Halle. 1892), 4^-120; Zbibioxb,
Ltben und Wirken dee Abtee Odo um Clunit Protframm d. Qymr
tmaiume Somu 189M: Dn Bovro, Saint Odon (Pans, 1905).
KlBMENS LdFFLEB.
Odo (Oda), Saint, Archbishop of Canterbury, d. 2
June, 959 (not in 958, recent researches showing that
he was living on 17 May, 959). According to the
nearly contemporary account of him in the anony-
mous "Life of St. Oswald" (op. cit. inf.) his father, a
Dane, did not strive to serve God, even endeavouring
to hinder his son's constant presence at the church.
Later writers represent Odo's parents as pagans and
the boy himself as becoming a Christian despite his
father's anger. Odo was adopted by iEthelhelm, a
nobleman, who regarded him with paternal affection
and educated him for the service of God. After his
ordination he accompanied iEthelhelm to Rome and
on the way cured him when he fell ill, by blessing a cup
of wine and causing him to drink therefrom. On his
return, according; to the same writer, he was made
bishop of a city in the province of Wilton^ so that he
has been described as Bishop of Wilton, his consecra-
tion being placed in 920. There is no evidence for this
date, and if he was consecrated by Archbishop Wulf-
helm, as is stated, it could not have been before 923.
There is a further difficulty aa to his diocese, erron&-
XI.— 14
ously called Wilton. In 927 he was Bishop of Rams>
bury, which being in Wiltshire might, loosely speak-
ing, be described as the Diocese of Wilton. But Ead-
mer states that he was appointed Bishop of Sherborne,
and there is an extant document {Ceif^ Sax^ 666)
which lends some support to this statement. If it be
true, he must have filled the See of Sherborne between
iEthelbald and Sigehelm. As the latter was bishop in
925 this only allows two years for a possible episcopate
of Odo. At the court of Athelstan (925-940) he was
highly esteemed, and the king chose him to accompany
abroad his nephew Lewis, whom the Prankish nobles
had recently elected as their king. In 937 he accom-
panied Athelstan to the battle of Brunanburh, where
the incident occurred of his miraculous restoration, at
a critical moment, of the king's lost sword. The story,
given by Eadmer, is not mentioned by the earlier
anonymous writer. When Archbishop Wulfhelm died
in 942, King Eadmund wished Odo to succeed, but he
refused, because he was not a monk as previous arch-
bishops had been. Finally he accepted the election,
but only ^ter he had obtained the Benedictine habit
from the Abbey of Fleury. One of his first acts as
archbishop was to repair his cathedral at Canterbury,
and it is recorded that during the three years that the
works were in progress no storm of rain or wind made
itself felt within the precincts. The constitutions
which he published as archbishop (Mansi, "Concil.'\
XVIII; Migne, P. L.. CXXXIII) relate to the im-
munities of the Churcn (cap. i), the respective duties
of secular princes, bishops, priests, clerics, monks (ii-
vi), the prohibition of unlawful marriages, the preser-
vation of concord, the practice of fasting and alms-
deeds, and the pa3naient of tithes (vii-x). A synodal
letter to his suffragan bishops, and an introduction to
the life of St. Wilfred, written by him, have also been
g reserved. Throughout the reign of Eadred (946-955)
e supported St. Dunstan, whom he consecrated aa
Bishop of Worcester, prophetically hailing him as fu-
ture Archbishop of Canterbury. On the death of Ead-
red he crowned Eadwlg as king. Shortly after the
archbishop insisted on Eadwig dissolving his incestu-
ous connexion with ^Ifgifu and obtained her banish-
ment. In 959 during the reign of Eadgar. whom he
had consecrated king, realizing the approach of death,
he sent for his nephew, St. Oswald, afterwards Arch-
bishop of York, but died before his arrival. He was
succeeded by the simoniacal iElfsige who insulted his
memory, and whose speedy death was regarded by the
people as a judgment of God. The next archbiiuiop.
St. Dunstan, held St. Odo in special veneration, woiud
never pass his tomb without stopping to pray there,
and first gave him the title of " the Good ". The story
which represents Odo as having in early manhood fol-
lowed the profession of arms is only found in later
writers, sucn as William of Malmesbuiy. Even if it is
true that Odo served Edward the Elder under arms,
there is^no reason to suppose, with the writer in the
''Dictionary of National Biography", that he did so
after he became a cleric. God Dore witness to his sanc-
tity by miracles during his life and after his death.
Kadmsb, Vita Sancti Odonia (the earliest extant life) in Wbab-
TON, Anolia Saera, II, 78-87, auo in Mabillon, Ada SS, 0.8.3.,
1686, and in the Ada SS. of the Bollanoists who attribute it to
Oebem (July, II), but this is corrected in their Bibliotheca Hagio-
araphica Latina (Brussels, 1901), where the ascription to Eadmer
18 accepted. Contemporary notices will be found in the Vita S.
Oewaldi in Hietariane of ihe Church cf York (Rolls Series. 1879-
94); Anolo-Saxon Chronicle, ann. 958, 961 (R. S., 1861); Btubbb.
Memoriale of St. Dunetan (R. 8., 1874); Gebvabb or Cantbb-
BUBT, Hietorical Worke (R. 8., 1879-W); William or Malmb*-
BUBT, De Geetie Pontifleum Anohrum (R. Sm 1870), and De
Gutie Reffum Anolorutn (R. S., 1887-89); Whabton, Anolia
Sacra (London, 1691); Challokbb, Britannia Sanda ^London.
1745), 4 July; Kbmblb, Codex DtptomoCicus tni Sazontei (Lon-
don, 1839^); Habdt, Deecriptive Catalogue (London, 1862-71);
Hook, Litee of the ArctUfishope of Canterbury (London, 1860-84);
Stanton, Menology (London, 1892), 2 June; Bebch, Cariularium
Saxonieum (London, 1885-93); Sbablb, Anglo-ScuBon Biekope,
Kinoe and Nohlee (Cambridge. 1899); Capobayb, Noma Legenda
AngluB, ed. Hobbtmam (Oxford, 1901).
Edwin Bxtbton.
ODO 210 O'DOKOVAN
Odo, Bishop of Bayeux and Ck)unt of Kent, b. in Rou" of Robert Wace, and that it was executed in the
Normandy previous to 1037 : d. at Palermo, February, last thirty years of the twelfth century.
1097. The son of Herluin de Conteville and Herleva ^Wharton, AmMa Stm, I (London. 1691), 334-39; GaOia
de Falaise, previouBly by Duke Robert the mother ^."SS! £S5<tii7l^iif^*JSS5S'r^SiJS.^
of Wlluam the Bastard, from whom UdO about 7 tory of the Norman Conquest (6 voIb.. Ozfoid, 187^79): losM,
October, 1049, received the Diocese of Bayeux. "He 5«wn of Wittiam Rnftu (2 rols., Oxford. 1882); Fowkb. ju
wj? Pr^nt at^the a^bly of Lillebonne in 1066 at fSSZ ^SSntflSoT^oiSSS,' ^f^^lFi.'SiS^/tTr.S
which Wllham S expedition to England was decided also Bibliography of William the Conqueror, ibid.
Upon; he built, at his expense at Port-en-Bassin, fifty Georges Gotau.
or a hundred vessels, accompanied the soldiers, ex- ^.-^ «. tx a t -rv.
horted them on the eve of the battle of Hastings, in O'Donaghue, Denis. See Indianapous, Dio-
which he himself fought. William gave him the castle *^®^ ®''
of Dover and the Earldom of Kent, wid three months O'Doxmell, Edmund, the first Jesuit executed by
later when he returned to Normandy he left as his the English government; b. at Limerick in 1542, ex-
viceroys Odo and WiUiam FitzOsbern. Both were ecuted at Cork, 16 March, 1575. His family had held
mercdess mstiflmg the insunwtion of the Saxons. O^ the highest civic offices m Limerick since the thir-
his return to England m December, 1067, Wilham teenth century, and he was closely related to Father
made Odo a sort of viceroy; he gave him domains m David Woulfe, Pope Pius IV's legate in Ireland. He
the county of Kent, and several churches and abbeys, entered the Society of Jesus at Rome, 11 September.
Lanfranc, Archbishop of Cwiterbury, protested sue- 156I, but, developing symptoms of phthisis, was re-
cessfully at the synod of 1072 against the spohation of moved to Flanders. In 1564 he returned to Limerick
which he was the obiect; but Odo retained what he and tauj^t, with a secular priest and a layman, in the
had taken from the Abbeys of Ramsey and Evesham, school which Woulfe established with connivance of
In 1080 he traversed Northumberiand with an army, the civic authorities. The school was dispersed in
avenging the murder of Bishop Walcher of Durham ; October, 1565, by soldiers sent by Sir Thomas Cusack,
he multiplied his cruelties and was called the Great and, for a short time, they taurfit at Kihnallock.
Tamer of the English. In a few months they returned to Limerick, and were
He had the ambition to became pope. A soothsayer not molested agam until 1568, when Brady, Protes-
had foretold that the successor of Gregory VII should tant Bishop of Meath, visited the city as royal commis-
be called Odo. The latter first tned to seduce by his gioner and made diligent search for them. O'Donnell
munificence the notables of Rome, where he built a was ordered to quit the country under pain of death
palace : then with Hugh, Count of Chester, and a num- and withdrew to Lisbon, where he was agam a student
ber of kmghts he set out for Rome. William met him in 1572. Venturing back to Limerick m 1574 he was
at Wight, brou^t him before his barons, and re- apprehended soon after landing, and thrown into
proached him with his exactions; as the barons re- pnson. Rejecting all inducements to embrace Prot-
f used to arrest the bishop, he declared that as count he estantism he was removed to Cork, tried for return-
would arrest him himself, and he brought him prisoner ing after banishment, denying the royal supremacy,
to Rouen. He refused to release him, despite the pro- and carrying letters for James Fitzmaurice. He was
tests of Gregory VII. On his death-bed he granted found giulty, and sentenced to be hanged, drawn and
this reouest reluctantly; for he feared that after his quartered.
death this "wicked man would make tpouble every- He has been called McDonnell, MacDonald,
where". Odo, according to Ordericus Vitalis, imme- Donnelly, and MacDonough and Donagh. Father
diately plotted against the new kmg, William Rufus, Edmund Hogan, S.J., Historio^apher of the Irish
his nephew; but in 1088, being besieged m Rochester, province, found hun recorded as Edmundus Daniell in
he was forced to accept as a grace the right to leave the Society's archives, and so the name usually ap-
the town and depart from England. He established pears in Limerick records, though also Dannel and
his credit in Normandy by the manner in which he as- O'Dannel. Copinger and Bruodm give the name as
sured to his nephew, Robert Courte Heuse, the pos- O'Donell (O'Donellus). The archies and a con-
session of the city of Le Mans and defended his power temporary letter from Fitzmaurice confirm Bruodin's
against the house of Talvas. According to Ordericus positive assertion that he suffered m 1575, not m 1580
Vitalis, in 1093 he blessed the incestuous union of as generally stated.
Philip I of France, with Bertrada, Countess of AnjOU, Mubphy. Our Martyrs (Dublin. 1896); Hogan. Dialinguishea
and obtained as a reward the revenues of the Church Irishmen «^r <Af 5iite«itt Ceniwv (If ndon. iSMh Rorra, iliwi-
of Mantes. Urban II, at Dijon, absolved Odo. In ^1";^$^^ i&O)?*'*^ ^ ' ^' ^^' **
1095 he was present at the Council of Clermont at
which the first Crusade was preached; he set out m O'Dozmell, Patsick. See Raphoe, Diocbsb of.
September, 1096, but died at Palermo. Gilbert.
Bishop of Evereux, and Count Roger of Sicily erected 0*DonoYan, John, Irish historian and antiouarian,
a tomS to him in the cathedral. • b. at Atateemore, County Kilkenny, Ireland. 1806;
Despite the eulogies of William of Poitiers it mav be d. at Dublin, 9 Dec, 1861. Comins to Dublin in
said, without approving the severe judgment of Orderi- 1823, he was sent to a "Latin School to prepare for
cus vitalis, that the life of this prelate was scarcely entrance to Maynooth, but later, finding ne had no
that of a churchman. He even had a son, called John, vocation for the priesthood, turned his attention to the
Nevertheless his presence at the synods of Rouen of study of Irish. O'Donovan himself states that, at the
1055, 1061, and 1063 is proved; on 14 July, 1077 he age of nine years, he commenced the study of Irish
consecrated the cathedrid of Bayeux; on 13 Septem- and Latin, and that in 1819 he could "transcribe Irish
ber, 1077, he assisted at the dedication of the Cnurch pretty well". In DubUn he was soon employed by
of St. Stephen in Caen, and on 23 October, at that of James Hardiman, antiquarian and historian, to trans-
Notre Dame du Bee. He was zealous in obtaining cribe Irish manuscripts, and through him he was intro-
relics. He educated, at his expense, a number of duced to the Rovai Irish Academy circle. Here he
young men who became distinguished prelates^ and met Petrie, and the foundation of a lasting friendship
was liberal in his ffifts to the Abbey of St. Augustine at was laid. Petrie's accurate antiquarian sense was
Canterbury. It has been asserted that he placed in supplemented by O'Donovan's knowledge of the
the cathedral the famous Bayeux tapestry, but a de- native tongue and his ever-growing store of oral and
tailed study of this tapestry has led Marignan to con- written tradition. Aided by Sir Samuel Ferguson,
elude that it was composed according to the descrip- they helped to destroy the mfluence of the fanciful
tion and information contained in the "Roman au theories which then held the field, championed by
ODD 211 ODD
Betham and Vallanoey. An early example of O'Don- of Toumai to teach in that city, and there soon won a
ovan's historical method is to be found m his edition ereat reputation. He became a Benedictine monk
and translation of the Charter of Newry (Dublin (1095) in St. Martin's, Toumai, of which he became
Penny Journal, 22 Sept., 1832). From this on he abbot later. In 1105 he was chosen Bishop of Cam-
shared with his brother-in-law, Eugene O'Curry, an brai, and was consecrated during a svnod at Reims,
undisputed position as supreme authority on the Lish For some time after he was unable to obtain possession
language and Irish antiquities. He may be said of his see owing to his refusal to receive investiture
to have been the mainstay of the archsological socie- at the hands of tne Emperor Henry IV^ but the latter's
ties and journals of his day — ^the Kilkenny Archseolo- son Henry restored the See of Cambrai to Odo in 1106.
fldcal society, the Ulster Journal of Archseology, and the He laboured diligently for his diocese, but in 1 110 he
Celtic Society. The foundation by the Grovemment of was exiled on the ground that he haa never received
the Ordnance Survey Department of Ireland gave the cross and ring from the emperor. Odo retired
O' Donovan his chance. In Petrie's house, 21 Great to the monastery of Anchin, where he died without
Charles Street, the antiquarian section had its offices, regaining possession of his diocese. Many of his
and here O'Donovan had as colleagues, amo^ others, works are lost; those extant will be found in Migne,
Petrie, O'Curry. Mangan, and WiS^eman. from the CLX (P. L.).
preparation of lists of names of townlands and places, ^ 4^^ rS^vi^'- ^"V^nJ^^^Y^Ani^^^^* ®^°' M^M"f>»' 4?!!«'"
O Donovan was soon sent by Larcom, the head of the k« O. S. b., Ill (Au«biig. 1764), 128; L. Gilv, Hit. ecdis, du
Ordnance Survey, to work ' m the field ". diocUe de Cambrai (Paris. 1849) ; Baunard, U b. Odon de Toumai
From the vanous places throughout Ireland which iS;*^^- ^^^V }^^^£ ^^f-^^-.f!!!^*^' ^ ^^^■^'^^'Qi
he visited, he despatclied in the form of letters to Lai> ?S;fv5^iS5^ ^i^^'!^26l sr^Ss!* "^ ^^^ "'^"^' ^^
com accounts of antiquities and traditions which, G. Roger Hudleston.
collected in 103 volumes and at present deposited in
the Royal Irish Academy, Dublin, are popularly Odo of Canterbury, Abbot of Battle, d. 1200.
known as "O' Donovan's Letters". They are not known as Odo Cantianus or of Kent. A monk of
heavy with mere erudition, but are enlivened with Christ Church, he became subprior in 1163 and was
flashes of humorous anecxlote and many a merry sent by Thomas k Becket to Pope Alexander as his
"quip and crank and jest". He was engaged on the representative to attend an appeal, fixed for 18 Oct..
Survey from 1830 to 1842. In 1836 he commenced 1163, against the Archbishop of York who, in spite ot
the catalogue of Irish MSS. in Trinity College; and to . the remonstrances of St. Thomas and the pope, still
aid him in his work of editing and translating MSS., continued to carry the cross in the southern province.
Todd sought a grant in aid from Government. It was Inl 166 Christ Church appealed against the archbbhop
refused, and was followed up by the suppression in and Odo applied to Richard of Ilchester for help (Fo-
1842 of the archaeological section of the O^ance Sur- liot, £p. 422, in Migne) . In 1 167 he became prior with
vey. Private effort nad, therefore, to be relied upon, William as subprior. Until the murder of St. Thomas
and, with the assistance of the members of the Archs- he seems to have wavered in his allegiance between
ological Society and the Celtic Society, O'Donovan king and archbishop, but then took a decided stand
was able to publish his well-known editions of Irish in favour of ecclesiastical authority . On 1 Sept., 1172.
texts with his invaluable introductions and notes, in a meeting the monks of Christ Church put forward
From 1842 till his death in 1861 no ^ear passed with- Odo as worthy of the archbishopric. The king how-
out some noteworthy edition of an Irish text appearing ever procrastinated, and no result followed a second
from his hands. A complete biblioflraphv of his meetmg at Windsor (6 Oct.). Odo with other monks
works was published bv Henry Dixon (Dublm). We followed Henry to Normandy and urged that a monk
can only refer to two of his works with which his name should be chosen as archbishop (Mat. Becket., IV.
is popularly connected — ^his "Irish Grammar" and 181). After protracted negotiations the choice fell
his eoition and translation of the Annals of the Four upon Richard, Prior of Dover, formerly a monk of
Masters. His grammar was published in 1845, and Cfanterbuiy, in whose behalf Odo wrote to Alexander
at once eUdted the praise of Grimm, on whose recom- III (Migne, CC, 1396). In 1173 occurred a great
mendation he was elected in 1856 a corresponding fire at Christ Church and Odo went to the Council of
memb^ of the Royal Academy of Berlin, an honour Woodstock on 1 July, 1175, to obtain a renewal of the
which he shared with Zeuss whose epoch-making charters on the model of those at Battle Abbey. St.
"Grammatica Celtica" appeared in that year. He Martin de Bello had been without an abbot for four
was then appointed Professor of (Deltic in Queen's years and the monks who attended the council caused
College^ Beuast. In 1848 appeared the first part of Odo to be chosen. He was elected on 10 July. His
his edition of the Annals of the Four Masters (q. v).. blessing took place on 28 Sept., at the hands of
which won for him the Cunningham Gold Meaal ot Archbishop Richard at Mailing. On the death of
the Royal Irish Academy .and the LL.D. degree of Richard (1184) the monks of Christ Church again put
Trinity College, Dublin. The edition was completed Odo forward for the archbishopric, but Henry again re-
in 1851, and the Government bestowed on him a pen- fused^ fearing no doubt that he would be too inflexible
aion of £50 a year. O' Donovan had decided to go to for his purpose. Baldwin who was appointed quai^
America, but the establishment of the Brehon Law relied with the monks, a dispute which lasted till 1188
Commission helped to retain his services for Ireland, and occasioned a correspondence between Odo and
He continued his work on the Brehon Law Tracts till Urban III (Epp. Cantuar., no. 280). Odo died on 20
his death in Dublin from rheumatic fever, the ten- Jan., 1200, and was buried in the lower part of the
dency to which was due to exposure on the outdoor church at Battle. Leland speaks of him as a most
work of the Ordnance Survey. erudite man and a great friend of Thomas k Becket
BeadM ht0 worfa (eroeoially hb edition of tbs Four Masters and John of Salisbury who describes him as an ardent
and MS. Letters in R. I. Academy) consult: Mwtotrhy Bin J, lnvtf>r nf hnnkn TIa wm tL tntkSki fhpnlncriAn unH
QiLBBvr (London, 1862); Ladt Fmouson, Life of Biekap Amim 'Ovcr 01 DooKs. lie was a great tneoiogian ana
(London, 1893) ; Lady GliLBavr, Life of Sir John Gilbert (London, preached m French, English, and Latm, and was noted
1906^ ; Wbbb, Compendium of Irieh Biha, (Dublin, 1878) ; Joumai for his humility and modesty . There IS some uncer-
2:i;jr5Si.i"asssiK%^i-/^^ Jr*y.'^K***r ^f?gr' °ris«^ ^ " Tiff **°,t*^
Oeeory (Dublin, 1905). Odo of Chenton and Odo of Munmund, but a list of
Patrick M. MagSweenbt. thirteen works, chiefly writings on the Old Testament
and sermons, can be ascribed to him. He was vener-
Odo of Cambrai, Blessed, bishop and confessor, ated at Battle as a saint and in the relic list at Canter-
called also Odoabdus, b. at Orleans, 1050 : d. at Anchin, bury Cathedral is mentioned *' a tooth of the Yen. Odo
19 June, 1113. In 1087 he was mvited by the canons Abb. of Battle" (Dart. Ap. XLVII).
ODD
212
O'DWYXB
MaUriaU for Hutoni of Thomaa Beekd (Rolla Series, London,
1876), Index; I. 642; Vl. 331; Kinosfobd in Did, of Nat. Biog.,
■. v., for liat of hU writings; Lbulnd, CoUedaneat ed. Hsabkb,
IV (London, 1774), 68; Idem, Comment. <U Script. Brit., 210-12;
WsxoRT, Bio^. Brit. Anglo-Norman (London, 1846), 224-6;
Habdt, Deacrtptivo Catalogue (1865) ; Chronieon de BeUo (London,
1861).
S. Anbelm Parker.
Odo of Cheiiton, preacher and fabulist, d. 1247.
He visited Paris, and it was probably there that he
gained the degree of Master. Bale mentions a tradi-
tion that he was a Cistercian or a Prsmonstratensian;
but he can hardly have takezi vows if, as seems most
likely, he was the Master Odo of Cheriton mentioned
in Kentish and London records from 1211 to 1247, the
son of William of Cheriton Jk)rd of the manor of I>elce
in Rochester. In 121 1-12 William was debited with a
fine to the crown, for Odo to have the custodia of Cher-
iton church, near Folkestone. In 1233 Odo inherited
his father's estates in Delce. Cheriton, and elsewhere.
A charter of 1235-6 (Brit. Mus., Ear). Ch. 49 B 45),
by which he quitclaimed the rent of a shop in London,
has his seal attached, bearing the figure of a monk
seated at a desk, witn a star above him (St. Odo of
Cluny?).
Like Jacques de Vitry, he introduced exemtda freely
into his sermons; his best known work, a collection of
moralized fables and anecdotes, sometimes entitled
''Parabols'' from the opening words of the prologue
(Aperiam in parabolis os meum), was evidently de-
signed for preachers. Though partly composed of
commonly known adaptations and eictracts, it shows
originalit^r, and the moralisations are full of pungent
denunciations of the prevalent vices of clergy and
laity. The ''ParabolsB^' ^xist in numerous manu-
scripts, and have been printed by Hervieux (Fabulistes
Latins, IV, 173-255) ; a thirteenth century French ver-
sion is extant, also an early Spanish translation. Some
of the contents reappear, along with manv other exem-
pUif in his sermons on the Sunday Gospels, completed
m 1219. extant in several manuscripts; an abridgment
of which, prepared by M. Makerei, was printed by J.
Badius Ascendus in 1520. The only other extant
works, certainly authentic, are "Tractatus de Pceni-
tentia". "Tractatus de Passione'', and "Sermones de
Sanctis ; but the ''Speculum Laicorum" also cites
him as authority for many other exempla. Haur6au's
contention (Journal des Savants, 1896, 111-123), that
the fabulist was a distinct person from the author of
the sermons and treatises, is not supported.
H^viXTTX, Fabulietee Latint, IV, Buaee de Cheriton et eee
DirivU (Paris, 1896); Hnwunv Catalogue of Romaneee, III. SI-
TS, 371-406.
J. A. Herbert.
Odo of Olanfeuil (Saint-Maur-eur-Loire), abbot,
ninth-century hagiographer. He entered Glanfeuil
not later thui 856 and became its abbot in 861. In
864 he issued a ''Life of St. Maurus'', a revision, he
claimed, of a "life" originally written by Faustus of
Montecassino, which makes St. Maurus the founder
and first abbot of Glanfeuil, and is the chief source for
the legendary sojourn of that saint in France. It is so
anaclm)nistic that it is generally believed to have been
composed by Odo himself, thou^ Mabillon and a few
modfem writers ascribe it to Faustus [Mabillon in
"Annales O.S.B.", I, 629-64, and in "Acte SS. Ord.
S. Ben.", 1, 259 sq.; Adlhoch in "Studien und Mittei-
lungen aus dem Benediktiner undCistercienserOrden",
X^I and XXVII (Briinn, 1905 and 1906) : Phune,
ibid., XVI (1905) ; Huillier. ''Etude critique des Actes
de S. Maur de Glanfeuil'^ (Paris, 1903); Halphen in
"Revue historique" LXXXVIII (Paris, 1905), 287-
951. The "life^' is printed in "Acta SS.". January,
IL 321-332. Another work of Odo. "Miracula S.
Mauri, sive restauratio monasterii Glannafoliensis",
has some historical value. The author narrates how
he fled with the relics of St. Maurus from the Normans
in 862 and how the relics were finally transferred to
the monastery of St-Maur-des-Foss^s near Paris in
868. It is printed in " Acta SS,". January, II, 334-42.
In 868 Odo became also Abbot of St-Maur-des-Foss^.
BesidM the references mentioned above eee Landbbau, Lm
Vicieeitudea de Vabbaye de Saint Maur aux VIII* et IX* eiieUe
(Ancers, 1906), 44-68; Adlhoch in Studien und Mitteilunoen aue
dem Benediktiner und Cietercieneer Orden, XXVII (Brlknn. 1906),
676-91; BiHUOTEB in Kireldiehee Handler., II (Munich, 1909).
1192-3.
Michael Ott.
Odorie of Pordenone. See Pordenone, Odobic
OF.
O'Dugan, John (Se/ghan "mob" O DubhagXin).
, d. in Roscommon, 1372. His fanily were for sevml
centuries hereditary historians to the O'Kellys of
Ui M^e. His most important work is a compila-
tion of verse, giving the names of the various tribes
and territories of the Irish, and the various chiefs be-
fore the coming of the Normans. He devotes 152
lines to Meath, 354 to Ulster, 328 to Connacht, and
only 56 to Leinster, leaving it evidently unfimj^ed at
his death. His contemporary, Giolla-na-naonJi O
Huidhrin (Heerin), completed it. This work throws
more light upon ancient Irish names and territories
than any otner similar work. In his monumental
"Cambrensis Eversus", Dr. Lynch (q. v.) says that
he could not find "any better source than this re-
markable poem" concerning the chief Irish families
before the coming of the English. His pr^is of it
occupies pa^es 235-79 of the first volume of Father
Matthew Kelly's edition. O'Dugan was the author
of several other extant poems, all more or lees in the
nature of a memoria technicaj valuable chiefly for their
facts about the kings of Ireland and of the provinces.
He also composed several rules for determining move-
able feasts, etc.
Topogmphical Poeme of John 0*l>vhhagain and QioUa na
Naomh O'Huidhrin, with translationa, notea, and introductory
dinertotiona by O'Donovan (Dublin, 1862) ; O'Rbillt, Catalogue
of IriMh Writers (Dublin, 1820); Wbbb, Compendium of Irieh
Biogr. (Dublin, 1878); Catiihreneie Evereue, tr. Ksllt, I (Dublin,
1848).
Douglas Htdb.
O'Duignan, Pebegbine. See Foub Mastebb,
Annals of the.
O'Dwyer, Edwabd Thomas. See Limebick, Dio-
cese OF.
O'Dwyw, Joseph, phjrsician, inventor of intuba-
tion; b. at Cleveland. 1841; d. in New York, January
7, 1898. He was eaucated in the public schools of
London. Ontario, and studied medicine in the office of
Dr. Anderson. After two years of apprenticeship he
entered the College of Physicians (New York) from
which he was graduated in 1865 . He won first place in
the competitive examination for resident physicians of
the ChMity, now the City, Hospital of New York City
on Blackwell's Island. Twice during his service he
contracted cholera. After the completion of his ser-
vice he took up private practice. Four years later
(1872) he was appointed to the staff of the New York
Foundling Asylum.
The deaths of many children by suffocation when
diptheria brought about closure of the larjmx proved
too sad a sight for him, so he tried to find something to
keep the hurynx open. He used a wire spring and ex-
perimented with a small bivalve speculum but to no
purpose. The inflamed mucous membrane and false
membrane forced themselves into the interstices and
the difficulty of breathing returned. Besides, the
pressure produced ulceration. Finally he tried a tube.
The use of a tube for intubation haxl often been at-
tempted but unsuccessfuUv. O'Dwyer succeeded in
devising the form of tube that would remain and then
ingeniously fashioned instruments for the placing and
displacing; of the tube. After a dozen years of dihgent
study this method of relieving difficulty of breathing
proved successful. Most of his medical colleagues
were sure that O'Dwyer's scheme was visionary. Be-
CIC0LAMPADXU8
213
CIC0LAMPADXU8
fore his death it was uniyersally acknowledg^ed that he
had made the most important practical discovery of
his generation. Hb tubes ana the accompanying
instruments for intubation and extubation, with his
methods for the care of these patients, have since
come to be employed everywhere throughout the
medical world. The tubes are also of great value in
stenosis of the larynx due to various other diseases,
such as syphilis, and to strictures of the larynx, espe-
cially conseauent on bums or scalds.
Afterwaros O'Dwyer devoted himself to the study
of pneumonia, but late in December 1897 he developed
symptoms of a brain lesion, probably of infectious
origin, which proved fatal. He was a fervent Catho-
lic. His work at the Foundling Hospital helped
greatly to make that institution one of the best of its
NoBVHBOP, Jo»9ph (yDtpyer; Medical Record (New York, 1904) ;
Waiar, Makers of Modem Medicine (New York, 1907).
James J. Walsh.
(Eeolampadius» Johann, Protestant theologian,
organizer of Protestantism at Basle, b. at Weinsber^,
Swabia, in 1482; d. at Basle, 24 November, 1531. His
family name was Heussgen or Hussgen, not Husschyn
(Hausschein), as the hellenized form (Ecolampadius
was later rendered. Having received a preliminary
classical training at Weinsberg and Heilbronn^e be-
gan the study of law at Bolozna, but left for Heidel-
berg in 1499 to take up theology and literature. He
was specisdly interested in the works of the mystics,
wiUiout obtaining, however, a thorough foundation in
Scholastic theology. After his ordination he held a
smidl benefice at W^einsberg, where he delivered his
sermons on the Seven Last Words. At Stuttgart
(1512) he extended his knowledge of Greek, and at
Tilbingen became friendly with Melanchtnon; re-
turning to Heidelberg, he studied Hebrew under a
Jewish convert, and became acquainted with Brens
and Capito. A little later he was appointed preacher
at the cathedral of Basle (1515), where he joined the
circle of Erasmus. In 1515 he was made a bachelor, in
1516 licentiate, and on 9 September, 1518, a doctor of
theology. He had already resigned as preacher at
Basle and returned to Weinsberg. In December, 1518,
he became cathedral preacher at Augsbiu^, where he
joined the I^umanists who sympathized with Luther.
He corresponded with Luther and Melanchthon, ana
directed against Eck the anonymous pamphlet ''Ca-
nonici indocti Lutherani" (Augsburg, 1519). (Eco-
lampadius, however, far from having taken a definite
stand, was engaged in translating the ascetical writ-
ings of St. Gregory of Nazianzus from Greek into La-
tin.
Suddenly he entered the Brigittine monastery at
AltomUnster (23 April, 1520) . He first thought of de-
voting himself to study in this retreat, but was soon
again entangled in controversy, when, at the reauest of
Bemhard Adelmann, he wrote his opinion of Luther,
which was very favourable, and sent it in confidence to
Adelmann at Auj^burg. The latter, however, for-
warded it to Capito at Basle and he^ without asking
the author's permission, published it (CEcoIampadu
indicium de doctore Martmo Luthero) . This was fol-
lowed by other uncatholic writings, e. g. one against
the doctrine of the Church on confession (Augsourg,
1521 ) and a sermon on the Holy Eucharist (Augsburg,
1521) dealing with transubstantiation as a question of
no importance and repudiating the sacrificial character
of the Eucharist; these pubhcations finally rendered
his position in the monastery untenable. He left in
Februarv, 1522, supplied by the community with
money for his journey. Through the influence of
Franz von Sickingen he became chaplain in the castle
on the Ebemburg. In November o! the same year he
removed to Basle. He publicly defended Luther's
doctrine of justification oy faith alone (30 August,
1523). The following February he advocated the mar-
riage of priests and used his pulpit to disseminate the
new teacnings. The progress of Protestantism became
much more marked in Basle after the Council had i^
pointed him pastor of St. Martin's (February, 1525),
on condition that he should introduce no innovations
into Divine service without special authorization of
the council, which included Cfatholics as well as Re*
formers, and was still cautious; the spread of the new
teachings was partially counteracted by the bishop
and the university, which, for the greater part, was
still Catholic in its tendency.
After Karlstadt's writings had been proscribed by
the Basle Council, (Ecolampadius. in August, 1525, is-
sued his '^ De genuina verborum Domini : Hoc est cor-
{>us meum, iuxta vetustissimos auctores expositione
iber", in which he declared openly for Zwingli's doc-
trine of the Last Sui)per, construing as metaphorical
the words of institution. The distinction between his
explanation and Zwingli's was merely formal, (Eco-
lampadius, instead of est interpreted the word wrpuB
figuratively (corpus — figura corporis). Accordingly
the Last Supper was to him merely an external sym-
bol, which the faithful should receive, less for their
own sakes than for the sake of their neighbours, as a
token of brotherhood and a means of edification. This
monograph was confiscated at Basle, and attacked by
Brenz on oehalf of the Lutheran theologians of Swabia
in his "Syngramma Suevicum" (1525), which (Eco-
lampadius answered with his " Antisyngnamma ad ec«
clesiastes Suevos" (1526). Although (Ecolampadius
had continued to say Mass until 1525, in November of
that year he conducted the first ''reformed" celebra-
tion of the Lord's Supper with a liturgy compiled by
himself. In 1526 he arranged an order of Divine ser-
vice unc^r the title "Form und Gestalt, wie der Kin-
dertauf, des Herm Nachtmahl und der Kranken
Heimsuchung jezt zu Basel von etlichen Predikanten
Sehalten werden". In May, 1526, he took part in the
isputation at Baden, but in Zwingli's absence he was
unable to cope successfully with Eck. In May. 1527,
the Council of Basle requested the Catholic and Prot-
estant preachers of the city to give in writing their
views concerning the Mass. The Catholic behef was .
presented b^ Augustin Marius, the Protestant by
(Ecolampjadius. The Council as yet placed no general
proscription on the Mass, but allowed each of the
clergy to retain or set it aside. In conseouence the
Mass was abolished in the churches under Protestant
preachers and the singing of psalms in German intro-
duced. Monasteries were suppressed towards the end
of 1527. The ancient Faith was, however, tolerated
for a time in the churches under Catholic control.
After the disputation at Bern in January, 1528, in
which (Ecolampadius and Zwingli were chief speakers
on the Protestant side, the Protestants of Basle threw
caution to the winds; at Easter, 1528, and later, sev-
eral churehes were despoiled of their statues and pic-
tures. In December, 1528, at the instance of (Ecolam-
padius, the f^testants petitioned the Ck>uncil to
suppress Catholic worship, but, as the Council was too
slow in deciding, the Protestantizing of Basle was com-
pleted by means of an insurrection. The Protestants
expelled the Catholic members of the Ck>uncil. The
churches previously in the hands of the Catholics, in-
cluding the cathedral, were seized and pillaged. (Eco-
lampadius, who had married in 1528, became pastor
of tne cathedral and antistes over all the Protestant
cler^ of Basle, and took the leading part in compiling
the Reformation ordinance promulgated by the Coun-
cil (1 April, 1529). Against those who refused to par-
ticipate in the Protestant celebration of the Lord's
Supper, compulsory measures were enacted which
broke down the last remnant of opposition from the
Catholics. In contrast to Zwingu, (Ecolampadius
strove, but with only partial success, to secure for
the representatives of tne Chureh a greater share in
Its management. In October, 1529, (Ecolampadius
dCOKOBIUS 214 aCUMENIUS
Joined in the vain attempt at Marburg to close the sac- (Jaff^Wattenbach. "Regesta Pontificum Roman-
ramental dispute between the Lutherans and the Re- orum". Leipzig, 1881, I. nn. 1282, 1915). But as a
formed. In 1531, with Bucer and Blarer, he intro- general rule the Western bishops contented themselves
duced Protestcmtism by force into Ulm, Biberach^ and with the aid of a confidential assistant, a vioedominuB,
Memmingen. He was also concerned in the affairs of who looked after the temporalities and ranked next
the Waldenses. and was largely responsible for their to the bishop. The establishment of a domain in con-
having joined forces with the Keformed at this time, nexion with each church made the task of adminis-
(Ecolampadius was a man of splendid, though mis- tering the ecclesiastical property much li|[hter. The
directed, natural gifts. Among the fathers and lead- office of viced<miinu8 was modified by the mfluence of
ers of Protestantism he had not, either as theologian the feudal system, and by the fact that the bishops be-
or man of action, the importance or forceful personal- came temporal sovereigns. The Coimdl of Trent
ity of Luther, Calvin, and Zwingli, but his name stands ordered the chapters of cathedral churches to establish,
among the first of their supporters. As a theologian, in addition to a capitulary vicar, one or more ceoonomi
afterthefuUdevelopmentof his religious opinions, he to administer the temporal property of the diocese
belonged to the party of Zwingli, though remaining in- during an episcopal vacancy (^ss. XXIV. De Re-
dependent on sdme important points. The opinion formatione, c. xvi). At the present time, tne bishop
that he was more tolerant than the other I^testant is not obliged to appoint an oeconomus, though he is
leaders does not accord with facts, though true on the not hindered from so doins. The Second Plenary
whole as regards his relations to Protestants of other Council of Baltimore (c. Ixxy) advises bishops to select
beliefs. The profound differences which had already one from among the ecclesiastics or even the laity,
appeared among the adherents of the new religion, due who is skilled in the civil law of the country,
particularly to variations in opinion concerning the , J:i?^^?°\^^J^^L^J^*^,^K*^^vy^*^'^ (Straaburg. 1878),
lord'8 Supper, were painful to fecol*"*!**:"?; b"t in }^; I'-^^^L^^H^JSn'^ViS^::^^.'^^
contrast to Luther S uncomi)romism^ attitude, he 1907); Lbbnb, Hiat. <U in nropriiU eccUa, m France, 1. Bpo^iM
strove without surrendering his own views to restore Romaine et Mirovingienne (Parw, 1910).
harmony through reciprocal tolera^tion. Towards the A* Van Hovb.
Catholic religion, however, he bore the same hatred (Ecumenical Council. See Coitncilb, Gbnsral.
and intolerance as the other Pirotestant leaders. Like- OEcumenilui {oUovfUpiot), Bishop of Trikka (now
wise in justifying religious war, he shares Zwingli's Trikkala) in Thessaly about 990 (according to Cave,
standpoint. If his first movements at Basle were more op. cit. infra, p. 112). He is the reputed author of
cautious than those of others elsewhere, it was not comment-aries on books of the New Testament. A
through greater mildness, but rather out of regard for manuscript of the tenth or eleventh century containing
conditions which he could not change at a sinele a commentMy on the Apocalypse attributes it to him.
stroke. As soon, however, as he had won over the The work consists of a prologue and then a slightly
secular authority, he did not rest until Catholic wor- modified version of the commentary of Andrew of
ship was suppressed, and those who at first resisted Caesarea (sixth cent.). Manuscripts of the eleventh
were either banished or forced to apostatize. century contain commentaries on the Acts and on the
auatuor
Jjeberugt ^ , , , , , , >-^ ,. -.
Zjeben Joh, (Ecolampad*9 (Basle, 1843) ; Haoenbach, (Eeoiampad'B and Catholic Epistles are identical with the commen-
S2S;.5Xl''SaKSSf ^'^P^ iSXltinr"J&;Sl! J^^ «>(. TheopWui, of Achnda (eleventh cent.) ;
Kirehe, 11: Fehleisxn. Joh, (Ecolampadius. Sein Ldftn und the Faulme commentanes are a different work, though
Wirken (weinflberg, 1882) ; BvBCKHARDT-BiBDERifANN, Ueber they too contain many parallel passages to Theophy-
^:^SfjJ:^Ti^J^i^;^JiSS!SrS!Sj^i; l?f "%K'r»'l ^, manuscripts, however are older
proi. Theoi. und Kirche, 2nd ed., X, 708-24; WxaBiqiANN in than 1 heophylactus, BO that it cannot be merelv a
Allo€m.deutteh€Bioa^B,r.;MATVB\nKirehenlex.fB.v. For the false attribution of his WOrk. It WOuld SCOn then
Auffburg period cf . Thotwhoito. BernKard Addmann •on Xdrf- ^hat (Ecumenius Copied Andrew of Caesarea and was
manntfdden (Freiburg, ItfOO), especially pp. 62 sqq. and 115-26; C*. '»*^»**"y*""° ^Kl 't: ^''^^ ^* >^~^^ ^ .
for hia controversy with Ambrosius Pelargus and Au^ustinus himself Copied by TheophylactUS. The Situation* IS
Marius on the Mass ef. Paulus, Ambrontu pidargtu in Hut. polit. however, further complicated by the fact that among
BUu.. ex (1892). 2-12; iDiDii in Paulub, We de^f^cKm Dominir ^i^^ authoiB quoted in these works the name of (Ecu-
kaner vm Kampj€ gegen Luther (Freiburg. 1003), 191-98. «.*****y*o x4»*vv^v» *** wu^^ow w,^».m>^ «* »- xx«i.«u^w -^^^
Fbibdrich Lauchebt. ^emus himself occiurs repeatedly. The question then
of (Ecumemus s authorship is m all cases very difficult.
(EconomuB, Episcopal (Gr. oUov6fwt from olxot Bardenhewer (Kirchenlex., IX, 1905, coll. 706-10) is
a house, and p^fuip, to distribute, to administer), doubtful about it; Ehrhard (in Krumbacher's "By-
one who is charged with the care of a house, an ad- «ant. Litt.", 132) says: "The name (Ecumenius repre-
ministrator. In canon law this term designates the sents in the present state of investigation a riddle that
individual who is appointed to take charge of the tem- can be solved only by thorough critical study of the
poral goods of the Cnurch in a diocese; it is used also manuscripts in connexion with the whole question of
of the person in charge of theproperty of a monastery, the Catena." The commentary on St. Paul's Epis-
This office originateain the Eastern Church and dates ties is a compromise between the usual kind of com-
back to the fourth century: a law of Honorius and mentary and a catena. Most explanations are given
Arcadius in 398 speaks of it as if it were then wide- without reference and are therefore presumably those
spread (Cod. Theodos., IX, tit. 45, lex. 3). The of the author; but there are also long excerpts from
Council of Chalcedon (451) ordered an ceconomus to earlier writers. Clement of Alexandria, Eusebius,
be appointed in every diocese, to take charge of Chrysostom, Qyril of Alexandria etc:, especially from
ecclesiastical property under episcopal authority Photius. It is among these that (Ecumenius himself
(canon xxvi in Mansi, VII, 367). They were e&- is quoted. The Commentary on the Apocalypse was
tablished in the Eastern Church and have continued first edited by Oamer: "Catena m Nov. Test. ,
down to the present day in the schismatical Greek VIII (Oxford. 1840), 497-682; the other three (on
Church (Silbemagl, "Verfassung und gegenwftrtiger Acts, Cath. Ep., and St. Paul) by Donatus (Verona,
Bestand samtUcher Kirchen des Orients^', 2nd ed., 1632). Morellus (Paris. 1631) rc^edited these with a
Ratisbon, 1904, 37). The increase of church prop- Latin translation; his edition is reproduced m P. G.,
erty after the Edict of Milan (313) and the multiplica- CXVIII-CIX. ^^ ^^
tion of episcopal duties rendered this office ven; u^ ,,^6lf^t^^S^ 2Si.^S!' 7J^l "ST^ J?Sf I m;
ful. In the West, we meet with the oeconomus in krumbaotb. Bywn<»n. Lt<a^wv«cA. (2nd ed.. Munich. 1897),
Spain (Council of Seville, 619, can. ix), in Sardima, 131-3.
and perhaps in Sicily, at the end of the irixth century Adbian Fobtmcus.
OEMOUS
215
0FFEBIN08
OoBgus, Saint. See Aengub, Saint.
Oerteli John James Maximilian, journalist, b. at
Ansbach, Bavaria, 27 April, 1811 ; d. at Jamaica, New
York, 21 August, 1882. Bom a Lutheran, he was
sent to the Lutheran University of Erlangen where he
studied theology and five ye&n later was ordained a
minister. After his ordination he accepted a call to
care for his countrymen in the United States, and
arrived in New York in October, 1837. The imortho-
doz opinions of the New York Lutherans displeased
him, and he left for Missouri early in 1839. Thinss
were no better there, so he returned to New York.
Denominational dissensions weakened his faith, and
in 1840 he became a Catholic. An account of his
conversion in pamphlet form published 25 March,
1850, had quite a vogue in the controversial literature
of the dav. After his conversion he taught German at
St. John's College, Fordham; later he edited in Cin-
cinnati the'^Wahrheitfifreund'', a German Catholic
weekly, and in 1846 he left for Baltimore where he
founded the wed^ly "Kirchenzeitung", which, under
his editorial direction, was the most prominent Ger-
man Catholic publication in the United States. In
1851. he moved the paper to New York. In 1869 he
published " Altesund Neues ". In 1875 Pius IX made
nim a Knight of St. Gresorv in recognition of his ser-
vice to the Church and Catholic literature.
U. 8. Cath. Hist. Soc., HmC. Recorde and Studiet, IV, parts
I and II (Now York. Oct., 1006); Shba, The Cath. Church tn the
U. S. (New York, 1856); Caiholie New* (New York. 18 April,
1908).
Thomas F. Meehan.
Oattingen (AurdmNG, Oetinga), during the Car-
lovingian period a royal palace near the confluence
of the Isen and the Inn in Upper Bavaria, near which
King Karlmann erected a Benedictine monastery in
876, with Werinolf as first abbot, and also built the
abb!^ church in honour of the Apostle St. Philip. In
907 King Louis the Child, gave tne abbey in commenr
dam to Bishop Burchard of Passau (903-915), proba-
bly identical with Burchard, second and last abbot.
In 910 the Hungarians ransacked and burnt the
church and abbey. In 1228 Duke Louis I of Bavaria
rebuilt them and put them in charge of twelve Augus-
tinian Canons and a provost. The Augustinians re-
mained until the secularisation of the Bavarian mon-
asteries in 1803. Under their care was also the Lieb-
f rauen-Kapdle with its miraculous image of Our Lady,
dating from the end of the thirteenth or the beginning
of the fourteenth century. The pil^;rims became so
numerous liiat te aid the Augustiman Canons the
Jesuits erected a house in 1591 and remained until the
suppression of their order in 1773. Franciscans
settled there from 1653 to 1803; from 1803 to 1844 the
Capuchins and some secular priests, from 1844 to 1873
the Redemptorists had charge, and since 1872 the
Capuchins. About 300,000 pilgrims come annually.
Since the middle of the seventeenth century the hearts
of the deceased Bavarian princes are preserved in the
Ldebfrauen-Kapelle.
BfAiKB, OedenixflaUer und CuUurbilder axta der Geeehi^te von
AUdUng (AucBburg, 1885); Kradthahn, Oeechichle der uraUen
WaO/aJui inAUdUino (9th ed.. Allotting. 1893).
Michael Ott.
Olla, King of Mercia, d. 29 July, 796. He was one
of the leading figures of Saxon history, as appears from
the real facts stripped of all legend. He obtained the
throne of Mercia m 757, after the murder of his cousin,
King ^thelbald, by Beomraed. After spending four-
teen years in consolidating and ordering nis temtories
he engased in conquests which made him the most
powerful king in England. After a successful cam-
paign against the Hestinn, he defeated the men of
Kent at Otford (775) ; the West Saxons at Bensington
in Oxfordshire (779) ; and finally the Welsh, depriving
the last-named of a large part of Powys, indudmg the
town of Pengwem. To repress the raids of the Welsh
he built 0£Fa's dyke, roughly indicating for the first
time what has remained the boimdaiy between Eng-
land and Wales. Offa was now supreme south of the
Humber, with the result that England was divided
into three political divisions, Northumbria, Mereia,
and Wessex. His next step was to complete the inde?
pendence of Mercia by inducing the pope to erect a
Mercian arehbishopric. so as to free Mercia from tiie
jurisdiction of the ArenlHshop of Canterbury. Had-
rian I sent two legates, George and Theophylactus, to
England to arrange for the transfer of nve suffragan
sees of Canterbury (via. Worcester, Leicester, Lind^y,
Elmham, and Dunwich) to the new Arehbishopric oi
Lichfield, of which Higbert was first arehbishop.
This was effected at the Synod of Celchyth (787), at
which Offa granted the pope a yearly sum equal to one
mancus a day for the reUef of the poor and for lights
to be kept burning before St. Peter's tomb. At the
same time he associated his son Ecgferth with him in
the kingship. He preserved friendly relations with
Charlemagne, who undertook to protect the English
pilgrims and merchants who passed through his terri-
tories. Many charters grantmg lands to various mon-
asteries are extant, and, though some are forgeries,
enough are genuine documents to show that he was a
liberal benefactor to the Church. The laws of Offa
are not extant, but were embodied by Alfred in his
later code. Tne chief stain on his character is the
execution of iEthelbert, King of the East Angles. In
all other respects he* showed nimself a great Christian
king and an able and enlightened ruler.
Anglo-S<ixon Chronitde, which miadates his death by two years;
moet of the chief medieval hifltorians, Wiluam op MALMKSBVBTt
Matthew Paris etc., and later standard works. Linqard etc.;
Mackbneib, Beeay on the life and in^itutiona of Offa (London,
1840); Thobps, Ancient Lau>» and Institute* (London, 1840);
Kbmblb, Codex Diptomatieu* tevi Saxoniei (London, 183^-48);
jAFFi, Bibl. rerum Qermanarum, IV: Monumenta Carolina (Ber-
lin, 1864-73): Haddan and Stubbb. Council* and Eedeaiaatieal
Document*, III and V (Oxford. 186^1878) ; Grbkn. Making of
England (London, 1885) ; Bibch, Cartularium Saxonicum (Lon-
don, 1885-93) ; Searlb, Anglo-Saxon Biehope, King*, and NoMe*
(CambridBe, 1899); Hvohbb. On Offa** Dyke in AreheuAogia
(1893), III, 466 sqq. EdWIN BxTRTON.
Oflerizigs (Oblations) . — ^I. The word dblatUm, from
the supine of the Latin verb offero ("to offer ") . is etymo-
logically akin to offering^ but is, unlike the latter, al-
most exclusively restricted to matters religious. In
the English Bibles "oblation", "offering^', "gift",
"sacrifice" are used indiscriminately for anything
presented to God in worship, or for the service of the
Temple or priest. This indiscriminate rendering
arises from the fact that these words do not purport
to render always the same Hebrew expressions. The
latter^ moreover, are not distinctly specific in their
meanmg. In this article oblations will be considered
in the narrow sense the term has tended to assume
of vegetable or lifeless things offered to God, in con-
tradistinction to "bloodv sacrifices".
Oblations of this kind, like sacrifices, were foimd
in all ancient Semitic religions — ^in fact are a world-
wide and ever-existing institution. Various theories
have been proposed to explain how offerings cams to
be a part of worship. Unfortunately very many
modem scholars assume that mankind began in the
savap^ state. According to one theory^ the god beins
considered the first owner of the land, it was inferred
he had a claim to a tribute from the increase of the
soil : this is the tnbtUe theoiy. It relies on the fact that
the offering of first-fruits is one of the earliest forms
of oblations found among ancient peoples. The
assumption that primitive men conceived cteity under
low anthropomorphic forms is the source whence
have sprung the gift theory, the table-bond theory, and
the communion theory. According to the first of
these systems, the god is approached through pres-
ents which the worshipper counts on to insure favour
{AQpa $wds T€l$€i, dCap aldolous /Soo'iX^t). That such
0FRBIN08 216 0FRBIN08
a misoonoeption of the divinity was prevalent at cer- such, for instance, as milk amons the Phoenicians, as
tain epochs and among certain peoples cannot be among nomadic Arabs it is to this very da3r. Lioa-
gainsaid (Cic, '' De Leg. ", ii, 16) : however, in view of tions of wine were frequent, at least in countries where
the idea of the sacredness of the bond created bv the wine was not too expensive; among the Hebrews, as
sharing in a common meal — an idea that still holds in Greece and Rome, wine was add^ to holocausts as
swav among Semitic nomads (and nomadic life im- well as to victims whose flesh the worshippers partook
doubtedly preceded agricultural life) — ^the gift theory of, and was then poured out at the base of the altar,
has been mostly sup^^eded by the table-bond theory. Analogous to offering liquid food to be poured out
A bond is entered into between the god and the wor- as a libation was the custom of anointing sacred ob-
shipper when they, as it were, sit at the same table, jects or hallowed places. The histoiy of the patri-
man furnishing the meal, and the god granting in re- archs bears witness to its primitive usage, and the
turn the assurance of his protection. The communion accounts of travellers certify to its existence to-day
theory (its chief advocate is W. R. Smith) is based on among many Semitic populations. In this case, oil is
the totemistic conception of the origin of worship, its generallv used; occasionally more precious ointments,
essence consisting in that the life of the ^od, infused but as these largely contain oil, the difference is acci-
into the totem, is assimilated by the worshipper in the dental. Among nomads where oil is scarce, butter is
sacred repast. This theory would account tor animal used, being spread on sacred stones, tombs, or on the
sacrifices and oblations of such vegetables as were con- door-posts or the lintels of venerated shrines. In
sidered totems; but it fails manifestly to explain the some places oil is offered by way of fuel for lamps
many and various oblations custom imposed or sane- to be kept burning before the tomb of some renowned
tioned. wdy or in some sanctuary. Also it has always been a
As far as positive information is concerned, the ori- general custom in the East to offer, either together
gin of oblations, according to Genesis, may be traced with, or apart from, sacrifices and oblations, spices to
back to Cain's offerings of the fruits of the earth, be bumea at the place of the sacrifice or of the sacrifi-
Some critics would brush aside the statement as the cial meal, or upon a revered tomb, or at any place
fancy of a Judean writer of the seventh century b. c; sacred to the tribe or individual. Among the Arabs
yet the passage expresses the writer's belief that sacri- it is hardly justifiable to pay religious homage at the
fices and oblations were offered by the very first men. tomb of some sainted wdy or at certain sanctuaries
It emphasizes, moreover, the idea that oblation is an without bringing an offermg. however insignificant,
act of worship natural to an agricultural population, If nothing better is at hand, tne worshipper will leave
just as the slaying of a victim is to be expected in the on the spot a strip from his garment, a horse-shoe nail,
worship of a pastoral people ; and it seems to set forth even a pebble from the road.
the belief that bloody sacrifices are more pleasing to Tithes (q. v.) appear to be more an impost than an
God than mere oblations — a belief seemin^y inspired oblation proper, and suppose a settled population;
by the superiority the nomad has ever claimed in the hence they have no place in the religion of nomads,
East over the husbandman. At all events it cannot ancient or modem.
be denied that there is at the root of all ojblations the Besides the oblations mentioned above (usually arti-
idea that God has a claim upon man, hb possessions, cles of food), the votive offerings made amon^ early Se-
and the fruits of his labours, and is pleased at receiving mites on veiy special occasions deserve mention. One
an acknowledgment of His sovereignty. of the most characteristic is the offering of one's hair.
Whether exterior worship, especially sacrifice, was common also among other ancient peoples. This of-
in the beffinning. as W. R. Smith afiBrms, an affair, not f eringwas apersonalone, and aimed to create or empha-
of the individual, but of the tribe or clan, is question- size the relation between the worshipper and his god;
able. As far back as documents go, side by side with it was usually in connexion with special vows. FVom
public oblations, are others made by individuals in this hair-offering we should distinguish the shaving of
their own name and out of private devotion. the head as a kind of purification prescribed in certain
The things thus made over to the deity were among cases (Lev., xiv, 0). Owin^ undoubtedly to the su-
Semitic peoples most varied in nature and value, perstitious practice of ancient peoples, associating
Offering the first yield of the year's crop was exten- mourning with a hair-offering, the Pentateuchai
sively practised, local usage specifying what should be legislation enacted on this subject prohibitions (Lev.,
offered. The premices of the com crop (wheat, bar- xix, 27; xxi, 5; Deut., xiv, J), which, however, were not
ley, sometimes lentils) were generally reserved to the always observed. The only haiiM)ffering legallv reo-
deity; so also among certain tribes the fiirst milk and ognized among the Hebrews was that connectecf with
butter of the year. Sometimes fruits (not only first- the vow of the Nazarite (Num., vi). and likely the
fruits, but other fruit-oblations) were offered in their writer of the Canticle of Debbora had some such vow
natural state. At Carthage the fruit-offering con- in view when he speaks (Judges, v, 2), according to the
sisted of a choice branch bearing fruit; possibly such probable sense of the Hebrew, of men offering their
was the form of certain fruit-offerings in Israel, nair and vowing; themselves to battle, i. e. vowing not
Oblations mi^t also consist of fruit prepared as for to cut their hair until they should come back in tri-
orctinary use, m compressed cakes, cooked if necessary, umph : this vow (still frequent in the East) implied
or made in the form of jelly {debaah; the latter prepara- that tney should conquer or die. Also in Num., xxxi,
tion was excluded from the altar in Israel). All cereal 28^ we read of a share of the spoils of battle being set
oblations, whether of first-fruits or otherwise, among aside as an offering to the sanctuary. Although the
the Hebrews ^and apparently among the Phoenicians, narrative here concerns a special occurrence, and noth-
were mingled with oil and salt b^ore beins placed ing intimates that this spoil offering should be held as
on the altar. Ab sacrifices were f rec[uently the occa- aprecedent, yet it is very likely that it begat at least a
sion of social gatherings and of religious meals, the pious custom. We see, indeed, in Israel and neif^-
custom was introduced of offering with the victim bouring peoples, choice spoils hung up in sanctuaries,
whatever concomitants (bread, wine, etc.) were neces- It may suffice to recall the trophies heaped up by th«
sary. Yet nowhere do we fina water offered up as an Ass3man and Babylonian rulers; also the Ark of the
oblation or used for libations; only the ritual of late Covenant set up as an offering in the temple of Dagon
Judaism for the Feast of Tabernacles commanded by the Philistines; and in Israel itself, the arms of
that on each of the seven days of the celebration Goliathoffeiedby David to the temple of Nob.
water drawn from the Fountain of Siloam (D. V., II. Oblations among the Jews.— Oblations in
Sellum) should be brought into the Temple amidst the the Jewish religion were the object of minute regula-
blare of trumpets and solemnly poured out upon the tions in the Law. Some were offered with bloody
altar. Other furticles of food wei^ vp^ed for libations^ sacrifices (cf. Num., viii, 8; xv, 4r-10), as the offerinif
omtLtotLt
217
OmOtTOHY
(>f meal, oil, and incense that accompanied the daily
holocaust. A handful of this meai^offering mingled
with oil was burned on the altar together witn incense,
and the remainder was allotted to the priests, to be
eaten unleavened within the Temple precincts (Lev.,
vi, 14-18; Num., vi, 14-16). In peace-offerings,
together with the victim, loaves, wafers, and cakes
of flour kneaded with oU, and loaves of leavened
bread were presented to the Temple (the loaves
of leavened bread were not to be put or burned upon
the altar) ; one cake, one wafer, and one loaf of each
kind was the share of the officiating priest (Lev., vii,
11-14; ii, 11). Among the regulations for the sac-
rifice of thanksgiving to be offered by lepers on their
recovery was one that the cleansed, if tney had the
means, should add to the victims tnree-tenths of an
ephah (the ephah of the second Temple contained
aoout three pecks, dry measure, the old measure being
possibly twice as large) of meal tempered with oil; if
they were poor, one tenth of an ephah was sufficient
(Lev., xiv, 10, 21). Finally the sacrifice of the Naza-
rite included a basketful of unleavened bread tem-
pered with oil and cakes of like kind, together with the
ordinary libations.
For public oblations separate from sacrifices see
Pirst-Fruitb; Loaves op Proposition; Tithes.
Moreover, every day the High Priest presented at the
altaj* in his own name and that of the other priests an
oblation of one tenth of an ephah (half in the morning
and half in the evening) of meal kneaded with oil, to
be burned on the altar (Lev., vi, 19-23; cf. Jos.,
"Ant. Jud.", Ill, X, 7). A certain number of private
oblations were prescribed by Law. The priest, on
entering upon his ministry, offered an oblation, the
same in kind and quantity as the daily oblation of
the High Priest (Lev., vi, 20,21). A man obliged
to a sin-offering, and too poor to provide a victim,
was allowed to present an oblation of one tenth ot
an ephah of flour without the accompaniments of oil
and incense (Lev., v^ 1-4, 11, 12). A woman accused
of adultery was subjected to a trial during which an
offering of one tenth of an ephah of barley-flour with-
out oil or incense was made, a part being burned on the
altar, finally oblations might be made in fulfilment
of a vow; but then the matter was left to the choice of
the vower. The regulations of the Pentateuchal Law
concerning oblations were scrutinized and commented
upon by Jewish doctors who took up every possible
difficulty likely to occur, for instance, on the nature,
origin^ preparation, ana cooking of the flour to be
usra, its buying and measuring, the mode of present-
ing, receiving, and offering the oblation, its division
ana the attriouting of each of the parts (see the forty-
second treatise of the Mishna: "Menahoth''). Of
these commentaries we will single out only those con-
cerned with the rite to be observed in offering the ob-
lations, because they are the only somewhat reliable
explanation of difficult expressions occasionally met
with in Holy Writ (D. V.: "to elevate", "to sepa-
rate". Lev., vii, 34; x, 15, etc.). When an Israelite pre-
sented an oblation, the priest went to meet him at the
gate of the priests court; he put his hands under the
ands of the offerer, who held oblation, and drew the
offerer's hands and the oblation first backwards, then
forwards (this was the tfienH^hah, improperly ren-
dered "the separation"), again upwards and down-
wards {tkerumahf "the elevation"). These rites were
not observed in the oblations by women or Gentiles.
The first-fruits offered at the Pasch and the "oblation
of jealousy" (on the occasion of an accusation of adul-
tery) were moved about in the manner described, then
brought to the south-west comer of the altar; the first-
fruits offered at the Pentecost and the log (2/5 of a
pint) of oil presented by the leper were subject to the
thenCphah and the therHmah, but not brought to the
altar; the sin-offering, the oblations of the priests,
and tne freewill oblations were only brought directly to
the altar; lastly the loaves of proposition were neither
"separated " and "elevated " nor brought to the altar.
III. Oblations amonq Christians. — Like many
Jewish customs, that of offering to the Temple the
matter of the sacrifices and other oblations was
adapted by the early Christian communities to the
new order of things. First in importance among
these Christian oblations is that of the matter of the
Eucharistic sacrifice. Not only the laity, but the
whole clergy, bishops, and pope himself included, had
to make this offering. These oblations were collected
by the officiating bishop assisted by priests and dea-
cons at the beginning of the "Missa Fidelium", after
the dismissal of the non-communicants. This collec-
tion, at finst performed in eilence, was, towards the be-
ginning of the fifth century, made amidst the sinking
of a Psalm, known in Rome as the "Offertorium , at
Milan as tne "Offerenda", and in Greek churches as
the "Cherubikon" (our Offertory is a remnant of the
old "Offertorium", curtailed by reason of the actual
gathering of the oblations falling into disuse). Part
of the oblations was destined for consecration and
communion (cf . the French word oublie applied to the
matter of the Eucharist). The subdeacon in charge
of this part is called in certain "Ordines Romani" the
"oblationarius". Another part was destined for the
poor, and the remainder for the clergy. So important
was this offering held, that the wora ohlalio came to
designate the whole liturgpcal service. Apart from
this liturgical oblation, which has been preserved, at
least partly, in the liturgy of Milan and in some
churches of France, new fruits were at given seasons
presented at Mass for blessing, a custom somewhat
analogous to the first-fruit offerings in the Old Law;
this usage is still in vigour in pai ts of Germany where,
at Easter, eggs are solemnly olessed; but, contrary to
Hebrew customs, the Christians usually retained the
full disposition of these articles of food. Very early
offerings were made over to the Church for the sup-
port of the poor and of the clergy. St. Paul empha-
sized the rignt of ministers of the Gospel to live by the
Gospel (I Cor., ix, 13-14), and he never tired of re-
minding the churches founded by him of their duty
to supply the wants of poorer communities. How,
within the limits of each community, the poor were
cared for we catch a slimpse of in the records of the
early Church of Jerusalem (institution of the deacons) ;
that in certain Churches, as the Church of Rome, the
oblations for the poor reached a fair amount, we know
from the prominence of the deacons, an illustration of
which we nave in the history of St. Lawrence, and in
the fact that the pope was usually chosen from among
their order. In time of persecution, manual offerings
were sufficient to support the clergy and the poor; but
when peace had come, Christiansielt it a duty to in-
sure this support by means of foundations. Such dona-
tions multiplied, and the word "oblations "(usually in
the plural number) came to mean in Canon Law any
property, real or personal, made over to the Church.
Edkrbhsiii, The Temple and ita tervieee (London, 1874) ; Ja«-
TROW, The Rdioion cf Babylonia and Aatyria (Boston, 1898);
SioTH, The Rdiffion of the Semitee (London, 1907); Wbllhaussn,
Proleffomena to the Hiatory of lerael, Eng. tr.. Black and Mbn-
SIB8 (Edinburgh, 1885) ; Idbm, Reate arabiedien Heidenthuma (Ber-
lin, 1897); Iksn, Antiquiiatea Htbrdieea (Bremen, 1741); Rkland,
Antiquilaiea Sacra (Utrecht, 1741) ; Spsncsb, De Legibua Hebrew
orum ritualibua (Cambridge, 1727) ; Bbboier in Diet, de ThtoUtgie
(Lille, n. d.), a. w. (XUationa, Offrandea; Cabbol, Le Litre de la
prihre antique (Paria, 1903); Dhobmb, CotUumea dea Arobea au
paya de Moab (Paris, 1908) ; Idbii, La rdiqion (taayro-babylonienne
(Paris, 1910); Duchesnb, Lea originea du euUe ehritien (Paris,
1898); Ebmokx, La rdigion de FEgypie ancienne (Paris, 1909);
Lagbanob, Btudea aur lea rdiqiona ahniHouea (Paris. 1903) ; BIhb,
Symbolik dea moaaiaehen CtMua (Heidelberg, 1837); BBKnoBB,
Hebr. ArehAologie (Freiburg, 1895) ; Nowack, Lehhu/ch der Mbr,
ArckOoUxfie, II (Freiburg. 1894). ChARLBS L. SoUVAT.
Offertory (offertorium), the rite by which the
bread and wine are presented (offered) to God before
they are consecrated and the prayers and chant that
accompany it.
. t
OFFEBTOBY
218
OFFEBTOBY
I. History. — The idea of this preparatory hal-
lowing of the matter of the sacrifice by offering it to
God is very old and forms an important element of
every Christian liturgy. In the earliest period we
have no evidence of anything but the bringing up of
the bread and wine as the]^ are wanted, before the
Consecration prayer. Justin Martyr says: ''Then
bread and a cup of water and wine are brought to the
president of the brethren" (I ApoL, Ixv, cf. Ixvii).
but soon the placing of the offering on the idtar was
accompanied oy a prayer that God should accept
these Kif ts, sanctify them, change them into the Body
and Blood of his ^n, and give us in return the grace
of Communion. The Liturgy of "Apost. Const.",
VIII, says: ''The deacons bring the gifts to the bishop
at the altar . . . the bishop having prayed silently
with the priests" . . . (xii, 3-4). This silent prayer
ic undoubtedly an Offertory prayer. But a later
modification in the East brought about one of the
characteristic differences between Eastern and Roman
liturgies. All Eastern (and the old Gallican) rites
prepare the gift before the Liturgy begms. This cer-
emony (irpoffKofud'^) is especially elaborate in the By-
zantine and its derived rites. It takes place on the
credence table. The bread and wine are arranged,
divic^d, incensed: and many praters are said over
them involving tne idea of an offertory. The gifts
are left there and are brought to the altar in solemn
procession at the beginning of the Liturgy of the
Faithful. This leaves no room for another offertory
then. However, when they are placed on the altar
prayers are said by the celebrant and a litany by the
deacon which repeat the offertory idea. Rome alone
has kept the older custom of one offertory and of pre-
paring the nfts when they are wanted at the begin-
ning of the Mass of the Faithful. Originally at this
moment the people brought up bread and wine which
were receivea by the deacons and placed by them on
the altar. Traces of the custom remain at a papal
Mass and at Milan. The office of the vecchioni in
Milan cathedral, often quoted as an Ambrosian pecu-
liarity, is reaUy a Roman addition that spoils the
Older of the ola Milanese rite. Originally the only
Roman Offertory prayers were the secrets. The
Gregorian Sacramentary contains only the rubric:
"deinde offertorium, et dicitur oratio super oblata"
(P. L., LXXVIII, 25). The Oratio super oblata is
the Secret. All the old secrets express the offertory
idea clearly. They were said silently by the celebrant
(hence their name) and so are not mtroduced by
Oremus. This corresponds to the oldest custom men-
tioned in the " Apost. Const." ; its reason is that mean-
while the people sang a psalm (the Offertory chant).
In the Middle Ages, as the pubUc presentation of the
gifts b^r the people nad disappeared, there seemed to
be a void at this moment which was filled by our pres-
ent Offertory prayers (Thalhofer, op. cit. below, II,
161). For a long time these prayers were considered a
private devotion of the priest, like the preparation at
the foot of the altar. They are a Northern (late
Gallican) addition, not part of the old Roman Rite,
and were at first not wntten in missals. Micrologus
says: "The Roman order appointed no prayer after
the Offertory before the Secret" (cxi, P. L., CLI, 984).
He mentions the later Offertory pravers as a " Gallican
order" and says that they occur 'not from any law
but as an ecclesiastical custom". The medieval Of-
fertory prayers vary considerably. They were es-
tablished at Rome by the fourteenth century (Ordo
Rom. XIV., 63, P. L., LXXVIII. 1 165). The present
Roman prayers were coinpiled trom various sources,
Gallican or Mozarabic. The prayer "Suscipe sancte
pater" occurs in Charles the Bald's (875-877) prayer
Book; "Deus qui humane substantise" is modified
from a Christmas Collect in the Gregorian Sacrament-
aiy (P. L., LXXVIII, 32) : "Offerimus tibi Domine"
and " Veni sanctificator" (fragment of an old Epikle-
sis, Hoppe, "Die Epiklesis", Schaffhausen, 1864, p.
272) are Mozarabic (P. L., LXXXV, 112). Before
Pius V's Missal these prayers were often preceded by
the title "Canon minor" or "Secretella" (as amplifi-
cations of the Secret). The Missal of Pius V (1570)
printed them in the Ordinary. Since tiien the prayers
that we know form part of the Roman Mass. The
ideas expressed in them are obvious. Only it may be
noted that two expressions: "hanc immaculatam hos-
tiam" and "calicem salutaris" dramatically antici-
pate the moment of consecration, as does the Byzan-
tine Cherubikon.
While the Offertory is made the people (choir) sing
a verse (the Offertorium in the sense of a text to be
sung) that forms part of the Proper of the Mass. No
such chant is mentioned in "Apost. Const.", VIII,
but it may no doubt be supposed as the reason why
the celebrant there too prays silently. It is i^erred
to by St. Augustine (Retract., II, xi, P. L., XXXII,
63). The Offertorium was once a whole psalm with
an antiphon. By the time of the Gregorian Antiph-
onary the psalm has been reduced to a few verses
only, which are always given in that book (e.g., P. L.,
LXXVIII, 641). So also the Second Roman Ordo:
"Canitur offertorium cum versibus" (ib., 972). Du-
randus notes with disapproval that in his time the
verses of the psalm are left out (Rationale, IV, 26).
Now only the antiphon is sung, except at requiems.
It is taken from the psalter, or oUier book of the Bible,
or is often not a Biblical text. It refers in some way
to the feast or occasion of the Mass, never to the offer-
ing of bread and wine. Only the requiem has pre-
served a longer offertory with one verse and the repe-
tition of the last part of the antiphon (the text is not
Biblical).
II. Present Use. — ^At high Mass. as soon as the
celebrant has chanted the uremia followed by no
grayer, the choir sing^ the Offertory. When they have
nished there remains an interval till the Preface
which may (when the organ is permitted) be filled by
music of the organ or at any time by singing some ap-
proved h3rnm or chant. Meanwhile the celebrant
first says the Offertory chant. The corporal has been
spread on the altar during the creed. The subdeacon
brings the empty chalice and the paten with the bread
from the credence table to the altar. The .deacon
hands the paten and bread to the celebrant. He
takes it and holding it up says the prayer: "suscipe
sancte Pater". At the end he makes a sign of the
cross with the paten over the altar and slips the bread
from it on to the corporal. Soon after the paten is
eiven to the subdeacon's charge till it is wanted again
^r the fraction. The deacon pours wine into the
chalice, the subdeacon water, wmch is first blessed by
the celebrant with the form: "Deus qui humans sub-
stantia ". The deacon hands the chalice to the cele-
brant, who, holding it up, says the prayer: "Offerimus
tibi Domine". The deacon also lays his right hand
on the foot of the chalice and says this prayer with
the celebrant — ^a relic of the old idea that the chalice
is in his care. The celebrant makes the sim of the
cross with the chalice and stands it behind the bread
on the corporal. The deacon covers it with the pall.
The celebrant, bowing down, his hands joined and
resting; on the altar, says tne prayer: '^In spiritu
humihtatis"; rising he says the ''Veni sanctificator"
makins the sign of the cross over all the oblala at the
word oenedic. Then follows the incensing of the
altar and the Lavabo (q. v.). The use of incense at
this point is medieval and not originally Roman (rem-
nant of the incense at the Gallican procession of the
oblata t) . Micrologus notes that the Roman order uses
incense at the Gospel, not at the Offertory; but he ad-
mits that in his time (eleventh century) the oblata are
incensed by nearly everyone (De Eccl. Observ., IX).
Finally, after the Lavabo the celebrant at the middle
of the altar, looking up and then bowing down, says
OITEBTOBT
219
omcE
the prayer "Suscipe sancta Trinitas" which sums up
the Offertory idea. The OrcUe fratres and secrete
follow.
At low Mass, the parts of the deacon and subdeacon
are taken partly bv the server and partly by the cele-
brant himself. There is no incense. At requiems
the water is not blessed, and the subdeacon does not
hold the paten. The Dominicans still prepare the
offering before Mass b^ns. This is one of their
Gallican peculiarities and so goes back to the Eastern
Proskomide. The Milanese and Mozarabic Missals
have adopted the Roman Offertory. The accompany-
ing chant is called Sacrificium at Toledo.
DuRANOUB, RaiionaU dinncrum ^dorum, TV, 26-32; Du-
CHMNS. Originea du eulU chrHien (Paris. 2nd ed.. 1898), 165-
167; 194-109; Thalhofbr. Handbueh der kathotuehen Liiurgik,
II (Freiburg, 1890); Gihk, Dot heilige Mewopfer (Freiburg,
1897), 458-508; Eng. tr. (St. Louis, 1908). 494-551; Rxstschsl,
LekrVuck dtr LUwgik, I (Berlin. 1900). 376-378.
Adrian Fortescue^
Offertory, Collectionb at. See Offeringb.
Office, Divine. — I. The Expression ''Divine
Office'', simifving etymologically a duty accom-
plished tor God., or in virtue of a Divine precept,
means, in ecclesiastical language, certain prayers to oe
redtea at fixed hours of the day or night by priests, re-
ligious, or clerics, and, in general, by all those obliged
by their vocation to fulm this dutv. The Divme
Office comprises only the recitation of certain prayers
in the Breviary, and does not include the Mass and
other liturgical ceremonies. ''Canonical Hours",
"Breviary", "Diurnal and Nocturnal Office", "Eccle-
siastical Office", "Cursus ecclesiasticus", or simplv
"cursus" are synonyms of "Divine Office". "Cursus
is the form used by Gregory writing : ' 'exsuraente abbate
cum monachis acl cel^randum cursum " (De glor. mar-
tyr., xv) . " Agenda ", " agenda mortuorum ", "agenda
missarum' ' , ' 'solemnitas' , ' ' missa" were also used. The
Greeks employ "synaxis" and "canon" in this sense.
The expression "officium divinum" is used in the
same sense by the Council of Aix-IarChapelle (SOO),
the IV Lateran (1215), and Vienne (1311); but it is
also used to signify any office of the Church. Thus
Walaffid Strabo, Fseudo-Alcuin, Rupert de Tuy en-
title their works on liturgical ceremonies "De officiis
divinis". Hittorp, in the sixteenth century, entitled
his collection of medieval liturgical works "De Cath-
olics Ecclesis divinis officiis ac ministeriis" (Colore,
1568). The usage in France of the expresmon " saint-
office" as synonymous with "office divin" is not cor-
rect. "Saint-office" signifies a Roman congregation,
the functions of which are well known, and the words
^ould not be used to replace the name "Divine Of-
fice", which is much more suitable and has been used
from ancient times. In the articles Brevi art ; Hours,
Canonical; Matins; Prime; Terce: Sext; None;
Vespers, the reader will find treated the special ques-
tions concemins the meaning and history of ea<ui of
the hours, the obligation of reciting these prayers, the
history of the formation of the Breviary etc. We deal
here only with the general questions that have not
been dwelt on in those articles.
II. Primitive Form of the Office. — The cus-
tom of reciting prayers at certain hours of the day or
night goes back to the Jews, from whom Christians
have bonowed it. In the Psalms we find expressions
like: "I will meditate on thee in the mormns"; "I
rose at midnight to give praise to thee"; "Evening
and morning, and at noon I will speak and declare:
and he shall hear my voice": "Seven times a dav
I have given praise to thee"; etc. (Cf. "Jewish
Encyclopedia", X, 164-171, s. v. "Prayer"). The
Apostles observed the Jewish custom of praying at
nudnight, terce, sext, none (Acts, x, 3, 9; xvi, 25; etc.).
The Christian prayer of that time consisted of almost
the same elements as the Jewish : recital or chanting of
psalms, reading of the Old Testament, to which was
soon added reading of the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles,
and at times canticles composed or improvised by the
assistants. "Gloria in excelsis" and the "Te decet
laus" are apparently vestiges of these primitive in-
spirations. At present the elements composing the
Divine Office seem more numerous, but the^ are de-
rived, by gradual changes, from the primitive ele-
ments. As appears from the texts of Acts cited above,
the first Christians preserved the custom of goine to
the Temple at the hour of prayer. But they had
also their reunions or synaxea in private houses for
th6 celebration of the Eucharist and for sermons and
exhortations. But the Eucharistic synaxis soon en-,
tailed other prayers; the custom of going to the Tem-
ple disappeared; and the abuses of the Judaizing party
forced the Christians to separate more distinctly from
the Jews and their practices and worship. Tnence-
forth the Christian liturgy rarely borrowed from
Judaism.
III. The -Development of the Divine Office
was probably in the following manner: The cele-
bration of the Eucharist was preceded by the recital
of the psalms and the reading of the Old and New
Testaments. This was called the Mass of the Cate-
chumens, which has been preserved almost in its orig-
inal form. Probably this part of the Mass was the
first form of the Divine Office, and. in the beginning,
the vigils and the Eucharistic Synaxis were one.
When the Eucharistic service was not celebratecL the
prayer was limited to the recital or chanting ot the
psalms and the reading of the Scriptures. The vigils
thus separated from the Mass became an independ-
ent office. During the first period the only office cel-
ebrated in public was the Eucharistic Synaxis with
vigils preceding it. but forming with it one whole.
In this nypothesis the Mass of the Catechumens would
be the ori^nal kernel of the whole Divine Office. The
Eucharistic Synaxis beginning at eventide did not ter-
minate till dawn. The vijgils. independently of the
Eucharistic service, were diviaed naturally into three
parts J the beginning of the vigils, or the evening Office;
the vigils properly so called, ana the end of the vigils
or the matutinal Office. For when the vigils were as
yet the only Office and were celebrated but rarely,
they were continued durine the greater part of the
nijmt. Thus the Office which we have called the
Office of evening or Vespers, that of midnight, and
that of the morning, called Matins first and then
Lauds, were ori^ally but one Office. If this hypoth-
esis be rejected, it must be admitted that at first there
was only one public office, Vigfls. The service of
eventide. Vespers, and that of the morning, Majtins
or Lauds, were gradually separated from it. During
the day, Terce, Sext, and None, customary hours of
private pravers both with the Jews and the early
Christians, became later ecclesiastical Hours, just like
Vespers or Lauds. Complin appears as a repetition
of Vespers, first in the fourth century (see Complin).
Prime is the only hour the precise origin and date of
which are known — ^at the end of the fourth century
(see Prime).
At all events, during the course of the fifth century,
the Office was composed, as to-day, of a nocturnal
Office, viz. Vigils — afterwards Matins — ^and the seven
Offices of the day, Lauds, Prime, Terce, Sext, None,
Vespers, and Coinplin. In the "Apostolic Constitu-
tions" we refad: "Precationes facite mane, hora tertia,
sexta, nona, et vespere atque galli cantu (VIII, iv).
Such were the hours as they then existed. There are
omitted only Prime and Complin, which originated not
earlier than the end of the fourth century, and the
use of which spread only gradually. The elements of
which these hours are composed were at first few in
number, identical with those of the Mass of the Cate-
chumens, psalms recited or chanted uninterruptedly
(tract) or by two choirs (antiphons) or by a cantor al-
ternating with the choir (responses and versicles); lee-
OFFICE
220
OFFICE
flODB (readings from the Old and New Testaments, the
oiudn of the capitula), and pray en (see Brbviart).
This development of the Divme Omce, as far as con-
cerns the Roman liturgy, was completed at the close of
the sixth century. Later changes are not in essential
points but rather concern additions, as the antiphons
to Our Lady at the end of certain offices, matters of
the calendar, and optional offices, like those of Satur-
day (see Little Office of Our Lady), or of the dead
(see Office of the Dead), and the celebration of new
feasts etc. The influence of St. Gregory the Great
on the formation and fixation of the Roman Antiphon-
ary, an influence that has been questioned, now ap-
pears certain (see ''Diet, d'archeol. et de liturgie",
8. V. "Antiphonaire")'
While allowing a certain liberty as to the exterior
form of the office (e. g. the liberty enjoyed by the monks
of Egjrpt and later by St. Benedict in the constitution
of the jBenedictine Office), the Church insisted from
ancient times on its right to supervise the orthodo}^
of the liturgical formula. The Council of Milevis
(416) forbade any liturgical formula not approved bv
a council or by a competent authority (cf . Labbe, 11,
1540). The Councils of Vannes (461), Agde (506),
Epaon (517)^ Braga (563). Toledo (especially the
fourth council) promulgated similar decrees for Gaul
and Spain. In the fifth and sixth centuries several
facts (see Canon of the Mass) made known to us the
rights claimed by the popes in liturgical matters. The
same fact is established by the correspondence of St.
Gregory I. Under his successors the Roman liturnr
tends gradually to replace the others, and this is ad-
ditional proof of the nght of the Church to control the
Uturgy (a thesis well established by Dom Gu^ran^er in
his ' 'Institutions Liturgiques", Paris, 1883, and m his
letter to the Arohbishop of Reims on liturgical law,
op. cit^ III, 453 so.). From the eleventh century,
under St. Gregory Vll and his successors, this influ-
ence gradually increases (B&umer-Biron, "Hist, du
Br^viaire", especially II. 8, 22 sqq.). From the
Council of Tr^t the reformation of the liturgical
books enters a new phase. Rome becomes, under
Popes Pius IV, St. Pius V, Gregory XIII, Sixtus V,
Gregory XIV, Urban VIII and his successors, Ben-
edict XrV, the scene of a laborious undertaking — the
reformation and correction of the Divine Office, re-
sulting in the modem custom, with all the rubrics and
rules for the recitation of the Divine Office and its
obligation, and with the reformation of the liturgical
books, corrected in accordance with the decisions of
the Council of Trent and solemnly approved by the
popes (B&umer-Biron, "Hist, du BrSviaire").
Bona, De divina Ptalmoduhii^ par. 1; Thomassin, De vel. ted,
diect Part I, II, Izzi-lzzriii; Qbancolas, TraiU de la meme H de
roffice divin (Paris, 1713); Machibtta, Commentariua hietorieo-
theologicuM de divino officio ^Venice, 1739); Pxanacxh, Del oMtio
dinno, traUato hietorieo-cniteo-moraU (Rome, 1770); De dtvini
officii nominiinu et de^Uumtt arUiouitaie el exeellmtia in Zao
CABiA, Dxeeiplina populi Dei in N. T., 1782, I, 116 m.; Moboni,
Ditionario di erudinone etorieo eedsnatUea, LXXXll, 279 aqq.;
BZuMSB-BiBON. Hittaire du brMaire (Paris, 1905). paasim;
Cabbol, Diet. d*ardUU. A de lUurgie, ■. w. AtUiphonaire, BrHi-
aire; Gayakti, Compendio ddle eerimonie ecdetiaeiiehe, the part
devoted to the rubrics of the Breviary, sections on the obligation,
omission, and in teneral all the questions concemins the recita-
tion of the Office; RosKOvXirr, De ealibaiu et Brenario (Buda-
pest, 1861) ; BATxrroL, Origine de Voblioation pereonneUe dee deree
d la rieitation de Vagice eanoniquie in he eanonitie ocndemparoint
XVII (1894), 9-15; Idxm. Hitioire du brMaire romain (Paris.
1893).
Fernand Cabrol.
Office of the Dead. — I. Compositiok of the Of-
fice.— ^This office, as it now exists in the Roman Lit-
urgy, is composed of First Vespers, Mass, Matins, and
Lauds. The Vesi^ers comprise i>salms, cxiv, cxix, cxx,
cxxix, cxxxvii, with the Masnificat and the preces.
The Matins, composed like those of feast days, have
three nocturns, each consisting of three psalms and
three lessons; the Lauds, as usual, have three psalms
(Ps. bdi and Ixvi united are counted as one) and a can-
ticle (that of Esechias), the three psahns Laudate, and
the Benedictus. We shall speak presently of the
Mass. The office differs in important points from the
other offices of the Roman Liturgy. It has not the
Little Hours^ the Second Vespers^ or the Complin. In
this respect it resembles the ancient vigils, which be-
gan at eventide (First Vespers), continued during the
night (Matins), and ended at the dawn (Lauds) ; Mass
foUowed and terminated the vigil of the feast. The
absence of the introduction, ** Deus in adjutorium '\ of
the hymns, absolution, blessings, and of the doxologv
in the psalms also recall ancient times, when these ad-
ditions had not yet been made. The psalms are chosen
not in their serial order, as in the Sunday Office or the
Roman ferial Office, but because certain verses, which
serve as antiphons, seem to allude to the state of the
dead. The use of some of these psalms in the funeral
service is of high antiquity, as appears from passages
in St. Augustine and other writers of the fourth and
fifth centuries. The lessons from Job, so suitable for
the Office of the Dead, were also read in very early
da>[s at funeral services. The responses, too^eserve
notice, especially the response ''Libera me, Domine^
de viis infemi qui portas sereas conf r^gisti et visitasti
inferum et dedisti eis lumen . . . qui erant in pcenis
. . . advenisti redemptor noster" etc. This is one
of the few texts in the Roman Liturgy alluding[ to
Christ's descent into hell. It is also a very ancient
composition (see Cabrol, "La descente du Christ aux
enfers'' in "Rassegna Gregor.'', May and June, 1909).
The "libera me de morte setema", which is found
more complete in the ancient MSS., dates also from an
early penod (see Cabrol in "Diet, d'archtol. et de
liturgie", s. v. Absoute). M^^ Batiffol remarks that
it is not of Roman ori^n, but it is very ancient (Hist,
du br6v., 148) . The distinctive character of the Mass,
its various epistles, its tract, its offertoiy in the form
of a prayer, the communion (like the offertory) with
versicles, according to the ancient custom, and the
sequence, "Dies Ira'' (q. v.; concerning its author see
alao Burial), it is impossible to dwell upon here. The
omission of the Alleluia, and the kiss of peace is also
characteristic of this mass. There was a time when
the Alleluia was one of the chants customary at fu-
neral services (see Diet, d'archdol. et de liturgie, s. v.
Alleluia, I, 1235). Later it was looked upon exclu-
sively as a song of joy, and was omitted on days of pen-
ance (e. g. Lent and ember week), sometimes in Advent,
and at all fimoral ceremonies. It is replaced to-day
by a tract. A treatise of the eighth-ninth century
published by Muratori (liturg. Kom. vet., II, 391)
shows that the Alleluia was tnen suppressed. The
omission of the kiss of peace at the Masa is probably
due to the fact that that ceremony preceded the dis-
tribution of the Eucharist to the faithful and was a
S reparation for it, so. as communion is not given at the
lass for the Dead, tne kiss of peace was suppressed.
Not to speak of tne variety oi ceremonies of the Mosa-
rabic, Ambrosian, or Oriental liturgies, even in countries
where the Roman liturgy prevailed, there were many
variations. The lessons, the responses, and other for-
mulse were borrowed from various sources; certain
Churches included in this office the Second Vespers and
Complin : in other places, instead of the lessons of our
Roman Ritual, thejr read St. Augustine, Proverbs,
Ecclesiastes, Ecclesiasticus^ Osee, Isaiah, Daniel etc.
The responses varied likewise; many examples may be
found in Mart^ne and the writers cited below in the
bibliography. It is fortunate that the Roman Church
preserved carefully and without notable change this
office, which, like that of Holy Week, has retained for
us in its archaic forms the memory and the atmos-
phere of a very ancient liturgy. The Mozarabic lit-
iu*gy possesses a very rich funeral ritual. Dom F^ro- ^
tin in his "Liber Ordinum" (pp. 107 sqq.) has pub-
lished a ritual (probably the oldest extant), dating
back possibly to the seventh century. He has also
publisned a large number of votive masses of the dead.
omciAL
221
o nui
For the Ambroaian liturgy see Magistretti. "Man*
uale Ambromanum", I (Milani 1905), 67; for the Greek
RituaL see BuriaLpp. 77-8.
II. HiOTORT. — ^The Office of the Dead has been at-
tributed at times to St. Isidore, to St. Au^tine, to St.
Ambrose, and even to Origen. There is no founda-
tion for these assertions. In its present form, while it
has some very ancient characteristics, it cannot be
older than the seventh or even eighth century. Its
authorship is discussed at length in the dissertation of
Horatius de Turre, mentioned in the bibliography.
Some writers attribute it to Amalarius, others to Al-
coin (see Batiffol, "Hist, du Br6v.'', 181-92; and for
the opposing view, Baumer-Biron, "Hist, de Br6v.'\
II, 37) . These opinions are more probable, but are not
as yet very soUoly established. Amalarius spesks of
the Office of the Dead, but seems to implv that it ex-
isted before fads time ("De Eccles. officiis' , IV, xlii, in
P. L., CV, 1238). He alludes to the "Agenda Mortu-
orum'' contained in a sacramentaiv, but nothing leads
us to believe that he was its author. Alcmn is also
known for his activity in litur^cal matters, and we
owe certain liturgical compositions to him; but there
is no reason for considering him the author of this
office (see Cabrol in "Diet, d'arch^l. et de liturgie",
s. V. Alcmn). In the Gregorian Antiphonary we do
find a mass and an office in agenda morbiorufn, but it is
admitted that this ptart is an addition; a fortiori this
applies to the Gelasan. The Maurist editors of St.
Gregory are inclined to attribute their composition to
Albmus and Etienne of Li^ (Microl., Ix). But if it
is impossible to trace the office and the mass in their
actual form beyond the ninth or eighth century, it is
notwithstanding certain that the prayers and a ser-
vice for the dead existed long before that time. We
find them in the fifth, fourth, and even in the third and
second century. Pseudo-Dionysius, Sts. Gregory of
Nyssa, Jerome, and Augustine. Tertullian. and the in-
scriptions in the catacombs afford a proot of this (see
Burial, III, 76; Praters for the Dead; Cabrol, "La
pri^ pour les morts'' in "Rev. d'apolog^tique'^ 15
Sept» 1909, pp. 881-93).
In. Practicb and Obligation. — ^The Office of the
Dead was composed originally to satisfy private devo-
tion to the deaa, and at first had no omcial character.
Even in the eleventh, twelfth, and thirteenth centu-
ries, it was recited chiefly by the religious orders (the
Cluniacs, Cistercians, Carthusians), uke the Office of
Our Ladv (see Guyet, loc. dt., 465) . Later it was pre-
scribed for all clerics and became obligatory when-
ever a ferial office was celebrated. It has even been
said that it was to remove the obligation of reciting it
that the feasts of double and semi-double rite were
multiplied, for it could be omitted on such days
(B&umer-Biron, op. cit., II, 198). The reformed
Breviary of St. Pius V assigned the recitation of the
Office of the Dead to the first free day in the month,
the Mondays of Advent and Lent, to some vigils, and
ember days. Even then it was not obligatorv, for the
Bull "Quod a nobis'' of the same pooe merely recom-
mends it earnestly, like the Office of Our Lady and the
Penitential Psalms, without imposing it as a duty
(Van der Stappen, "Sacra Litmpa", I, Malines, 1898,
p. 116). At tne present time, it is obligatory on the
clergy only on the feast of All Souls and in certain
mortuary services. Some religious orders (Carthu-
sians, Cistercians etc.) have preserved the custom of
reciting it in choir on the days assigned by the Bull
"Quod a nobis".
AptMUMc ConatituHoM, VI, xxx: VIII. zl; Ps.-DioirTB., Dt
hurardL ted., vii. n. 2: AMALiUuns in P. L.. CV, 1239 (Z>e ceelM.
offieiu. III, zliz; IV. zlu); DiTSANDin. RatumaU, VII. xzzv; Ba-
LBTR, Rakanale in P. L., CII. 156, 161; Raoul ds Tongms, De
otMrmnfia eanonum, prop, zx; Pittonttb. Tractahu de odawU
fuiorum (1739), I (towards end), BretU trael. de eomtnem. omnium
Add, defunct.; Horatiub a Tunns, De mortuorum officio dieeertaUo
Cetuma in CoUedio Calogiera, RaeeoUa d'opueeoli, XXVII (Ven-
U 1742), 409-429; Gavanti. THeeawr, ri(u«m, II, 175 aqq.;
MAvrtirs, De aniiq. ecdeeiaritHnu, II (1788), 366-411; Tboiia»-
sm. De dudvUna ecdea., I-II, Izzzvi, 9; Zaocabia, BibL rihtaUe,
II, 417-8; Idsm, OnomaeHcon, 1, 110, •. ▼. Defundti; Bona, tUrum
aturg., I, zvii, l|6-7; Hmonp, De div. caUuA. eedee, offieiie. 1329;
QuTCT, Heortdoaia, 462-73 (on the rubrics to be obaerved in tli»
oflSoe of the dead) ; Catalanub, Rituale Romanum, I (1757), 408»
416 ete. ; Cbriamai, Cirea obligationem officii defunektrum; BlmooH
BnoN, Hid, dm BrH,, II. 30, 37. 131 ete.; Batxvfol. Hid. dim
Bri9., 181-92; Plazmb, La piiU envere lee mode in Be9. du dergi
fransaie, TV (1895), 865 sqq.; LafUedee morte, ibid., VIII (1896),
432 sqq.; La meeee dee mode, ibid., XVI (1898). 196; Ebnu, QtMf-
ten u. Forediungen swr OeetM. dee Mieetue Wmamum, 44, 63 eto.;
TRALHoraR. HandiAuh der kathd. lAhtrgik, II (Freibiirg, 1893).
602-08; Kktmriobmr, Dae Todtenofficium der tdm. Kirehe (Mu-
nich, 1873); HoKTKnK, Offieium denmdorum (Kempten, 1892);
loBM, Zur Geeeh dee Offieium defundorum in KaOioHk., II (1893).
329. See also the literature of the article Buslal and other
articles cited above, CwaarrmKJ, Cumation eto.
Fbrnakd Cabbol.
Official. See Vicab-Genbraij.
P'Fihely, Maurice, Archbishop of Tuam, b. about
1460; d. at Galway, 1513. He was, according to Dr.
Lynch, a native of Ulonfert in Galway, but, according
to Ware and Anthony k Wood, a native of Baltimore
in Cork. He is sometimes called Maurice a Portu,
Baltimore being situated on the sea coast. Part of
his education was received at theUniversity of Oxford,
where he joined the Franciscans. Later he studied at
Padua, where he obtained the degree of Doctor of
Divinity. After his ordination he was appointed
professor of philosophv in the University of Padua.
He was a student of the works of Duns Scotus, and
wrote a commentary on them (published at Venioe
about 1514) . O'Fihdy acted for some time as corrector
of proofs to two well-known publishers at Venice^
Scott and Locatelli — ^in the early d^s a task usually
entrusted to very learned men. O'Fihely was ac*
knowledged one of the most learned men of his time,
so learned that his contemporaries called him Flo9
Mundi (Flower of the World). In addition, his piety
and administrative capacity were recof;ni2ed at Rome,
and in 1506 he was appointed Archbishop of Tuam.
He was consecrated at Home by Julius II. He did not
return to Ireland till 1513, "meantime attending as
Archbishop of Tuam the first two sessions of the Lat-
eran Council (1512). On leaving for Ireland to take
formal possession of his see, he procured from the pope
an indulgence for all those who would be present at
his first Mass in Tuun. He was destined not to
reach Tuam, for he fell ill in Galway, and died there
in the Franciscan convent.
Harrie'e Ware (Dublin, 1764) ; Wood. Athenm Oxonieneee (Lon-
don, 1691) ; BuBxa, Arehbiehope of Tuam (Dublin, 1882).
£. A. D'Ai;roN.
O FiUi et Fllln, the first line of a hynm celebrat-
ing the mystery of Easter. As commonly found in
hymnals to-day, it comprises twelve stanzas of the
form:
O filiiet filiiB,
Rex ceelestis, Rex sloriiBy
Morte surrexit hooie.
Alleluia.
It was written by Jean Tisserand, O.F.M. (d. 1494),
an eloquent preacher, and originally comprised but
nine stansas (those commencing with "Duscipulis ad-
stantibus". "Postquam audivit Didsrmus", "Beat!
aui non viaerunt" being early additions to the hymn).
"L'aleluya du jour de rasques" is a trope on the ver-
sicle and response (closing Lauds and Vespers) which
it prettily enshrines in the last two stansas:
In hoc f esto sanctissimo
Sit laus et jubilatio:
BENEDICAMUS ZX)Af7i\rO.— ADeluia.
De quibus nos humillimas,
Devotas atque debitas
DEO dicamus GAAT/AiSf.— Alleluia.
The hymn is still very popular in France, whence it
has spread to other countnes. Gu^ranger's LUvrgieal
Year (Paschal Tune, Part I. tr., Dublin, 1871, pp. 190-
192) entitles it ''The Joyful Canticle" and gives Latin
OQDENSBUBO 222 OODENSBUBO
text with Engliah prose translation, with a triple Alle- Offdensburg (Ogdensburqdbnbis), Diocbbb of,
luia preceding and following the hymn. As given in comprises the northern towns of Herkimer and Hamil-
hymnalsi however, this tripte Alleluia is sung also be- ton counties, with the counties of Lewis, Jefferson, St.
tween the stanzas (see "Tne Roman Hymnal'', New Lawrence, Franklin, Clinton, and Essex in New York.
York, 1884, p. 200). In Lalanne, "Recueil d'anciens On the north and east it is bounded by Canada and
et de nouveaux cantiques not^'' (Paris, 1886, p. 223) Vermont and by Lake Ontario on the west. It covers
greater particularity is indicated in the distribution of 12,036 sq. miles, to a great extent occupied by tJie
the stanzas and of the Alleluias. The triple Alleluia is wooded wilderness of the Adirondack Mountains
sung by one voice, is repeated by the cnoir, and the which, however, of late is rapidly opening up for
solo takes up the first stanza with its Alleluia. .The summer resorts and tuberculosis sanatoria. The soil
choir than sm^ the triple Alleluia, the second stanza is mostly rocky and sandy and it supports but a rela-
with its Alleluia, and repeats the .triple Alleluia. The ti vely small population which is decreasing in the rural
alternation of solo and chorus thus continues, until the distncts, but slowly increasing in industrial and iron
last stanza with its Alleluia, followed by the triple mining centres.
Alleluia, is sung by one voice. "It is scarcely possible The territoiy was formerly the scene of frequent
for any one^ not acquainted with the melody, to imag- bloody conflicts between the Iroquois and the Hurons
ine the jubilant effect of the triumphant Alleluia a^- and Algonquins, and also between the French and the
tached to apparently less iinportant circumstances of British. In 1740 the Sulpician, Francis Picquet. es-
the Resurrection: e. g., St. reter's being outstripped tabUshed on the banks of the St. Lawrence, wnere
by St. John. It seems to speak of the majesty of tnat Ogdensburg now is located, the Fort of the Presenta-
event, the smallest portions of which are worthy to be tion, to protect the Christian Mohawks, who were,
so chronicled" (Neale, "Medieval Hymns and Se- however, scattered by the English ten years later.
C[uences". 3rd ed., p. 163). The rhythm of the hymn There is still a reservation called St. Regis, partly hi
is that of number and not of accent or of classical Canada (with about 2000 Indians), partly in the State
quantity. The melody to which it is suns can scarcely of New York (with about 1200) , where the descendants
be divorced from the modem hit of triple time. As a of the former savage tribes of the country. Christian-
result, there is to English ears a very frequent conflict ized in the seventeenth centunr and still nearly all
between the accent of the Latin words and the real. Catholics, worship together and sing the choral part
however unintentional, stress of the melody; e. g.: Et of the Divine services in Iroquois. The first wnite
Mdri& Magd^end, Sea J6aime6 Apostoltis, Ad »Spul- settlers were Protestants from New England. It was
chrdm venit prit&s, etc. A number of hymnals give the only towards 1790 that Acadian Catholic immigrants
melody in plain-song notation, and (tneoretieally, at occupied lands around Corbeau, now Cooperville, near
least) this would permit the accented syllables of the Lake Champlain, where ihsv were occasionally vis-
Latin text to receive an appropriate stress of the voice, ited by missionaries from Fort La Prairie, Canada.
Commonly, however, the nymnals adopt the modem In 1818, a colony of French and German Catholics
triple time (e. g., the "Nora-Stems Filhrers zur See- was brought to Jefferson County by Count Leray de
ligkeit", 1671 ; the "Roman Hymnal '^ 1884; "Hymns Chaumont, who built for them, and also for an Irish
Ancient and Modem", rev. ed..). Perhaps it was this settlement, several Catholic churehes. At the same
conflict of stress and word-accent that led Neale to time Irish and French Canadian immi^^rants began to
speak of the "rude simplicity" of the poem and to as- arrive and soon there arose Cathohc missions in
cribe the hymn to the twelfth century m the Contents- various parts of the future diocese which still belonged
page of his volume (although the note prefixed to his to New York.
own translation assigns the hymn to the thirteenth The first congregations were formed at Ogdensburg
century). Migne^ "Diet, de Liturgie" (s. v. PAques, in 1827 by Father Salmon, at Carthage by Father
959) also declares it to be very ancient. It is only very Patrick Kelly, at Cooperville in 1818 by Father
recently that its authorship has been discovered, the Mignault, at Plattsburg in 1828 by Father Patrick
"Diet, of Hymnology" (2nd ed., 1907) tracing it Dack McGilligan, at Hogansburg in 1836 by Rev. John
only to the year 1650, although Shipley ("Annus McNulty. Bishops Dubois, Hughes, and McCloskey
Sanctus'', London, 1884, p. xxiii) found it m a Roman visited these parishes and others that were arising in
Processional of the sixteenth century. the lumbering and mining districts of the region.
The hymn is assigned in. the various French Parais- After the Papmeau rebellion in Canada (1838) many
giens to the Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament^ on Canadian Catholics settled on American soil, and
Easter Sunday. There are several translations mto soon after the famine brought thousands of Irish emi-
English verse by non-Catholics. The Catholic trans- grants into the territory. Bishop Hughes erected in
lations coinprise one by an anonymous author in the 1838 a theological seminary at LafargeviUe near
''Evening Office", 1748 ("Young men and maids, re- Clayton; but it was transferred in 1840 to Fordham
Joice and sing'Oi Father Caswall's "Ye sons and near New York. The CathoUc Summer School of
daughters of the Lord" and Charles Kent's "O maids America, commenced at New London in 1892, was in
and striplings, hear love's story '\all three being given 1893 definitely located at Plattsburg and has met
in Shipley, "Annus Sanctus". The Latin texts vary with great success. It is a place of learning and rec-
both in the arrangement and the wording of the stan- reation for thousands of Catholics of the surround-
zas; and the plain-song and modernized settings also ing country. Attendance at its courses procures
vary not a little. teaching diplomas in the State of New York.
GASToui, UO /Uu, te« ori(ine$, ton auUur in Tribune de Saint- The diocese was separated from the Diocese of Albany
?J^'.uSU^'hSSL Pi!J2:??L?^T" the origin, authorehip, on 16 February, 1872. The first bishop was the Rt. Rev.
text, meiodv; Hvmn§ Anc%eni and Modem, hxetoncal edxtxon (Lon- u'A^^-^ "D TX7«^k««v.a U i qi t «» T a«41 i?».^«> r««..,.4.«
don, 1909,)No. 146. Latin and English cento, comment.; Mabch. ^^%^ P- Wadhams^ b. 1817 at LeWlS, Essex County.
Latin Hymns with Engliah Note*(^ew York, 1875) gives (p. 206) He was a convert from the Episcopalian Church, m
nt^f'^^u^^k ^'u^ the same aganffement of ftansw as found in ^hich he had been a deacon. He was rector of the
2rvJ2iifrNV4dS''T;;rMS^ ^^^^^ ^^ Vicar-Oeneral of Albany, when called
ment is followed by The Roman Hymnal (p. 201) ; GuiitANosB, to Organize Northern New York mto a new diocese.
a^rj^ rS**^' ^*^^'''^ PSr* ? ^Ki^I^'JlS^y' ^^' ^^* He was consecrated at Albany on 5 May, 1872,
delEghee (Remis-Cambrai ed.. Pans. 1887), 202; Lauannb. Re- k,» A..»kK;ol^^^ laf^* r^owlinol \m ,*n\r^»^,^^r niak«««^
euM (Paris, 1886). 223; Lee princi^ux <LnU liturgiquee con- g? Archblshop, later Cardinal, McClOflkey. Blshop
formes au chant publiS par Pierre Valfrau en 1669 in modern notar Wadhams increased the number of parishes and pnests
tion (Paris, 1876). 114; the Ptaro«««n Mrf< (Quebec, 1903). 128. and introduced several religious communities; he
SS!Sri.'foiSl%h2^T^^^^ diS?iSnt5^"iSs?th?rr£'^^^ founded Catholic schools and erected an orphan ap^-
exhibit many variations in melody. lum, a hospital, and an aged people 8 home. At his
H. T. Henrt. death, 5 December, 1801, the churches and chapels
OOOIONI 2:
had increased from 65 to 125; priests from 42 to 81 ,'
nmu from 23 to 129 and Catholic scboob from 7 to 20;
the Catholic population had risen from 50,000 to
66^.
Biahop Wadhams attended the New York Provin-
cial Council of 1883 and the Plenaiy Council of Balti-
more of 1884, and held three diocesan synods. Bia
remains are buried in the crypt of St. Marv's Cathe-
dral which he had enlarged and embellishea.
Henry Gijiriels, born at Wann^em-Lede, Belgium,
on 6 October, 1838, graduated at Louvain as a priest
of the Diocese of Ghent and was invited with three
other Belgian priests to teach in the newly-founded
proTincial seminary of Troy, New York. He was
appointed professor of dogina and afterwards was
proreaaor of chureh history until 1891. He was conse-
crated at Albany on 5 May, 189"^ by Archbishop Cor-
rigan. The newhishop developed the work begun by
hu predecessor. He strengthened the CathoUc schools
although some of the Bmaller ones had to be closed ; he
introduced four new religious communities. Bishop
Gabriels has made two viuts ad Limina, besides other
trips to Rome. The former elements of the Catholic
population, Irish, French and German, must for per-
manent^ rely on their own fecundity. There arc a
reasonable number of conversions annually, but a new
immigration of Poles, Italians, Hungarians, Greeks,
Maronites, and others, iai^ly threatens to modify the
CathoUc body. Yet till now none are numerous
enough to form separate conEregationa except the
Poles who are buildmg a church in Mineville.
Statistics: — Religious Communities: Men: Oblates
of Mary Immaculate, 5 priests, 2 brothers; Priare
Minor, 3 priests, 2 brothers; Fathers of the Sacred
Heart of Usoudun, 6 priests; Augustinians, 2 priests;
Brothers of Christian Instruction (l^Amennais}, 12
brothers. Women: Gray Nuns of the Cross, 6 houses;
Sisters of Merey, 7; Sisters of St. Joseph, 4; Sisters of
St. Francis, l;Sisteisof the Holy Cross, 2; Ursulines^ 1;
Daughteis of the Holy Ghost, 1 ; Daughters of Charity
of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, 1. Priests, secular, 119;
regular, 18; churches, 150; parishes, 8; stations, 79;
chapels, 21; brothers, 19; nuns, 240; ecclesiastics
students, 20; academies, 13; parochial schools, 15;
orphanages, 2; hospitals, 6; home for aged poor, 1;
baptisms in 1909: infants, 3617; adults, 302; mar-
riages, 862; CathoUc population over 92,000.
£u. HiMani 0/ Calh, Chatck in Uitiltd Stala (New York.
189*—): W*Lwo«TH, «™muem«.o/fli.Wir«Okai>w(N«w
York, 1M3)! Smitb, HitL of Dice, a/ OadmthirB (New York.
188S): IU<H. ail. <tr CatK C>airck in Amtrita. sd. Bkohi (Naw
Yoik, 1910): Cnaii*. BL Lavrma Count* (8]nwniM, IBM.}
H. Gabsielb.
Oggloiu (OoaioNE), Mabco D', Milanese punter,
b. at Oggionno near Milan about 1470; d. probably
in Milan, 1549. This painter was one of the chief
pupils of Leonardo da Vinci, whose works he repeat-
edly copied. He was a hard-working artist, but his
'3 O'OOaiUN
tist, or even as a very great copyist, but in his pictures
the sky and mountains and the distant landscapes are
always worthy of consideration, and in these we prob-
ably get the painter's beet original work.
Land, SlBriaPiOarica (Bmnuo. IGOB); AooariNO Sajit* Goa-
TIKI. Daeritvmt dtUe Piltun di Milane (Milu, 1S71).
Georoe Chableb Wiluamson.
Ogilvia, John, Venerable, eldest son of Walter
Ogilvie. of Drum, near Keith, Scotland, b. 15S0; d.
10 March, 1615. Educated as a Calvinist, he was
received into the Church at Louvain by Father Cor-
nelius a Lapide. Becoming a Jesuit at the age of sev-
enteen he was or-
dained priest in
1613, and at his
own request was
sent on the peril-
ous Scottish mis-
sion. He landed
in Scotland in No-
vember, 1613, and
during nine
months reconciled
betrayed in the
latter city, but,
during a long im-
forcehimto na___
any Catholics.
Though his legs
were cruelly
crushed, and he was kept awake for nine nights by
being continually pricked with needles, scarcely a
si^h escaped him. Under searehing examinations,
his patience, courage, and gaiety won the admira-
tion of his very judges — especially of the Protestant
Archbishop Spottiswood — but he '
ary beheading and quart«ring were omitted owing
to undisguised popular sympathy, and his body was
hurriedly buried in the ohuTchyard of Glasgow
■aid "intensity of colour does duty for intensity of
sentiment." He copied the "Last Supper" repeat-
edly, and one of his oest copies is in the poHseasion of
the Royal Academy of Arts in England. Of the de-
tails of his life we know nothing — not even the date
of his important series of frescoes painted for the
chureh of Santa Maria della Pace. His two moat
notable pictures — one in the Brera (representing St.
Michael), and the other in the private gallery of the
fionomi family (representing the Madonna)— are
signed Mareus. Otners of his works are to be seen
at Berlin, Paris, St. Petersburg, and Turin, the one in
Russia being a clever copy of the "Last Supper" by
Leonardo. Lanii fives 1530 as the date of nis death,
but various writers in Milan say it took place in 1540,
and the latest accepted date is the one which we ^ve
U 1540. He cannot be ret^irded as an important ar-
cathedral. He was declared venerable in the seven-
teenth century.
AvilteHtii aeeount of Imprivmrneni and Marlvrdim of Fr. John
Ogilnt, S.J., traoalBled (ram b Latin puophlet (DoumL ISIS;
Lomltin, ISTT); Foum-LirrH. NamOntM of SaMiMhColluitia
(Edinburfb, 1S8£) ; a Lapidi, Connunl, in Iiaiam. e. 1. v. 7.
MiCHABi. Barrett.
OgliAitra (Oleabtrbnsib), Diocesx or, in the
Province of CagUari, Sardinia. It was formerly un-
der the ArchbisDOp of Cagliari, but Leo XII, at the
petition of King Cnarles Felix, by a bull of 11 Novetn-
Der, 1824, erected OgUastra into a diocese, suSragan
of Cagliari, with the Capuchin Serafino CWchero for
its first prelate. In the Middle Ages, after the ex-
pulsion of the Saracens (1050) , OgUastra was one of the
five native giudicature, or independent districts, and
had for its first lords the Slsmondi. TortoU the epis-
copal seat is a small city of about 2000 inhabitants,
which belongs to the district of Lanusei. The diocese
has 29 parishes, 54,500 inhabitant, 53 churches,
chapels, and oratories, 46 secular priests, two schools
one of which is directed b^ the Salesians; the present
bishop Mgr Emanuele Virgilio, who succeeded Met
Guiseppe Paderi on 15 April, 1910, was previously
O OIorloM Tirffliium. See Qceh Terba, Pon-
mS, SlDBRA.
O'Oonnan, THOUAe. See Siotnc Faio^, Diocui
O'OBOWNEY
224
O'HARA
O'Grownayy Eugene, priest, patriot, and scholar,
b. 25 August, 1863, at Ballyfallon, County Meath; d.
at Los Angeles, 18 Oct., 1890. Neither parent spoke
Irish and it was little used where he was Dom; in fact,
he was imorant of the existence of a language of Ire-
land until a student at St. Finian's seminary at Navan.
"His interest in the language begun there continued at
Maynooth, where from his entrance in 1882 he de-
voted himself to the study of the Irish language, an-
tiquities, and history. His holidays he spent in the
Insh-speaking parts of the country where he acquired
his knowledge of the spoken language. Ordained in
1888, in 1891 he was appointed professor of Irish at
Maynooth, and at about the same time became editor
of the " Gaelic Journal '\ At the instance of the Arch-
bishop of Dublin he began his series of ''Simple Les-
sons in Irish", first published in the "Weekly Free-
man", which have done more than any other book in
the last two centuries to familiarize thousands of Irish
with the language of their ancestors. He was one of
the founders of the Gaelic League, organized in Dub-
lin in 1893 "for the purpose of keeping the Irish lan-
gua^je spc^en in Ireland", and later became its vice-
president, which position he held until his death. In
1894, failing healtn sent him to Arizona and Califomia,
where he died. Some years after, with the aid of the
Irish in the United States, his body was brought back
to Ireland and buried at Maynooth. An earnest and
tireless worker, his services to the Gaelic League out-
weigh those of all his fellow-workers to the present
day, not that his scholarship was above criticism, but
because he came at the moment when a man of his
kind was needed.
The memoruda of Father O'Growney have been collected by
O'Fabrkllt, Leabhar an Athar Soghan {The O'Oroumey Memorial
Volume), (Dublin, 1004).
Joseph Dunn.
O'Ifagan, John, lawyer and man of letters, b. at
Newiy, County Down, Ireland, 19 March, 1822; d. near
Dublin, 10 November, 1890. He was educated in the
day-school of the Jesuit Fathers, Dublin, and in Trin-
ity CoUege, graduating in 1842. Though he made
many friendships in Tnnity, he was always an earnest
advocate of Catholic university education. In this
spirit he contributed to the "Dublin Review" (1847) an
article which the Catholic Truth Society of Ireland
has reprinted imder the title "Trinity CoUege No
Place for Catholics". Later he contributed to the
same Review a criticism of Thomas Carlyle's system
of thought, which Carlyle tells in his Diary "gave him
food for reflection for several days". In 1842 he was
called to the Bar and joined the Munster Circuit. In
1861 he was appointed a Commissioner of National
Education, ana m 1865 he became Q.C. The same
year he married Frances, daughter of the first Lord
O'Hagan. After Gladstone had passed his Irish Land
Act, he ohose Mr. O'Hagan as the first judicial head of
the Irish Land Commission, making him for this pur-
pose a judge of Her Majesty's High Court of Justice.
This elevation was a tribute not only to his legal at-
tainments and judicial standing but to the place he
held in the esteem of his countrymen. He was an
earnest Catholic, as is shown in many of his writings,
such as " The Children's Ballad Rosary ". In his earli-
est manhood his poems, "Dear Land", "Ourselves
Alone", etc., were amon^ the most effective features
of "The Nation" in its brilliant youth; in his last years
he published the first English translation of " La Chan-
son de Roland ", recognized as a success by the " Edin-
burg Review" and allthe critic^al journals. LongfeUow
wrote to him: "The work seems to me admirably well
done."
The Irieh Monthly, XVIII; Dunr, Four Yean of JrUh History.
Matthew Russell.
O'Haffaap Thohab, first Baron of Tullyhogue, b. at
Belfast, 29 May, 1812; d. 1 February, 188$* C^ed to
the Irish Bar in 1836, he resided at Newiy, and mar-
ried Miss Teeling in 1836. Inclined to journalism, he
proved a brilliant editor of the "Newrjr Examiner"
from 1838 to 1841. At the Bar he achieved distinc-
tion for lus defence of Charles Gavan Duffy, in 1842.
Admitted to the inner Bar in 1849, and made a
bencher of King's Inn in 1859, in ISiBO he was ap-
pointed Solicitor General for Ireland, and, in the fol-
lowing 3rear Attorney General, being also called to the
Irish Kivy Council. He sat as M.F. for Tralee from
1863 to 1865, when he became Justice of the Common
Pleas. In 1868 he was made Lord Chancellor of Ire-
land, the first Catholic in the office since Chancellor Fit-
ton imder James II. Created Baron of Tullyhogue
in 1870, two ^ears later he married Miss Alice Marv
Townley. His chancellorship expired with the Glaa-
stone Ministry in 1874. In 1880 he was re-api>ointed
Lord ChanceUor by Gladstone, but resignea in No-
vember, 1881. A year later he was made a Knight of
St. Patrick. He published: "Selected Essays and
Speeches".
Diet, of Nat. Bioo. (new ed., London, 1908-9) ; files of contem-
porary newspapers.
W. H. Gbattan-Flood.
O'Hanlonp John, b. at Stradbally, Queen's Co.,
Ireland, 1821; d. at Sandymount, Dublin, 1905. He
entered Carlow College to study for the priesthood,
but accompanied his parents to the Umted States
where, completing his studies, he was ordained in
1847, obtaining a mission in the Diocese of St. Louis.
In 1853 he returned to Ireland, was affiliated io the
Archdiocese of Dublin and appointed curate in the
parish of St-s. Michael and John in the cit^ one of his
fellow curates being the well-known historical scholar,
Father Meehan. In 1880 he took charge of the parish
of Sandymount and a few years later was made a
member of the metropolitan chapter. Always inter-
ested in Irish history, especially m Irish ecclesiastical
history, while in America he wrote an "Abridgment
of the History of Ireland" and an "Irish Emigrant's
Guide to the United States", besides publishing in the
"Boston Pilot" a series of learned papers on St. Mala-
chy. Archbishop of Armagh. After his return to Dub-
lin, he publisher biographies of St. Laurence O'Toole,
St. Dympna, and St. Aengus the Culdee, a "Cate-
chism of Irish History", "Devotions for Confession
and Holy Communion", and "Irish American History
of the United States", edited Monk Mason's "Hibtory
of the Irish Parliament", and collected materials for a
history of Queen's Co. His greatest work was his
"Lives of the Irish Saints" (Dublin, 1875—). begun
in 1846 and finished shortly before his deatn. Dr.
Walsh, Archbishop of Dublin, described him as a num
who worked so hard at his pastoral duties that men
wondered how he could have found time to write any-
thing, and who wrote so much that men wondered
how ne could have done any missionary work. He
never spared himself and was never dismayed by any
difficulty ; when, in 1898. the MS. of his Irish American
History was destroyed, ne cheerfully rewrote the vol-
ume, an example of courage for a man nearing four
score.
Freeman* e Journal (16 May, 1905); O'Lsabt in Journal of
County Kildare Archacl. Soc. (July, 1005).
£. A. D'Ai;roN.
O'Hara, Theodore, b. in Danville, Kentucky, U. S.
A., 11 February, 1822; d. in Guerryton, Alabama^ 6
Jime, 1867. The son of Kane O'Hara, an Irish politi-
cal exile, who became a prominent educator in Ken-
tuckv, O'Hara graduatea from St. Joseph's College,
Bardstown, Kentuckv, studied law, and in the Mexi-
can War attained the brevet rank of major, after
which he made several filibustering expeditions to
Cuba and Central America. He edited various news-
papers and was successfully entrusted by the Govern-
ment with some diplomatic missions. During the
O'HELY 225 omO
Civil Waf he served as a staff-officer witli Generals Ireland. He was apprehended at Dublin, but r^
Johnson and Bredienridge. He wrote little of special leased on exhibiting his discharge, and proceeded to
merit besides the two poems, "The Bivouac of the Muskery under MacCarthy's protection. Didiking
Dead" and ''A Dirge for the Brave Old Pioneer", the lavishness of that nobleman's house, he withdrew
The former was written when the State of Kentucky to a small farm and lived in great austerity. Reliev-
brought back the remains of her sons who had fallen ing distress to the utmost of his power he made a vis-
in the Mexican War to the cemetery at Frankfort, itation of his diocese yearly, and on great festivals
The last four lines of the opening stanza are inscribed officiated and preach^ in a neighbouring church,
over the entrance to the National Cemetery at Arling* Thus, though afflicted with dropsy, he lived until his
ton, Virginia. sixtieth (or seventieth) year, dymg exhausted by
CoNNOLLT, HimtehM Library of h^nd't Poets (New York, labours and sufferings. He was buried in Kilcrea
1887); IrUh American Almanac (New York. 1879); Webb, The tvi«iFv n^ r^iAr
Centenary <^CatholicUy in Kentucky (Lom8va\e,l8M). rnary, KjO, KjOTK. zt^ . ,. ,oo^x
'^ • riTrwrx^MAa V li/ii.«nAv RoTHE, AnoUcta Nova et AfiTo, ed. MoRAN (Dublin. 1884);
11BOMA8 J*. MEEHAN. Mo^n, Spicilegium Oeeor., I (Dublin. 1874): O^Rbillt. Afmo-
^^■«v 1-n 'n*i. e -KM T1JJX rialeof thoeewkoeuff ered for the CatfuUie Faith (London, If^),
O'Hely, Patrick. Bishop of Mayo, Ireland; d. at '
Kilmallock, September, 1579. He was a native of j^iwri i a t> ,. u • n a
Connaught and joined the Franciscans at an early w°,?H«*P', ^^^^A^Tf-^^*^tj^ k I'S*^
age. Four years after his profession he was sent to the Meath, Ireland, in 171M), d. at Lmia, 18 March, 1810.
University of Alcaic, where he surpassed his oontem- f^J^^^^ PP,®^* ^ ^P^' Pq ^u a ** i °^- ^
poraries in sacred studTes. Summoned to Rome, he S^** From there he went to South Amenca landmg
was promoted in 1576 to the See of Mayo, now merged f* ^^^^^ ^u-es, and Uience to Lima, where for a time
in that of Tuam. Gregory XIII empowered him to ^^ was a pedlar. Later he became a contractor for
officiate m adjoining dioceses, if no CathoUc bishop openmf; new roads, and finaUy joined the Spanish
were at hand, and supplied him generously with *™y ^ ^^^ en^^ corps. His taletit and energy
money. At Paris he took part in pubUc disputations was soon recogmzed, and secured for hun a series of
at the university, amazingliis headers by hiS mastery rapid promotions with a patent of nobility as Count
of patristic and iontroverwal theology, as well as of 5l5^®-^^».,?P^>*?> ^ ^^ ^^^\ ?? Marqms of
Scotist philosophy. In autumn, 1579, he sailed from ^^?,* ^^^ .**l® Governor-Generalship of Chile.
Brittany and arrived off the coast of Kerry after The foUowing eight years.he spent in developmg the
James fitzmaurice had landed at Smerwick from Por- resources of tte country, lus.enBghtened pohcy accom-
tugal with the remnant of Stukeley's expedition. AU phshing much for Spamsh mterest. In 1796 he was
MSnster was then in arms. The Housed Desmond appointed Viceroy of Peru, the highest rank m the
was divided, and the politic earl had withdrawn from Spanish colomal service, reachmg Luna with that com-
the scene of action. ¥he bishop and his companion, °^^^ ?^ {^^ ^ ^4 ^^^^ ^^.u^ vice-royalty
ConnO'Rourke, a Franciscan pnest, son of Brian, LorJ ^""^^ ^}^^ ^^^\ ^^^^^^PPT."^^' ^""^^
of Breifne, came ashore near Askeaton, and sought f>2» ^'?L9^^??i?^ Augiwt, 1776; d. at Lima, 24 Oc-
hospitaUtyatthecastlewhere, in theearl's absence, his *^^?^ \?^?: ^u^,®-^ ^i ^^^w .u!?''^^
countess entertained them. Next day they departed ^ * Cathohc school m England. At his father's death
for Limerick ; but the countess, probably so instructed, 1^^ returned to Chile where he joined the revolution-
for the earl claimed the merit ifterwar^, gave infor^ Jf*«. ^ a colonel of mihtia agamst the domination of
mation to the Mayor of Limerick, who thre^days later Sp«n. Hw bravery brought hmi higher rank^
seized the two ecclesiastics and sent them to Kilmal- i>?^**« ^^ ChacabucOj 12 February, 1817, which broke
lock where Lord Justice Drury then was with an army. *^« ^^^.^^ ^{ Spain m Chile, was rn^y won by his
As president of Munster, DrZy had recently per- f^f,^^ impetuosity. This victory led to the capture
petiited infamous barbaiitiee. In one year He exe- ?(.*h ^^PJ*?,^, ^^ ^ ^*« proclauned by its citizens
cuted four hundred persons "by justice and martial P^^tator of Chde. He eave ample evidence of execu-
law". Some he sentenced "by natural law, for that tive abihty c^unng an aimmstration of six y^
he found no law to try them by m the realm". At first a fickle lypulace deposed hm fro^
he offered to secure O'Hely his see if he would ac- 1^23, and drove hjm mto exile m Peru. His ashes were
knowledge the royal supremacy and disclose his busi- brought back by the Cluhan Gpyenunent and interred
ness. The bishop repfied thit he could not barter ^^} K^* F°^P *°/^^^^,^ ^^^^ his equestrian
bis faith for life or honours; his business was to do a ?*?*."« was inaugumted at Santiago amid national re-
bishop's part in advancing religion and saving souls, i^^^' ^^^ ^"^ P^^^?oAr?' "^^^^^ ^^ patnotic
To questions about the plans of the pope and the Kina Chilian ranc^o, died m 1869.
of Spain for invading Ireland he made no answer, and ihomas if . mbehan.
thereupon was delivered to torture. As he still re- Ohio, the seventeenth state of the American Union,
mained silent, he and O'Rourke were sent to instant admitted on 19 Feb., 1803. It is bounded on the
^cecution by martial law. The execution took place north by Michigan and Lake Erie, on the east by
outside one of the gates of Kilmallock. Pennsylvania and West Virginia, on the south by West
<i^ir'S'e''h!&';S^8^^^ }i?i; Virginia and Kentucky, ^^n the west by Indiana.
O'Rbillt. MemoriaU of thoeewho e^ered for the Catholic Faith Its greatest breadth IS 216 miles, and its greatest
(London. 1868); Bradt, Bpiecopal Sueceeeion in Oreat Britain length (north to SOUth) 210 miles; itS area is 41,060
?SMvft2fli Q^5jS^i2n];3?A^K^^ square miles. The surface is an undulating plain 450-
1896) . MOEAN. Spu:^leg^um Oeear, (Dublin. 1874). ^M^ ^^^ ^y^^^ sea^level. The population (1910) is
4,767,121. The agricultural output m 1908 was valued
O'Harlahy (O' hIarlaithb), Thomas, Bishop of at $198,502,260; the mineral output at $134,499,335;
Ross, Ireland, d. 1579. Consecrated about 1560, he the value of dairy products was $15,484,849; and the
was one of three Irish bishops attending the Council of total value of industries $960,81 1 ,857. The railroad
Trent. He incurred such persecution throu^ en* mileage is 9274 miles, besides 4450 miles of electric
forcing its decrees that he fled with his chaplam to a railway. Ohio profits commercially by the Ohio River
little island, but was betraved to Perrot. President of in the south, connecting with the Mississippi, and by
Munster, wno sent him in chains to the Tower of Lon- Lake Erie on the north. There are also tour canals,
don. Simultaneously with Primate Creagh, he was con- the Miami and Erie, the Ohio, the Hocking, and the
fined until released after about three years and seven Walhonding.
months on the security of Cormac MacCarthy, Lord Civil History. — Ohio was discovered by La Salle
of Muskery. Intending to retire to Belgium, ill- about 1670 and formal possession of the territory in-
health contracted in prison induced him to return to eluding the state was taken by the French in 1671. A
XI.— 15
controversy between France and Bnaland was settled its of Columbiana, Stark, Wayne, AaU&nd, Richland,
by the Treaty of PariB (1763), by which G«»t Britain Crawford, Wyandot, Hancock, Allen, and Van Wert
obtained all the French dominion in the north, and Counties. The Diocese of Columbus (erected 3
west as far as the MissiBsippi River. In 1787 a '"' ' -"""> .. ._
under their negotiationB a purchase of a large tract of 657, 6S0, including 298 n^roes, Amoni; the promi-
land in the territory northwest of the Ohio River was nent Catholics may be mentioned General Philip H.
made from the Government. This was the firat public Sheridan, General W. S. Rosecrans, General Don Car-
sale of land by the United States. Marietta, the first los Buell, Generals Hu^ and Charies Ening, Honor-
settlement, woa founded on 7 April, 1787. able Bellamy Storn^ Rubin R. Springer, Colonel Made
In coonexion with this sale was passed the famous Groorty, Doctor Bonner, Fruik Herd, and J. A.
ordinance of 1788 guaranteeing forever civil and re- McGahan, the liberator of Bulgaria.
ligious liberty, the system of common schools, trial by Besides the Catholics the principal religious denom-
ju^, and the right of inheritance. inations are the Methodists numbering 365,444; the
In 1788 Cincmnati was founded, and thenceforth Presbyterians, 138,768; and the Lutherans, 132 439.
settlements in the southern portion of the state multi- Education and Charitt. — Besides the Ohio State
plied rapidly. In 1791 the settlers were harassed by University, founded in t870,^d attended in 190Q by
_^^^^^,^ various Indian 3012 students under a faculty of 224 members, Ohio
tribes, who were ef- has numerous colleges and universitiefl, as Antioch
fectually checked College, Baldwin College, Buchtel College, Case
^ the victory of School of Science, Cedarville Coll^, Defiance Col-
General Anthony lege, Dennison University, Franklin University, Miami
L Wayne at Fallen University, Ohio University, Marietta College. The
""' abers on the total number is thirty-aix. According to the last re-
umee* River port of the state commissiDner of common schools, the
I (1794). In the sue- number of public school buildings in Ohio is 10,723,
I ceeding year the with 24,188 teachers, 666,783 pupils. The expendi-
F treaty of peace was ture for education during the year 190S-19(i9 was
condudea by which t26,01I,361. By constitutional provision the princi-
the Indians ceded a pal of funds, entrusted to the State for educational and
great portion of the religious purposes, is not to be dimimshed, and the in*
territory now em- come is to be applied solely to the objects of the origi-
braced in the state, nal grant. The General Assembly is empowered to
3M1. ur uHiu About this time create and maintain an efficient system of common
Chilhcothe was made the capital of the territory and schools in the state. All children between the ages of
a capitol building erected. In 1802 a constitution ei^t and fourteen years shall attend either a public,
was adopted bv the eastern division of the territory private, or parochial school for the full session, of not
north-west of tne Ohio River, designated by the name less than twenty-four weeks each year, unless pro-
"Ohio" and next year the t^rilory was admitted to hibited by some disability. The course of instruction
statehood. From the date of the first settlement must extend to reading, spelling, writing, Enfdisli
down te the year 1842 the nationality of the principal grammar, geoffraphy, and arithmetic. The employ-
immigration was German. Between 1842 and 1860 ment of any cnild under sixteen years of age during
the population of Ohio increased very rapidly owing the school session shall be a misdemeanor, punishable
te the great influx of immigrante from both Ireland by fine, unless the employer shall have first exacted
and Germany, Since 1870 the Slavonic race has been from the child an age and schooling certificate from
the predominating factor in immigration. In the the proper authorities, showing that the child has
CSvil War, seventy regiments responded to the first Buccessfiilly completed the studies above enumerated,
call for troops although the state quota was only thir- and if the child is between fourteen and sixteen, that
teen. Troops from Ohio were largely responsible tor he is able to read and write legibly the English lan-
the saving of West Virginia to the Union. A number guage. If a child be absolutely compeUed to work,
of the most celebrated officers of the Union Army, as such relief shall be granted out of the contingent fundi
Grant Sherman, McDowell, Rosecrans, Shendan, of the school district in which he reeidea as will en-
Garfield, were natives of the state. In national eloc- able child to attend school in accordance with the re-
tions Ohio was carried by the Democratic Party from quirements of the statute.
1803 down to 1836. In that year and ever since, with The general supervision of all public charitable in-
tbc exception of the years 1848 and 1862 when it cast stitutions of the state is vested in a state board of
ita electoral vote for Cass and Pierce, it has been Re- charities. Directcontrolof each separate state bener-
publican. olent association is vested in an individual board of
Catholic HiSTORT. — The first Catholic settlement trustees. The followinf; charitable institutions are
in Ohio was founded among Huron Indian tribes near provided for by statute m Ohio; Institution for Deaf
Sandusl^ by Father De la Richardie in 17S1. The and Dumb; Ohio State School for the Blind; Instatu-
principal periods of Catholic immigration are from tion for Feeble Minded; Ohio Soldiers and Sailors
1822 te 1842, from 1842 te 1865, and from 1865 te the Home; Ohio Soldiers and Sailors Orphans Home;
present day. In the first period the German race asylums for the insane at Cleveland, Columbus, Day- '
predominated; in the second, the Irish and German ton, Athens, Toledo, MossiUan. Cincinnati, Uma;
races, with a majority of Irish immigrante; and in the Ohio Hospittu for Epileptics; Boys' Industrial School;
third, members of the Slavonic race. Ohio has one Girls' IndustrialHome; homes forthefriendless in the
archdiocese and two dioceses. The Archdiocese of various counties; Ohio State Sanitarium fM'Consump-
Cincinnati (diocese, 19 June, 1821; archdiocese, 19 tives: Ohio Institution for Deformed and Crippled
June, 1850) includes thecounties south of thenorthem Children; hospitals in the various cities: county and
Une of Mercer, Auglaize, Hardin Counties and west cityinfirmariesandohildren'shomes. Allprivateand
of the eastern line of Marion, Union, Madison public benevolent or charitable institutions shall be
Counties and the Sciote River to the Ohio River, open at all times to the inspection of the county oom-
The Diocese of Cleveland (erected 23 April, 1847) in- misoooera of the various counties or the board of
etudes that part of the state north of the southern lim- health of the township or municipality.
, »
OHIO 227 OHIO
Legislation on Rbugioub Matters. — It is pro- Marriage of first cousins is prohibited. Marriage
vided in the Bill of Rights, in the Constitution of Ohio, may be solemnised by a lawfully ordaiiled minister of
that no person shall be compelled to support any any religious society, a justice of the peace in his
religion or form of worship against his consent; no pre- county, or a mayor of an incorporated village in the
ference shall be siven to any religion by law; no county where the village lies. A clergyman wishing
interference with tne rights of conscience shall be per- to perform the ceremony must obtain a licence from
mitted; no religious qualifications shall be required the probate court of one of the counties of the state,
for the holding of office, and suitable laws shall be en- The bans of marriage must be published in the prcs-
acted to protect every religious denomination in the ence of the congregation in a place of public worship in
peaceable enjoyment of its own mode of worship. The the' county where the female resides, on two different
arrest of any person for civil purposes on Sunday is days previous to the ceremony. The .first publica-
prohibited by statute, also hunting, fishing, shooting, tion to be at least ten days prior thereto, or the publi-
theatrical, dramatic, or athletic performances; com- cation of bans may be dispensed with upon the secur-
mon labour or keeping open one's place of business, or ing of a licence from the probate court of the county
requiring any employee to labour on Sunday; the sale where the female resides. Persons applying for a h-
of mtoxicatin|; liquors is prohibited on that day. cence are compelled to answer under oath questions
The prohibition of common labour does not apply touching the age, name, residence, place of birth, etc.,
to those who conscientiously observe and abstain from of the two parties concerned. Solemnizing marriage
labour on Saturday. The basis of the observance of without a hcence or without the publication of bans
Sunday is not religious; it is a municipal or police is penalized, and any person attempting to perform
regulation. As to oaths, a person may be sworn in any the ceremony without a certificate from the probate
form deemed by him binding on his conscience. Be^ court is guilty of a misdemeanor. The marriage of
lief in the existence of God seems to be a prerequisite, persons under the statutory age is voidable, but be-
but not a belief in a future state of rewani or punish- comes irrevocable by cohabitation or other acts of rati-
ment. fication after the age limit is reached. Common-law
Oath includes affirmation, which may be substi- marriage, by the weight of authority, is not recog-
tuted. An oath is not regaraed as having its founda- nized in Ohio. Grounds for divorce are: previous
tion in Christianitv. Profane cursing or swearing existing marriage; wilful absence for three years; adul-
by the name of God, Jesus Christ, or the Holy Ghost tery; impotency; extreme cruelty; fraudulent con-
is a misdemeanor. No use of prayer is provided for in tract; ^ross neglect; habitual dnmkenness for three
the legislative sessions. There is no recomition of years; imprisonment in penitentiary (but suit must
religious holids^ys as such. New Year's JDay and be filed wnile party is in prison) ; foreign divorce not
Christmas Day are secular holidays and holidays for releasing party in Ohio. The person appl}ring must
business* purposes. Under the head of privileged be a bona fide resident of the county where suit is filed
communication a confession made to a clergyman or and must have been a resident of the state for a year
priest in his professional character, in the course of dis- previous to the commencing of the suit. Service on
cipline enjoined by his Church, shall be held sacred. the defendant mav be either personal or by publica-
Corporations not for profit, which include churches, tion. A divorce does not affect the legitimacy of the
may be formed by five persons, a maiority of whom children.
are citizens of Ohio, who acknowledge in due form the A yearly tax of $1000 is assessed against every per-
articles of incorporation containing name of corpo- son engaged in the trafficking in spirituous, vmous,
ratiop, place where same is to be located, and purpose malt^ or other intoxicating liquors. Ix>cal option laws
, for which formed. Any person subscribing to the ar- provide for the suppressmg of the sale of liquor in
tides of incorporation as set forth in the records of the townships or mimicipalities where a majority of the
corporation may become a member thereby. Under electors of the district vote in favour of closing the sa-
the constitution of Ohio houses used exclusively for loons. The statutes provide for a jail in each county;
public worship and institutions for purely charitable for a house of refuge for incorrigible or vicious infants;
purposes are exempt from taxation. The term house for workhouses for persons convicted of minor of-
mcludes also the grounds attached thereto and all such fences; for an Ohio State Reformatory for criminals
buildings necessary for the proper use and enioyment between the ages of sixteen and thirty; and the Ohio
of such nouses. Thus grounds contiguous to churches, State Penitentiary for persons convicted of a felony,
schools and priests' houses used in connexion there- Every will, except nuncupative wills, shall be in writ-
with or for ornamental or recreation purposes, fall ing, either handwritten or tjrpewritten, and signed by
within this classification. Building belonging to the the testator or by some other person in his presence
Roman Catholic Church and occupied by the bishops, and by his expressed direction, and shall be attested
priests, etc., are considered to come witmn the consti- and subscribed in the presence of the testator by at
tutional phrase "institutions of purely public clmr- least two competent witnesses who saw him sign or
ity ". It has been held that the residence of a minister, heard him acknowledge it. Generallv speaking, anv
? X . , , , mark made at the end of the will by the testator with
testamentary intent constitutes a good signing. A
^lly spc^ated or destroyed will may be proven, and its di-
exempt from taxation, and private schools established rections carried out, where it was destroyed or lost
by private donations for public or semi-public pur- subsequent to the death of the testator or to his be-
poses are exempt as comingwithin the purview of the coming incapable of making a will by reason of in-
constitutional provision. With reference to institu- sanity. A verbal will made in the last sickness is
tions of purely public charity, while church and school valid in respect to personal property if reduced to
property are exempt from all ordinary state, county, writing and subscribed by proper number of witnesses
ana city taxes^ sucn property is subject to special as- within ten days after the speaking of the testamentary
sessments for improvements. Priests and clergymen words. A devisee under a will may be a witness
are exempt from jury duty, but. apparently, not from thereto, but a devise to him fails unless the will can be
militai^ duty. Members of religious denominations proven without his testimony. Any bequest for
{)rohibited by articles of faith from serving are abso- charitable purposes made within one year of the tes-
utely exempt from military duty. tator's death is void if any issue of the testator is
A male of eighteen years and a female of sixteen living. The word issue here used means of the blood
years may contract marriage, but consent of the par- of the deceased. The Ohio courts have held, however,
ents or guardian must be obtained if the male is under that a bequest to a Roman Catholic priest ''for the
twenty-one or female under eighteen. * saying of Masses for the repose of my soul and the soul
OHLEB
228
on.
of my husband '' is not within the statute and is good
although made within less than a year of the testator's
death. ^ Municipal corporations are organized bv
statute to maintain public cemeteries and burial*
grounds, and are empowered to appropriate property
for cemetery purposes. The cost of lots in such cem-
eteries is limited to such an amount as will reimburse
the corporation for its outlay. Private associations
incorporated for cemetery purposes may by statute
purchase, appropriate, or otherwise become holders of
title of land for cemetery purposes. Burial-lots are
exempt from taxation, execution, attachment, or any
other claim, lien, or process if used exclusively for
burial-purposes, but cemeteries owned by associations
are not exempt from assessments for local improve-
ments. Land appropriated for private or individual
burying-grounds is not exempt from taxation, execu-
tion, etc., if it exceeds $50 in value.
ConstitiUion, State of Ohio; Batbs« Annotated Ohio StatuU with
Supplement; Ohio State Reports; Ohio Circuit Court ReporU; tOO^
101 Ohio Laws; Biographical Annals of Ohio (1908); ReporU of
state executive departments; Statesman's Year-Book, (1910);
Ryan, History of Ohio (1888) ; Houck, History of Catholicity %n
Northern Ohio (Cleveland. 1902); Catholic Directory (1910).
John A. Deasy.
Ohler, Alots Karl, educationist, b. at Mainz,
2 January, 1817; d. there, 24 August, 1880. He at-
tended the gymnasium at Mainz, studied theology at
Giessen, and was ordained at Mainz on 14 Au^;ust,
1S39. His first charge was that of chaplain at Seligen-
stadt. Like his colleague^ Moufang, he was one oi the
founders and teachers of the Progy^nnasium of that
city. He became spiritual director of St. Rochus
Hospital at Mainz in 1845, and pastor at Abenheim
near Worms in 1847. On 21 June, 1852, he was ap-
pointed director of the Hessian Catholic teachers'
training ooUege at Bensheim. During the fifteen
' years of his administration, encourag^ by Bidiop
yon Ketteler, Ohler laboured to infuse a better spint
into the Catholic teaching body of Hesse. On 8 April,
1867, he was made a canon of the cathedral chapter of
Mainz, given charge of educational matters^ and ap-
pointed lecturer in pedagogy and catechetics at the
episcopal seminary — a position he held until the semi-
nary was closed durins; the KuUurkamj)/ in 1878.
Ohler's chief work is "Lehrbuch der Erziehung und
des Unterrichtcs '* (Mainz, 1861 ; 10th ed.. 1884). The
fundamental idea of the work is that tne education
of Catholic youth should be conducted on Catholic
principles. Church and school co-operating harmo-
niously to this end. The work was intended for the
use of the clergy as well as for teachers. Ohler adapted
from the Italian: ^'Cajetanus Maria von Bergamo,
abridged edition of the latter, ''Der kleine geistliche
Fuhrer" (1851 : 6th ed., 1861).
8elb«t, Aloys Karl Ohler, Bin Lebenthild in Kaihol. SchuUcunde,
I (Heiligenstadt, 1892), nn. x, xi, pp. 12&-7, 135-8, with portrait;
PrOLF. Bischof von Ketteler (Mams, 1899), I. 341-3; II, 121 aq.;
326.
Friedrich Lauchert.
O'Hurley, Dermod, Archbishop of Cashel, Ire-
l;ind, d. 19-29 June, 1584. His father, William
O 'Hurley of Lickadoon, near Limerick, a man of sub-
stance and standing, holdins land under the Earl
of Desmond, secured him a liberal education on the
continent. He took his doctorate in viroque jure^
taught first at Louvain and then at Reims, and after-
wards went to Rome. Appointed Archbishop of Cashel
by Gregory XIII, he was consecrated on 11 Septem-
ber, 1581, per saltumf not having previously taken
priesthood. Two years later he landed at Drogheda,
stayed a short time with the Baron of Slane, and pro-
ceeded for his diocese, expecting protection from the
Earl of Ormonde. Loftus, Protestant Archbishop of
Dublin, and Sir Henry Wallop, Uien lords justices,
having secret information, so intimidated Lord Slane
that he hastened to Munster and brought back hia
ffuest. The archbishop was , committed to Dublin
Castle in October, 1583, while the justices^ dreading
Ormonde's resentment and his influence with Queen
Elizabeth, obtained authority to use torture, hoping
that he would inform' against the Earl of Kildare
and Lord Delvin. Still apprehensive, they suggested
as Dublin was unprovided with a rack, that their
Erisoner could be^ oetter schooled in the Tower of
ondon. Walsingham replied by bidding them toast
his feet in hot boots over a fire. The barbarous sug-
gestion was adopted, and early in March. 1584, the
archbishop's legs were thrust into boots filled with oil
and salt, oeneath which a fire was kindled. Some
groans of agony were wrung from the victim, and he
cried aloud, " Jesus, son of David, have mercy on me ! '' ,
but rejected every proposal to abandon his religion.
Ultimately he swooned away, and fearing his death,
the torturers removed him; as the boots were pulled
off, the flesh was stripped from his bones. In this
condition he was returned to prison, and the Justices
again sought instructions from England, reporting
what had been done, and intimating the lawyer's
opinion that no charge of treason could be sustained
in Irish law against Dr. O'Hurley. Walsingham, hav-
ing consulted the queen, wrote oack her approval of
the torture, and her authority to dispatch the arch-
bishop by martial law. He was secretly taken out at
dawn, and hanged with a withe on the gibbet near
St. Stephen's Green, 19-29 June, 1584. His body
was buned by some friends in St. Kevin's churchyard.
Roth, Analeda Nova et Mira, ed. Mosan (Dublin, 1884);
Mohan, Spicilegium Ossor., I (Dublin, 1874); O'Reilly. Afe*
morials of Sufferers for the Catholic Faith (London, 1868) ; Murphy,
Our Martyrs (Dublin, 1896).
Charles McNeill.
O'Huflsey, Maelbrighte (Irish, Maol Brighde
UA Heodhusa; Latin, Brigidus HosSiBus), known
also a9 Giolla-Brigid and as Bonaventura Hussby,
a Franciscan Friar, b. in the Diocese of Clobber, Ulster.
Little is known of his life. The first defimte informa-
tion about him dates from 1 November, 1607, on
which day he became one of the original members of «
the Irish Franciscans at their college of St. Anthony
at Louvain. It seems, however, that he had pre-
viouslv been at Douai. At Louvain, he lectured first
in philosophy and afterwards in theology. His fame
rests upon his profound knowledge of the history and
language of Ireland, for which, according to the chron-
icles of his order, he was even in his own time held in
hi^ esteem. As far as we know, his works were all
written in Irish^ and one of his writings, ''A Christian
Catechism" (Louvain, 1608), was the first book
printed on the Continent in the Irish character. The
t)ook must have met with considerable success, for
we find that it was several times reprinted and revised.
Among his other works are to be mentioned : a metrical
abridgment in 240 verses of the Christian Catechism,
a poem for a friend who had fallen into heresy, a
poem on the author entering the Order of St. Francis,
and three or four poems preserved in manuscript in
the British Museum and the Roval Irish Academy.
A letter in Irish from him to Father Nugent, the
superior of the Irish Jesuits, is printed in Rev. E.
Hogan's "Hibemia Ignatiana" (p. 167). O'Hussey
remained as guardian of the college at Louvain until
his death in 1614.
Irish Ecclesiastical Record, VII (1870), 41 ; Mosan, SpiciUgium
Ossoriense, III, 52: Wadding, Scriptores ordinis minorum, 56;
Warb-Haiuus, Writers of Ireland, 102; O'Reilly, Irish Writers,
Joseph Dunn.
168.
Oil of Saints (Manna Oil of Saints), an oily sub-
stance, which is said to have flowed, or still flows,
from the relics or burial places of certain saints; some-
times the oil in the lamps that bum before their
OILS 22d OINTMSNT
shrines; also the water that flows from the wells near P. L., tiXXI, 730) testifies that a certain substance
their burial places; or the oil andthe water which have like flour emanated from the sepulchre of John the
in tome way come in contact with their reUcs. These Evangdist. The same Gregory writes (ibid., xxxi)
oils are or have been used by the faithful, with the be- that mm the sepulchre of the Apostle St. Anarew at
lief that they will ciu« bodily and spiritual ailments, Patrse emanated manna in the form of flour and fra-
not through any intrinsic power of their own, but grant oil.
through the interoession of the saints with whom the Following is a list of other saints from whose relics
oils have some connexion. In the da^ of St. Pau* or sepulchres oil is said to have flowed at certain times:
linus of Nola (d. 431) the custom prevailed of pouring St. Antipas, Bishop of Pergamum, martyred under
oil over the relics or reliquaries of martyrs and then Emperor Domitian ("Acta SS.", April, II, 4): St.
gathering it in vases, sponges, or pieces of cloth. Babolenus, Abbot of St-Maurndes-Foss^s near Paris,
This oil, oleum martyriSf was distributed among the d. in the seventh centuiy (''Acta SS.'^ Juubl VIL
faithful as a remedy against sickness [''PauliniNolani 160); St. Candida the Younger, of Naples, d. 580
Carmen", XVIII, lines 38-40 and "Carmen", XXI, ("Acta SS.", Sept., II, 230) ; St. Demetrius of Thessa-
lines 590-600, m "Corpus Script. Eccl. Latmorum'^ lonica, martyred in 306 or 290 ("Acta SS.", Oct.; IV,
(Vienna, 1866 sq.), XXX, 98, 177J. According to the 73-8); St. Eligius, Bishop of Noyon, d. 660 or soon
testimony of Paulinus of P^riKueux (wrote about 470) after (Surius, " De probatis sanctorum historiis", VI,
678) ; St. Euthymius the Great, abbot in Palestine, d.
473 ("Acta SS.", Jan.. II, 687); St. Fantinus, confes-
Carmen de
Script. Eccl.
miracles,
saints,
fitftt^
St. Augustine ("DeCivitate Dei", XXII) mentions decar, Bishop of Eichstfidt, d.' 1075 ("Acta SS.",
that a dead man was brought to life by the agency of August^ 1, 184) ; St. Humilitas, first abb^ of the Val-
the oil of St. Stephen.. lombrosian Nuns, d. 1310 ("Acta SS.", May, V, 211):
At present the most famous of the oils of saints is St. John the Almsgiver, Patriarch of Alexanaria, d. 62()
The Oil of SL WaUmrga (WaUmrgia oleum). It flows or 616 ("Acta SS.", Jan., Ill, 130-1); St. John of
from the stone slab and the surroundin|^ metal plate Beverley, Bishop of York, d. 721 ("Acta SS.", May,
on which rest the relics of St. Walbiirga m her church II, 1^) ; S^. Luke the Yoimger, sumamed Thauma-
in Eichst&dt in Bavaria. The fluid is caught in a sil- turgos, a hermit in (>reece^ d. 945-6 (" Acta SS.", Feb.,
ver cup^ placed beneath the slab for that purpose, and II, 99) ; St. Paphnutius, bishop and mart3rr in Greece,
is distributed among the faithful in small phials by d. probably in the fourth century ("Acta SS.", April,
the Sisters of St. Benedict, to whom the church he- IL 620): »t. Paul. Bishop of Verdim, d. 648 ("Acta
longs. A chemical analysis has shown that the fluid So.", Feo.. II, 174) ; St. Perpetuus, Bi^op of Tongres-
contains nothing but the ingredients of water. Utrecht, a. 630 (Acta SS., Nov., II, 295); St. Peter
Though the origin of the fluid is probably due to Gons^es, Dominican, d. 1246 ("Acta SS.", April, II,
natunil causes, the fact that it came in contact with 393) ; St. Peter Tliaumaturgus, Bishop of Areos, d.
the relics of the saint justifies the practice of using it about 890 ("Acta SS.", May, I, 432); St. Rolendis,
as a remedy against diseases of the oody and the soul, virgin, at Gerpinnes in Belgium, d. in the seventh or
Mention of the oil of St. Walburga is made as early eiflfth century ("Acta SS. , May, III, 243); St. Re-
as the ninth centuiy by her bioc'apher Wolfhard of verianus, Bishop of Autun, and Companions, mar-
Herrieden ("Acta QSr, Feb., Ill, 662-3 and "Mon. tyred about 273 ("Acta SS.", June, I, 40-1); St. Sa-
Germ. Script.", XV, 635 sq.). binus. Bishop of Canosa, d. about 566 ("Acta SS.",
The OH of St, Menas, Thousands of little flasks Feb., II, 329) ; St. Sigolena, Abbess of Troclar, d. about
with the inscription: BTAOriA TOT AriOT MHNA 700 ("Acta SS.", July, V, 636); St. TiUo Paulus, a
(Remembrance of St. Menas), or the like have recently Benedictine monk at Solignac in Gaul, d. 703 (" Acta
(1905-r8) been excavated by C. M. Kaufmann at SS.", Jan., I, 380); St. Venerius, hemut on the Island
Baumma (Karm Abum) in the desert of Mareotis, in of Palamaria in the gulf of Genoa, d. in the seventh
the northern part of the Libyan desert. The present century ("Acta SS. , Sept., IV, 118); St. WiDiam,
Bumma is the burial place of the Libyan martyr Archbishop of York, d. 1154 ("Acta SS.", June, II,
Menas, which during the fifth and perhaps the sixth 140) * and a few others.
century was one of the most famous pilgrimage places Besides the references above, see the articles: Walbusqa;
in the Christian world. The flasks of St. Menas were M«NAB.eto. Tiir»/«A»T rwim
well known for a long time to archaologists, and had michakl utt.
been found not only in Africa, but also in Spain, Italy, Oils, Holt. See Holt Oils.
Dalmatia, France,, and Russia, whither they had been
brought by pilgrims from the shrine of Menas. Until Ointment in Scripture.— That the use of oily,
the discoveries of Kaufmann, however, the flasks were fragrant materials to anoint the body is a custom gwne
supposed to have contained oil from the lamps that back to remote antiquity is evidenced by the Old
burned at the sepulchre of Menas. From various in- Testament as well as other early hteratures. Likewise
scriptions on the flasks that were excavated by Kauf- the ceremonial and sacred use of oil and ointment was
mann, it is certain that at least some, if not all, of of early oripin amon^ the Hebrews, and, of course,
them contained water from a holy well near the shrine was much elaborated m the prescriptions of the later
of St. Menas. and were K* ' - -« „.^._i mi. l:„.i-.j.. ^«...»»4. u^^..^ «« ^k»
pilgrims. Tne so-called
fore in reality, water from ^ , . . ^ .... -u j •
used as a remedy against bodily and spiritual ail- pomenon. Its composition is minutely prescnbed in
ments. Exodus, xxx, 23, 24. Besides the regular basis of olive
The Oil of St. Nicholas of Myra is the fluid which oil, the other ingredients mentioned are chosen myrrh,
emanates from his relics at Bari in Italy, whiter they cinnamon, calamus, and cassia, all of which are to
were brought in 1087. It is said to have also flowed be used in stated quantities. The making or the use
from his relics when they were still in Mjrra. (See of this holy oil by unauthorized persons was prohibited
Nicholas op Mtra, Saint.) under pain of sacrilege. In many of the references to
St. Gregory of Tours, "De Gloria martyrum", xxx, ointment in Scripture perfumed oil is meant, and it
' OJSDA 230 OKLAHOMA
may have in some cases consisted of oil only. Oil and charae of which he left Pizarro. He was shipwrecked
ointment however, are distinguished in Luke, vii, 46: on the wav, and only after suffering ^reat privations
" My head with oil thou didst not anoint; but she with did he finally reach Santo Domineo, where he died,
ointment hath anointed my feet." Identical or sim- Tizaxbo t Orkllana. Var. Htut, d. Nueto-Mundo (1639).
ilar preparations, in which mjrrrh was an important J* l-^- M. Ford.
ingredient, were used in anointing the dead body as ^i^^^ju^ t > i n j rw r\
wdl as the Uving subject (Luke, xxiii, 56). Ointment Okeghem, Jban d , also caHed Okekbm, Okbn-
of spikenard, a v«y costly undent, is mentioned in OKf^ ^?''^''^' ^^'^^F'^i^'^^'^^\^''^^^
Mark,xiv,3,"analaba8terbox^fointmentof precious ??^,^^ 'L^^\f^''^ Netherlancf flchool (1450-
8pikeilaTd"(cf.John, xii, 3). So prized were these 1550), b. about 1430 presumably at Termond^^
uSaguents that they were kept in potS of alabaster, and ^A*^l^' t ^f^\ ^^/?5^^^u* ^^'"'',^7
among the Egyptians- they were^aid to retain their ^ ^^If^^^"? ""^ ^^'^f^il^^^^i: ^ " JTo ^?
f ragr^ce even f^r centurii. For the oU spoken of by ^^« b««^ % P"P]1 ^ Gill«s Bmchois Mid GujI-
St James, V, 14, see Extreme Unction. laumeDirfay. He enter^ Holy ord(«, and m H53
Wilkinson, Mann€r» and CuMama of the Ancient Brnvlians, I JS^Umed the DOSt Of Chief Chanter at the Cx>urt Of
(Boston, 1883), 426; LxaiTBi: in Vioouboxtx, Did, de la Bible, Charles VII of France, whece he became choir-maater.
B. V. Ondum. Jambs F. Driscoll. At the expense of the king, he visited Flanders and
Spain, but most of his time was spent in Tours ^ere
OJeda, Alonbo de, explorer: b. at Cuenca, Spain, he acted, by royal appointment, as treasurer of the
about 1466; d. on the island oi canto Domingo^ about church of St. Martin until his death. At first he UA-
1508. He came of an impoverished noble family, but k>wed his predecessors and teachers in his manner
had the good fortune to start his career in the house- writing, but eventually introduced the principle of
hold of the Dukes of Medina Sidonia. He early free imitation in the various voices of ms composi-
fained the patronage of Juan Rodriguez de Fonseca, tions. Previously the strict canon was the ideal con-
tishop of Burgos and later Patriarch of the Indies, tra^untal form, but he introduced the practice of al-
who made it possible for Ojeda to accompany Colum- lowing everv new voice to enter freely on any interval
bus in his second voyage to the New World. Ojeda and at any distance from the initial note of the original
distinguished himself there by his daring in battle with theme. The innovation was epoch making and of the
the natives, towards whom, however, he was unduly greatest consequence in the development of the a cap-
harsh and vindictive. He returned to Spain in 1496. pella style. The new principle inaugurated an unpre-
After three years he again journeyed to the New cedented era of activity with Okeghcm's disciples,
World with three vessels on his own account, accom- chi^ amonp whom were Josquin Desprdz, Pierre de la
panied by the cosmographer Juan de L^ (Josa and Rue, Antoine Brumel, Jean Ghisehn, Antoine and
Amerigo Vespucci. In a Uttle over three weeks he Robert de Fevin, Jean Mouton, Jacob Obrecht, etc.
sighted the mainland near the mouth of the Orinoco, Numerous fragments of his works are contained in
anid after landing on Trinidad and at other places, dis- the histories of music by Foikel, Bumey, Kiesewetter,
covered a harbour which he called Venezuela (little and Ambrose, while in the Proske Library of the Ratis-
Venice), from its resemblance to the bay of Venice, bon cathedral are preserved his '' Missa cujufivis toni"
After some further exploration, he made his way to to four voices and a collection of "Cantiones h&cm"
the island of Hispaniola, where he was not received for four voices. His contemporary, Guillaume Cretin,
cordially, because it was thought that he was infringe wrote a poem on the death of Ok^hem, in which he
ing upon the exploring privileges of Columbus. Oil mentions thskt Okeghem produced the greatest master-
his return to 'Spain in 1500, he took with him many piece of his time — a motet in canon form for thirty-six
captives whom ne sold as slaves. Having still influen- real voices. While the belief in the existence of such a
tial friends at home, he was able to fit out a new expe- monster production was kept alive by tradition, it was
dition, which left Cadiz in 1502 and made a landing on feared that it had been lost. In his '^Quellenlexikon ",
the American continent at a place which he named Robert Eitner expresses the opinion, shared by Michel
Santa Cruz. There he established a colony which did Brenet, that the supposedly lost work is contained in a
not last long because of the improvidence of his com- volume "Tomus Illpsalmorum'', printed in Nurem-
panions and their extreme cruelty toward the Indians, berg in the sixteenth century by Johannes Petreius.
Chafing under his leadership, these companions Hugo Riemann reproduces the work in his "Handbuch
turned against him and sent him back a prisoner to dwMusikgeschichte'', I, ii. While the composition re-
Spain, accusing him of having ap|Ht>priatea the royal quires thirty-six vcHces, more than eighteen are never
revenues. He was tried and sentenced to pay a heavy active simultaneously. The only words used are ''Deo
fine. Upon his appeal, however, he was acquitted of ^atias" and there are no modulations from one key
all culpability, but was now reduced to poverty. mto another — probably to maintain as much clearness
In someway or other he made his way back to His^ as is posmble under the circumstances. Riemann
paniola, where his former associate *Cosa also was. doubts whether the composition was intended to be
There he conceived the idea of establishing colonies on performed by vocalists; ne thinks that it was to be
the mainland between Cabo de Vela and the Golfo de play^ on instruments or perhaps. to serve as an exhi-
Uraba, and after some time spent in petitioning the oition of the master's surpassing skill.
Government, finally the two comrades obtained the Bamum. Jan wn Okeghem iAntwem, 1868); Trouav, D&-
_» • ■/-. XJ« «.Anf K«/«lr ♦#> Qno;n €%T>A rkw^ pUmU%on de O. Cr4t%n eur le tripae de Jean Okeghem, muncten
necessary ]*ermission. He went back to Spam and or- J^ ^^^^y Brbnbt. Jean dT Okeghem (Paris. 1893); Db
ganized his third and last expedition, only after great Mabct, Jean Okeghem (Peris, 1895).
effort. Amone the persons who embarked in his four Joseph Ottbn. •
vessels was Pizarro, the future conqueror of Peru. ^^, ^ ^ ^ V.i i i. *u
Cortes, who was later to dominate Mexico, would have Okl*homa. — I. Geography. — Oklahoma, the
been among the soldiers of fortune engaged in this fortynsixth state to be admitted to the Union, is bounded
adventure had not a sudden illness prevented him on the north by Colorado and Kansas, on the east by
from sailing When he reached hLs destination, Ojeda Arkansas and Missouri, on the south by the Red River
found the natives very hostile ; they attacked his force separating it f rwn Texas, and on the west by Texas and
and slew every man except Ojeda and one other. The New Mexico. It includes what was formerly Okla-
two escaped to the shore, where they were succoured homa Territory and Indian Territory, lyme m the
by those whom he had left in charge of the ships. Not south ceotr^ ^^^^ ^^^^\ ^^^*^^o^^^^ noo^w^i
vet despairing, he founded a new colony at San Sebas- 33*» and ZT North lat. and between 94^ and 103 West
tian. It soon became necessary for him to proceed to long. Its extreme length from north to south is about
Hispaniola to obtain supplies' for the settlement, in 210 miles, and from east to west about 460 miles. Its
OKLAHOMA 2i
haBanareaof73,dlOsquaTcmiles. Oklahoma is boun-
tifully blessed with streatns, although, exactly speak-
ing, there is not a navigable stream in the stat«. The
rivers flow from the north-west to the south-cast.
With the exception of the mountiun districts the en-
tire surface of the stat« ie just rollingenough to render
ita scenery beautiful. The climate is delightful. £9-
eaping as it does the extremes of heat ana cold, it is
fitted for agricultural purposes even during the winter
season. An irregular chain of knobs or buttea, enter-
ing Oklahoma from Missouri and Arkansas on the
east, extends through the southern part of the state to
the western boundary, in a. manner comiecting the
Oiark range with the eastern plateau of the Rocky
Mountains. The groups, as they ranee westward
across the state, are the Kiamichi, Arbuckle, and
Wichita Mountains and the Antelope Hills. The
highest mountain, 2300 feet above sea-level, is the
Sugar Loaf peak. II. PoPtrLATion.— The report of the
government census bureau relative to the special cen-
sus of Oklahoma, taken in 1907, shows that the State
had in that year a total population of 1,414,177, of
whom 733,062 lived in wnat was prior to statehood
called the Indian Territory. There were 1.226,930
whites; 112,160 negroes; 75,012 Indiana. Since 1907
the influ.x of people has been enormous. The white
people in Oklahoma represent every nationality, hav-
mg come from every stat* in the union and from every
country since the opening in 1889.
III. iNDUBTHiES.^The value of the agricultural
output for 1907 was |231,.'i 12,903. The principal
crops are cotton, com, and wheat, the production in
1908 being aa foIlowB: cotton 492,272 bales; com 95,-
230,442 buahcla; wheat 17,017,887 bushels. In that
year Oklahoma ranked sixth in cotton production,
eighth in com, thirteenth in wheat, and first in petro-
leum products. The oil fields of Oklahoma are now
the largest and most productive in the world, there
being produced in 1908, 50,455,628 barrels. In' 1009
the production of natural gas amounted to 54,000,-
000,000 cubic feet. Coal has been mined extensively
for a number of years; the production in 1909 was 3,-
092,240 tons, the number of men employed in this one
industry being 14,580. Gold, lead, zinc, asphalt, gyp-
sum, and other minerals are mined in paymg quanti-
.ties. Oltlahoma has deposits of Portland cement-stone
that are said to be inexhaustible. There are two large
.cement mills in the state, each operating with a ca-
pacity of 5000 barrels per day. In 1908 there were
5,695.36 miles of railway in thestate, exclusive of yard
tracks and sidings; the total taxable valuation of same
amounted to $174,649,682. During the year begin-
ning 1 July. 1907, and ending 30 June, 1908, there were
built in Oklahoma 107,89 miles of railroad. There are
thirteen railroad companies operating in the state.
!V. Education. — The State University, located at
Norman, was founded in 1892 by an act of the lewsla-
ture of the Territory of Oklahoma. The value of the
university lands is estimated at 13,670,000. For
190S-9 the number of teachers in the institution was
84; enrollment was 790. Other state institutions are
three normal schools, located at Edmond, Alva, and
Weatherford; the Agricultural and Mechanical Col-
lie at Stillwater: the univeruty preparatory school
at Tonkawa: a school for the deaf at ISulpher; an in-
'stitute for tne blind at Wagoner; the Vrhitaker Or-
phans' Home in Pryor Creek; five district agricultural
schools, one in each judicial district of the state.
There were about 10,000 t<'achers employed in the
;public schools of the stnt^^, 190S-9, the enrolment of
.Students being about 400,000; the total appropriation
for educational purposes during this time was about
:»600,000,
V. HiBTOBT.— In 1540 Francisco Vasoue de Coro-
nado, commanding 300 Spaniards, crossed with Indian
iguides the Great Plains region to the eastward and
Aorthward from Mexico. In the course of their jour-
1 OKLAHOMA
ney these Spaniards were the first white men to set
foot on the soil of Oklahoma. Coronado traversed the
western part of what is now Oklahoma, while at the
same time de Soto discovered and partiadly explored
the eastern portion of the state. In 1611 a Spamsh ex-
pedition was sent east to the Wichita Mountains.
From that time on until 1629, Padre Juan de Sales and
other Spanish missionaries laboured among the tribes
of that region. La Salle in 1682 took possession of the
territory, of which the State of Oklahoma is now a
part, in the name of Louis XIV, and in honour of that
monarch named it Louisiana. Prior toithe Louisiana
Purchase, Bienville, accompanied by Washington
Irving, had visited and related the wonderful beauty
of the region now known as Oklahoma. In 1816 the
Government conceived the project of dividing the
region now embraced in the state into Indian r(
tions. This plan
was carried out, but
at the close of the
CivU War the Semi-
noles, Creeks, Ch i ck-
asaws, and Choc-
taws were induced
to transfer back to
the Governr
14,000,000 aci
this land at 15 to 30
cents per acre. Of
these lands theOkla-
homa that was
opened to settlement
in 1889, by procla- "^ — - - -
mation of the Presi- Seal o» Oiuhoma
dent of the United States, embraced 1,392,611 acres
ceded by the Creeks, and 495,094 acres ceded by the
Seminoles in 1866. The lands so ceded were the west-
em portions of their reservations, including Oklahoma
{"the home of the red man"). The Government's ob-
t'ect in obtaining the lands was to "colonize friendly
ndians and freedom thereon". Captain David L.
Payne and his "boomers" declared the territory was
thus public land and open to the squatter-settlement.
Payne and his followers made several attempts to set-
tle on Oklahoma soil, but the United States troops
drove out the colonists. Much credit is due Payne and
his followers for their many attempts at colomzation:
for they caused the lands of Oklahoma to be otteneci
for whit« settlement. Finally in 1888 the Springer
Bill, which provided for the opening of Oklahoma to
settlement, although defeated in the senate, opened
the way to partial success, and in Congress it was at-
tached as a rider to the Indian Appropriation Bill, and
was thus carried. On 2 Mareh, 1889, the Bill opening
Oklahoma whs signed by President Cleveland; and on
22 March, President Harrison issued the proclamation
that the land would be opened to settlement at 12
o'clock noon, 22 April, 1889. The day prerious to the
opening it was estimated that ten thousand people
were at Arkansaa City awaiting the sienal. Large
numbers were also at Hunnewell, Caldwell, and other
points along the south line of Kansas, Fifteen trains
carried people into the territory from Arkansas City
that moming. On foot, horseback, in wagons, and
carriages people entered the promised land all along the
Kansas border. Other thousands entered Oklahoma
from the south, crossing the South Canadian at Fur-
cell. The town of Lexington was perhaps the first vil-
lage established. Two million acres of land were
tlmiwn open to settlement and on that eventful day
cities and towns and a new commonwealth were cre-
ated in a wilderness within twenty-four hours. On 6
June, 1890, Congress created the Territory of Okla-
homa with six original counties. Nineteen other coun-
ties were from time to time created prior to statehood
by the various ads of Congress which provided for the
opening of different Indian reservations within the
6KLAH0BIA 232 OKLAHOMA
territory. On 16 September, 1893, the Cherokee mas are legal holidays. There is no statute law re-
Strip was opened for settlement. This was a strip of gardin^ the seal of confession, nor has there ever been
land extending from the Cherokee Nation west to ^^ No a decision of the Supreme Court regarding it. Churches
Man's Land'' and Texas, being about 58 miles wide may be incorporated under the laws of Oklahoma and
and containing an area of 6,014,293 acres. This had the greatest latitude is given such corporation^. They
once been guaranteed to the Cherokee Indians as a may own or hold as much real property as is necessary
perpetual hunting outlet to the western border of the for the objects of the association, may sell or mortgage
IJmted States. The last great opening in Oklahoma property, and the title to any property held by any
occurred in December, 1906. when 505,000 acres of bishop m trust for the use and benefit of such con-
land, which had been reservea from the Comanche and ^gation shall be vested in his successor or successors.
Apache lands for pasturage, were sold in tracts of 160 m office. The law provides for a fee of $2.00 to the
acres to the highest bidders by the Government. In Secretary of State for incorporating any religious cor-
this wise 2500 farms were opened to white settlement, poration. All the property and mortgages on prop-
Oklahoma and Indian Territories became a state on erty used exclusively for reli^ous or chantable
16 November, 1907. On 20 November, 1906, pursu- purposes are exempt from taxation. The clergy are
ant to the enabling act passed by Congress, the consti- exempt from jury and military service under the laws
tutional convention assembled at Guthrie and closed of the state.
its labours on 6 July, 1907. The constitution was Any unmarried male of the a£e of twenty-one or
adopted by a vote of the people on 17 September, upwards and any unmarried female of the age of eigh-
1907, and at the same election the officers of the new teen or upwards, if not related by blood nearer than
state were elected. The inauguration was held in second cousins, ^re capable of contracting and con-
Guthrie on 16 November, 1907. senting to marriage. The contracting parties are re-
VI. Constitution, Laws etc. — When the Congress quired to secure a licence after filing an applicatipn
of the United States passed what is known as the en- sworn to before the county judge by a person legally
ablingact^ enabling the people of Oklahoma and of In- competent to make and take oath. The marriage
dian Temtory to form a constitution and be admitted ceremony may be solemnized by any judge, justice
to -the Union, it was provided in said act: ''That per- of the peace, or any priest or clerg^an. The miniB-
f ect toleration of religious sentiment shall be secured ter is required to make the proper mdorsement on the
and that no inhabitant of the State shall ever be mo- licence and transmit same to the ooimty judge. All
lested in person or property on account of his or ^er Indian marriages, under Indian customs, prior to 1897
mode of religious worship and that polygamous or have been declared legal and all Indian divorces
plural marriages are forever prohibited"". The Con- among Indians, according to their customs, prior to
stitution of the State provides for the freedom of wor- that year have been declared legal. Since 1897 In-
ship in the same language as quoted above but pro- dians have had to comply with uie laws of the state
vicles further: ''No religious test shall be reauirea for regarding marria^^e and divorce. Prior to 1893 the
the exercise of civil or political rights". Under the law required a residence of only ninety days in order
statute law of Oklahoma it is a misdemeanour for any to file petition for a divorce. The state laws now re-
one to attempt, by means of threats or violence, to quire a residence of one year prior to filing petition
compel any person to adopt, practise, or profess any and there are ten grounds or causes upon which a
particular form of religious belief. It is aiso a crime divorce may be granted, such as abandonment, ex-
under the law for any person to wilfully prevent, by treme cruelty, orunkenness, adultery, impotency,
threats or violence^ i^other person from performing pross neglect of duty etc. A judgment of divorce
any lawful act enjoined upon or recommended to such is final and conclusive and operates as a dissolution of
person by the religion which he professes. Every per- the marriage contract as to both husband aiid wife,
son who wilfully msturbs, interrupts^ or disquiets any Neither pi^y to the divorce can marry within six
assemblage of people met for religious worship, by months from the date of the decree,
uttering profane oiscourse, or maJdng unnecessary Prior to statehood the sale of liquor in the Indian
noise within or near the place of meeting, or obstruct- Territory was prohibited by United States law.
ing the free passage to such place of religious meeting, Oklahoma Territory was not governed by that law
is guilty of a misdemeanour. The laws of Oklahoma and liquor was sold in all parte of Oklahoma. The
provide that : "The first day of the week being by very enabling act that Congress passed provided for state-
general consent set apart for rest and religious uses, wide prohibition and the constitutional convention
the law makes a crime to be done on that day certain made provision for a prohibitory clause which was
acts deemed useless and serious interruptions of the voted upon by the people of the state, but voted
repose and reUgious liberty of the community"; and upon separately from the constitution. The prohibi-
the following are the acts forbidden on Sunday: ser- tion clause carried, and since statehood Oklahoma
vile labour; public sports; trades, manufacturing and has been a prohibition state. The new state has begun
mechanical employments; public traffic; serving pro- to construct modem buildings for its prisons and re-
cess, unless authorized by law so to do. formatories, and has passed many laws for regulation
Oaths can be administered only by certain judicial of same. A law that was enacted and included in the
officers and their clerks authorized by law, and persons constitution provided for the office of commissioner of
conscientiously opposed to swearing are allowed charities ana corrections, and since statehood the of-
merely to affirm but are amenable to the penalties of fice has been filled by a (jatholic woman.
Eerjury. Oaths can be taken only when authorized The laws regarding wills and testaments in this
y law. Under the state law blasphemy consists in state differ very little from the general statutory
wantonly uttering or publishing words, casting con- provisions of other states. Property can be devised
tumelious reproach or profane ridicule upon God, practically any way that the testator desires; there
Jesus Christ, the Holy Ghost, the Holy Scriptures, is no bar to charitable bequests and the law requires
or the Christian or any other reli^on. Blasphemy is that the property be distributed according to the
a misdemeanour. Profane sweanng as defined by the intention of the party making the bequest. Ceme-
state law is: "Any use of the name of God, or Jesus tery corporations may hold real property, not exceed-
Christ, or the Holy Ghost either in imprecating divine ing eight acres, for the sole purpose of a burial ground
vengeance upon the utterer or any otner person, or in and are given all the powers necessary to carry out the
light, trifling or irreverent speech." It is punishable purposes of the corporation, and any cemetery or-
by fine, for each offence. It is customary to convene ganized or controlled by any fraternal organization or
the Legislature of the State with prayer, but the law congregation shall be controlled and managed as pro-
makes no provision for it. Every Sunday and Christ- vided by their rules and by-laws. All the property so
OKLAHOMA 233 OKLAHOBCA
held is wholly exempt from taxation, asseesmen is, lien, Canada, 1 Indian, and 20 American priests). The
attachment, and sale upon execution. majority of these priests were educated at Louvain,
VII. DiocESEOFOKiiAkoMA. — What is now the Dio- Strasburg, or Rome. There are two parishes for
cese of Oklahoma was formerly the Vicariate Apostolic non-Engush speaking Catholics in the diocese, one
of Indian Territory. The diocese comprises the entire Polish at Harrah ana one German at Okarche. The
State of Oklahoma. Prior to the opening of Oklahoma parochial schools are conducted by both Brothers and
in 1889 there were only a few missions and scarcely Sisters, some few by lay-teachers. The Brothers of
any churches. At the present time (1910) there are. the Sacred Heart and the Christian Brothers have
within the state 53 churches with resident priests and schools within the diocese. The sisterhoods within
71 missions with churches, 300 stations attended the diocese are: Sisters of Mercy (mother-house in
occasionally and 12 chapels, 60 secular priests and 34 Oklahoma City), Sisters of Divine '* Providence
Benedictines, 14 of whom are in the missions. The (mother-house in San Antonio, Texas), Sisters of St.
Benedictine Fathers were. the first missionaries and Francis, Sisters of St. Benedict, and Sisters of the
thjBV established theomselves at Sacred Heart Abbey Precious Blood. There are thirty-six schools for
in Pottawatomie County in 1880. The first prefect- white children, fifteen for Indians, two for coloured
Apostolic was the Rt. Rev. Isidore Robot, O.S.B., his children; thirty-six parishes with schools; one indus-
appointment dating from 1877. Catholicism in Okla- trial school ; two colleges for boys : St. Joseph's College
homa owes much to his persevering efforts. A native at Muskogee, under the direction of Brothers of the
of France, he introducea the Benedictine order in the Sacred Heart., and the College of the Sacred Heart
Indian country, choosing the home of the Pottawa- under the direction of the Benedictine Fathers,
tomie Indians as the centre of his missionary labours. There are eight academies for young ladies, the princi-
At this time a few Catholics other than the Potta- pal ones being Mt. St. Mary's Academy at Oklahoma
watomie and Osage Indians were scattered over this City conducted by the Sisters of Mercy and the acad-
vast country. Soon after Robot's appointment as emy at Guthrie conducted by the Benedictine Sisters.
prefect Apostolic he had the foundations of Sacred There is one seminary for students of the Benedictine
Heart College and St. Mary's Academy well estab- order. There are in the diocese 14 Benedictine
lished, the latter under the care of the Sisters of Mercy. Brothers. 5 Christian Brothers, 8 Brothers of the
These institutions have grown and prospered. Father Sacred Heart, and 234 Sisters in the various congrega^
M. Bernard Murphy was the first American to join tions. The novitiates are: Sisters of Mercy at Olda-
the Benedictine order and from 1877 was the constant homa City, Benedictine Sisters at Guthrie, and Bene-
companion and oo-worker of Father Robot until the dictine Fathers at Sacred Heart. St. Anthony's
latter^s death. Father Robot fulfilled his charge well Hospital at Oklahoma City is conducted by the Sis-
and laid a solid foundation upon which others were ters of St. Francis.
to build as the great state developed. He died 15 Oklahoma City, the metropolis, with a population
Februaiy, 1887, and his humble grave is in the little of about 65,000 (1910) has one church, St. Joseph's
Campo Santo at Sacred Heart Abbey. Well did he Cathedral, the pastor of which, Rev. B. Mutsaers.
say: '^Goin^, I went forth weeping, sowing the word D.D., has two assistants: Rev. John Gruenewald and
of God; commg, they will come rejoicing, bearing the Rev. Victor Van Durme. Muskogee has a popula-
sheaves." tion of 25,000 and one church. Rev. Jos. Vati Hulse
The second prefect ApostoUo was Rt. Rev. Ignatius pastor; Enid has a population of 20^000 and one church,
Jean, O.S.B., whose appointment followed immedi- Very Rev. Gustave Dupreitere, vicar-general, pastor,
ately after the death of Father Robot. Father Jean Other cities having one church and a resident priest
resigned in April, 1890. From the coining of Father are Shawnee, Tulsa,* El Reno, Guthrie, Chickasha, and
Robot, Oklahoma and Indian Territories had been a McAlester. There are three churches and two schools
prefecture ApostoUc, but by the Bull of 29 May, 1891, for negroes, the latter attended by 120 children,
it was erected into a vicariate Apostolic. The Right Most of the Indians within the diocese are Baptists
Rev. Bishop Meerschaert was the first vicar ApostoUc and Methodists. Some of the Pottawatomies are
of Indian Territory, being consecrated in Natchez, Catholics, among the Choctaws there are a great
Miss. On 23 August, 1905, by a brief of Pius X the many, and the Osage tribe in the northern part of the
vicariate was erected into the Diocese of Oklahoma state is entirely Catholic. The spiritual interests of
with the see in Oklahoma City. Prior to this time the Osage Indians are attended to by Rev. Edward
the see had .been in Guthrie. The Right Reverend Van Waesberghe at Pawhuska. There are Indian
Bishop Theophile Meerschaert, the first Bishop of Mission Schools at Purcell, Anadarko, Chickasha,
Oklahoma, was bom at Roussignies, Belgium. He Antlers, Pawhuska, Gray Horse, Quawpaw, Ard«
studied at the American College, Lou vain, Belgium, more, Musko^^ee^ and Vinita. 1590 Indian pupils at-
finishing his course there. Coming to America in tend these mission schools. These schools are sup-
1872 he laboured in the Diocese of Natchez, Miss., ported by money coming from Rev. Mother Katherine
until 1891. By his example and his labours he has jDrexel. the Indian Bureau at Washington, D. C, and
endeared himself to his own flock, and also to fair- from Catholic residents of the state. Much credit is
minded non-Catholics. When his administration be- due Rev. Isidore Ricklin, O.S.B., of Anadarko, Rev.
gan, his labours were difficult and peiplexing; he was Edw. Van Waesberghe of Pawhuska, Rev. Hubert
compelled to travel long distances and weary miles on Van Rechem, and Rev. F. S. Teyssier of Antlers, all of
horseback, railroad facilities being very meagre and whom have laboured many years in the Indian Mis-
aooommoaations poor. In those days Mass was oele- sions.
brated many times in dugouts, no house being avail- In r^ard to the immigrants the Italians, Bohe-
able, and churches were very few and only in the larger mians, Germans, Syrians, Mexicans, and French form
towns. Development has oome with the multitudes settlements; but the people of other nationaUties as-
of people who have come to this new country to make similate because they are not numerous enough to
homes, bringing^ with them the best ideas of the old form settlements and for the further reason that by
states from which they came. The labours of the assimilation they can learn the English language more
bishop have been manifold on account of the great rapidly. From the time of the opening of Oklahoma
influx of people, but the Church has kept pace with tdi in 1889 many Catholics have moved into this diocese,
the other developments under his guidance and per- At the present time (1910) there is a good class of
severance, until at the present time (1910) there are Catholics in the diocese and many practical Cath-
within the diocese about 32,000 Catholics and 86 olics are constantly coming from all parts of the world,
priests (22 from Belgium, 12 from Holland. 15 from There are retreats for clergy every two years and eccle-
Franoe, 12 from Germany, 3 from Ireland, 1 from siastical conferences are called every four months. In
OLAF
234
OLAH
1908 there were baptisms, white children 1248, adults
327, Indians 172, negroes 9; marriages 290; confirma-
tions 1185. The Catholic population of the diocese
on 31 Dec, 1908, numbered about 33,472, of which
29,613 were whites, 3463 Indians, 396 negroes.
Hill. A History of the State of Oklahoma (Chicago. 1908) ; Rock.
Hutory of Oklahoma (Wichita, 1890) ; Tindall, Makers of Okla-
homa (Guthrie, 1905); Thoburn and Holcomb. A History of
Oklahoma (San Francisco. 1908); The Oklahoman AnntuU Al-
manac, and Industrial Record (Oklahoma City. 1909).
Mont F. Highley.
Olaf Haraldson, Saint, martyr and King of Nor-
way (1015-30), b. 996; d. 29 July, 1030. He was a
son of King Harald Grenske of Norway. According
to Snorre, he was baptized in 998 in Norway, but more
probably about 1010 in Rouen. France, by Archbishop
Kobert. In his early youth ne went as a viking to
England, where he partook in many battles and be-
came earnestly interested in Christianity. After
many difficulties he was elected King of Norway, and
made it his object to extii-pate heathenism and make the
Christian religion the basis of his kingdom. He is the
great Norwegian legislator for the Church, and, like
his ancestor (Olaf Try^esson), made frequent severe
attacks on the old faith and customs, demolishing
the temples and building Christian churches in their
place. He brought many bishops and priests from
England, as King Saint Cnut later did to Denmark.
Some few are known "by name (Grimkel, Sigfrid, Ru-
dolf, Bemhard) . He seems on the whole to have taken
the Anglo-Saxon conditions as a model for the ecclesi-
astical organization of his kingdom. But at last
the exasperation against him got so strong that the
mighty clans rose in rebellion against him and applied
to King Cnut of Denmark and England for help.
This was willingly given, whereupon Olaf was expelled
and Cnut electecf King of Norway. It must be re-
membered that the resentment against Olaf was due
not alone to his Christianity, but also in a high degree
to his unflinching struggle against the old constitution
of shires and for the unity of Norway. He is thus
regarded by the Norwegians of ouy days as the great
champion of national independence, and Catholic and
Protestant alike may find in Saint Olaf their great
ideal.
After two years' exile he returned to Norway with
an army and met his rebellious subjects at Stiklestad,
where the celebrated battle took place 29 July,
1030. Neither King Cnut nor the Danes took part
at that battle. King Olaf fought with great cour-
age, but was mortally wounded and fell on the
battlefield, praying **God help me*'. Many miracu-
lous occurrences are related in connexion with his
death and his disinterment a year later, after belief
in his sanctity had spread widely. His friends.
Bishop Grimkel and Earl Einar Tambeskjelver, laid
the corpse in a coffin and set it on the high-altar in the
church of St. Clement in Nidarbs (now Trondhjem).
Olaf has since been held as a saint, not only by the
people of Norway, but also by Rome, His cult spread
widely in the Middle Ages, not only in Norway, but
also in Denmark and Sweden; even in London, there
is in Hart Street a St. Olave's Church, long dedicated
to the canonized King of Norway. In 1856 a fine St.
Olave's Church was erected in Christiania, the capital
of Norway, where a large relic of St. Olaf (a donation
from the Danish Royai Museum) is preserved and
venerated. The arms of Norway are a lion with the
battle-axe of St. Olaf in the forepaws.
Sttobm, Snorre Sturlason' 8 Olav den HeUioes Saga; Munch. Del
norske Folks Hitiorie; Sars. Udsigt over den norske HiHorie;
Daab, Norges Helgener; Oeverland, Illustreret Norges Historic
(not reliable): Vicary, Olav the King and Olav King and Martyr
(London. 1887).
Niels Hansen.
Ol&h (Olahus), Nicolaus, Archbishop of Gran
and Primate of Hungary, a distinguished prelate, b. 10
January^ 1493^ at Nagysjseben CHermanstadt); d. »i
Nagyszombat, 15 Jan., 1568. His father, Stephen, a
brother-in-law of John Hunyadi, was of Wallachian
descent; his mother was Barbara Iluszdr (also known
as Csaszar). His autobiographical notes and corre-
spondence throw light on his lite. After having studied
at the Chapter School of V^rad from 1505 to 1512, he
became a page at the court of Wladislaw II, but shortly
afterwards chose an ecclesiastical career, and was or-
dained a priest in 1516 or 15 LS. While actinjg as secre-
tary to Georg Szatmdry, Bishop of Fiinfkirchen, he
was appointed a-canon of that chapter, later of Gran,
and 1522 became Archdeacon of Komom. In 1526 he
was made secretary to King Louis II; but was trans-
ferred to the service of Queen Maria. After the battfe
of Moh&cs, 01^ attached himself to the partv of King
Ferdinand I, but retained his position with the queen-
dowager. In 1527 he was appointed '' custos " or head
of the Chapter of Stuhlweissenburg, and accompanied
the Gueen-do wager in 1530 to the imperial diet at
Augsburg. When in 1531 she became stadtholder of
the Netherlands, he went with her to Belgium, where
he remained (with a brief interruption in 1539) until
his return to Hungary in 1542. In the following year
he was made by Ferdinand I royal chancellor and
Bishop of Agram. In 1548 he became Bishop of Er-
lau, and in 1553 Archbishop of Gran. As such he
crowned Maximilian King of Hungary, and performed
the solemn obsequies (1563) over Ferdinand 1. As
Archbishop of Gran, Oldh's first care was to put order
into the finances and property of the archdiocese. He
had the "Jus Piseti" again enforced, i. e. the right of
supervision over the mint at Kormoczbdnya. for
which surveillance the archdiocese enjoyed a large
revenue. At his own expense, he redeemed the hypoth-
ecated provostship of Tur6cz, also the encumbered
possessions of the Diocese of Neutra. Oldh likewise,
as Archbishop of Gran, exercised a supervision over
the Diocese of Erlau, and (with the consent of the
Holy See) administered the Archdiocese of Kalocsa,
vacailt for 20 years. After the capture of Gran by the
Turks, the archiepiscopal residence was at Nagyszom-
bat or Ponony.
Oldh was particularly active in the Counter-Refor-
mation (q. v.); even before his elevation to the Arch-
bishopric of Gran, he had been a very zealous oppo-
nent of the new Protestant teachings. As Primate of
Hungary he threw himself with renewed energy into
the great conflict, aiming especially at the purity of
Catholic Faith, the restoration of ecclesiastical disci-
pline, the reformation of the clergy, and the establish-
ment of new schools. The mountain cities of Upper
Hungary, in which the doctrines of the Reformation
had made considerable progress, attracted his partic-
ular attention. He organized a visitation of the arch-
diocese, which he in great part conducted in person,
besides convoking, with a similar intention, a number
of diocesan synods. The first of these synods was held
in 1560 at Nagyszombat; at its close he promulgated
a code of dogmatic and moral instructions, intended
for the clergy, published during that and the following
vear. In 1561 a provincial synod was held, likewise at
Nagyszombat, to discuss the participation of the bbh-
ops of Hungary in the Council of Trent, shortly before
re-convent. While it is not certain that OlAh took
part in that council, or that he promulgated in Ilun-
?;ary its decrees of 1562 and 1564, it is known that he
ollowed its deliberations with close attention and
practically adopted in Hungary some of its decisions.
In 1563 Olih submitted to the council a lengthy mem-
orial, in which be urgied the importance of deiding with
the critical situation of the Hungarian Church and de-
scribhig in strong language the efi'orts he had made to
overcome the demoralization that had seized on the
clergy. It was particularly through school-reform and
the proper instruction of youth that he hoped to ofi'set
the progress of the Reformation. He restored the ca-
theoralschool at Gran^ which had fallen into decajr when
OLBA 235 OLD
that city was captured by the Turks; he transferred it, up the results of the congress as follows: Adherence to
however, to his archiepiscoi>al citv of Na^szombat theancientCatholicfaith; maintenance of the rights
and confided it to the Jesuits, whom he mvited to of Catholics as such j rejection of the new dogmas ; ad-
Hungarv in 1561, and who, by their preaching and herence to the constitution of the ancient Church with
spiritual ministrations, profoundly influenced the re- repudiation of every dogma of faith not in harmony
li^ous life of the nation. Among the publications in- with the actual consciousness of the Church j reform of
itiated by him were the " Breviarium Ecclesias Strigo- the Church with constitutional participation of the
niensis" (1558), and the "Ordo et Ritus Ecclesiae laity; preparation of the way for the reunion of the
Stri^oniensis'' (1560). The revival of the custom of Christian confessions; reform of the training and posi^
ringing the Angelus was due to him. As chancellor tion of the clergy; adherence to the State against the
and confidant of Ferdinand I, Ol^h possessed much attacks of Ultramonttmism; rejection of thfe Society of
political influence, which he exercised in the special in- Jesus; solemn assertion of the claims of Catholics us
terest of the Catholic religion. In 1562 he acted as such to the real property of the Church and to the title
royal Stadtholder. He was a diligent writer; hb works to it. A resolution was also passed on the forming of
C'Hun^aria et Attila": "Genesis filiorum Regis Fer- parish communities, which DoUinger vehemently op-
dinandi''; "Ephemerides", and "Brevis descriptio posed and voted against. The second congress, held
vit» Benedicti Zerchsky ") were edited by Kovachich, at Cologne, 20-22 September, 1872, was attended by
in Vol. I of the "Scriptores minores". 350 Old Catholic delegates, besides one Jansenist
HBBasNRdTHSR. Hjftoire de Viplise, V, 394 (tr. Bblet); For- and three Anglican bishops, Russian clergy, and Eng-
"JfS:n^rS::^7J:::!i:Z^T7Z!'^7^Si^rs^^^. l«h and other ProtesUnt ministere. Jhe election
XVI (Pesth, 1866): B*l. Adparatua ad Historiam HungaricB of a bishop was decided on, and among the most im-
(Poaen. 1735) ; Dank(5 in KirchenUz., s. v. - portant resolutions passed were those pertaining to the
A. AldXst. organization of the pastorate and parishes. This was
^-. ^.^ , . T . - i-ei 1 . followed by steps to obtain recognition of the Old
Olba, a titular see m I&auna, suffragan of Seleucia. Catholics by various govemmenta; the general feeUng
It was a city of Cetis m Cilicia Aspera, later forming ^f ^^^at time made it easy to obtain tlus recognition
part of Isauna; it had a temple of Zeus, whose priests f,^^ Prussia, Baden, and Hesse. Professor Reinkens
were once kmp of the countiy, and became a Roman ^f ^^^^ ^^s elected bishop, 4 June, 1873, and was con-
^ ?°7Xiu®*^*^ ^'^'c ^^^^ *"^ -^^lu™^ 4- ' ^' 1^^ secrated at Rotterdam by the Jansenist Bishop of De-
call it Olbasa; a coin of Diocasarea, Olbos; Hierocl^ ^e^^er, Heydekamp, 11 August, 1873. Having been
(Synecdemus, 709), Olbe; Baail of Seleucia (Mirac, S. officially recognized as "CattoUc Bishop" by Prussia,
Theclffi, 2 8) and the Greek Notitiae episcopatuum ", ^g SeptcmberTand having taken the oath of allegiance,
Oiba. The pnraitive name must have been Ourba or 7 October, 18^3, he selected Bonn as his place of resl-
Orba, found m Theophanes the ChronoCTapher, hence ^^^^ jf^^ bishop and his diocese were granted by
OurbanoiK)lis m " Acta S. Bartholomei". Its rums, pruggU an annual sum of 4800 Marks ($1200). Pius
north of Selefkeh in the vilayet of Adana, are called jx excommunicated Reinkens by name, 9 November,
pura. Le Quien (Onens chnst., II, 1031) giv^ four 1573. previous to which, in the spring of 1872, the
bishops between the fourth and seventh centun^j Archbishop of Cologne had been obliged to excom-
but the "Notitiae episcopat. mentions the see untri municate Hilgers, Langen, Reusch, and Knoodt, pro-
^^S *iH^^,?SP^ ^2^^]}V- ^ /^ « ^ . fessors of tlieology at Bonn. The same fate had also
8uiTB, Diet. Greek and Roman Geag. b. v. Ohaea; Hambat, Ana ^^^1 , ***^«y- ,r» u jr»
Minor, 22. 336. 364-75. See MOllbr's notes to PtoUmy, ed. Overtaken several profcssors at Braunsberg and Bres-
DiDOT, II. 898. lau. The fiction brought forward by Fnednch von
8. P^TRiDJss. Schulte that the Old Catholics are the true Catholics
Oldcastle, Sir John. See Lollards. was accepted by several governments in Germany and
Switzerland, and many Catholic churches were trans-
Old Catholics, the sect organized in German- ferred to the sect. This was done notwithstanding
speaking countries to combat the dogma of Papal In- the fact that a decree of the Inquisition, dated 17 Sep-
fallibility. Filled with ideas of ecclesiastical Liberal- tember, 1871, and a Brief of 12 Mareh, 1873, had again
ism and rejecting the Christian spirit of submission to shown that Uie Old Catholics had no connexion with
Uie teachings of the Church, nearly 1400 Germans is- the Catholic Church; rrpresented, therefore, a reli-
sued, in September, 1870, a declaration in which they giotis society entirely separate from the Church; and
repudiated the dogma of Infallibility ''as an innova- consequently could assert no legal claims whatever to
tion contrary to the traditional faith of the Church '\ the funds or buildings for worship of the Catholic
They were encouraged by large numbers of scholars, Church.
politicians, and statesmen, and were acclaimed by the The development of the internal organization of the
Liberal press of the whole world. The break with tlM sect occupied the congresses held at Freiburg in the
Chureh began with this declaration, which was put BreisKau, 1874; at Breslau, 1876; Baden-Baden, 1880;
forth notwithstanding the fact that the majority of the and Krefeld, 1884; as well as the ordinary synods.
German bishops issued, at Fulda on 30 August, a com- The synodal constitution, adopted at the urgency of
mon pastoral letter in support of the dogma. It was von Schulte, seems likely to lead to the ruin of the
not until 10 April, 1871, that Bishop Hefde of Rotten- sect. It has resulted in unlimited arbitrariness and a
burg issued a letter concerning the dogma to his clergy, radical break with all the disciplinary ordinances of
By the end of 1870 all the Austrian and Swiss bishops Catholicism. Especially far-reaching was the aboli-
had done the same. tion of celibacy, called forth by the lack of priests.
The movement against the dogma was carried on After the repeal of this law a number of priests who
with such energy that the first Old Catholic Congress were tired of celibacy, none of whom were of much in-
was able to meet at Munich, 22-24 September, 1871. tellectual importance, took refuge among the Old
Before this, however, the Archbishop of Munich had Catholics. The statute of 14 June, 1878. for the main-
excommunicated Dollinger on 17 April, 1871, and tenance of discipline among the Old Catholic clergy
later also Friedrich. The eongress was attended by* has merely theoretical value. A bishop's fund, a pen-
over 300 delegates from Germany, Austria, and Switz- sion fund, and a supplementary fund for the incomes
erland, besides friends from Holland, France, Spain, of parish priests have been formed, thanks to the aid
Brazil, Ireland, and representatives of the Anglican given by governments and private persons. In the
Church, with German and American Protestants, autumn of 1877 Bishop Reinkens founded a residen-
The moving spirit in this and all later assemblies for tial seminary for theological students, which, on 17
organization was Johann Friedrich von Schulte, the January^ 1894, was recognized by royal cabinet order
prpfessor of dogma at Prague. Von Schulte summed as a juridical person with an endowment of 110,000
OU> 2S6 OLD
Marks ($27,500). A house of studies for gymnasial varia. In 1877 there were in Switzerland about 73,-
students called the Paulinum was founded 20 April, 000; in 1890 only about 25,000. In Austria at the
1898, and a residence for the bishop was bought. Be- most flourishing period there were perhaps at the most
sides other periodical publications there is an official 10,000 adherents, to-day there are probably not more
church paper. These statements, which refer mainly than 4000. It may be said that the total niunber of
to Germany, may also be appUed in part to the few Old Catholics in the whole of Europe is not much
communities founded in Austria, which, however, have above 40,000.
never reached any importance. In Switzerland the It seems stranse that a movement carried on with so
clergy, notwithstanding the very pernicious agitation, much intellectual vigour and one receiving such large
acqmtted themselves well^ so that only three priests support from the State should from bad mfinagement
apostatized. The Protestant cantons, above all have eone to pieces thus rapidly and completely, es-
Beme, Basle, and Geneva, did everything possible to pecially as it was aided to large degree in Germany and
promote the movement. An Old Catholic theological Switzerland by a violent attack upon Catholics. The
faculty, in which two radical Protestants lectured, was reason is mainly the predopiinant mfluence of the laity
founded at the University of Berne. At the same time under whose control the ecclesiastics were placed
all the Swiss Old Catholic communities oiganized by the synodal constitution. The aJsrogation of oom-
themselves into a "Christian CathoUc National pulaory celibacy showed the utter instability and lack
Church" in 1875; in the next year Dr. Herzog was of mond foundation of the sect. DolUnger repeatedly
elected bishop and consecrated by Dr. Reinkens. but vainly uttered warnings against all these destruc-
Beme was chosen as his place of reudence. AsinGer- tive measures. In general he held back from any
many so in Switzerland confession was done away with, active participation in the congresses and synods,
celibacy abolished, and the use of the vernacular pre- This reserve freouently irritated the leaders of the
scribed for the service of the altar. Attempts to extend movement, but Dollinger never let himself be per-
Old Catholicism to other countries failed completely, suaded to screen with his name thinp^ which he con-
That lately an apostate English priest named Arnold sidered in the highest degree pernicious. He never,
Mathew^ who for a time was a Unitarian, married, however, became reconciled to the Chureh. notwith-
then umted with another suspended London priest standing the many efforts made by the Arcnbishop of
named O'Halloran, and was consecrated by the Jan- Munich. All things considered. Old Catholicism has
senist Arehbishop of Utrecht, is not a matter of any practic^y ceased to exist. It is no longer of any
importance. Mathew calls himself an Old Catholic public importance.
bishop, but has practically no following. Some of the For accounts of the movements and tendencies that
few persons who attend his chureh in London do so led up to Old Catholicism see Dollinqer; G Anther;
ignorantly in the belief that the chureh is genuinely Hermes; Infallibiuty; Lamennaib; Syllabub;
Catholic. Vatican Council.
The very radical liturgical, disciplinary, and con- Fw«DB«Ba, AkterutHeke die aUkatholUch* Bewtgung betreffend
.titutional ordinances adopteci in the first fifteen years SSS-SStJSSiT^JI^G^SSJSJIii^SSr?^^
gradually convinced even the most fnendly govern- DwtaeUand (GieMen, 1887); Idui. Lebenennnerungtn, Man
ment omdals that the fiction of the Catholicism of th» • Witim^ ftecWgejrovm^n AiUeU an der PUitikin Kvrd^t tmd
nW PoflinliM ttrnn nn 1nnir«n> fpnahlA TliP An.m§uro '**^ (Qieaseii, 1908); Vbrxng. KtrehenrecfU (3rd ed., 1893), gives
Uld UatnollCS was no longw lenaoie. ine aamage, ^ ^ summary baaed on the original authorities. Besides the
however, had been done, the legal reCOgmtlon re- statements in the statistical year-books there is a good account of
mained unchanged, and the grant from the budget Old CAthoMdam in 'MjLcCAmzY,Uutoryo/ the Cath«iieChurch in
nniilH nnf onjailv Ka HfYinnpH Tn Oprmanv ftlthniiffh ^ NineUerUh Century, 1789-1909, I (Dublin and Waterford,
couia not easily oe aroppea. in uermany, aiinouen jg^gj. mabshalu muinger and the Old Caihoiice in Amer. Caih.
there was no essential change m this particular, yet the Quart. Review (Philadelphia. 1890). 267 ww.; cf. also files of the
political necessity which led to a modviS VWendi in the London Tablet and DubUn Review (1870-71); BrCck-Kisslino,
U^th^jrlrnmnf nhiUtH^ thp inf^rAof nt aisLtjMTn^n in Old Geechichte der katholiadien Kirche im neuntehnten Jahrhunderl
AwWurAcamp/ Chlllea the interest OI statesmen m \na /MQnster, 1908): Majunkb, Geechichte dee KuUurkam^fe» in
Catholics, particularly as the latter had not been able Preueeen-DetUeehland (Paderborn, 1882): Grandkbath-Kirch.
to fulfil tneir promise of nationalizing the Church in Oeeehichte dee Vatikanieehen KontiU (Freiburg, 1903-06); cf. aleo
Pormanv TliA uHxir fniliirp of f hi« ftttpfnnt waa diift Frirdrich, Oeeehichte dee Vatikanieehen Koneile (Bonn. 1877-87) ;
Oermany . 1 he utter laiiure Ol tniS a^^^ny *, was aue ^ ^di^on ^^ very full polemical literature of 1868-72 conoem-
tO the solidarity of the violently persecuted Cathohcs. ing the council and the question of InfalUbiUty should be ezam-
In many cases entire families returned to the Church ined. The most important writings are briefly mentioned in the
after the first excitement had passenl and the w^ ^ ^n^^^mn^FS^^^^^'^i^^^r)
power of the Old Catholic movement dechnea through- ^d Micharl (Innsbruck. 1892) contain much valuable material.
out Germany in the same degree as that in which the Paul Maria Baumqarten.
XtiZtwrAramKJT powerfully stimulated genuine Catholic ^,,_ _ ^ .. .,,^,r
feeling. The number of Old Catholics sank rapidly and Old Chapter, The.— The ongin of the body, for-
steadUy; to conceal this the leaders of the movement merly known as the Old Chapter, dates fr6m 1623,
made use of a singular device. Up to then Old Catho- when after a period of more than half a centuiy during
lies had called themselves such, both for the police which there was no episcopal government m England,
registry and for the census. They were now directed Dr. William Bishop was at length created vicar Apos-
by their leaders to cease this and to call themselves toUc. He survived less than a year; but during that
simply Catholics. The rapid decline of the sect has period he organized a regular form of ecclesiMtical
«„v. — jhip they hardly t , -/-• « j- rr.i_ i •
Protestantism. However, the prescribed concealment canons with Rev. John Colleton as dean. 1 he ecclesi-
of membership in the Old Catholic body had this much astical status of the chapter has always been a matter
good in it, that many who had long been secretly es- of dispute. A chapter without a diocese is an anomaly,
tranged from the sect were able to return to the unknown in canon law, and Rome always refrained
Church without attracting attention. On account of from anv positive act of recognition. On the other
these circumstances only Old Catholic statistics of hand, she equally refrained from any censure, al-
some years back can be given. In 1878 there were in though it was known that the chapter was claiminK
die German empire: 122 con^egations, including 44 and exercising large functions. They therefore argued
in Baden, 36 in Prussia, 34 in Bavaria, and about 62,- that the chapter existed "sciente et tacente sede apos-
000 members; in 1890 there were only about 30,000 tolica" (with the knowledge and silent consent of the
Old Catholics, on account of ft decided decline in Bar pope) and that tbie ww sufficient to give it a canomcal
OLOCOBHB 21
Btatua. When Dr. Bishop died th^ aent a list of
names from which his successor ini^t be chosen, and
tiie Holy See accepted thor action choosing the Erst
name— Dr.RichardSmith. Threeyearelaterhehadto
leave the country, and spent the rest of his Ufe in Paris.
After his death the chapter assumed the right to rule
the country in the vacancy of the episcopal office, and
for thirty years all faculties were iBsued by the (lean
who claimed the verbal approval of Alexander Vli,
When James II ascended the throne, acd England
was divided into four districts or vicariates, the posi-
tion of the chapter became still more anomaloui?. Dr.
I^ybum, the first vicar Apostolic of that reifcn, was
required to take an oath not to recognise the chapter,
ana a decree was issued in general terms suspending all
i'urisdiction of chapters of regulars and seculars so
ong as there were vicars Apostolic in England; but
doubt was felt whether this was meant to api)!^ to the
Old Chapter, for the very reason that its position was
anomalous. In practice, however, they submitted,
and ceased to exercise any acts of jurisdiction; but
they continued their eidstence. The vicars Apostolic
themselves were usually members.
When the hierarchy was re-established in 1850, a
chapter was erected in each diocese, and whatever
claitns to jurisdiction the Old Chapter had, from that
time, ceased. Not wishing to dissolve, however, they
recoDstitutM themselves as the "Old Brotherhood of
theSecularClergv", the dean of the chapter becoming
E resident of the orotherhood. Under this title they
ave continued to the present day. They meet twice
a year and distribute their funds to various charities.
Slbduht. TVnnKiduni 0/ XihiIm* Suular Cltrm (ITDS),
rfprinwd by Wir.uAB Tcbmbolu u ^n Acamnt of Uu ChasUr
(1B53): Kim. Hi^ory of Uu Cliaplir (MS.); Dodd. Ckurcii Hi*-
larg 0f Kimlairf. ed, Tiuhmit; Wabd, CalKoiic Laadim o Cntuni
aea<19(Ul; BuBTOH, LiSti>lChaUimrT{\9lO);'9l,iYa>.DavmaJAt
CalMit ktii-il (19D9). 3» ilao KiBx'g Bioerapiiti, edilad br
PoLLBH mnd Bunvn (1909). oontwniu ■ Jut ol oipitulu* [p.
373); moflt of the prDcfledLaia of tiib ciupUr durinc tbo ri|ii-
Bbrnard Ward.
Oldoonw, Edward, Venerablb, martyr, b. 1561 ;
d. 1606. His father was a Probestaot, and his mother
IS educated as a doctor, but later
decided to enter
tbepriesthood,
went to the Eng-
lish College at
Reimq, then to
Rome, where, after
15S7, he became a
Jesuit. Neit year
he returned to
England in com-
Jany with Father
ohn Gerard (a.
v.), and worked,
chiefly in Worces-
ter, until he was
arrested with Fa-
ther Henry Garnet
Cq. v.) and taken
to the Tower. No
evidence connect-
ing him with the
Gunpowder Plot
(q.v.) could be ob-
tained, and he was executed for his priesthood only.
Two letters of his are at Stony hurst (Ang., Ill, 1 ; Vll,
60)r the second, written from prison, overflows with
■ealand charity. His last combat took place on 7 April,
at Red Hill, Worcester, With him suffered his faithful
servant, the Ven. Ralph Ashby, who is traditionally
believed to have been a Jesuit lay-brother. Oldcome s
picture, painted after his death for the Gesi), is extant,
ftnd a number of bis relics.
a Catholic. He n
7 OLDEHBUBQ
POLBT. Rtardt S.J.. IT, 202; MoHBU, JsAn Qirard, i; CiLuw.
fiiM. Did. Bnt. Calh., a. v.
J. H. Pollen.
OldonbUTB, a grand duchy, one of the twenty-six
federated states of the German Empire. It consists of
three widely separated parts ; the duchy of Oldenburg;
the principality of LQbeck, situated between Hol-
stein and Mecklenburg; and the principality of Birk-
enteld, in Rhenish Prussia. The duchy is bounded by
Oldenburg has 2134 sq. miles and 3.^3 789 inhabitants;
Liibeck, 217 sq. miles and 3S,5S3 mhabitants; and
Birkenfeld, 202 sq. miles and 46,484 inhabitants.
There were in 1905, in Oldenburg: Catholics, 86,-
86G; Protestants, 264,805; other Christians, 1163;
Jews, 956; in LUbeck: Csthoiins, 486; Protestants, 38,-
064: other Christians, 11; Jews, 23; in Birkenfeld:
Catholics, 8717; Protestants, 37,047; other Christians,
177: Jews, 543. In the entire grand duchy: 96,067
Catholics, 399,916 ProtesUnts, 1351 other dhristians.
1522 Jews. The percentage of Catholics among the
total population is now 21.9; in 1871 it was 22.4.
The cause of this lies in the emigration of a part of
the agricultural population to the industrial districts
of the neighbourmg provinces.
The capital is Oldenburg. In that i>art of the coun-
try facing the North Sea, the population is of Frisian
descent: further inland it is Low Saxon. The chief
rivers are the Weaer and the Hunte. Of great impor-
tance to the country are the numerous canals. The
chief industries are agriculture, cattle raising, horse-
breeding, peat-cutting, and fishing. The country's
industrial establishments include brick factories, bri-
quette manufacture, shipbuilding, metal and iron
works, distilleries of alcohol from rye and potatoes.
The most important articles of commerce are cattle,
grain, lumber, etc.
The country takes its name from the castle of Old-
enbuig, erected about the middle of the twelfth cen-
tury. The founder of the reigning house was Egilmar,
who is first mentioned in a document dated 1088. Hia
territory, of which the Duke of Saxony was the liege
lord, was situated between the country of the Saxons
and the Frisians. The wars with the latter lasted for
several centuries, and it was not until 1234 that one of
their tribes (the Stedingians) succumbed to the Olden-
burg attacl^ in the battle of Altenesch. The Arch-
bishop of Bremen was in these wars an ally of the
counts of Oldenburg. When the famous Saxon duke,
Henry the Lion, was forced to flee and the old Duke-
dom of Saxony was partitioned by Frederick Barba-
roesa in 1181, the counts of Oldenburg obtained the
rights of princes of the Empire, but took little part in
its development and progress. Of great importance
later on was the marriage which Count Dietrich the
Portimato (d. 1440),concludedwithHdlwigof Schau-
enburg (Sohaumburg). Two sons issued from thia
marriafs. Christian and Gerhard the Valiant.
liirouSi the influenceof his uncle, Duke Adolf VIII
of Schleswig, Heilwig's eldest son, Christian, became
1 1471. He became, after the
)uke of Schleswig and Count of
Holstein. Christian became the ancestor of the
House of Holstein-Oldenburg, branches of which are
reigning to-day in Denmark, Greece, Norway, Kuasia,
and Oldenburg.
The ancestral lands of Oldenburg were turned over
by Christian in 1458 to his brother Gerhard the Val-
iant. The Emperor Charles V gave Oldenburg as a
fief to Count Anton I in 1531 . The main line became
extinct with the death of Count Anton GUnther {1603-
67). After lengthy quarrels over the succession. Chris-
tian V of Denmark became ruler of Oldenburg in 1676.
In 1773, however, the Danish King Christian Vll sur-
OLDKKfitnta
238
OtDlNBtntO
rendered Oldenburg to the Grand Duke Paul of Rus-
sia, in consideration of the latter's renunciation of the
sovereignty of Schleswig-Holstein. Grand Duke Paul
transferred the country, which was raised to a duke-
dom in 1777, to his cousin Frederick Augustus. The
latter, who although a Protestant, was IMnce-Bishop
of Lubeck since 1750, added the territory of the former
Catholic Bishopric of LUbeck to Oldenburg. Because
William, the son of Frederick Augustus, was insane,
' Peter, first cousin of Frederick Augustus, sucoeedea
the latter in the administration of the dukedom. The
succeeding nilers of the country are descended from
this Peter. When Napoleon in 1810 united the entire
German North Sea districts with his empire, he de-
cided to indemnify the Duke of Oldenburg for his loss
by giving him other districts in Thuringia. But be-
cause the duke refused those districts, Napoleon pun-
ished hiip by taking possession of all Oldenburg in
1811 and by embodving it in the Departments of
Wesermtindung and Oberems. The battle of Leipzig
in 1813 brought Uberty to Oldenburg. Peter again
grasped the reins of government. The resolutions of
the Vienna Congress raised Oldenburg to the dignity
of a grand duchy and enlarged it by ad&ng to it a part
of the French Department of the Saar, the old Wittels-
bach Principality of Birkenfeld. After the establish-
ment of the German Federation in 1815, Oldenburg
became a member of it. In the war between Priissia
and Austria in 1866 Oldenburg added its troops to the
Prussian army of the Main; later on it gomed the
North German Federation and in 1871 the German
Empire as an independent state. The reigning grand
duke since 19(X) is Fr^erick Augustus (b. 16 Nov.,
1852).
The larger part of the country was Christianized by
the Bishop of Bremen, and especially through the ef-
forts of St. Willebaldus, who was consecrated first
Bishop of Bremen in 787. Until the introduction of
the Lutheran confession in. 1529 by Count Anton I,
this district was united with the Archbishopric of
Bremen. The reformation here destroyed almost all
Catholic life. The southern parts of the duchy, which
consist to-day of the administrative distncts of
Cloppenburg and Vechta, were outlying missions of
the OsnabrUck Diocese, attended from the monasteries
of the Benedictines at Visbeck and Meppen. which had
been established b>[ Charlemagne. These parts, the
pastoral care of which chiefly devolved on the Bene-
dictine Abbey of Corvey, were subject to the Prince-
Bishop of Munster from 1252 until 1803 under the
name of '' Niederstiff and, therefore, remained Cath-
olic during the Reformation period. The spiritual
i'urisdiction over the Niederstift was exercised by the
Mshop of Osnabriick and not by the Bishop of Mttn-
ster. In 1688 the jurisdiction of Osnabriick was trans-
ferred to MCinster. These districts were ceded to Old-
enburg in the conference of the federal deputies in
1803. In the papal Bull "De salute animarum'', 16
July, 1821, in regard to the establishment and limita-
tion of the Prussian bishoprics, all Oldenburg was
transferred to the Prussian bishopric of MCinster; how-
ever, there were very few Catholics in the northern
part of the country.
The principality. of LUbeck is a part of the Vicariate
Apostolic of the Northern Missions. The Princi-
pality of Birkenfeld belongs to the Bishopric of Trier.
The plan of Grand Duke Paul to have a separate
bishopric for Oldenburg failed on account of finan-
cial clifliculties. The relations between Church and
State were adjusted by the convention of 6 Jan., 1830.
The Apostolic delegate to these deliberations was the
Prince-Bishop of Ermland, Joseph of HohenzoUem.
The supreme guidance of the Catholics of Oldenburg
was entrusted to the substitute (Oj^no^) of the Bishop
of MUnster, who resided in Vechta. The resolutions
of the convention became laws by order of the grand
ducal cabinet of 5 April, 1831, under the title " Funda-
mentalstatut der katholischen Kirche in Oldenburg".
Simultaneously the|^ was published ''Normativ'zur
Wahrung der landesherrlichen Majest&tsrecht^ circa
sacra'' (Regulations for the maintenance of the ducal
rights drca sacra) , of which no notice had been given
to the ecclesiastical authorities.
These regulations created " a commission for the de-
fence of State rights against the Catholic Church",
which exists to tms day, and which is composed of two
higher State officials, one of whom usually is a Catholic
and the other a Protestant. The work of the commis-
sion includes all negotiations between the government
and the Bishop of Mttnster, particularly those relating
to the appointment of the Offizial^ his assessors and
his secretary as well as the two deacons; furthermore
all negotiations between the government and the Of-
fizialf such as those relating to the appointment of
priests, the establishment of parishes and of ecclesias-
tical benefices. The commission furthermore must ap-
prove every sale or mortgage of church property. The
regulations further decreed that all papal and episco-
pal edicts must be approved by the grand duke before
their publication in Oldenburg, and that they shall not
be valid without such an approval. On account of
this one-sided unjust measure a long controversy arose
between the government and the Bishop of Mtii^ter.
The position of Offizud at Vechta was vacant from i846
to 1853. In 1852 Oldenburg received a constitution.
This led to an amelioration in the relations between
Chureh and State, the ducal placet was abolished and
every religious community or sect was permitted to
conduct its affairs independently and without interfer-
ence; chureh property was distinctly guaranteed. But
as the approval of the government was required for the
appointment of the clergy and clerical officials, the
conflict continued.
The negotiations, begun in Dec, 1852, between the
Bishop of Munster and the government, dragged
along almost twenty years. During this conflict the
bishop and the Offizial did not appoint any parish
priests; only temporary pastors were placed in charge
of the parishes in which vacancies occurred. In 1868
an agreement was reached according to which the
bishops filled clerical vacancies after an understanding
in each case with the Government, and they further
agreed that the decrees of the Church should be com-
municated to the Government simultaneously with
their publication. Several minor points in dispute
were settled in 1872. The Catholics of Oldenburg
were not ^ected by the severe trials of the KvUuT"
kampf. Grand Duke Peter openly disapproved of the
persecutions and of the severity with which the Church
was treated in Prussia.
The Oldenburg part of the Diocese of Mttnster con-
sists to-day of two deaconries, Cloppenburg and
Vechta. The Deaoonry of Cloppenburg numbers 38,-
678 Catholics, 6952 Protestants and 28 Hebrews; the
18 parishes of the Aemtcr Cloppenburg and Friesoythe
also belong to it. The Deaconry of Vechta numbers
53,308 Catholics, 264,169 Protestants, 987 Jews; it
includes the other 18 parishes of the country. The
necessary funds for the payment of clerical expenses
were partly taken from the income of several so-called
commanderies in the Amt Friesoythe which formerly
belonged to the Order of Malta. The State seques-
trated these and other clerical possessions in the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century, but agreed to turn
over the annual income to the Catholic Church, which
it has done to this day. Including these revenues the
State pays annually about 22,000 Marks for the use of
the Catholic Chureh. In 1910 the Chureh obtained
the right of levying churoh-taxes. The State docs not
forbid the foundation of religious houses.
The Dominicans have a boarding college at Veohta,
and the Franciscans a house in Mtihlen, near Stein-
feld. Of female congregations there are 7 houses
belonging to the sisters of the third order of St. Fran-
OLD HAIA
539
OLnonn
<^, 4 lioTises of the Sistera of Charity: 7 houses of the
Sisters of Our Lady: 1 house of the roor Franciscan
nuns of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary; 1 house
of the Grey Nuns of St. Elizabeth; in all there are 20
houses of female congregations. The sisters nurse the
sick, or teach in their own schools. Until 1855 the
Catnolic schools were under church control.
The law of 1855 secularized the entire educational
system including the secondary schools. The Catho-
lic educational system and the Protestant system are
each under a separate school board. The episcopal
"OflSzial" is president of the Catholic Church boaixi
which controls the Catholic "Gymnasium" at Vechta,
the high school at Cloppenbiu^, the seminary for pub-
lic school teachers at vechta, and all Catholic public
schools. On 4 Feb., 1910, a new educational law went
into effect. It does away with the hitherto existing
clerical superintendence of public schools. Only the
religious instruction is supervised by the clergyman,
who is a member of the school board. If there are more
than twenty-five Catholic children in a community
which has only a Lutheran school, a separate Catho-
lic school must be established by the pansh, should the
parents request it.
The ancient Diocese of Oldenburg has no connex-
ion with the country of Oldenburg, or with its princi-
pal city. The country of Oldenburg was never sub-
ject to the ecclesiastical jursidiction of the Diocese of
Oldenburg. The Bishopric of Oldenburg was founded
by the German Emperor Otto I about 950, and com-
prised the present territory of Holstein. The small
town of Oldenburg (also called Aldenburg in the Mid-
dle Ages), near the coast of the Baltic Sea, which is still
in existence, was the ancient seat of the bishop. The
Diocese of Oldenburg w^as suffragan to the Archdio-
cese of Bremen; during the great revolt of the Slavic
peoples in 1066, it ^ceased to exist, but was re-estab-
lished in 1149 as the See of St. Vicelin. a missionary
among the Slavs. As early as 1163, tne seat of the
bishopric was transferred to Ltibeck. the famous
Hanse city, by the Saxon Duke Henry tne Lion.
Von Halbm, Oeaehichle von Oldenburg (3 vols., Oldenburg,
1794-M); RuNDB. Oldenburger Chronik. (3rd ed.. Oldenburg,
1863); Niemann. Das oLdenburgisehe MUnsterland in seiner ge-
eehichUichen Bntuneklung (2 vols., Oldenburg, 1889-91) ; Schaukn-
BURo, Hundert Jahre oldenburgiacher KirehengeschicfUe 1675-1667
(3 vols., Oldenburg. 1895-1900), Protestant; Willoh, Geeckiehte
der Kalh. Pfarreien im Herzogtum Oldenburg (5 vols., Cologne,
1898-99) : Plbitnbr. OUIenburg im 19. JahrhundeH (2 vols., Olden-
burg, 1899-1900) ; Idem, Oldenburgischea Quettenbuch (Oldenburg,
1903); Sbllo. AU-Oldenburg (Oldenburg, 1903).
Herman Sachsr.
Old Hall (St. Edmund's College), near Ware,
Hertfordshire, England, founded in 1793 after the fall
of the Enp;lish Colle«e, Douai, during the French revo-
lution, to carry on for the south of England the same
work of training priests for the English mission, and of
affording a Catholic education to lay student43. It
was the seminary for the "London District" until
1850, when it became the joint property of the Sees of
Westminster and South wark. For many years past it
has belonged exclusively to the Archbishops of West-
minster. The foundation took place on 16 November,
1793, the feast of St. Edmund, Archbishop of Canter-
bury, when Bishop Douglass reassembled at Old Hall :
four of the Douai students, and as he states in his
diary "commenced studies or established the new col-
lege there, a substitute for Douai." He chose Old
Hall for this purpose because there was already exist- ^
ing there a Catholic school belonging to the vicars ^
Apostolic, founded in 1749 at Standon Lordship in the
same county and removed in 1769 to Old Hall, pur-
chased by Bishop Talbot. A timely legacy of ten
thousand pounds from John Sone, a Catholic, enabled
Bishop Douglass to build a college, blessed by him on
29 September, 1799. A chapel and refectory were
added in 1805 by his successor, Bishop Poynter, who
succeeded Dr. Stapleton as president in 1801. The %
college prospered, particularly under the rule of
Thomas Griffiths (1818-34), afterwards Vicar Aposto-
lic of London. He built a larger chapel, designed in
the Gothic style by A\igu8tus Welby Pugin and re-
markable for the beautiful rood-screen, but he did not
live to see the opening of it in 1853 when it was conse-
crated by Cardinal Wiseman^ whose attempts to place
the college under the directum of the Oblates of St<
Charles led to serious troubles. Connected with these
was the apix>in{ment of Dr. Herbert Vaughan (Car^
dinal Archbishop of Westniinst^r) as vice-president of
the college (1855-61). After the death of Cardinal
Wiseman, Archbishop Manning decided to {"emove
the theological students to London, and from 1869 the
college was conducted simply as a school for boys; but
in 1905 Archbishop Bourne decided to send back the
theological students. There is now accommodation
for 250 students; the college grounds cover 4(X) acres.
The chapel contains a rehc of St. Edmund, and the
museum many interesting relics of the English Col-
lege, Douai, and of the penal days. Two ecclesiastical
councils have been held at the college, the synod of the
vicars Apostolic in 1803 and the Fourth Provincial
Council of Westminster in 1873.
B, Ward, Iliat, of St. Edmund't College, Old HaU (London,
1893); Idem, Historical AccourU of St. Edmund's College Chapel
(London, 1903) ; Doyle, A Brief OuUine of the Hist, of Old HaU
(London, 1891) ; Sermons preached in St. Edmund's College Chavel
on various occasions (London, 1904); Burton, CtUalogue of EanV'
printed Books in the Libraries.at Old Hall (Ware, 1902) ; B. Ward,
Mendogy of St. Edmund's College, Old Hall (London. 1909); W.
Ward, Life and Times of Cardinal Wiseman (London, 1897);
PuRCELL, Life of Cardinal Manning (London, 1896); Cox, Life of
Cardinal Vaughan (London, 1910) : B. Ward, The Dawn of the
Catholic Revival (London, 1909); The Bdmundian (1893—).
Edwin Burton.
Oldham, Hugh, Bishop of Exeter, b. in Lancashire,
either at Crumpsell or Oldham; d. 25 June, 1519.
Having spent a short time at Oxford, he entered
Queen^ College, Cambridge. After his ordination he
became chaplain to the Countess of Richmond and
soon obtained many benefices, being appointed Dean
of Wimbome and Archdeacon of Exeter. He also
held prebends in the cathedrals of London. Lincoln,
and York, and was rector of St. Mildred's, Bread
Street, London. Henry VII honoured him by ap-
pointing him as one of those who laid the founaation
stone of his chapel in 1503. In the following year he
was appointed Bishop of Exeter by a Bull of 27 Nov.,
1504. Though not a learned man, he encouraged learn-
ing and in 1515 founded and endowed Manchester
Grammar School. Throu^ his influence over his
friend Bishop Foxe of Wmchester, Corpus Christi
College, Oxford, was founded for the secular clergy,
instead of for the Winchester monks. He added six
thousand marks to Foxe's foundation, where his por-
trait is still honoured as that of a benefactor. FYom
1510 to 1513 he with other bishops was engaged in
resisting what they considered the undue dauns of
Archbishop Warham with regard to the probate
courts, and in the end won a considerable measure of
success. Less fortunate was his litigation with the
Abbot of Tavistock concerning their respective juris-
dictions, during which he is said to have incurrcxi ex-
communication. Before the dispute was ended, he
died, so that his burial had to be postponed until
absolution was procured from Rome.
Fowler, HisL of Corpus Christi College (Oxford. 1893) ; Coopbr«
Athena CarUabrigienses (Cambridge, 1858-61); Godwin, Cata'
logue of the Bishops of England with their lives (London, 1601);
Fowler In Diet. Nat. Biog., a. v.
Edwin Bubton.
Oldoixiii AuQUSTiNo, historian and bibliographer,
b. 6 Jan., 1612; d. at Perugia, 23 March, 1683. He
came from La Spezzia, and entered the Society of
Jesus 4 February, 1628. At the end of his novitiate
he made the usual study of the humanities, philosophy
and theolo^. For some time he taught classics at
Perugia, and was then professor of moral philosophy
OLD TESTAMENT
240
OUEB
In the theological school. His first work, "Alcune
difficoltii principali della grammatica" (Anconai 1637),
dealing with Latin ^mmar, was written while he
was engaged in teaching the humanities. He devoted
his later years to the study of history and bibliography.
He prepared a new annotated edition of the '^ History
of the Popes " by Alphonsus Ciacconius. up to Clement
IX (1667-9), " VitBB et res gestse Pontincum Romano-
nmi et S.R.E. Cardinalium Alphonsi Ciacooni, O. P.''
(4 vols., Rome, 1670-77). In connexion with this
he also published the following: "Necrologium Ponti-
ficum ac Pseudo-Pontificum Romanorum'' (Rome,
1671); ^'Clementes titulo sanctitatis vel morum
sanctimonia illustres" (Perugia, 1675); "Athenseum
Romanum, in quo Summorum Pontificum ac Pseudo-
Pontificum necnon S.R.E. Cardinalium et Pseudo-
Cardinalium scripta publice exponuntur" (Perugia,
1670). J. Meuschen published an excerpt from
Oldoini's ''Catalogus eorum qui de Romanis Pontifi-
cibus scripserunt , in his work, '^Ceremonialia eleo-
tionis Pontificum Romanorum" (FrankC>rt, 1731).
Oldoini also published '^ AthensBum Augustum, in quo
Perusinorum scripta publice exponuntur" (Perugia,
1680), and '^Athenteum Ligusticum seu Syllabus
Scrii)torum Ligurum necnon Sarzanensium ao Cyrr-
nensium reipubiic® Cenuensis subditorum'' (Perugia,
1680).
SoiCMBRvooBL, BtUtofA^gtM de .la C, d$ J., V (Bniaaeli and
Paris. 1894). 1880-81.
J. P. KiBSCH.
Old Testazxient. See Testament, Thid Old.
O'Leary, Abthur. Franciscan, preacher, polemical
writer, b. at Faniobbus, Iveleary, Co. Cork. Ireland,
1729; d. in London, 8 Jan., 1802. Educated with the
Franciscans of St. Malo, where he was ordained and
acted as prison chaplain till 1771, he returned to Cork
to engage in missionary work. Soon famous as a
preacher, writer, and controversialist he published
tracts characterized by learning, religious feeling, tol-
eration, and steadfast allegiance to the Crown; but his
zeal against religious bigotry led him to make rash
admissions, and to expose himself unconsciously to the
danger of neterodoxy. Among his writings are: ''A
Defence of the Divimty of Christ and the Immortality
of the Soul"; "Loyalty asserted, or the Test Oath
Vindicated": "An Address to the Roman Catholics
concerning the apprehended invasion of the French";
"Essay on toleration": "A reply to John Wesley".
A brilliant wit, an honorary member of the famous
"Monks of the screw", he was commonly called the
Catholic Swift of Ireland. He is chargea by Froude
with having received secret-service money from the
Government, but more impartial historians consider
the charge unproven. From 1789 till his death he
Was chaplain to the Spanish embassy in London, and
his society was courted by Burke, Sheridan, Fox,
Fitzwilliam, and other leading men of Liberal views.
England. Life of Rev. Arthur O'Leary (Cork, 1822) ; Bucklbt,
Life of Rev. Arthur O'Leary (Dublin. 1868) ; Fbovdk. The Bnolieh
in IrMand in the eighteenth century; Life and timet of Henry Orattan
i London, 1832-46) ; Didionary of Britith and American Authore
Philadelphia. 1859-71); Historical and Ardieological Journal
Cork. Sept., 1892).
. £. O'Leart.
Olenus, a titular see and suffragan of Patras, in
Achaia Quarta, one of the twelve primitive cities of
Achaia, on the left bank of the Peirus near Dyme. It
is mentioned as early as 280 b. c. Shortly after, its
inhabitants retired to the villages of Peirai, Euryteiai,
and Dyme. At the time of Strabo (VIII. vii, 4), who
locates it forty stadia from Dyme and eighty from Pa-
tras, it was in ruins. It must have regamed its popu-
lation, for Honorius III in 1217 appointed its nrst
bishop there. From the occupation of the Morea by
the Franks, the Church of Olenus had been governed
by the Archdeacon John, chaplain of Villehardouin.
The Latin Diocese of Olenus was substituted for the
ancient Greek See^of EIos, and covered the same terri-
tory. In the beginning the Latins formed two dio-
ceses, that of Olenus and that of Andravilla, the resi-
dence of the princes of Morea (Fabre, "Le liber
censuum de TEglise romaine", Paris, 1905, II, 8);
moreover it had only one bishop, that of Olenus, who
usually lived at Andravilla or Ajidravida (Hopf, "Ge-
schichte Griechenlands" in Allg. Encyclop., LaXXV,
235; Buchon, Recherches historioues, I, xxxix). Eu-
bel thinks the same in giving the long list of the Bish-
ops of Olenus and Andravilla in "Hierarchia catholica
medu aevi", 1, 89, 393; II, 99; III. 280. The Greek See
of Olenus was established (Gerland. "Neue Quellen
2ur Geschichte des lateinischen Erzbistums Patras".
Leipzig, 1903. 104) shortly after 1340 with that of
Kemitza, at tne same time Patras had lost all its suf-
fragans. This diocese is first found in a "Notitia
Episcopatuum" of Constantinople after 1453 (Gel-
zer, "tJngedruckte . . . Texte aer Notitis episcopa-
tuum ", 634) . To-day Olenus occupies the site of Tsu-
kalelka on the sea, aoout seven miles from Patras on
the way from Olympia. Andravilla, the ancient resi-
dence of the bishops of Olenus, about 38 miles from
Patras in the same direction, has 2700 inhabitants.
The Church of St. Sophia, the ancient cathedral of the
Latins, may be seen still, also the church of St. James,
belonging to the Templars, in which were interrea
Geoffroy I, Geoffroy 11, and Guillaume of Villehar-
douin. whose tombs have been restored.
La QuiBN. OricTM fl^krMfuiniM, III. *
S. VAIIiHi.
Olesnieki, Zbigniew (Sbigneus), a Polish cardinal
and statesman, b. in Poland, 1389; d. at Sandomir,
1 April, 1455. At the age of twenty he was secretary
to King Jagello, and fought with him in the battle of
GrtUiwald on 14 July, 1410. A favourite with the
king, he took part in the managei^ent of the coun-
try^ most important affairs. His influence with
the king greatly aided him in opposing the Hussites,
who had gained royal favour. On 9 July, 1423, he
was appomted to the episcopal see of Cracow, and
in 1433 was sent by the king as legate to the council
of Basle, where he endeavoured to be on friendly terms
with both parties. On 18 December, 1439, he was
created cardinal priest with the titular church of St.
Prisca, by Eugene IV. The opinion that he accepted
the same dignity from the antipope Felix Y and ad-
hered to him for some time has recently been at-
tacked by P. M. Baumgarten: "Die beiden ersten
Kardinals Konsistorien des Gegenpapstes Felix V" in
"Romische Quartalschrift", XXII (Rome, 1908), 163.
As cardinal, his influence in Poland was second only
to that of the king, and^ during the frequent absence of
Casimir IV in Litnuama, he transacted the affairs of
the State. Being a man of great learning, he advanced
the study of arts and letters in every possible way, and
the flourishing condition of the University of Cracow
during his episcopacy is due chiefly to his efforts. To
repress the spread of Hussitism he called John Capis-
tran and the Minorites to Cracow.
Caroblla. Memorie etoriehe de* oardinali della t. romana dneta,
III (Rome. 1792, 81-4; Dubduutcki. Zbianiew OUenidti (2 vol*..
Craoow. 185a-i), in Poluh; Ztcabbki. Folen u. doe Baeler Koneil
(PoMii. 1910).
MiCHASL OtT.
Oiler, Jean-Jacqubs, founder of the seminaiy and
Society of St-Sulpice, b. at Paris, 20 Sept.. 1608: d.
there, 2 April, 1657. At Lyons, where his lather nad
become aaministrator of justice, he made a thorough
classical course under the Jesuits (1617-25); he was
encouraged to become a priest by St. Francis de Sales,
who predicted his sanctity and great services to the
Church. He studied' philosophy at the college of
Harcourt, scholastic theology and patristics at the
Sorbonne. He preached durme this period, in virtue
of a benefice witn which his father hsud provided him,
OLZB&
241
OXJEB
adopting the ambitious style of the dayj he also fre-
cjuented fashionable society, causinganxiety to those
interested in his spiritual welfare. His sucoess in de-
fending theses in Latin and Greek led him to go to
Rome for the purpose of learning Hebrew so as to gain
^lat by defending; theses in that lansuage at the Sor-
bonne. His eyesight failing, he maofe a pilgrimage to
Loreto, where he not only obtained a cure, out also a
complete conversion to God. For a time he meditated
the uarthusian Ufe, visiting monasteries in Southern
Italy; the news of his father's death (1631) recalled
him to Paris. Refusing a court chaplaincy, with the
prospect of high honours, he began to gather the bea^ars
and the pobr and catbchixe them in hia home; at Paris
he collected the pSx>r and the outcast on the streets for
instruction, a practice at first derided but soon widely
imitated and productive of much ^ood. Under St.
Vincent de Paul's guidance, he assisted his mission-
aries in Paris and the provinces, prepared for the
priesthood, and was ordained 21 May, 1633. He
became a leader in the revival of religion in France, as-
sociating himself with the followers first of St. Vincent
and then of P&re de Condren, Superior of the Oratory,
under whose direction he passed, though he contii^uea
to retain St. Vincent as his friend and advisor. To de
Condren, more even, it appears, than to St. Vincent,
Olier owed the deepest spiritual influence and many
of his leading ideas. The work de Condren had most
at heart was the foundation of seminaries after the
model laid down at the Council of Trent. The hope
of religion lay in the formation of a new clergy through
the seminaries. , The attempts in France to cany out
the designs of the council having failed, de Condren,
unable to succeed through the milium of the Oratory,
gathered a few young ecclesiastics around him for that
purpose, Olier among them. The missions in which he
employed them were meant to impress on their minds
the religious needs of the countrv; his ulterior purpose
was not disclosed till shortly before his death m 16^.
A first attempt to found a seminary at Chartres
failed. On 29 Dec., 1641, Olier and two others, de
Foix and du Ferrier, entered upon a community life at
Vaugirard, a suburb of Paris. Others soon joined
them, and before long there were ei^t seminarians,
who followed with the priests the same rule of life ana
were instructed in ecclesiastical sciences, M. Oher
teaching Holy Scripture. The pastor of Vaugirard
profited by the presence of the priests to take an ex-
tended vacation, during which time they reformed his
parish. Impressed by the fame of this reform, the
cur6 of St-Sulpice, disheartened by the deplorable
state of his parish, offered it in exchange for some of
M. Olier's benefices. In August, 1641, M. Olier took
charge of St-Sulpice. His aims were to reform the
parish, establish a seminary, and Christianize the Sor-
bonne. then very worldly, through the piet^ and holi-
ness or the seminarians who should att^d its courses.
The parish embraced the whole Faubourg-St-Germain,
with a population as numerous and varied as a large
city. It was commonly reputed the largest and most
vicious parish, not only in the French capital, but in
all Christendom. The enormity of the evils had
killed all hope of reformation. Father Olier organ-
ized hb priests in community life. Those who found
the life too strict separated from the work. Tlie par-
ish was divided into eight districts, each under the
charge of a head priest and associates, whose duty it
was to know individually all the souls imder their ca!te,
with their spiritual and corporal needs, especi^y the
poor, the uninstructed, the vicious, and tnose bound
m irregular unions. Thirteen catechetical centres
were established, for the instruction not only of c^-
dren but of inany adults who were almost equally ig-
norant of religion. Special instructions were provided
for every class of persons, for the beggars, wie poor,
domestic servants, lackeys, midwives, workingmen,
the aged etc. Instructions and debates on Catholic
. XL— 16
doctrine' were organized for the benefit of Calvinists,
hundreds of whom were converted. A vigorous cam-
paign was waged a^^ainst immoral and heretical liter-
ature and obscene pictures; leaflets, holy pictures, and
prayer books were distributed to those wno could not
or would not come to church, and a bookstore was
opened at the church to supply good literature. The
poor were oared for according to methods of relief in-
spired by the practical genius of St. Vincent de Paul.
During me five or six years of the Fronde, the terrible
civil war that reduced Paris to widespread misery,
and often to the veige of famine. M. Olier supported
hundreds of families and provided many with clothing
and shelter. None were refused. His rules of relief,
adopted in other parishes, became the accepted meth-
ods and are still followed at 8t-Sulpioe. Orphans,
very numerous during the war, were placed in good
parishes, and a house of refuge established for orphan
girls. A home was open to shelter and reform the
many women rescued from evil lives, and anotl^er for
young girls exposed to danger. Many free schoc^
for poor girls were founded oy Father Olier, and he
laboured also at the reform of the teachers in boys'
schools, not however, with great sucoess. He pei^
cdved that the reform of boys' schools could be ao-
compliflhed only through a new congregation; which
in fact came about after his death through Saint John
Baptist de la Salle, a pupil of St-Sulpice, who founded
his first school in Father Olier'sparish. ^ree legal aid
was provided for the poor. He gathered under one
roof the sisters of many communities, who had been
driven out of their convents in the country and fled to
Paris for refuge, and caied for them till the close of the
war. In fine, there was no misery among the people,
spiritual or corporal, for which the pastor did not seek
a remedy.
His work for the rich and high-placed was no less
thorough and remarkable. He led the movement
against duelting, formed a society for its suppression,
and enlisted the active aid of mihtary men of renown,
including the marshals of France and some famous duel-
lists. He converted many of noble and royal blood,
both men and women. He combated the idea that
Christian p^ection was only for priests and relidous,
and inspir^ many to the practices of a devout life, in-
cluding daily meditation, spiritual reading aad other
exeroises of piety, and to a moro exact fulfilment of their
duties at court And at home. His influence was power-
ful with the Queen Regent, Anne of Austria, to whom
he spoke with great plainness, yet with great respect,
denouncing her prime minister, Cardinal Mazarin,
as responfflble for simoniacal and sacrilegious nomina-
tions to the episcopate. He persuad^ the rich —
Toy«Jty, nobles, and otiiers — to a ^reat generosity,
\rithout which his unbounded chanties would have
been impossible. The foundation of the present
church of St-Sulpice was Itdd by him. At times as
many as sixty or even eighty pnests wero ministering
together in the parish, of whom the most illustrious,
a Uttle after Cher's time, was F6nelon, later Arch-
bishop of Cambrai. This was one of the best effects
of Cher's work, for it sent trained, enlightened zealous
priests into all parts of France. From being the most
vicious in F^rance, the parish became one of the most
devout, and it has remained such to this day. Olier
was always the missionary. His outlook was world-
, wide; his ze^ led to the foundation of the Sulpician
' missions at Montreal and enabled him to effect the
j conversion of the Engtish King, Charles II, to the
- Catholic faith, though not to perseverance in a Chria-
V tian Ufe.
The second great work of Olier was the estabtish-
i ment of the seminary of St-Sulpice. By his parish.
' which he intended to serve as a model to the parochial
clergy, as well as by his seminary, he hopea to help
give France a worthy secular priesthood, through
which alone, he felt, the revival of religion could come.
5 .
OLINDA 242 OLIVA
The seminary was at first installed in the presbytery, were publiahed in the BuOain THmeatrid dea aneiem iUvM dt S.
but very soon (1 Oct., 1642) removed to a little house Stt^p^w (P*™. IWO). They suffice to show that thia new bioc-
in the ^cinity, M. de Foix being placed in change by S±ie?.^^ «S.PpSit*^^^^ ^ ^*^
leather Olier. The beginmngs were m sreat poverty, John F. Fenlon.
which lasted many years, for Olier would never allow
any revenues from the parish to be expended except on Olinda, Diocese of, in the north-east of Brazil,
parish needs. From the start he designed to make suffragan of San Salvador de Bahia. Erected into a
It a national seminary and regarded as providential vicariate Apostolic by Paul V (15 July, 1614), who
the fact that the parish of St-Sulpice and its seminary annexed to it the Prefecture Apostc^c of SSo Luiz do
depended directly on the Holy ^. In Uie course of Maranhfio, Olinda was createa a bishopric by Inno-
two years students came to it from about twenty dio- cent XI on 22 November, 1676 (Constitution ''Ad
ceses of Franoe. Some attended Uie courses at the Sacram''). Its most distingui^ed prelate was
Sorbonne, others followed those ^ven in the seminarv. Thomas of the Incarnation (1774-^), author of
His seminarians were initiated into parochial work, "Historia ecdesisB Lusitanise'' (Coimbra, 1759).
being employed very fruitfully in teadiing catechism. From its original territory Leo XIJI erected the Sees
At the Sorbonne their piety, it appears, had a very of Parahyba (1892) and Ala^Oas (1900). It is now
marked influence. The seminary, fulfillmg the hopes coextensive with the State of Pemambuoo, lying be-
of Father Olier, not only sent apostolic priests into all tween 7*^ and 10** 40' S. latitude, and 34** 35' and 42** 10'
parts of France, but became the model according to W. longitude, having an area of 49,575 square miles,
which seminaries were founded throughout the km£- The maritime r^ons are low, fertile, and well settled:
dom. Its rules, approved by the General Assembly the hinterland forms a plateau 500 to 700 feet hi^h,
of the Clergy in 1651, were adopted in many new es- is arid, and sparsely populated. The" episcopal city
tablishments. Within a few years, Father OUer, at was orifpnally Olinda, founded by Duarte Coelho
the earnest solicitation of the bishops, sent priests Pereira in 1534. It was held by the Dutch from 1630
to found seminaries in a few dioceses, the first at till 1654, who established, a few miles south, a new
Nantes in 1648. It was not his intention to establish capital, Moritzstadt, now known as Recife, or Pemam-
a congregation to conduct a number of seminaries in buoo, an important seaport having a population of
France, but merely to lend priests for the foundation 190,000. The episcopal residence has been trans-
of a seminary to any bishop and to recall them filter ferred thither, to the section called Bda Vista. Per-
their work' was well established. The repeated re- nambuco has a university, five hospitals (one in charge
quests of bishops, considered by him as mdica4;ions of the Sisteip of Mercy), a ooUeffe, and many churches,
of God's will, caused him to modify his plan, and the first bem^ dedicated to Nossa Senhora da Con-
to accept a few seminaries permanently. The so- ceicfto. Outside the city are the pilgrimages of Nossa
ciety which formed around him at St-SuJpice was not Senhora dos Prazeres and Nossa Senhora de Monte,
erected into a religious congregation; it continued A Benedictine abbey founded at Olinda in 1595, was
as a community of secular priests, following a com- re-established on 15 August, 1885^ from Beuron in
mon life but bound bv no specif vows, whose aim Hohenzollem, and is in personal union with the abbey
it should be to live perfectly the life of secular priests, founded at Parahyba in 1903. The present BL^op
He wished it to remain a small company, decreeing of Olinda, Mgr Luiz Raymundo da Silva Britto (b.
that it should never consist of more than seventy-two at S&o Bento do Peri, 24 Aug., 1840; ordained, 19 July,
members, besides the superior and his twelve assistants. 1864; dected, 18 Fd^., 1901), succeeded Mgr Manuel
This regulation remained in force till circumstances dos Santos Pereira (b. 1827; consecrated, 1893). The
induced Father Emery to abolidi the limitation. diocese contains 81 parishes, 365 filial churches and
Father Olier's arduous labours brought on a stroke chapels, 88 secular and 22 regular priests; the popu-
of apoplexy in February, 1652. He resigned his cure lation is 1,178,000, all Catholics, except about 4000
into the hands of M . de Bretonvilliers and on regaining Protestants.
sufficient strength visited watering-places in search of x.^'^^H?"'. ^*'»^ ^., ^"^S^ ^*'Ji°l, ^^^^i J^^'-JS'^"?'
health, by command of his physici^s, and made many ji^io^^r" ^ ' ^ ^' * ^ ***
pilgrimages. On his return to Paris, his old ener^ * A. A. MacErlean.
and enthusiasm reasserted themselves, especially m
his warfare against Jansenism. A second stroke, at OUya, a suppressed Cistercian abbey near Danzig
P6ray in September, 1653, rendered him thenceforth in Pomerania, founded with the assistance of the dukes
a paralytic. His last years were full of intense suffer- of Pomerania some time between 1 170-78. After the
ing, both bodily and mental, ^hich he bore with the extinction of the dukes of Pomerania in 1295, Oliva
utmost sweetness and resignation. The^^^ were yeails became part of Poland. From 1309-1466 it was un-
of prayer, but indeed the whole life of tlus servant of der the sovereignty of the Teutonic Order; from 1466-
God, -despite his immense external activit^r, was a 1772 it again formed part of Poland; from 1772-1807
prayer j and his principal devotion was to the inner life it belonged to Prussia; from 1807-14 to the free city
of Chnst. His visions and his mysticism caused the Danzig. In 1831 it was suppressed ; the abbey church.
Jansenists to ridicule him as a visionary; but thev, as a three-naved brick structure in the Romanesque ana
•veil as all others, acknowledged his sanctity and the Gothic style, became the Catholic parish church of
singular purity of his intentions. His numerous as- the town of Oliva; and nearly all the other buildings
cetical writings show him a profound master of spirit- were torn down.
ual doctrine, and well deserve a close study. His In 1224 and in 1234 the abbey was burnt down and
great friend, St. Vincent de Paul, who was with him at its monks killed by the heathen Prussians; in 1350 it
his death, considered him a saint; and Father Faber, was destroyed by fire; in 1433 it was pillaged and
in his "Growth in Holiness" (Baltimore ed., p. 376) partly torn down by the Hussites; in 1577 it was pil-
says of him: ''Of all the uncanonized servants of God la^ed and almost entirely destroyed by the Protestant
whose lives I have read, he most resembles a canon- soldiers of Danzig, in 1626 and in 1656 it was pillaged
izcd Saint.'' (See Saint-Sulpicb, Society op.) by the Swedes. Themonksof Oliva have been power-
Faillon. ri«<fe^.(W»«r(3volfl.,4thed.,Pari8. I873).thechirf ful factors in the Christianization of north-eastern
printedaourceof later works; LrrouRNBAu, i> Jidrini«<^ep<utoni2 Germany. The dukes of Pomerania and the Teu-
f9oo)f -iS^FiooS:; T^^ &P^"?3JS) i-TiJoi^tr » *?«»<' 9«*« Mbe'*"y ^<^^ »»»«'» ^*^ »««« t'*"*^
Jean Jacques Olier (London) ; Lbab, The Revival of PriesUi/ Life OX land.
in Prance (London, 1894) ; Bertrand, Bibiiothime Sulpicienne When Oliva Came Under the sovereignty of Poland
(Parifl, 1900), contains a comolote list of Olier's publiahed and un- j ^^^q -^ refused to join the Polish province of Cis-
published writings. Mionb has edited his wntings in one volume *•» *7"V) *»♦ '«*»««'*^ ^^ j^"* ""^ -^ **«** >/*vt-»**^ v v^«^
(Paris, — ). A few ohapten of a new life of Olier, by Monnibb. tercians, because most Of its monks were uermana..
OLIVA 243 OUVAINT
When about 1500 it asserted its exemptness from the was going to restore the Dominican Order in France,
jurisdiction of the bishop of Leslau, the Holy See de- Several of his friends had already decided to follow
cided in its favour. Its discipline suffered severely the great orator. He wished to follow him also, but
from 1538-1736, because by a degree of the Diet of was detained by the duty of supporting his mother.
Petricow only noblemen could be elected abbots, and After a year of professorship at Urenoble, he return^
especially because from 1557-1736 these abbots were to Paris, and occupied the chair of history at Bourbon
appointed by the Polish kings. An imi>etus to re- College: in 1841 he accepted a position as tutor to the
form was given by Abbot Edmund of Castiglione, who young Geoive de la Rochefoucaud.
was sent as visitor. He joined Oliva to the Polish In 1842 Olivaint won the junior fellowship in a
Province^ and in 1580 drew up new statutes for the history competition. His lecture was on Gregory
two prpvmces. But under the Prussian rule the king VII, and M. Saint-Marc Girardin closed the Assembly
assumed the right of appointing the abbots and a new with these words: *^We have just heard virtue,
period of decline began which continued until the sup- pleading the cause of virtue". At this time war was
pression. declared against the Jesuits. Quinet and Michelet
^onfM (XtMruM. ed. HiwH in 5m^ changed meii lectures into impassioned declara-
(Leipug, 1861) and V (1874), and by Kstrxtnuei in Mon'. Pol. +;„„ " o,»„;«o+ ♦!,« a^«:^4^<.r r\^ o Tivr«„ iqak. \m
hist!: VI (Knikow.1983); Hib8ch, it)« Khuer OUva (Dan«ig. S??^ against the society. On 2 Mav. 1846, M.
1850) ; Khstschmbb. Geschicku und Besekreibung der KUMer %n Thiers was to conduct before the Assembly an mter-
P«»n«-«Ben: Part I: ZMc Ciatert^er Ahui Oliva (Danxif. 1847); pellation against theSe religious. Olivaint saw that it
SSSII^n.S«3)^^ ^ ~^ was his duty to be present. "I hesitated" he said
Michael Ott. *® Louis Veuillot, "1 hesitate no longer. M. Thiers
shows me my duty. I must follow it. I enter to-
OUva, GiAN Paolo, b. at Genoa, 4 October, 1600; day" , And the day of the proposed interpellation he
d. at Rome, at Sant' Andrea Quirinale, 26 Novem- entered the novitiate of Laval. This sacnfice was
ber, 1681. In 1616, he entered the Society of Jesus, ^^^^ ^^^ Madame Olivaint who as yet had not been
in which he excelled by rare intellectual powers, learn- converted by the virtues of her son. After a year's
ing, and sanctity. A famous pulpit orator, he was fervent novitiate he was made professor of history at
Apostolic Preacher of the Palace under Innocent X, ^^^ College of Brugelette, in Belgium. On 3 May,
Alexander VII, Clement IX, and Clement X. In 1^47, he made his first vows, and on the completion
1661, during the critical period of the Provost General ^^ theological studies received Holv orders. In the
Father Goswin Nioke^ the general congregation meanwhile the Law of 1850 had established, in France,
elected him vicar-general with the right of ^cces- ^^ "8^* ^^ controlling education. Pierre Olivaint
sion. His chief aim.was to remove all causes of dis- ^as summoned to Paris, where he remained. On 3
sension and 6f personal friction between his institute ^P^\ 1852, Pierre arrived at the College of Vaugirard
and other religious orders, towards which he showed of which the Jesuits had accepted charge. He was to
himself most reverent and yielding. He extended epend thirteen years here, first as professor and pre-
and increased the missions, creating new ones out- ^^* ^^ studies, then as rector. A model teacher, he
side of Europe, especially in Japan. His book of trained the heart as well as the mind, and by his ex-
forty-odd sermons tor Lent, and fcs work of six folio haustless energy, added to the direction of his college,
volumes," In Selecta Scriptuwe Loca Ethic» Commen- °^^y works orzeal, among others " L'CEuvre de TEn-
tationes^', printed at Lyons, evince his scholarship ^^^ J6sus pour la premiere communion des jeimes
and piety. He took a keen interest in the events of ^^ pauvres", and "L'(Euvre de Saint Fran^ois-
his time. Remembering what had happened to Car- Xavier ", for the workmen of the pansh of Vaugirard.
dinal Palavicino, Oliva printed one thousand of his ^^^ twenty-five years devoted to teaching. Father
letters, in order that they might not be printed by 9^yaint was named Superior of the House in Paris
others and be misconstrued. (1865). He accepted this burden with courage, and
OuvA. Letura ai pp. delia Compaania-LeUere, II (Rome. 1660, displayed an Unbounded zeal. An indefatigable
!S§iJ» ?/^P^^^^* Menologio dx piememorie eec., IV (Vem<». preacher and director, he exercised by his sanctity an
iSSi^2S5V./'^X<2r^*^'!S'5Jrc.Tii^; &7«d8tible influeace over all. His mother yielded to
IV (Faiis, 1846), M-7. him and under his direction, Madame Olivaint pre-
LuiQi Tacchi Vbnturi. pared by a life of prayer for a very holy death. In
the meantime the spirit of revolt agitated Paris, and
OliTaint, Pierre, was b. in Paris, 22 Feb., 1816. spread throughout France. The refigious renaissance
His father, a man of repute, but an unbeliever and im- ol the nineteenth century, in which Pierre Olivaint had
bittered by reverses of fortune and career, died in 1835 been an example, called forth a retaliation of evil. In
without naving returned to the faith. He was sur- January, 1870, Father Olivaint wrote ''Persecution is
vived by his wife, also without religion, and three upon us; it will be terrible: we will pass through
children. At twenty Pierre left home, and the College torrents of blood." On the desertion of Rome by the
of Charlemagne, where he had made a brilliant course emperor had followed the disaster of the French
of studies, imbued him with the doctrines of Voltaire, troops. The investment of Paris was planned^ and to
His heart, however, had remained remarkably < pure, those who urged him to fly Father Olivaint rephed that
and he writes at this time: ''I desire, if by any possibil- his was the post of danser. The most formidable
ity I. should become a priest, to be a missionary, and if danger impending was the commune, now mistress
lam a missionary to be a martyr." In 1836 Pierre en- of Paris. "Let us be generous and ready for sacri-
tered the Norinal School, and, where so many lose fice". said Father OH vamt. ''France must have the
their faith, conversion awaited him. Led away at blood of the pure to raise her again; which one of us,
first by Buchez's neo-Catholicism, then won by the indeed, is worthy to offer his life, and what a jov
sermons of Lacordaire, he made his profession of faith should we be chosen." He was chosen. On 4 April,
to Father de Ravignan (1837), and irom that time be- 1871, the fidiris arrested Mgr Darboy and several
came an apostle. At the Normal School he formed a others. On the fifth, they took possession of the
Catholic group which by its piety and charity soon house on the Rue deSdvres and Father Olivaint quietly
attracted attention and respect. The Conferences gave himself up. On 24 May, Mgr Darboy and five
of St. Vincent de Paul attracted at that time the 61ite other prisoners were executed; on the twenty-sixth,
of the schools, and Olivaint with twelve of his com- fifty-two victims, Father Olivaint marching at^ their
panions established them in the parish of Saint M6- head^ere dragged through Paris and massacred in the
dard. By the ardour of their charity and faith these Rue Haxo. The day after this expiation the commune
heroic youths symboUzed the religious renaissance in was overthrown. The remains of Father Olivaint
France. In 1836^ Olivaint heard that Lacordaire and the four priests who fell with him (Fathers
m
OLIVER
244
0LIVETAN8
Duooudray^ Caubert, Clerc, et de Bengv) were placed
in a ohapel m the Rue de Sevres, where tne pious faith-
ful still continue to invoke them, and numberless
graces have been attributed to their intercession.
CL4m. Pierre OlitairU pritra de la C. de J. (Paris. 1878) ; ox
PONLBVOT, Aetee de la eaiUiviti etdela mart dee PP. Olivaintt i>u-
eeudray ate. (Paris, 1878) : Oleyaimt, Journal de Bee retrailee an>-
niMBM (2 vob., Paris. 1872).
PiBBaB SUAU.
OliTer^ George, b. at Newington in Surrey in
1781; d. at Exeter m 1861. After studying for some
vears at the Sedgley Park School, he entered Stony-
hurst in 1796, went throu|;h the full training, and
taught ''humanities" for five years. Having been
ordained priest in 1806. he was sent the follo^Hnjj year
to the mission formerly belonging to the Jesuits at
Exeter, where he spent the remainder of his Ufe. He
was not,however. himself a Jesuit ; for during his Stony-
hurst days the Societv had no canonical existence m
England, and althougn the members of the community
kept the rule of St. Ignatius so far as was compatible
with their circumstances, in the hope of a future re-
storation of the Society, they contmued to rank as
secular priests. When the restoration of the Society
took place, Oliver did not join it, but lived and died
a secular priest. As a student of archaeology he ac-
quired considerable fame, and although some of his
conclusions are not accepted at the present day, yet
considermg the limited sources of Imowledge which
were available when hehved, his researches show both
industry and judgment. Most of his work had a local
bearing. He became a well-known authority on the
history and antiquities of Devonshire, about which he
wrote several standard works.
The one which is best known to Catholics in general
is his Collections contuning numerous biographicabio-
tices of Catholics, both ders^ and laity, in the West of
England. On the re-establiahment of the hierarchy,
when the Plymouth Chapter was erected (1852), Oli-
ver was nominated as provost. He had already re-
tired from active work, but continued to reside in his
old house until his death. Among his works are:
"The Monasteries of Devon" (1820); "History of
Exeter" (1821); "Ecclesiastical Antiquities of Devon"
(1828, 2nd edition, much changed, 1839); "Collec-
tions S.J." (1838); "A View oTDevonshire in 1630"
(1845); "Monasticon Dioecesis Exoniensis" (1846);
"Collections illustrating the history of the Catho-
lic Religion" etc. (1857); "Lives of the Bishops of
Exeter" (1861); numerous pamphlets and smaller
works. See Brushfield's Bibliographv of his works, of
which the frontispiece is a portrait of Georee Oliver.
FouBT. Reeorde 8, J.; Hvbenbvth. Hiet of Sedgley Park
(LondoD, 1856): Idxm, Life of Milner (Winchester, 1839); obitu-
ary notices in The Tablet, Oentleman^e Magasinet eto.
BsRNABD Ward.
OliTOt, Mount (Lat. Mons olivertua). occurring also
in the English Bibles as the Mount of Olives (Mons
Olivarum), is the name applied to "the hill that is
over against Jerusalem" (III Kings, xi, 7), that is, "on
the east side of the city" (Ezech., xi. 23), beyond the
torrent Cedron (II lungs, xv, 23, 30), "a sabbath
day's journey" from the city (Acts, i, 12). The pas-
sages of the books of the Kinss show the high an-
tiquity of the name, undoubtedl^r suggested by the
groves of olive trees which flourishea there, traces
of which still remain. In the Middle Ages it was
called by Arabic writers: Ttkr es-ZeitOn, Tflr ZeitA, or
Jebel Ttkr ZeitOn, of which the modem name, Jebel
et-TOr, appears to be an abbreviation. Mt. Olivet
is not so much a hill as a range of hills separated by
low depressions. The range includes, from N. to S.,
the Bis el-Mushfiiif (Scopus; 2686 ft. above the sea-
level), Rfis el-Madb&se (2600 ft.) and Ras et-fe 1& «ah
(2663 ft.) ; south of the latter, between the old and the
new road from Jerusalem to Jericho, is the Jebel e^
TQr, or Mt. Olivet proper, rising in three summits
called by Christians, respectively: the Men of Galilee
{Karem e^-^dyyOdf "the vineyard of the hunter",
2732 ft.), the Asc^ision (on which the village Kafr et*
for is built), and the Prophets, a spur of the preceding
Cfwins its name to the old rock-tombs known as the
Tombs of the Prophets; south-west of the new road to
Jericho, the range terminates in the Jebel Batn el-
H&w9^ called by Christiana the Mount of Offence,
tradition locating there Solomon's idolatrous shrines
(IV Kings, xxiii, 13).
Mt. Olivet has been the scene of many famous
events of Biblical history. In David's time there was
there a holy place dedicated to Yahweh; its exact lo-
cation is not Known; but it was near the road to the
Jordan, possibly on the summit of the Karem e^-^fty-
yfid (II Kinra, xv, 32). The site of the village of
Bahurim (Il^ngs, iii, 16) lay no doubt on the same
road. We have already mentioned the tradition
pointing to the Jebel Bato el-H&wft as the place where
Solomon erected his idolatrous shrines destroyed by
Josias (III Kings, xi, 7; IV Kings, xxiii, 13) 'this iden-
tification is supported by the Targum whidi suggests
in IV Kings, xxiii, 13, the reading nnir?2n in, "Mount
of Oil", a good synonym of Mt. Olivet, instead of the
traditional n**n?;ttn nn, "Mount of Offence", found
nowhere else. Accordingly the idolatrous sanctuaries
were on the south side of Mt. Olivet proper. Finally *
we learn from the Jewish rabbis that tne Moimt of
Oil was the traditional blace for sacrificing the red
heifer (Num., xix.; cf. Maimon., "Treat, of the red
heifer", iii, 1). But to Christians espMecially is Mt.
Olivet a most hallowed place, because it was, durins
, the last days of Our Lord's public hfe, the preferred
resort of the Saviour. In connexion therewith several
spots are singled out in the Gospels: Bethania, the
home of Lazarus and of Simon the Leper (Mark, xiv,
3; Matt., xxvi, 6); Bethphage, whence started the
triumphal procession to Jerusalem (Matt., xxi, 1),
identified with some probability by FederUn with the
ruins called Habalat el-Amtrft or Kehf Aba L&y2Lti ; the
site of the Franciscan Chapel of Bethphage, about 1
mile west of El-Acfiriyeh. is not well chosen; the place
where the fig-tree cursea by our Lord stood (Matt.,
xxi, 18-22; Mark, xi, 12-14; 20-21); the spot where
Jesus wept over Jerusalem (Luke, xix, 41); the site
where He prophesied' the destruction of the Temple,
the ruin of the city and the end of the world (Matt.,
xxiv, 1 sqq.); the Garden of Gethsemani; lastly the
place where the Lord imparted His farewell blessing
to the Apostles and ascended into heaven (Luke,
xxiv, 50-51). All these spots the piety of Christian
ages has, with more or less success, endeavoured to
locate and to consecrate by erecting sanctuaries
thereon.
Thomson. The Land and the Book, I (London. 1881), 416 sqq.;
Wabrsn. Mount of Olivee in Habtinos, Dicl. of the BibU, s. t.;
Fbdbrlin. Qtuiques loealitie aneiennea situiee eur la Montagne dee
Oiiviert in La Terre Sainte, 15 Jan., 1901, pp. 21 aqq.; Heidbt in
ViGOUSonx, Diet, de la Bible, n. v. OHviers (Mont dee); Libvin ob
Haiimb. Guid&^ndieateur de la Terre SainU (Jeniaalem, 1887);
NBT7BAVBR. La giographie du Talmud (Paiia. 1868).
Charles L. Souvay.
OliTetazis, a branch of the white monks of the
Benedictine Order, founded in 1319. It owed its
origin to the ascetic fervour of Giovanni Tolomei (St.
Bernard Ptolomei), a gentleman of Siena and [pro-
fessor of philosophy. He is said to have vowed him-
self to religion in gratitude for the recovery of his eye-
sight through the intercession of the Biased Virgin.
In fulfilment of this vow he left his home (1313) and
went into the wilderness, to forsake the world and
give himself to God. Two companions of hiSj Am-
rogio Piccolomini and Patricio Patrici, Sienese
senators, accompanied him. They settled on a bit
of land belonnng to Tolomei. It was a mountain top,
exactly suited to the eremitical life. Here they de-
voted themselves to austerities. Apparently they
were somewhat aggressive in their asceticism ; for, six
OLnn
245
ouvx
years later, they were accused of her^y and sum-
moned to give an explanation of their innovations be-
fore John XXII at Avignon. The two disciples —
Tolomei remained behind — obeyed the mandate and
succeeded in gaining the good-will of the Holy Father,
who, however, in order to bring them into line with
other monks, bade them go to Guido di Pietromala,
Bishop of Arezzo, and ask him to give them a Rule
which had the approbation of the Church. The
bishop remembered that once, in a vision or dream,
Our Lady had put into his hands the Rule of St. Ben-
edict ana bade him give white habits to some persons
who knelt before her. He did not doubt that these
monks were the Sienese hermits commended to his
care by the pope. Wherefore, he clothed the three of
them with white habits and gave them the Benedictine
Rule and placed them under the protection of the
Blessed Virgin. Tolomei took the name of Bernard
and their oUve-clothed mountain hermitage was re-
named " Monte Oliyeto ", in memory of Christ's a^ony
and as a perpetual reminder to themselves of the life of
sacrifice ana expiatory penance they had undertaken.
Evidently, in what ne did, the good bishop had
before his mind the history of St. Romuald — there
b even a repetition of the well-known ''Vision of St.
Romuald'' in the story — ^and hoped, through the en-
thusiasm of Bernard and his monks, to witness an-
other wide-spread monastic revival, like that which
spread from the Hermitage of Camaldoli. He was
not disappointed. Through the generosity of a mer-
chant a monastery was erected at Siena; he himself
built another at Arezzo; a third sprang up at Florence;
and within a verv few years there were establishments
at Camprena, Volterra, San Geminiano, Eugubio,
Foligno, and Rome. BeJfore St. Bemaixl's death from
the plague in 1348 — ^he had quitted his monastery
to devote himself to the care of those stricken with the
disease and died a mart3rr of charity — the new con-
gregation was already in great repute, a^ well for the
number of its houses and monks as for the saintliness
of its members and the rigour of its observance. Yet
it never succeeded in planting itself successfully on the
other side of the Alps.
St. Bernard Ptolomei's idea of monastic reform was
that which had inspired every foimder of an order or
congregation since the da^ of St. Benedict — a return
to the primitive life of solitude and austerity. Severe
corporal mortifications were ordained by rule and in-
flicted in public. The usual ecclesisatical and con-
ventual fasts were largely increased and the daily
food was bread and water. The monks slept on a
straw mattress without bed-coverings, and did not
lie down after the midnight Office, but continued in
prayer until Prime. Th^ wore wooden sandids and
habits of the coarsest stun . They were also fanatical
total abstainers; not only was St. Benedict's kindly
concession of a hemina of wine rejected, but the vine-
yards were rooted up and the wine-presses and vessels
destroyed. Attention has been called to this last par-
ticular, chiefly to contrast with it a provision of the
later constitutions, in which the monks are told to
keep the best wine for themselves and sell the inferior
product ("Meliora vina pro monachorum usu serven-
tur, pejora vendantur ") and, should they have to buy
wine, to purchase only the better quality ("si vinum
emendum erit, emetur illud quod melius erit").
Truly, relaxation was inevitable. It was never rea-
sonable that the heroic austerities of St. Bernard and
his companions should be made the rule, then and
always, for every monk of the order. But the man-
date concerning the quality of the wine chiefly aimed
to remove any excuse for differential treatment of the
monks in meat and drink. Where everything on the
table was of exceptional quality, there could be no
reason why anyone should oe especially provided for.
It was alwajrs the custom for each one to dilute the
wine given him.
Though the foundation of the Olivetans was not
professedly an introduction of constitutional reform
among the Benedictines, it had that result. They
were a new creation and hence, as we may say, up-
to-date. They had a superior general, like the friars,
and officials of the order distinct from those of the
abbey. They set an example of adaptation to present
needs by the frequent modification of their constitu-
tions at the general chapters, and by the short term
of office enioyed by the superiors. In 1408 Gregory
XII gave tnem the extinct monasteiy of St. Justina
at Padua, which they occupied until the institution
there of the famous Benedictine reform. This s^eat
movement, out of which the present Cassinese Con-
gregation resulted, may, therefore, in a very literal
sense, be described as having followed in the footsteps
of the Olivetans. At the present date, the Order of
Our Lady of Mount Olivet numbers only 10 monaster-
ies and 122 brethren.
HiLTOT, HiH, det ordrea moruut.; MiaNS, Diet, det ordrea rdig.;
LANCXunro, HiU. OHvetante; Bonakni, Catalog, ord. rtLig.; Cum-
lUNB, ThiB OUvdan ConUitutioru in Amfieforth Jcumal (Deo.»
1806).
J. C. Almond.
Olivi, Pierre Jean (Pktrus Johannis), Spiritual
Franciscan and theological author, b. at Serignan,
Diocese of B^ziers, 1248^9; d. at Narbonne, 14 March,
1298. At twelve he entered the Friars Minor at
B^zierSj and later took the baccalaureate at Paris.
Retummg to his native province, he soon distin-
guished himself by his strict observance of the rule
and his theological knowledge. When Nicholas III
prepaml his Decretal "Exiit'' (1279), Olivi, then at
Kome, was asked to express his opinion with regard
to Franciscan poverty {u9U9 pauper). Unfortunately
there was then in the convents of Provence a con-
troversy about the stricter or laxer observance of the
rule. Olivi soon became the principal "Spokesman
of the rigorists, and met with strong opposition on the
part of the community. At the Greneral Chapter of
Strasburg (1282) he was accused of heresy, and hence-
forward almost every general chapter concerned itself
with him. His doctrine was examined by seven friars,
graduates of the XJniversitv of Paris (see Anal. Franc,
III, 374-75), and censured in thirty-four propositions,
whereupon his writings were confiscated (1283).
Olivi cleverly defended himself in several responses
(128a-85), and finally the General Chapter of Mont-
pelfier (1287) decided in his favour. The new eeneral,
Matthew of Aquasparta, sent him as lector in theology
to the convent of ota. Croce, Florence, whence Mat-
thew's successor, Raymond Gaufredi, sent him as
lector to Montpellier. At the Genera] Chapter of
Paris (1292) Olivi again gave explanations, which were
apparently satisfactory. He ^pent his last years in
the convent of Narbonne, and died, surrounded bv his
friends, after an earnest profession of his Catholic
Fait^ a>ublished by Wadding ad a. 1297, n. 33).
Peace, however, was not obtained by his death.
His friends, friars and seculars, showed an exa^^gerated
veneration for their leader, and honoured his tomb
as that of a saint; on the other hand the General Chap-
ter of Lyons (1299) ordered his writings to be col-
lected and burnt as heretical. The General Coimcil of
"N^enne (1312), in the Decretal "Fidei catholicse fun-
damento" (Bull. Franc, V, 86), established the Cath-
olic doctrine against three points of Olivi's teaching,
without mentioning the author; these points refeired
to: (1) the moment Our Lord's body was transfixed
by the lance, (2) the manner in which the soul is united
to the body, (3) the baptism of infants. In 1318 the
friars went so far as to aestroy Olivi's tomb, and in the
next year two further steps were taken against him :
his writings were absolutely forbidden by the Gen-
eral Chapter of Marseilles, and a special commisnon
of theologians examined Olivi's ''Postilla in Apoca-
lypsim" and marked out sixty sentences, chiefly joa-
OLIVIEB
246
OLLi-LAPEXnnS
chimistical extravagances (see Joachim of Flora.
Fortexts^Baluzius-Mansi, " Miscellanea", II, Lucca,
1761, 258-70; cf . also Denifle, " Chartularium Univerei-
tatJs Parisiensis", II, i, Paris, 1891,238-9). It was only
in 1326 that those sentences were really condemned by
John XXII, when the fact that Louis the Bavarian
used Olivias writings in his famous Appeal of Sachsen-
hausen (1324) had again drawn attention to the au-
thor. Olivi's fate was a hard one, but was partly
deserved through his theological incorrectness. Still
Father Ehrle, the most competent judge on this point,
considers (Archiv, III, 440) that Olivi was not the im-
pious heretic he is painted in some writings of the Mid-
dle Ages, and states (ibid., 448) that the denunciation
of his theological doctrine was rather a tactical meas-
ure of the adversaries of the severe principles of pov-
erty and reform professed by Olivi. For the rest,
Olivi follows in many points the doctrine of St. Bona-
venture. The numerous but for the most part united
works of Olivi are appropriately divided by Ehrle into
three classes : (1 ) Speculative Works, of which the chief
is his ^'Qusstiones" (philosophical and theological),
printed partly in an extremely rare edition (Venice,
1509), which contains also his defences against the
Paris theologians of 1283-85 which were reprinted by
Du Plessis d'Argentr^, "Collectio judiciorum", I
(Paris, 1724), 226-34; Commentary on the Book of
Sentences; "De Sacramentis '' etc. (2) Exegetical
Works: Five small treatises on principles of introduc-
tion, printed under St. Bonaventure's name by BonelU,
"Suppl. ad. op. S. Bonaventurae" (Trent, 1772-3), I,
23-49, 282-347, 348-74; 11. 1038-52, 1053-1113. In
the same work (1, 52-281) is printed Olivi's "Pbstilla
in Cant. Canticorum". (See S. Bonav. opera., VI,
Quaracchi, 1893, Prolegomena, vi-ix.) The other
vosiilke are: Super Genesim, Job, Psalterium, Prover-
bia, Ecclesia/sten, Lamentationes Jerecfiia}, Ecechielem,
Prophetas minores, on the Four Gospels, Ep. ad Ro-
manos [see Denifle, " Die Abendl. Schrif tausleger bis
Luther .... (Rom^i, 17) und justificatio" (Mainz,
1905), 156 sq.], ad Corinthios, in epistolas Canonicas,
in Apocalypsim; (3) Works on observance of Fran-
ciscan Rule (see Francis, Rule of Saint).
Ehrls, Petrus Johannis Olivi, aein Leben u. seine SchHflen in
Archiv fUr LiU. u Kirehengeech. d. MiUetaltera, III (B«rlin, 1887)»
409-552; Idem, Die Vorgesch. d. Coneila von Vienne, ibid., II, ZSi-
416; Danou. Hiet. litt. de la France, XXI (Paris. 1847). 41-56;
F^RET, La facuUi de thiol, de Paris. Moyen Age, II (Paris, 1805),
99-105; III. 117-25; RenA de Nantbb, Hist, des SpiritueU (Paris,
1900). 267-342; Ouoer, Descriptio Codicis Capistranensis ediquot
optisctUa Pr. Petri Johannis Olivi conlinentis in Archivum Francise.
Histor., I (Quaracchi, 1908), 617-22; Ziouara, De tnente Conc\lii
Vienneneis tn definiendo dogmate unionis anima humaniB cum eor-
pore (Rome, 1878); Wadding, Scriptorea (Rome, 1806). 193;
Sba
Jbabalsa, iSupp/. ad Script., 595-7.
LivABius Oliger.
Olivier de la Blarche, chronicler and poet, b.
1426, at the Chateau de la Marche, in Franche-
Comt6; d. at Brussels, 1501. He was knishted by
Count de Charolais, later Charles the Bold (1465).
Two years later Count de Charolais became ruler of
Burgundy and Flanders, and made Olivier bailiff of
Amont (now a department of the Haute^adne) and
captain of his guards. Taken prisoner at the battle
of Nancy, where the duke lost his life (1477), he re-
gained his liberty by paying a ransom, and rejoined
Marie, daughter of Duke Charles and heiress of Bur-
gundy, who made him her matlre d^hdtel.
As a writer he is best known by his "Memoirs", which
cover the years from 1435-92, first printed at Lyons
in 1562. Another edition, by Beaune and d'Arbau-
mont, was made for the Soci^tfi de THistoire de France
(1883^88). The work is singular and important for a
knowledge of the period. The author is sincere, but
his style contains many WaUonne expressions and, as
in his other writings, he introduces too many descrip-
tions of f^tes and tournaments. Most of his works are
in verse. Among these are : " Le Chevalier D^lib6r6 ",
a poem which some think is his own biography, other?
that it is an allegorical life of Charles the Bold; "Le
Parement et le Triomphe des Dames d'Honneur", a
work in prose and verse, of which each of the twenty-
six chapters is named from some articles of ladie^ at-
tire; and ''La Source d'Honneur pour maintenir la
corporelle 616gance des Dames". Among his prose
works are: '' Trait6 et Avis de auelques gentilhommes
sur les duels et gages de bataille". and '"I^t6 de la
Mani^re de c^l^brer la noble ffite ae la Toison d'or ".
Stein. Olivier de la Marche (Bnuaels, 1888).
Georges Bertrin.
0116-Lapnme, L£on, French Catholic philoso-
pher, b. in 1839; d. at Paris, 19 Feb., 1898. Under the
mfluence of the philosooher Caro and of P^re Gratry's
book " Les Sources ", 0U6-Laprune, after exceptionally
brilliant studies at the Ecole Normale Sup6rieure
(1858 to 1861), devoted himself to philosophy. His
Ufe was spent in teaching a philosophy illuminated by
the light of Catholic faith, first in the lycSes and then
in the Ecole Normale Sup<5rieure from 1875. As Oaa-
nani had been a Catholic professor of history and
foreign literature in the university, OUd-Laprune's aim
was to be a Catholic professor of philosophy there.
P5re de R^gnon, the Jesuit theologian, wrote to him:
"I am glad to think that God wills in our time to re-
vive the lay apostolate, as in the times of Justin and .
Athenagoras; it b you especially who give me these
thoughts." The Government of the Third Republic
was now and then urged by a certain section of the
press to punish the " clericalism" of GUd-Laprune. but
th,e repute of his philosophical teaching protected nim.
For one year only (1881-82), after organizing a mani-
festation in favour of the expelled congregations, he
was suspended from his chair by Jules Feny, and the
first to sign the protest addressed by his students to
the minister on behalf of their professor was the fu-
ture socialist deputy Jean Jaur^s, then a student at
the Ecole Normale Sup6rieure.
0116-Laprune's first important work was "La phi-
losophic de Malebranche " (1870) . Ten years later to
obtain the doctorate he defended before the Sorbonne
a thesis on moral certitude. As against the exaggera-
tions of Cartesian rationalism and Positivistic deter-
minism he investigated the part of the will and the heart'
in the phenomenon of belief. This work resembles in
many respects Newman's "Grammar of Assent"; but
0116-Laprune must not, any more than the English
cardinal, be held responsible for subsequent tenden-
cies which have sought to diminish the share of the in-
telligence in the act of faith and to separate completely
the domain of belief from that of knowledge. In his
"Essai sur la morale d'Aristote" (1881) 0116-Laprune
defended the " Eudjemonism " of the Greek philoso-
pher against the Kantian theories; and in " La philoso-
Ehie et le temps present " (1890) he vindicated, against
>eistic spiritualism, the right of the Christian thinker
to go beyond the data of "natural religion" and illu-
minate i>hilosophy by the data of revealed religion.
One of his most influential works was the "Prix de la
vie" (1894), wherein he shows why life is worth living.
The advice given by Leo XIII to the Catholics of
France found in Olfe-Laprune an active champion.
His brochure "Ce qu'on va chercher k Rome" (1895)
was one of the best commentaries on the papal policy.
The Academy of Moral and Political Sciences elected
him a member of the philosophical section in 1897
to succeed Vacherot. His articles and conferences at-
test his growing influence in Catholic circles. He be-
came a leader of Christian activity, consulted and
heard by all until his premature death when he was
about to finish a book on Jouffroy (Paris, 1899).
Many of his articles have been collected by Goyau
under the title "La Vitality chrdtienne" (1901). Here
will also be found a series of his unedited meditations,
which by a noteworthy coincidence bore the future
motto of Pius X, " Omnia instaurare in Christo ". Pro-
OLMfmS Z'
feeaor Detboa of the Univcrwty of Paris published in
1907 the GouiBe which 0116-Lapnine bad given on rea-
son and rationaliBUi (La raison et 1c rationahsmc).
Some months after hia death Mr. WiHiam P. Coyne
called him with justice " the greatest Catholic layman
who has appeared in France ainee Oianam" ("New
Ireland Review ", June, 1899, p. 195).
BiiAiLUB. La crut dt la crouance (Psiia, 1901): Blohdel,
Uon om-Lapnitis (Psru. 1000); GoTAD, Pnfue to La VUalM
iciBBca monla (Purig, ISOO).
GEOBaEB GOTAU.
Olmfltl, Abchdiocbsb ot (Glomucbnbib), in Mo-
ravia. It IB probable that Christianity penetrated
into Moravia as early as the fourth centurv, but the
:7 OLM^tZ
for maUreating John, but declined to give up the fief
of Bodovin, whereupon the pope asked Vratistav to
expel Jaronitr, by force if necessary.
Among the biuiopsof OlthUti, during the later Mid-
dle Ages the following are prominent; Heinrich
(called Zdik after his birthtilacc) transferred his see to
the church of St. Wenceslaua, which had been twenty-
four years in construction, and at Easter, 1138, took
the Premonetratensian habit in the church of the
Holv Sepulchre at Jerusalem. Bishop Kaiim, in 1 193,
while ordaining priests and deacons at Prazue, forftot
the imposition of hands. His successor, Engelbcrt,
corrected this omission two years later ; but the Cardi-
nal-Deacon PetruB declared the ordination null and
void, and caused it to be repeated in its entirety in
^. Towards the end of the cightn centuryth.
Northern Slavs immigrated into this region. Their
leader, Rastislav, asked for Christian missionaries, not
from the Franks, but from thcGreek emperor, Michael
III, who sent the brothers Cyril and Methodius, bom
in Theasalonica but speaking the Slavic tongue and
educated in Constantinople. Cyril, known as "the
Philosopher", had been a missionary among the Cha-
Ears, and had discovered near the Inkermann the body
of Clement I, whose transfer to Rome through Bul-
garia and Fannonia is marked to this day by tiiree
Moravian and eighteen Bohemian churches dedicated
to St. Clement. The preaching of the missionary
brothers was successful. Cyril mvented the Glago-
litic alphabet and translated the Bible into Slavic.
What IS to-day called "Cyrillic" (Glagolitic) script
owes its origin to his pupil Clement, Bishop of Welica,
German ecclesiastics became jealous of the success of
the two Slavic apostles and accused thejn at Rome,
but Adrian II gave them permismon to use the Slavic
language for religious services, Cyril died in a Ro-
man monastery, while Methodius became Archbishop
of Pannonia and Moravia. Despite hishigh ecclesias-
tical dignity he was insulted at a Synod of Salsburg
and kept a prisoner for two and a half years. He la-
boured faithfully and succesafullv in Moravia under
the reign of Swatopluk, justi&eci himself repeatedly
when accused before John VllI, and died 6 April, 885,
at Vetehrad on the March.
The Moravian kingdom soon (906) fell before the on-
slaught of the Hungarians, and the name Moravia for
a long time disappears from history. In the report
Bent by Pilgrim of Passau to Benedict VIII, it is men-
IJoned as part of the Diocese of Passau. When in 873
the See ol Fragile was established, it included Mora-
via, Silesia (with Cracow), and the I.ausiti. In 1D48
Duke Bretislav Achilles founded the first Moravian
monastery, Raigem. The medieval conecpt of a
kingdom called for several episcopal sees under a
metropohtan. Therefore, when Bretisle '
became a bishopric. The emperor gained a new
vassal, and the Archbishop of Mtuns another suf-
fragan. The Bishop of Prague, as an indemnity
for the loss of tithes in , Moravia, received twelve
fiefs in Bohemia, and annually the sum of one hun-
dred marks silver from the ducal treasury. The first
Moravian bishop was John I (1063-85), a monk of
Brevnow. At the same time the Cathedral of Sts.
Peter and Paul received a chapter with a dean at its
head. John had to suffer a great deal from Bishop
Jaromir (Gebhard) of Prague, the unpricslly brother
of Duke Vratislav. Jaromir personally attacked and
maltreated Bishop John in the latter's episcopal pal-
ace, Alexander II thereupon sent a legate Rudol-
phuB, who convoked a synod at Prague which Jaromir
— lored. For this insubordination he was deposed.
"iry VII summoned both bishops to Rome, At
aster Synod of 1074 Jaromir expressed his regret
gs
1197. When the legate attempted to enforce a strict
observance of the laws relating to celibacy, he was ex-
pelled from the country; the laws of the Church, how-
ever, were henceforth more strictly observed. Dur-
ing the time that Moravia was joined to Bohemia, ths
Duke of Bohemia appointed the Bishop ofOlmiitz. In
1182 Moravia became independent, and thereafter the
margraves of Moravia exercised the right of appoint-
ment. Premysl Ottokar I, in 1207, granted to the
Church of Olmiit* freedom from taxes and to the chap-
ter the right of electing the bishop. Innocent III con-
firmed this grant. After the death of Ottokar II,
Rudolph of Hapsburg appointed Bishop Bruno regent
in Moravia. Charles IV, in 1343, made Prague the
metropolitan see for LeitoraiBchl and Olmlitz. The
bishopric, as a vassal principality of the Bohemian
crown, was the peer ol the margravate of Moravia,
and from 1365 Ha prince-bishop was Count of the Bo-
hemian Chapel, i. e. firat court chaplain who was to ac-
company the monarch on his frequent travels. In
1380 the cathe<lral and the residence of the prince-
bishop were both destroyed by fire. During this pe-
riod the following orders were established : the Prcmon-
O'LOGHLEN
248
OLYMPIAS
fltraiensianB (Hradisch, Klosterbriick); Cistercians
(Velehrad) ; the Franciscans and the Dominicans dur-
ing the lives of their founders; the Teutonic Knights.
Qn the other hand there afose the sects of the Albi-
senses, Flagellants, Waldensians (Apostolic Brethren,
Brethren of the Holy Ghost), Hussites (Bohemian
Brethren, Grubenheimer, Pioardians). Thus it hap-
EBned that Protestantism found a well-prepared field,
utheranism was preached by Speratus at Iglau; Hub-
maier and Huter were Baptists. Exiled from Switz-
erland and Germany, the Anabaptists came in droves
into Moravia: Loelius Socinus, on his homeward jour-
ney from Poland to Turin, successfully sowed the
seed of Socinianism. Bishop Dubravsky (Dubravius) ,
famous as an author and nistorian, encouraged the
disheartened Catholics (1553). The thirty-tl5ee vol-
umes of his history of Bohenua, his five books on fish- .
raising (piscatology), and the work entitled ''Ueber
das heilige Messopfer" justify his reputation.
The Keform movement was finally arrested by the
Jesuits. Three of them reached Olmtltz in 1566 and
rapidly acquired influence and power. Bishop Prusi-
' novsky granted them a convent and turned over to
them the schools as well as the projected university.
At a synod strict orders and regulations were adopted.
His fourth successor, PavloveKy, accomplished won-
ders in carrving out the decrees of the Council of
Trent. Rudolpn II conferred upon him the title of
duke and prince and made him a member of the royal
chapel. The canons whom he gathered at Olmtitz
were distmguished for leammg and virtue. The most
im{K>rtant bishop of this see during the Reformation
period was Cardinal Franz Dietrichstein (d. 1636),
son of Adam, major-domo of the imperial household.
He governed the see for thirty-seven years, and ac-
complished extraordinary things both as statesman
and ecclesiastic. His work, of course, met with con-
siderable opposition. He was imprisoned atBrilnn,
and the See of OlmUtz was abolished. Johannes Sar-
kander, parish priest of Holleschau, became a martvr
for the secrecy of the confessional at Olmutz, 17 March,
1620, and in 1860 he was canonized. Better days
soon appeared. The title of prince was conferred on
both the cardinal and his brother, whose descendants
were to inherit the title. Amos Comenius (Kom-
enzky), the last "senior" of the Bohemian Brethren,
fled to Poland. Pre-eminent as a pedagogue his in-
fluence was felt later on in the intellectual life of his
country. Dietrichstein was succeeded by Archduke
Leopold Wilhelm,.8on of Ferdinand II, and by Charles
Joseph, son of Ferdinand III. In 1663 Charles Joseph
was elected Bishop of Breslau and Olmutz, with a dis-
pensation from Alexander VII. as he was scarcely
fourteen years of age^ut died tne following^ year. In
1693 Charles, son of Duke Charles of Lorrame, at the
age of twenty-three, became sub-deacon and exercised
the administrative power in temporal affairs; four
years later he obtained the spiritual administration.
The dissolution of the Society of Jesus in 1773 affected
three hundred and sixty-eignt professors in nine col-
leges of Moravia. In the same year Clement XIV
withdrew from the chapter the right of electing its
bishop J it was restored, nowever, by Pius VI.
Maria Theresa, in 1777, raised Olmtitz to the dig-
nity of an archbishopric, and subordinated to it the
newly-founded See of Brunn. The archdiocese was
diviaed into eight archpresbyterates and fifty-two
deaneries. When the toleration edict of Joseph II ap-
peared in 1781, whole districts forsook the Churcn.
The inhabitants since the Counter-Reformation had
been Protestants in secret. The emperor therefore
ordered those desirous of renouncing tne Catholic be-
lief to make known in person their intention to the
Commission on Religion. When Emperor Joseph
began the dissolution of the monasteries, there were in
Moravia and Silesia two thousand monks in eighty-
three houses. From the sale of this ecclesiastical
property, the so-called f* Religion Fund", many par-
ishes were established, three in Olmtitz alone. In the
rural parts the parishes were not to be more than four
miles apart. The parish priests received a stipend of
four hundred florins, a local chaplain three hundred
florins, and an assistant two hundred florins. The
third Archbishop of Olmtitz was Archduke Rudolph,
brother of Emperor Francis. Cardinal Maximilian
Joseph, Freiherr von Somerau-Beckh, had, in 1848, as
adviser and assistant, the brilliant chancellor Kutsch-
ker. On 2 December of the same year, in the throne
room of the prince-archbishop's residence, Francis
Joseph assum^ the imperial sceptre. While the Aus-
trian Parliament sat at Kremsier, Olmtitz was the polit-
ical capital of Austria. Eighty years old, Somerau-
Beckh attended the great assembly of bishops in
Vienna in 1849. Here he proposed by legal enact-
ment to abolish the rule requiring every member of
the Olmtitz chapter to be of noble birth, because this
rule was contrary to the spirit of Christianity and the
laws of the Church, and an injustice to the untitled
clergy of the diocese. The Olmtitz chapter for a long
time oppcmed this proposition both at Rome and at
the imperial court, but without success. The two
last prince-bishops have also been commoners. Car-
dinal Ftirstenberg rebuilt in splendid Gothic style the
cathedral with its three towers, carefully preserving
the individuality of the old church. The Concordat
of Vienna (1448) provided that if any high dignitary of
the Church resigned or died while in Rome, the pope
should have the right to fill the vacancy thus caused.
This he did, when Archbishop Theodor Kohn resigned
his office in Rome on account of his great age, and the
Bishop of Brtinn, Francis Sal. Bauer was appointed
archbishop.
At the present (1910) Moravia has two and one
half million inhabitants of whom over ninety-five per-
cent are Catholics, less than three per cent Protest-
ants, and nearly two per cent Hebrews. In the
Archdiocese of Olmtitz there are 1,785,000 Catholics;
1,507 priests; 220 male and 1,547 female inmates of
religious houses. The episcopal city has a population
of 22,000.
WoLNT, Topographie Mohreru (2 vola., BrOnn, 1836-42):
Kirchl. Topographie Mdkrena (9 vols., BrOnn, 1855-63), index,
1866; DuDiK, GeachiehU MOhrent (ymtil 1358) in 12 vols. (Brtinn.
1860-88) ; Mf^LLKR. Oeachichte der k&n. Hauptstadt OlmlUz (Vienna.
1882); TiTTEL, Historia archiduBcens Olomucenait ejtuque Prcg-
fulum (OlmiltB. 1889), MSS.; d'Eltebt, Zur QeaehiehU de* Brz-
hutunu OlmOU (BrOnn. 1895), bibliography^p. 305-12.
C. WOLFSGRUBEB.
O'Loghlen, Michael, b. at Ennis, Co. Clare, Ire-
land, in 1789: d. 1846. Educated at Ennis Academy,
and Trinity College, Dublin, he was called to the Irish
Bar in 1811. Bv force of ability he won a position as
a biilliant pleaaer. His first real success was as a
substitute for O'Connell on the day of the memorable
duel between O'Connell and D'Esterre (1815); from
1820 to 1830 many cases came from O'Connell through
whose influence O'Loghlen was appointed solicitor
feneral for Ireland in 1834, the first Catholic since
ames II. He was also elected M.P. for Dungarvan,
and when Perrin was elevated to the Bench in 1835,
he was made attorney general. A year later he suc-
ceeded Sir William Cusack Smith as baron of the ex-
chequer— the first Catholic judge for almost one
hundred and fifty years. Finally, in 1837, on the
death of Sir William MacMahon he was given the
Irish mastership of the rolls, which he held till his
death. As master of the rolls he effected many legal
reforms.
O'Flanaqan, RecoUectioru of the Irish Bar (Dublin. 1870).
W. H. Grattan-Flood.
Olympias, Saint, b. 360-5; d. 25 July, 408, prob-
ably at Nicomedia. This i)ious, charitable, and
wealthy disciple of St. John Chrysostom came from
an illustrous' family in Constantinople. Her father
Ot¥M?n&
249
OMABA
(called by the sources Secundus or Selencus) was a
"Count " of the empire; one of her ancestors, Ablabius,
filled in 331 the consular office, and was also prsetorian
prefect of the East. As Olympias was not thirty
years of age in 390, she cannot have been bom before
361. Her parents died when she was quite young,
and left her an immense fortune. In 3S4 or 385 she
married Nebridius, Prefect of Constantinople. St.
Gregory Nazianzus, who had left Constantmoplc in
381, was invited to the wedding, but wrote a letter ex-
cusmg his absence (Ep. cxciii, in P. G., XXXVII, 315),
and sent the bride a poem (P. G., loc. cit., 1542 sqq.).
Within a short time Nebridius died, and Olympias
was left a childless widow. She steadfastly rejected
all new proposals of marriage, determining to devote
herself to the service of God and to works of charity.
Nectarius, Bishop of Constantinople (381-97), con-
secrated her deaconess. On the death of her husband
the emperor had appointed the urban prefect adminis-
trator of her property, but in 391 (after the war
against Maximus) restored her the administration of
her large fortune. She built beside the principal
church of Constantinople a convent, into which three
relatives and a large number of maidens withdrew
with her to consecrate themselves to the service of
God. When St. John Chrysostom became Bishop of
Constantinople (398), he acted as spiritual guide of
Olympias and her companions, and, as many unde-
serving approached the kind-hearted deaconess for
support, he advised her as to the proper manner of
utihzing her vast fortune in the service of the poor
(Sozomen, "Hist, eccl.", VIII, ix; P. G., LXVII,
1540). Olympias resigned herself wholly to Chiysos-
tom's direction, and placed at his disposal ample sums
for religious and charitable objects. Even to the
most distant regions of the empire extended her bene-
factions to churches and the poor.
When Chrysostom waa exiled. Olympias supported
him in every possible way, and remained a faithful
disciple, refusinp; to enter into communion with his
. unlawfully appointed successor. Chrysostom encour-
aged and guiaed her through his letters, of which sev-
enteen are extant (P. G., LII, 549 sqq.): these are
a beautiful memorial of the noble-hearted, spiritual
daughter of the great bishop. Olvmpias was also
exil^, and died a few months after Chrysostom.
After her death she was venerated as a saint. A biog-
raphy dating from the second half of the fifth ceiL-
tuiy, which gives particulars concerning her from the
''Historia Lausiaca'' of Palladius and from the ''Dia-
logus de vita JoL Chrysostomi'' proves the great
veneration she enjoyed. Durine the riot of Constan-
tinople in 532 the convent of St. Ol3nmpias and the
adjacent church were destroyed. Emperor Justinian
had it rebuilt, and the prioress, Sergia, transferred
thither the remains of the foundress m)m the ruined <
church of St. Thomas in Brokhthes, where she had «
been buried. We possess an account of this transla- ;
tion by Sergia herself. The feast of St. Olympias is |
celebrated in the Greek Church on 24 July, and in the '
Roman Church on 17 December.
Vita S. OtympiadU el narratio Sergia de eiuadem tranBlatione m \
Anal. Bolland. (1896), 400 sqq., (1897). 44 sqq.; Bousqubt, Vie
d'Olympia* 'a diaeonette in Revxte de VOrieiU chrit. (1900), 225 \
sqq.; Idem, Ricii de Sergia »ur Olympiaa, ibid. (1907), 255 sqq.;
JPalladiub, Hi^. Lauaiaea, LVI, od. Butleb (Cambridge, 1904) ;
Synaxarium Conetantinopcl., ed. Delahate, Propylaeum ad Acta ■
SS., November (^Brussels, 1902), 841-2; Meukissb, Hiet. d^Otyn^ '
piae, diaconeeee de ConUantinople (Mets, 1670) ; Venables in Diet. \
Chrial. Biog., s. v. See also the bibliography of John Chbtbob-
TOM, Saint. ^
J. P. KiRSCH. ,
01yxnpu8, a titular see of Lycia in Asia Minor. It '
was one of the chief cities of the " Corpus Lyciacum ",
and was captured from the pirate, Zenicetas, by Ser-
vilius Isauricus who transported to Rome the statues
and treasure he had stolen. Its ruins (a theatre, tem-
ples, and porticoes) are located south of the vilayet of
Koniah, at Delik-Tash (Pierced Stone), so-called be- '
i
i
cause of a large rock forming a natural arch. The town
was built near Mount Olympus or Phoenicus, which
gave forth constant fiery eruptions throughout an-
tiquity; the ancients called it Chimsra and depicted
it as a monster which had been vanquished by
Bellerophon. Several ancient authors knew that this
was onhr a naturid phenomenon. (The Turks call it
Yanar Tash^Buming Stone.) Several "Notiti©
Episcopatuum" mention Olympus among the suf-
fragan sees of Myra until the thirteenth century.
Only four bbhops are known, one of whom was St.
Methodius (q. v.).
Leake, Asia Minor (London. 1824). 189; Fellows, Lyeia
(London, 1847). 212 sq.; Sfratt and Fobbes, Travelt in Lycia,
I (London, 1846). 192; Smith, Diet, Greek and Rom, Geog., s. v.;
Lb Quibn, Ortene Christ., I, 975.
S. P^TRinfefi.
Omaha* Diocese of (Omahensis), embraces all
that part of the State of Nebraska north of the
southern shore of the South Platte River. Area,
52,996 sq. miles.
Early Afiaaianariea. — ^The first missionaries in Ne-
braska were priests of the Society of Jesus, who,
from about 1838, occasionally visited the native In-
dians, many of whom received baptism. In 18^1
the Holy See cut off from the Diocese of St. Louis all
the country north from the south line of Kansas to
Canada, and west from the Missouri River to the
Rocky Mountains, and erected it into the Vicariate
of the Rocky Mountains, with Rt. Rev. John B.
Mi^e, S.J., as first vicar Apostolic (see Leaven-
worth) . Cfn 6 January, 1857, this vicariate was again
divided, and a new vicariate called the Vicariate of
Nebraska was erected, Bishop Mi^ge being authorized
to govern it until the appointment of a resident vicar
ApostoUc of Nebraska.
The first resident vicar Apostolic was the Right Rev.
James Miles O'Grorman, D.D., b. near Nenagh, Co. Tip-
peraiy, Ireland, 1804, took the Trappist habit at
Mount Melleray, Co. Waterford, 1 Nov., 1839, and
was ordained priest, 1843. He was one of the band
who came to Dubuque, Iowa, in 1849 to establish New
Melleray (see Cistercians). In 1859 he was ap-
pointed Vicar Apostolic of Nebraska, and on 8 May of
the same year was consecrated titular Bishop of
Raphanea by Archbishop Kenrick of St. Louis. The
vicariate at this time embraced the present State of
Nebra^a, the Dakotas west of the Missouri River,
Wyoming, and Montana east of the Rocky Mountains.
On his arrival at Omaha, Bishop O'Gorman found in
his vast jurisdiction a Catholic population of some
three hundred families of white settlers living along
the river counties, and a few thousand Indians, chiefly
in Montana. There were in the entire territory, two
seculars, and one Jesuit priest in Montana in charge
of the native tribes.
During the fifteen years of his episcopate Bishop
O'Gorman laboured to provide for the needs of his
scattered flock. He placed priests in the more im-
portant centres of population, and in the sixties,
priests of the vicariate ministered to the Catholics of
Western Iowa. During his administration the Sis-
ters of Mercy were estsSblished at Omaha, the Bene-
dictines in Nebraska City, and the Sisters of Charity
in Helena, Montana. At his death (4 July, 1874) his
jurisdiction contained 19 priests, 20 churenes, and a
Catholic population of 11,722.
The second vicar Apostolic was the Right Rev.
James O'Connbr, D.D., b. at Queenstown, Ireland,
to Sept., 1823. At the age of fifteen he came to
America. He was educated at St. Charles's Semi-
nary, Philadelphia, and in the Propaganda College,
Rome, where ne was ordained pri^ln 1848. The
following year he was appointed rector of St. Michael's
Seminary, Pittsburgh, and in 1862 rector of St.
Charies's Seminary, Overbrook, Pennsylvania. In
1872 he was appointed pastor of St. Dominic's Chureh,
OUBUS
250
O'BOA&A
Holmesburg, Pennsylvania. In 1876 he was ap-
pointed Viqar Apostolic of Nebraska, and on 20 Au-
gust of the same year he was consecrated titular
Bishop of Dibona by Bishop Ryan of St. Louis. Dur-
ing his episcopate the vicariate developed with won-
derful rapidity. The construction of the Union
Pacific Railway in 1867, and more especially the ex-
tension of the Burlington Railway in the seventies
and eighties, opened up Nebraska to colonists, and
white settlers began to pour in from the Eastern
states. It became the duty of the new vicar to pro-
vide for the growing needs of the faithful, and the
yearly statistics of tne vicariate show how successful
were his labours. In 1880 the Dakotas were erected
into a vicariate, and on 7 April, 1887, Montana was
cut off.
Diocese of Omaha, — On 2 October, 1885, the vica-
riate was erected into the Diocese of Omaha, and
Bishop O'Connor was appointed its first bishop. The
neyir diocese embraced the present States of Nebraska
and Wyoming. On 2 August, 1887, the Dioceses of
Cheyenne and Lincoln were erected, leaving Omaha
its present boundaries. Through the generosity of the
Creighton f amilv, BishopO'Connorwas enabled to erect
a Catholic free aay college in the city of Omaha. On its
completion in 1879, the bishop, who held the property
in trust, deeded over the institution to the Jesuit Fa-
thers, who are since in charge and hold the property as
trustees (see Creighton University) . Bisnop O'CJon-
nor also introduced into his jurisdiction the Franciscan
Fathers, the Poor Clares, the Religious of the Sacred
Heart, the Benedictines, and the Sisters of Providence.
A most important work in the bishop's life was the
foundation, in conjunction with Miss Catherine
Drexel, of the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament, in
1889 (see Blessed Sacrament, Sisters of the; also
"Indian Sentinel", 1907). Bishop O'Connor also
helped to establish a Catholic colony in Greeley Co.,
and (1889) the Cath. Mutual Relief Soc. of America.
The present bishop is the Right Rev. Richard
Scannell, D.D., b. in the parish of Cloyne, Co. Cork,
Ireland. 12 May, 1845. Having completed his
classical studies in a private school at Midleton, in
1866 he entered All Hallows College, Dublin, where he
was ordained priest 26 Feb., 1871. In the same year
he came to the Diocese of Nashville and was appointed
assistant at the cathedral. In 1878 he became rector
of St. Columba's Church. East Nashville, and in
1879 rector of the cathedral. From 1880 to 1883
he was administrator of the diocese, aede vacante. In
1885 he organized St. Joseph's parish in West Nash-
ville and built its church. The following year he was
appointed vicar-general, and on 30 Nov., 1887, was
consecrated first Bishop of Concordia by Archbishop
Feehan.
On 30 January, 1891, he was transferred to Omaha.
During his administration the diocese shows the same
wonderful growth that characterized this territory in
the time of his predecessors. Parishes, parochial
schools, and academies have more than doubled in
number. The diocesan priests have increased from
58 to 144, and the religious from 23 to 37. The old
frame churches are fast being replaced by structures
of brick and stone, and a fine cathedral of the Spanish
style of architecture is in process of erection. The
Creighton Memorial St. Joseph's Hospital, costing
over half a million dollars, has been erected, and a
new hospital — St. Catherine's — has just been opened,
a home of the Good Shepherd has been established,
and Creighton Universitv has been many times en-
larged. Bishop Scannell introduced the following
orders: (men) the Third Order Regular of St. Francis,
who conduct a flourishing college; (women) the Sis-
ters of St. Joseph, of the Presentation, of the Resur-
rection, of St. Benedict, of the Blessed Sacrament, of
the Good Shepherd, the Dominicans, Felicians, Ursu-
lines, and Franciscans.
Pioneer Priests. — Fathers Kelly, Daxacher, Har-
tig, Ryan, Cannon, Powers, Erlach, Curtis, Hayes,
Byrne, Groenebaum^ Uhing, Lechleitner. The fol-
lowing filled the office of vicar -general or admin-
istrator:— Very Rev. Fathers KeUy, Curtis, Byrne,
Choka, and Rt. Rev. Mgr Colaneri, the present vicar-
general and chancellor.
Statistics. — Priests, secular 144, regular 37; parishes,
117; university, 1, students 856; college, 1, students
150; academies for youne ladies, 10. pupils 1127;
parochial schools, 77. pupils 479; orphan asylum, 1,
orphans 145; Good Shepherd Home, 1, inmates 210;
religious orders of men, 3, members 77; religious
orders of women, 17, members 427; hospitaG, 5;
Catholic population (1910), 85,319. (For early ex-
plorations see CoRONADO.)
Morton, History of N^atka (Lincoln, 1006); Savaob and
Bell, Hialory of Omaha (New York and Chicfl«o, 1894); Ths
Western HittoruxU Co. Hiat. of Nebraska (Cbkaco, 1882) ; Shea,
Hist, of the Catholic Church in the United States (New York);
Palladino, Indian and White in the North-^evt (Baltimore,
1894); PsRKiKS, Hist, of ths Trappist Abbey of New MeUeray
(Iowa City, 1892) ; Dowung, Creigidon University Reminiscences
(Omaha, 1903).
James Aherne.
OmbUB, titular see and suffragan of Ptoleroab in
Thebais Secunda. The city is located by Ptolemy
(IV, V, 32) in the nomos of Thebes. It is mentioned
by the "Itinerarium Antonini" (165); Juvenal (XV,
35); the "Notitia dignitatum"; Hierocles (Syli-
ecdemus) etc. As late as the Ptolemaic epoch it was
only a small garrison town built on a high plateau to
protect the lower course of the Nile. It became after-
wards the capital of the nomos Ombitos, then of the
south^n province of Egypt instead of Elephantine
(see in "Ptolemaei Geographia", ed. Mtiller, I, 725,
note 4, the epigraphic texts relating to this nome).
Ombus was situated 30 miles north ofSyene. Its his-
tory is unknown. Le Quien ("Oriens christ.'*, II,
613) mentions two of its bishops: Silvanus and Verres,
contemporaries of the patriarch Theophilus. An-
other is noted in an inscnption of the seventh century
(Lefebvre. '^Recueil dcs inscriptions grecques chr^
tiehnes d^Egypte". Cairo, 1907, n. 561). The city
was discovered in tne ruins of Kom Ombo. A temple
of the Ptolemaic epoch could be seen there but it was
destroyed in 1893; it had replaced a sanctuary of the
epoch of Thothmes III.
Smith, Dictionary of Oreek and Roman OeographVt II, 491;
Hamilton, ^gyptiaca, 34; Champoluon, L'Egyvte sous Us Pha^
raonst II. 167-69; Am^unbau, La giographie de VEgypte d Vipoque
copU (Paris, 1893), 287.
S. VailhA.
O'Meara, Kathleen, novelist and biographer, b.
in Dublin. 1839; d. in Paris, 10 Nov., 1888; daughter of
Dennis O'Meara of 'tipperary, and grand-daughter of
Barry Edward 0*Meara, surgeon in. the British navy
and medical attendant to Napoleon at St. Helena.
When about five years old, she accompanied her
parents to Paris, which she made her home. She
visited the United States in the early eighties. In
1867 she published, over the pen-name of Grace Ram-
sey, her first novcJ, "A Woman's Trials" (London,
1867). This did not meet with success, which came
to her only later in life, after hard work. Mindful of her
early struggles, she was ever ready with encourage-
ment to youn^ writers. Of her six novels, ''Narka, a
Story of Russian Life" is probably the best. Great
social problems, such as poverty and suffering, are
handled in a large-hearted sympathetic way. The
problem is stated in an unobtrusive manner and the
solution offered in the old yet new method of Chris-
tian charity. Throughout them all there runs a
wholesome spirit, remarkable for purity of tone and
delicacy of feeling.
Her best work, however, is in biography, for which,
it has been said, she had a genius. ''The Bells of the
Sanctuary" (1st, 2nd, and 3rd series) contain a num-
OMSB
251
OMNIPOTSNOE
ber of ddiehtful sketches of noted Catholic men and
women. ' 'Madame Mohl^er Salon and her Friends,
a Study of Social Life in raria" (London, 1885; an-
other edition, Boston, 1886) presents with a nice sense
of discrimination a delightful picture of that unique in**
stitution, the Parisian Salon, mtroducing the men and
women who were leaders in the social, literary, and
political world. "Thomas Grant, First Bishop of
oouthwark" (London, 1874) besides doing justice
to a noble character that was much misunderstood,
gives within a brief compass a clear straightforward
account of the restoration of the Catholic hierarchy
in England. "Frederick Ozanam, Professor at the
Sorbonne. His Life and Works" (Edinburgh, 1876)
is a deeply interesting narrative and is proof of the
author's genius for oiography. Had she written
nothing else, this would entitle her to distinction. No
better book can be placed in the hands of a young man
to quicken his sympathies and bring out the good that
is in him. Her last work "The Venerable Jean Bap-
tiste Vianney, Cur6 d'Ars" (London, 1891) was not
published till after her death. She was Paris corre-
spondent of "The Tablet", and a frequent contributor
to American magazines, such as the "Atlantic
Monthly" and the "Ave Maria".
Ave Maria (March, 1889); Iriah Monthly (October. 1889); Tab-
let (London, 17 Nov., 1888); Times (London. 13 and 14 Nov.,
1888).
MxitaBW J. Flahsrtt.
lects to act under circumstances in which he can
and ought to act. The degree of guilt incurred by an
omission is measured like that attaching to sins of
commission, by the dignitv of the virtue and the mag-
nitude of the precept to which the omission is opposed
as well as the amount of deliberation. In general, ac-
cording to St. Thomas, the sin of omission consisting
as it does in a leaving out of good is less ^ievous than
a sin of commission which involves a positive taking up
with evil. There are, of course, cases in which on
account of the special subject matter and circum-
stances it may happen that an omission is more hei-
nous. It may be asked at what time one incurs the
guilt of a sin of omission in case he fails to do j3ome-
thing which he is unable to do by reason of a cause for
which he is entirely responsible. For instance, if a
person fails to perform a duty in the morning as a re-
sult of becoming inebriated the previous night. The
guilt is not incurred at the time the dut^ should be
perform^ because while intoxicated he is incapable of
moral guilt. The answer seems to be that he becomes
responsible for the omission when having sufficiently
foreseen that his neglect will follow upon his intoxica-
tion he does nevertheless surrender himself to his
craving for liquor.
RiCKABT, Aguinae EUiicue (London, 1896); Bouquillon. The-
ologia mortUie fundamentalie (Bniges, 1903) ; St. Thomas Aqui-
itAB, Summa Theoloaica (Turin, 1885).
Joseph F. Delant.
Omer, Saint, b. of a distinguished family towards OmnlpotenO0 (Latin omnipoterUiaj from omnia and
the close of the sixth or the beginning of the seventh potens, able to do all things) is the power of God to
century, at Guldendal, Switzerland; d. c. 670. After effect whatever is not intrinsically impos^ble. These
the death of his mother, he, with his father, entered last words of the definition do not imply any imper-
the monastery of Luxeuil in the Diocese of Besangon, fection, since a power -that extends to every possi-
probabl]r about 615. Under the direction of Saint biUty must be perfect. The universaUty of the object
Eustacmus, Omer studied the Scriptures, in which he of the Divine power is not merely relative but abso-
acquired remarkable proficiency. When King Dago- Inte, so that the true nature of onmipotence is not
bert requested the appointment of a bishop for the clearly expressed by saying that Grod can do all things
important city of Terouenne, the capital of the ancient
territory of the Morini in Belgic Gaul, he was ap-
pointed and consecrated in 637.
Thou^ the Morini had received the Faith from
Saints Fuscian and Victoricus^ and later Antimund
and Adelbert, nearly every vestige, of Christianity had
disappeared. When Saint Omer entered upon his
episcopal duties the Abbot of Luxeuil sent to his assist-
ance several monks, among whom are mentioned Saints
Bertin, Mommolin, and Ebertran, and Saint Omer had
that are possible to Him; it recj^uires the further state-
ment that all things are nossible to God. The in-
trinsically impossible is the self-contradictory, and
its mutually exclusive elements could result only in
nothingness. "Hence", says St. Thomas (Summa I,
Q. xxy, a. 3);"it is more exact to say that the intrinsi-
cally impossible is incapable of production, than to say
that God cannot produce it." To include the con-
tradictory within the range of omnipotence, as does
the Calvinist VorstiuSj is to acknowledge the absurd
the satisfaction of seeing the true reUgion firmly estab- ^ ^^ object of the Divine intellect, and nothingness
lished in a short time. About 654 he founded the as an object of the Divine will and power. ''God can
Abbey of Saint Peter (now Saint Bertin's) in Sithiu, ^^ aU things the accomplishment of which is a mani-
soon to equal if not surpass the old monastery of Lux- festation of power", says Hugh of St. Victor, "and He
euil for the number of learned and ze^dous men edu- ^ ^Umighty because He cannot be powerless" (De
cated there. Several years later he erected the church sacram., I, ii, 22).
of Our Lady of Sithiu, with a small monastery adjoin- As intrinsically impossible must be classed: (1) Any
ing, which he turned over to the monks of Saint Ber- action on the part of God which would be out of har-
tin. The exact date of his death is unknown, but he mony with His nature and attributes, (a) It is im-
is believed to have died about the year 670. The possible for God to sin. — Man's power of preferring
place of his burial is uncertain; most probably he was ^y^ ^ good is a sign not of strength, but of infirmity,
laid to rest in the church of Our Lady which is now
the cathedral of Saint Omer's^ His feast is celebrated
on 9 September — ^when and by whom he was raised
to the altar cannot be ascertained.
since it involves the liability to oe overcome by un-
worthy motives; not the exercise but the restraint of
that power adds to the freedom and vigour of the will.
"To sin", says St. Thomas, "is to be capable of fail-
BoLLAjfDisTs, Ada S. 8„ September, III; Butler, lAvee of the lire in one's actions, which is incompatible with omnip-
Sainu. Ill (Baltimore). 437-9. otence" (Summa, I, Q. XXV, a. 3). (b) The decrees
Ji-RANCis J. U 150TLB. of Qod cannot be reversed.— From eternity the pro-
Omer» Colleob of Saint. See Saint Ohsr's l^^j"!^^ 9^ creatures, their successive changes, and the
COLLEOB.
OmisBion (Lat. omiUeref to lay aside, to pass over)
is here taken to be the failure to do something which
one can and ought to do. If this happens advertently
and freely a sin is committed. Moralists took pains
formerly to show that the inaction implied in an omis-
sion was quite compatible with a breach of the moral
law, for it is not merely because a person here and
now does nothing that he ofifends, but because he neg-
manner in which these would occur were determined
by God's free will. If these decrees were not irrevo-
cable, it would follow either that God's wisdom was
variable or that His decisions sprang from caprice.
Hence theologians distinguish between the absolute
and the ordinary , or regvlatedf power of God (potentia
absoluta; potentia ordinaria). The absolute power of
God extends to all that is not intrinsically impossible,
while the ordinary power is regulated by the Divine
decrees. Thus by His absolute power God could
OMODEO 252 O'NEILL
preserve mf^ti from death: but in the present order can be heated. Now Divine Being, which is the basis
this is impossible, since He has decreed otherwise, of Divine power, is infinite, not being limited to any
(c) The creation of an absolutdy best creature or of category of being but containing within itself the per-
an absolutely greatest number of creatures is im- fection of all being. Consequently all that can be
possible, because the Divine power ia inexhaustible. — considered as being is contained among the absolute
It is sometimes objected that this aspect of omnipo- possibilities with respect to which God is omnipotent."
tence involves the contradiction that God cannot do (See Creation: God; Infinite; Miracles.)
all that He can do; but the argument is sophistical ; it The question of onmipotenoe k djacuaaed by philoaophers ta
, "***• ^ ^t TT » jT _A TiT i. r* J ^-^ .»v»i:.^ works on natural theology and by theologians m the treatise on
IS no contradiction to assert that God can r^Ulze One God (De Deo Uno). See especially §T. Tbomas, Summa, h
whatever is possible, but that no number of actualized Q. zxv; Idbm, C<nUn Genut, li, vii aq.; Suabu. De Deo, m.
poBsibillties exhausts m. powj (2) Another cjaas U^H.b™ C.5«^<„«^^ aon.bruoj<
of mtnnsic impossibihties mcludes all that would ig(^)\ 143 aq. ^ • x
simultaneously connote mutually repellent elements. J. A. McHuoh.
e. g. a square circle, an infinite creature, etc. God f%^.^^^ r«,^„*^r^^ a^«-^*t,^ o^ Awa^»/^
caSiot dffect the nonexistence of actual events of the Omodeo, Giovanni Antonio. See Amadbo.
past, for it is contradictory that the same thing that O'Molloy, Francis. See Mollot, Francis.
HZ?^oe"^1irfS"A«:f.i^K"iilmere O'Mulconry. Fxhkassa. See Fonn M^ks.
potenti^ity. Hence, although God does not bring annals op the.
mto external being all that He is able to accomplish, OxiAida Cozninunity. See Communism.
His power must not be undertsood as passing through rt,«.«i tt„^^^ q^ ri„^wr.«« rkr^xr^a^ ^^
succ^ve stages before its effect is accomplished. O'NeiU, Henry. See Drqmorb, Diocese of.
The activity of God is simple and eternal, without O'Neill, Hugh. Earl of Tyrone, b. 1540; d. at
evolution or change. The transition from possibility Rome, 1616 ; was tne youngest son of Mathew, ofques-
to actuality or from act to potentiality, occurs onlv in tionable parentage, but recognised as heir by Conn,
creatures. When it is said that God can or cavld do a first Earl of Tyrone. As such he was ennobled with the
thing, the terms are not to be understood in the sense title of Baron of Dungannon. Shane O'Neill contested '
in which they are applied to created causes, but as this arrangement and in the petty wars which fol-
conve3ring the idea of a Being possessed of infinite lowed both Mathew and his eloest son lost their lives.
unchsAgeable power, the range of Whose activity is In 1562 Hugh, the youngest son, became Baron of
limited only by His sovereign Will. "Power", savs Dungannon. His early years were spent partly in Ire-
St. Thomas, " is not attributed to God as a thing really land and partly at theEnglish court, where he learned
different from His Knowledge and Will, but as some- English ways and became more like an English noble
thing expressed by a different concept, since power than an Irish chief. He did not object even to go to
means that which executes the command of the will the Protestant church though he was bred as a Catho-
and ttie advice, of the intellect. These three (viz., He and died one. Camden describes him as a man
intellect, will, power), coincide with one another in "whose industry was great, his mind large and fit for
God" (summa, I, Q. xxv. a. 1, ad 4). Omnipotence the weightiest businesses . . . he had much knowledge
is all-sufficient power. The adaptation of means to in military affairs and a profound, dissembling heart,
ends in the universe does not arsue, as J. S. Mill would so as many deemed him bom either for the g^reat good
have it, that the power of the designer is limited, but or ill of his country ". In his early years he interfered
only that God has willed to manifest His glorv by a but little in the quarrels and contests of the Irish chiefs,
world so constituted rather than by another. Indeed and had no ^are in the final overthrow of Shane
the production of secondar]^ causes, capable of accom- O'Neill, but in 1574, he aided the Earl of Essex to lay
plishing certain effects, requires greater power than the waste the territory of O' Neill of Clanaboy , and in 1 580
direct accomplishment of these same effects. On the helped the Earl of Ormonde to crush the Ueraldines. In
other hand even though no creature existed, God's 15S5 he sat as a peer in Perrot's Parliament, assenting
power would not be barren, for creatures are not an to the attainting of the Earl of Desmond and the con-
end to God. fiscation of his lands; in the following year he accom-
The omnipotence of God is a dogma of Catholic panied Perrot to Ulster to put down the Antrim Scots,
faith, contained in all the creeds and defined by var- His loyalty to England was gratefully recognized both
ious councils (cf . Denziger-Bannwart, " Enchirioion ", bv viceroy and queen who confirmed him in the title of
428, 1790) . In the Old Testament there are more than E!arl of Tyrone and in possession of all the lands held
seventsr passages in which God is called Shaddai, i. by his grandfather. On his side, O'Neill undertook to
e., omnipotent. The Scriptures represent this attribute provide for the sons of Shane O' Neill. to lay no ' ' cess "
as infinite power (Job, xlu, 2: Mark, x, 27; Luke, i, 37; (tax) on the Ulster chiefs, and to build an English fort
Matt., xix, 26, etc.) which God alone possesses (Tob., in Tyrone. His position soon became difficult, and he
xiii, 4; Ecdus., i, 8; etc.). The Greek and Latin went to London where he justified himself, undertak-
Fathers unanimously teach the doctrine of Divine ins at the same time to renounce forever the name of
omnipotence. Origen testifies to this belief when he O'Neill, to make Tyrone shireground, with English
infers the amplitude of Divine providence from God's law ana English officiab, and to have in it neither nuns
omnipotence: " Just as we hold that God is incorporeal nor priests.
and omnipotent and invisible, so likewise do we confess At the Irish Council his enemies were the vicerov
as a certain and immovable dogma that His provi- and Marshal Bagnal, whose sister he had married;
dence extends to all things" (Genesis^ Hom. 3). St. but the queen censured Bagnal and recalled Fitzwil-
Augustine defends omnipotence against the Mani- Ham, appointing in his place Sir William Russell. This
chffians, who taught that God is unable to overcome was in 1594, when Ou)onneU, Maguire, and Mac-
evil (Hsres, xlvi and Enchir., c. 100) ; and he speaks Mahon were alread^r in open rebellion. The same year
of this dogma as a truth recognized even by p^ans, O'Neill's brother joined the rebels, which caused
and which no reasonable person can question (Serm. O'Neill himself to be suspected^nd when he appeared
240, de temp., c. ii). Reason itself proves the omnip- in Dublin he was charged by Bajgnal with favouring
otence of God. " Since every agent produces an effect the rebels, with being in league with the pope and the
similar to itself", says St. Thomas (Summa, I, Q. xxv. King of Spam, and with having assumed the title of
a. 3), "to every active power there must correspond The O'Neill. Though these charges could not be
as proper object, a categoi^ of possibilities propor- proved, the queen ordered him detained ; but secretly
tioned to the cause possessmg that power, e. g. the warned, he hurriedly left Dublin and the next year
power of heating has for its proper object that which broke out into rebellion, proving the most formidable
O'NSILL
253
OKIAS
Irish rebel with whom England had ever been called i
upon to deal, cool, wary, lar-fieeing, laying his plans
with care, never moved bv passion, never boasting,
^d as skilful in the council chamber as on the battle-
field. He had been allowed to have a certain number
of soldiers in the queen's pay and these he changed
frequently, thus training to arms a large number of nis
clansmen at the queen's expense. Pretending he re^
quired it for roofing, he had purchased large quantities
of lead, which he cast into bullets. He continued to be
friendly with the Ulster chiefs. Thus he took the field
not altogether unprep^u^, and had no difficulty in cap-
turing Portmore on the Blackwater, and defeating the
English at Clontibret, thus preventing the relief of
Monaghan. He protested, however, his loyalty to Eng-
land and entered into negotiations demanding for the
Catholics of Ulster freedom topractise their religion,
and security in their lands. These conditions being
refused, the war was successfully renewed in 1697. In
the next year Bagnal, sent with five thousand men to
relieve Portmore, was defeated at the mouth of the
Yellow Ford by O'Neill, O'Donnell, and Maguire.
The Earl of Essex was no more successful.
The next viceroy was Lord Mountjoy, with Sir
George Carew as President of Munster. Both were
able and unscrupulous men, and so well did Carew suc-
ceed that in six months the power of the Munster reb-
els was broken. Mountjoy overran Leinster, and his
lieutenant, Dowcra, established himself at Deny,
while O'Neill, kept Dusy by repeated attacks from the
south, was only able to hold his own in Tyrone. In
1601 came the long-expected Spaniards, under*
D'Aguilla; they were b^ieged in Kinsale by Carew and
Mountjoy, in turn besieged by O'Neill andO'Donnell. .
Between tne Irish and tne Spanish the English fared
ill, and O'Neill'p advice was to be patient; but O'Don-
nell would not be restrained and insisted on attacking
the English. The result was the disastrous battle of
Kinsale. Still with wonderful skill and resource
O'Neill held out, and when he surrendered in 1603 it
was on condition of being pardoned and secured in all
his honours and estates. James I, confirming this ar-
rangement, received both O'Neill and O'Donnell with
great favour. But O'Neill's enemies so dogged his foot-
steps with spies, and persecuted his reliraon that he
was at last driven, with O'Donnell and Maguire, to
leave Ireland (1607). Arriving at Havre they pro-
ceeded to Flanders and thence to Rome, where they
were received by the pope. Attainted by the Irish
Parliament, his lands confiscated and planted, O'Neill
died at Rome, and was buried in the Franciscan church
of San Pietro on the Janiculum.
Carew Papers; Hamilton, Atkineon*8, RuueWa^ and Prender-
oaet'e Calendare of State Papers; Ftnks Mortbon, Itinerary (Dub-
Un. 1735) ; Paoata Hibemia (London. 1896) ; Annate of the Pour
Makers (Dublin, 1851); MEinaAN, Earla of Tyrone and Tyreonnell
(publin. 1886); Mitchbl, lAfe of Hugh O'NeiU (Dublin. 1846);
Baowbll, Ireland under the Tudors (London. 1885) ; GABOnncR,
Hietory of England (London, 1883) ; D'Alton. Hilary of Ireland
(London. 1910).
E. A. D'Alton.
O'Neill, Owen Rob, b. 1582; d. near Cavan, 6 Nov.,
1649, the son of Art O'Neill and nephew of Hugh, the
great Earl of Tyrone. He was too young to take part in
the long war in which his uncle was engaged, and when
peace came in 1603 Owen went abro^ and took ser-
vice with the archdukes in Flanders. By 1606 he had
reached the rank of captain and was then residing at
Brussels. When Richelieu determined to interfere in
the Thirty Years War, O'Neill was already colonel, and
for skill, and courage, and resource stood deservedly
hish among Spanish commanders. He was, therefore,
selected to defend Arras against the French in 1640;
and though he had but 1500 men and was assailed by
a force which from 30,000 was subseauently increased
to three times that number, he stuDbomiy held his
ground for nearly two months. His conduct extorted
the admiration of the French commander who cap-
tured the place an^ who told O^eill that he had sur-
passed the French in everything but fortune. Mean-
time important events faiad taken place in Ireland.
The flight of the earls, the plantation of Ulster, the
gersecution of the Catholics, and the tyranny of
tra£Ford proved that Irish Catholics had no security
either in tneir religion or their lands. O'Neill was in-
formed of all these events by the Irish leaders at home,
and was equally determined as they that, as peaceful
measures were unavailing, there should be a recourse
to arms. He was not, however, able to be in Ireland
when the rebellion broke out in 1641, nor did he come
till the summer of 1642, when he landed on the coast
of Donegal bringing with him a good supply of arms
and ammunition and 200 Irish officers, who like him-
self had acquired experience in fordgn wars. O'Neill
was at once appointed commande>in-chief of the rebel
forces in Ulster. At that date the prospects were not
bright. Dublin Castle had not been taken, nor Drog-
heoa, Dundalk had not been held, and Sir Phelim
O'Neill had but 1500 untrained men, while there were
12,000 English and Scotch soldiers in Ulster. While
waitinff to get a trained army together Owen Roe
wanted to avoid meeting the enemy, nor did he fight
except at Clones, where he was beaten, and at Portlester
in Meath, where he defeated Lord Moore. Then, in
1643, came the cessation with Ormonde. The Puri-
tans ignored both Ormonde and the cessation, and
continued active in the several provinces. This com-
pelled O'Neill to be vigilant and prepared, and in 1646
he fought the battle of Benburb with General Monroe.
The latter was superior in numbers, and he had artil-
lery which O'Neill lacked; but the Irishmen had the
advantage of position^ and won a great victory. Mon-
roe fled to Lisbum without hat or cloak leaving more
than 3000 of his men dead on the field, and arms,
stores, colours, and provisions fell intoO'NeiU's hands.
The fruits of this splendid victory were frittered away
by futile n^otiatioQs with Ormonde and by divisions
among the Catholics. O'Neill, backed by the nuncio,
Kinuccini, wanted to cease negotiating, and to fight
both the Puritans and the Royalists; but the Pale
Catholics were more in agreement with Ormonde than
with O'Neill, and in spite of the fact that he was the
only Catholic general who had been almost uniformly
successful, they went so far as to declare him a rebel.
Nor would Ormonde, even in 1649, make any terms with
him until Cromwell had captured Drogheda. Then
Ormonde made terms on the basis of freedom of religion
and restoration of lands. At the critical moment wnen
O'Neill's services would have been invaluable against
Cromwell he took suddenly ill and died. The story
that he was poisoned may be dismissed, for there
is no evidence to sustain it.
GiLBBRT. Hietory of Irieh Affaire (Dublin, 1882); Rinucciki,
LeUere (Dublin. 1873); Murpht, Cromwell in Ireland (Dublin.
1897): MAHArrr, Caiendare; Carte. Ormond (London, 1735);
Tatlor, Owen Roe O'NeiU (Dublin. 1896); D'Alton, History of
Ireland (London. 1910). £. A. D'AlTON.
Onias (*Oy(af), name of several Jewish pontiffs of
the third and second centuries before Christ. I. —
Onias I, son and successor of the high-priest Jaddua,
who, according to Josephus (Antiq., XI, viii, 7) re-
ceived Alexander the Great in Jerusalem. Succeeding
his father soon after the death of Alexander (Josephus,
ibid.), he held office for twenty-three years (323-300
B. c). In I Mach., xii, 7, he is said to have received
a friendly letter from Arius, ruler of the Spartans.
The letter is mentioned by Josephus (Antiq., All, iv,
10), who gives its contents with certain modifications
of the form in Machabees (xii, 20-23). During Onias's
Sontificate Palestine was the sc^ie of continual con-
icts between the forces of Egypt and Syria, who
several times alternated as masters of the country.
During this period also, and because of unsettled
conditions at home, many Jews left Palestine for
the newly founded city of Alexandria.
ONTARIO
254
ONTARIO
II. — Onias II, son of Simon the Just. He is not
mentioned in the Bible, but Jose{>hus says (Antiq.,
XII, iv, 1-6) that, though a high-priest, he was a man
"of little soul and a great lover of money." He re-
fused to pay the customary tribute of twenty talents
of silver to Ptolemy Euergetes, who then threatened
to occupy the Jewish territory, a calamity which was
averted oy the tactful activity of Joseph, a nephew of
Onias^ who went to Ptolemy and purchased immunity
from mvasion.
III. — Onias III, son and successor (198 b. c.) of
Simon II, and grandson of Onias II. Josephus erro-
neously attributes to him the correspondence with Arius
of Sparta (see above, Onias I). He is mentioned in
XI Mach., xV, 12, as a good and virtuous man, modest
and gentle in his manner. During his pontificate
Scleucus Philopator, King of Syria, sent his minist'er,
Heliodorus, to Jerusalem with a view to obtain pos-
session of the alleged treasures of the Temple (II
Mach., iii).
IV.— -Onias, also oalled Menelaus. Mention is
made in II Mach., iv,.of Menelaus. brother of Simon,
who became the unjust accuser of Onias III, and later
a venal usurper of the priesthood. According to
Jcsephus, on the other hand, he originally bore the
nume Onias, changed for political reasons into one
more characteristically Greek (Antiq., XII, v, 1).
V. — Onias IV, son of Onias III, too young to suc-
ceed his father in the priesthood, which was usurped
successivelv by Jason and Menelaus (see above) and
later by Alcimus. In the meantime Onias withdrew
into Egypt, where he obtained from Ptolemy Philo-
metor a tract of land near Heliopolis, on which (about
160 B. c.) he erected a sort of temple. Here a regular
Temple worship was inauguratea in defiance of the
Law, but the innovation was doubtless justified in the
mind of Onias by the scandalous conditions at the
home sanctuary, and by the great number of Jews res-
ident in Egypt. The project was censured b^ the
authorities in Jerusalem (Mishna, Menachoth xiii, 10)
and it was blamed by Josephus (Bell. Jud., VII, x, 3).
Nevertheless, the worship was maintained until after
A. D. 70, when it was abolished by Lupus, prefect of
Alexandria (Josephus, "Bell. Jud.", VII, x, 4).
VI. — Onias, a pious Jew of Jerusalem in the days
of the high-priest Hyrcanus, i. e. about the middle of
the first ceiltury b. c. (see Mishna, Thaanith iii, 8,
and Josephus Antiq., XIV, ii, 1).
James F» Dbiscoll.
Ontario, the most populous and wealthy province
of Canada, has an area of 140,000,000 acres, exclusive
of the Great Lakes, of which approximately 24,700,000
acres have been sold, 115,300,000 remaining vested in
the Crown. It is bounaed on the south and south-
west by Lakes Ontario, Erie, Huron, and Superior,
with their connecting waters, and Minnesota: on the
north-east by Quebec, and the Ottawa River; on the
north by James Bay; on the north-west by Keewatin;
and on the west by Manitoba. It is probable that a
large part of Keewatin wUl soon be added to the
province. Old Ontario (lying between the Ottawa
River, the St. Lawrence River, and Lakes Ontario,
Erie, and Huron) is well settled and cultivated: New
Ontario, lying north and west, is sparsely inhabited.
Climate. — Moderate near the Great Lakes, sub-
ject to extremes of heat and cold in the north and
north-west, the climate is everywhere healthful, the
extremes being of short duration and easily enaured
owing to the dryness of the atmosphere inland.
Historical Incidents. — Held by France up to
1763, Quebec, including Ontario, was then ceded to
Great Britain. Visited by Champlain in 1616, ex-
plored by French missionaries and voyageurs, it had
Deen the scene of frightful Indian wars, and massacres,
and of the martyrdom in 1649 of the Jesuits, Br^beuf
" and Lalemant. Except for missionaries and their
entourage, trappers, soldiers in some isolated postci,
and a few settlers on the Detroit and Ottawa Rivers,
and near the Georgian Bay, Ontario in 1763 was an
uninhabited wildeme^ roamed over by O jib ways and
remnants of the Hurons and Algonquins. After the
American War of Independence many colonial ad-
herents of the British Crown crossed to Upper Canada.
In 1786 some 4487 of them were settled on the St.
Lawrence and Lake Ontario. For twenty years im-
mijgration from the United States was extensive.
With accessions from Ireland, Scotland, and England,
it brought the population in 1806 up to 70,000. This
was the nucleus of the Province of Ontario. In 1791
Upper Canada (Ontario) was separated from Quebec
ana given its own governor and legislature, which first
met in 1792 at Newark, now Niagara-on-the-La^e.
The laws of England were then introduced. In 1797
the capital 'was moved to York (Toronto). In 1812
Upper Canada sustained the brunt of the war between
Great Britain and the United States and was the scene
of several noted battles, Queenston Heights, Lundy's
Lane, etc. In 1837 abuses by the dominant party and
irresponsible executives provoked a rebellion in Upper
and Lower Canada, which resulted in their union and
the establishment of responsible government in 1841.
In 1866 Fenian raids from the Umted States were suc-
cessfully repelled. Difficulties of administration due
largely to racial difference led to confederation in
1867, Upper Canada becoming a distinct province
under the name of Ontario. Subsequent growth has
been rapid; population has nearly doubled; known
wealth has increased many fold; and development of
industries and resources has been enormous.
Population. — ^The last census (1901) gives the
population as 2,182,947. Municipal assessment re-
turns for 1909 place it at 2,289,438, of which 1,049,240
was rural, 515,078 dwelt in towns and villages, and
725,120 in cities. The Ontario Department of Agri-
culture considers that the actual population exceeds
these figures by 10 per cent. On this basis the popula-
tion in 1909 is estimated at 2,518,362.
Cities. — ^The principal cities, with their estimated
populations are: Toronto, the provincial capital, 360,-
000; Ottawa, the capital of Canada, 90,000; Hamilton,
77,250; London, 55,000; Brantfbrd, 22,750; Kingston,
21,000; Fort William, 20,000.
Agbiculture. — In 1909 the value of farms, imple-
ments and live stock was $1,241,019,109; field crops
were worth $167,966,577, hay and clover, oats, wheat,
barley, com. potatoes, peas, and mixed grains being
the pnncipal items; dairy produce was oSicially esti-
mated at $31,000,000; live stock on hand was valued at
$184,747,900, sold or slaughtered at $64,464,923.
Peaches and grapes, grown chiefly in the south-west,
are a large industry. The average yearly value of the
apple crop for the years 1901-05 was $8,671,275. In
1910 the Government Agricultural College at Guelph
had 975 students; the Macdonald Institute for far-
mers* daughters, 411. The Government maintains
experimental farms and liberally aids agricultural
institutes. 24,000,000 acres are now under cultiva-
tion.
Mining. — ^The province is rich in minerals of va-
rious kinds. The figures given are for 1908, when
mining products realized $30,232,814. The most im-
portant nickel deposits in America are in the Sudbuiy
district, producing 18,636 tons, about 80 per c^t of the
world's output. Iron occurs in various places (prin-
cipally haematite at Michipicoten on Lake Superior)
yielding 231,453 tons. The output of gold bullion*
18 3246 oz. Important gold fields are being opened
up at Porcupine. The fame of the silver mines of the
Cobalt district is world-wide. Average ores carry
from 2000 to 4000 oz. to the ton; 955 tons of silver
yielded $15,436,994. Petroleum and natural gas are
important products of the southwest. Portland ce-
ment brings $3, 144,000. Arsenic, cobalt, copper, cor-
ONTARIO
255
ONTARIO
undum, graphite, e3rpsum, marble, mica, salt, and
silver are also found.
F0RB8T8. — The forest area is estimated at 102,000
sq. miles. The Department of Forests and Mines
estimates that there is still standing on unlicensed
Crown lands 13,500,000,000 feet of red and white pine,
and 300,000,000 cords of spruce, jack-pine, and poplar,
suitable for pulp-wood; and on licensed lands, 7,000,-
000 feet of timber. The output for 1910 was 605,-
000,000 feet b. m. of pine: of other woods 95,000,000
feet ; of square timber 308,000 cubic feet ; of pulp- wood,
138,000 cords; of cord-wood^O,000 cords; ana of rail-
way ties. 3,800,000 pes. The province has an en-
lightenea system of reforestation.
Forest Reserves cover 17,860 sq. miles, containing it
is estimated, 7,000.000,000 feet of pine. There are
two large provincial parks. Rondeau m the south-west,
and Algonquin in the north-west of old Ontario.
Manufactures. — ^The manufacturing output of
Ontario is greater than that of any other Canadian
province. For 1905 (the last return available) its
value was $361,372,741. It is now considerably
greater.
Fisheries. — The value of the commercial fisheries
in 1908 was $2,100,079. The opportunities for sport
are excellent, the trout-fishing m the Nepigon being
exceptionally fine. Northern Ontario is much re-
sort^ to by sportsmen in the hunting season. I
Waters. — In addition to the Great Lakes there are
countless inland lakes of much beauty and utility, the
largest, Ltdces Nepigon, Nipissing, Simcoe, and the
L^e of the Woods. Innumerable rivers and water-
courses furnish abundant natural power, little of it .
developed. A hydro-electric government commission
with municipal co-operation, supplies electric power
from Niagara Fails throughout tne south-west. Thi^
commission is charged with the development and
supplying ofpower in other parts of the province.
Tourist Resorts. — ^Niagara Falls, the Thousand
Islands in the St. Lawrence, the Thirty Thousand*
Islands in the Georgian Bay. the Muskoka Lakes, and .
the Lake of the Woods are famous.
Railways and Canals. — Ontario is covered by a »
network of railways, principally operated by the
Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific, and the Canadian
Northern. Now traversed by one transcontinental
railway, it will shortly be crossed by two others. The
mileage in 1909 was 8229. The St. Lawrence Canals,
the Welland Canal, overcoming the fall of 326 feet
in the Niagara River, and the great lock at Sault
Sainte Mane permit of navigation from Montreal to
the head of I^e Superior, abbut 1400 miles. The
Rideau and the Trent Valley canals are also works of .
importance. All canals are free.
Constitution and Government. — The constitu-
tion of the province is found in the British North
America Act, 1867 (Imperial). Although its legisla-
tive powers are confined to enumerated subjects, the
constitution being "similar in principle to that of the
United Kingdom", legislative jurisdiction over the
matter assigned to it, except education, is restricted
only by the limitation, that provincial enactments
must not clash with Imperial statutes made applicable
to the province, or with legislation of the Parliament
of Canada within the field assigned to jit.
Legislature. — ^The legislature consists of a lieuten-
ant^ovcmor, appointed and paid by the Government
of Canada, and a single chamber of 106 members
elected for four years. The party S3rstem prevails.
The franchise is on a manhood suffrage basis. Ontario
has 86 members in the Dominion House of Commons,
consisting of 221 members, and 24 in the Senate, of
which the membership is 87.
Executive. — The executive is directly responsible
to the Legislative Assembly, in which it must always
commana a majority. It consists at present ^ of a
prime minister and ten colleagues. Tne ministers
holding portfolios are: the pre^dent of the council (at
present the prime minister), the attordev-general, the
secretary and registrar, the treasurer, the minister of
lands, forests, and mines, the minister of agriculture,
the minister of public works, and the minister of edu-
cation.
Judiciary. — The Constitutional Act assigns to the
province ''the constitution, maintenance, and organ-
ization of the provincial courts", civil and criminal,
and to the Dominion the appointment and remunera-
tion of judges. Judges of the superior courts are ap-
pointed for life. Those of the county and district
courts must retire at the age of eighty. The i>rovince
appoints surrogate court judges, police magistrates,
and justices of the peace. The Supreme Court 01
Judicature comprises the Court of Appeal, with five
judges, and the High Court, with twelve judges. The
county and district judges have limited powers as local
judges of the High Court. In the Division Courts,
(small debt) they try blaims, ascertained by signature
up to $200, upon contract up to $100, and other per-
sonal claims up to $60. In the County and District
courts they have jurisdiction, speaking generally, in
actions upon contract up to $800, in other personal
actions up to $600, and in actions respecting rights of
property, where the value of the property affected
does not exceed $500. Unless the defendant disputes
jurisdiction, these courts may deal with any civil case
whatever the amount involved. The jurisdiction of
the High Court is unlimited. In important cases an
appeal lies from the provincial court of appeal to the
Supreme Court of Canada, or to the Judicial Commit-
tee of the Imperial Privy Council.
Officials. — Sheriffs, court officers, Division Court
bailiffs, etc., are appointed by the provincial govern-
ment.
Municipal System. — The municipal system is based
on American models. Municipal government id car-
ried on by councils and presiding officers elected by pop-
ular vote. In large urban centres. Boards of Control
elected by the municipalities at large have extensive
powers. The councils appoint the administrative
ofiic^^.
Religion. — ^There is no State church. Legally, all
religions are on a footing of equality. Legislation,
however, is based on the fundamental principles of
Christian morality. Sessions of the House of As-
sembly open with prayers read by the Speaker. Blas-
phemous libels, the obstruction of, or offering violence
to, officiating clerg>rmen, and disturbance of meetings
for religious worsmp are criminal offences. Sunday
is strictly observed.
Exemptions. — Places of worship and lands used
in connexion therewith, churchyards and buryinp-
grounds, and buildings and grounds of educational and
charitable institutions are exempt from taxation.
Clergymen are exempt from jury duty and military
service.
/ncorporaiwm.— ;-Reli^ous organizations can readily
obtain incorporation, with liberal powers of acouiring
and holding real estate. Land may be given for '* char-
itable uses , by deed made more than six months be-
fore the grantor's death, or by will, but must be sold
within two ^ears, unless the High Court, being satis-
fied that it is required for actual occupation for the
purpose of the charity, sanctions its retention. All
Catholic church property is vested in the bishop of the
diocese who is a statutory corporation sole.
Catholicism^—In 1763 the few French settlers were
Catholics. Immigration from the United States after
1783 was almost exclusively Protestant. Some Scotch
Catholics settled in Glengarry, and a considerable
number of Irish Catholics, principally after the War of
1812 and particularly from 1847 to 1851, in various
parts of Ontario. The See of Kingston, established in
1826, included the entire province. Rt. Rev. Alex.
Macdonell was the first bisnop. Kingston became an
OMTABIO 256 ONTARIO
archdloeeieinl880. The Diocese of Torcmto^erected in are easihr established. Their supporteFs are legally
1841, became an archdiocese in 1870. The Diocese of exempt u-om public school taxation. They elect their
Ottawaycrected in 1847, became an archdiocese in own trustees, who determine their rate of school taxa^
1886p The Province has now seven suffragan sees, tion. Catholic teachers are employed and Catholic re*
Hamilton, London. Pembroke, Temiakaminc (Vicari- ligious training is ^ven. Separate school inspectonr
ate), Peterborougn. Alexandria, and Sault Sainte are specialUy appomted b^ the Government. Many
Marie. Portions of Ottawa, Pembroke, and Temis- of the teachers are Christian Brothers and Sisters of
kaming are in Quebec; the other dioceses are wholly in teaching orders, all holding ^vemment certificates.
Ontario. Diocesan priests number 383; priests of At the government examinations (1910) for entrance
reli|doua orders, 244 (1910). to high schools, in Toronto the percentage of pubhc
Tne Catholic population in 1871 was 274,162; school candidates who passed was 54.59; uiat of sepa^
hi 1881, 321,162; m 1891, 358.300; in 1901, 390,304; rate school candidates was 57.81.
and in 1910 (est.), 450,000. Of these, 190,000 (est.), UnwersUies.— The University of Toronto is sup-
residing chiefly in Eastern Ontario, Essex, Nipissing, ported by the Government. In 1910 it had 4000 stn-
and Algoma, are French Canadians: the remainder dents. The revenue from succession duties, in 1910,
principally of Irish descent. The Apostolic Delegate $519,999.27. is devoted to it; it also received $15,000
to Canada resides at Ottawa. The headquarters of for the facultv of education. With it is afliliated St.
the Catholic Church Extension Society of Canada Michaers (Dollege, Toronto, ccmducted by the Basilian
(canonicall^ established) are at Toronto. Catholic Fathers, the students of which in 1910 numbered over
charitable institutions are numerous, and receive a fair 250. The university is unsectarian. Catholic stu-
share of government and municipal aid. As a mi- dents take lectures m philosophy and historjsr at St.
nority, Catholics have reason to be satisfied with their Michael's. There are also: the Western Umversity,
status and recent treatment. London; Queen's (Presb3rterian), Kingston; and Mc-
Education. — ^At (Confederation the British North Master (Baptist), Toronto. Victoria Coll^ (Meth-
Amerioa Act conferred on the province power to deal odist), Wycuffe (Anglican), Knox (Presbyter&n), Trin-
with education, saving rights and privileges, with re- iW (Andean), all at Toronto, are affiliated with the
spect to denominatiomsd schools then enjoyed. Dur- University of Toronto. Queen's University receives
ing the union of Protestant Upper Canada (Ontario) $42,000 from the Government for a school of mining,
and Catholic Lower Canada (Quebec), from 1841 to and $10,500 for its faculty of education.
1867. provision was made for denominational schools The Catholic University of Ottawa, conducted bv
for uie religious minority in each province. The On- the Oblate Fathers, with complete French and English
tario Separate Schools law, fundamentally as it stands courses and, in 1910, 547 students, receives no govem-
to-dav, was enacted in 1863. The rights then con- mentaid. It holds a charter from the Papal Court as
f erred on the Catholic minority are therefore constitu- well as from the province.
tional. There are other Catholic coUefieB: Regiopolis at
Expenditure. — The educational system is adminis- Kingston, conducted by secular pnests; St. Jerome's,
tered by the Department of Education. Out of $8,- at Berlin, by Fathers of the Resurrection, and Assump-
891,004.68 revenue, the Government in 1910 expended tion, at Sandwich, by Basilians. In nearly every city
on education, exclusive of money spent throi^ the and town there is a good convent school. In Toronto a
Department of Agriculture, $2,220,796.75. In 1909 Ci^tholic Seminary for ecclesiastical education, capable
(1910 returns incomplete) $8,782,302.51 was raised of accommodating, at first 110, and later 310 students,
by local taxation for primary and secondary educa- the toft of Mr. Eugene O'Keefe, Private Chamberlain
tion. ' to lus Holiness, is in course of construction. Ottawa
System. — ^The system embraces free primarjsr educa- ' has a diocesan seminary,
tion in public and separate schools; intermediate edu- Marriage and Divoroe. — By the Britaah North
cation m high schools, partly free; and university America Act, marriage and divoroe is assi^ed to the
training at slight cost to the student. Every person Dominion Parliament, while the solemnization of mar-
between the ages of five and twenty-one years may, riage is made a subject of provincial jurisdiction,
every child between eight and fourteen, unless law- 3farrta^e.— Under the Ontario Marriage Act, mar-
fully excused, must, attend a public or separate school, riage may be solemnized by '' the ministers and clergy-
The courses of stuajr and textbooks are controlled bv men of every church and religious denomination, duly
the Department, which sanctions for separate schools ordained or appointed'/. Special provisions are made
only books approved by the Cathohc authorities, for the Congregations of God or of Christ^he Salva-
Subject to departmental regulations, primary schools tion Army, the Farringdon Independent Church, the
are managed by trustees locally elected, there being Brethren, and the Society of Friends. There is no pro-
distinct boards for public and separate scnools. Every vision for purely civil marriage. The person solemniz-
teacher must hold a certificate of qualification from a ing marriage must be ''a resident of Canada". The
provincial normal school. With its own taxes the marriage must be preceded by publication of banns, or
municipality collects for each board the amount it re- authorized by a hcence, or certificate of the Provin-
jiuires for its purposes. For public schools, attended ciaJ Secretary, issued by a local issuer appointed by
in 1910 by 401,268 pupils, government aid was $731,- the Government. Unless necessary to prevent ille-
160.99 and local taxation (1909) $6,565,987.90. For gitimacy, the marriage of any person under fourteen is
separate schools, attended in 1910 bv 55,034 pupils, prohibited. To obtam a licence for the marriage of a
ffovemment aid was $53,033.63 and local taxation person under eighteen, not a widower or widow, con-
(;1909) $764,779.56. Where Catholics are the majority sent of the father if resident m Ontario, and if not, of
they sometimes use and control public schools; in some the mother if so resident, or of the guardian (if any)^ is
localities they are too few to support a separate school, required. Marriage within any dep«e of consangum-
The separate school attendance is therefore substan- ity closer than that of first cousins is prohibited. But
tiall^less than the number of (Catholic school children, by statute of Canada, marriage with a sister of a de-
High Schools. — For High Schools attended in 1910, ceased wife or with a daughter of a deceased wife's sister
by 33,101 pupils, government aid was $157,383.03, is legalized; yet marriage with a daughter of a de-
and local taxation (1909) $1,451,535.05. • There is no ceas«l wife's brother, with a brother of a deceased hus-
legal provision for separate high schools. On its band, and with a deceased husband's nephew remains
Normal Collie (Hamilton) and two normal schools at illegal. The validity of marriage depends on the lex
Toronto and Ottawa the (Government spent in 1910, loci contractus.
$208,524.11, training 1198 students. Dit'orce.— There is no Divoroe Court. Divoroe can
Separate Schools Law. — (Catholic separate schools be obtained only by Act of the Dominion Parliament,
k
CMITOLOaiBM 257 ONTOLOaiBM
and adultery b the sole ground on which it is granted, an intuition of God, the first intelligible, as creating
In 1907 Parliament grantCKi 3 divorces for Ontario; in existences. This intuition is finite and is obtained by
1908, 8; in 1909, 8; and in 1910, 14. Ontario courts means of expressions or words {la parola). Thus the
recognize a foreign divorce only where it is valid afc- primum phuosophicum includes both the primum onr
cording to the law of the state m which it is obtained, tologicum and the primum psychologicumf and the ordo
and the husband had at the time a bona fide domicile, aciendi is identified with the ardo rerum. This for-
as understood in English law, in such state. Subject mula was accepted and defended by Orestes A. Brown-
to a saving provision m favour of a person who, m good son. (Cf . Brownson's Works, Detroit, 1882 ; I, " The
faith and on reasonable grounds, brieves his or her Existence of God", 267 sq.; "Schools of Philosophy,
spouse to be dead, and of a person whose spouse has 296 sq.; "Primitive Elements of Thought , 418 sq.
been continually absent for seven years ana who has etc.)
not known such spouse to be alive at any time during Ontologism was advocated, under a more moderate
that period, any married person, not vahdly divorced, form, by some Catholic philosophers of the nineterath
who goes through a secona form of marriage in Canada century. Maintaining against Malebranche that con-
commits bigamy: any such person who, bemg a British Crete material things are perceived by our ^nses,
subject remdent in Canada, goes through such cere- they asserted that our imiversal ideas endowed with
mony elsewhere, if he left Canada with intent to do so, the characteristics of necessity and eternity, and our
also commits bigamy under Canadian law. notion of the infinite cannot exist except in God; and
NvUUy. — The Ontario High Court has jurisdiction they cannot therefore be known except by an intuition
to adjudge marriage void, and it has special statutory of God present to our mind and perceived by our in-
power to declare a marriage nuU, if the plaintiff was telligence not in His essence as such, but in His essence
under the age of eighteen when married, and the cere- as the archetype of all things. Such is the Ontoloj^ni
mony was without the consent required by law, and taught by C. Ubaghs, professor at Louvain, in Essai
was not necessary to prevent illegitimacy. The action d'idtologie ontologique" (Louvain, 1860); by Abbe
must be brought before the plamtiff attains the age L. Branchereau in 'HPrsBlectiones Philosophic® ; by
of nineteen, and it must be proved in open court and Abb^ F. Hugon'm in " Ontologie ou etudes des lois de
after notice to the attorney-general (who is authorized la pens^" (Paris^ 1866-7) ; by Abb6 J. Fabre in " P6-
to intervene) that there has not been cohabitation fensedeTontologisme"; by Carlo Vercellone, etc. We
after the ceremony. find also the fundamental principles of Ontologism m
Frassr. HiBtory of Ontario (Toronto, 1007) ; Kinobford. Hi*- Rosmini's philosophy, although there have been many
tory of Canada (To^tp wid London. i887-^;,l>^^»oj. ,^^ attempts to defend him against this accusation (cf.
ilm«noo (London, 1807); Canofla reor Boo* (Ottawa, 1909); On^ ^ TV>rr«««j« «i?««.«.» ^JUr.^ ^^11^ YT ««»^T^^%ciU;AnA
tario Gotemmeni Reporta on i4gricuttwr«, Indutriet. Minim,, For- G. Morando, Esame cntlCO deUe XL proposiaione
at«. Municipal stoHttiea (190^1910); HecUon't Annual (joTonto, rosmimane condannate dalla S.R.U. mquisizione .
1910)' Canadian Catholic Directory (Toronto, l^^p);The^cici MJi^n, 1905). According tO Rosmini, the form of all
Wt SS^SSn jr^:^1n^^^J^*o''ti^'Sl^ our thoughts b bdng S?its ideality (^ewere ideais,
(a>lumbus, Ohio, 1910); Sta<tii««fl/Co«MMia;S<a(i<te8o/ Ontario. Veasere inizidle). The idea of being IS innate m US
Frank A. Anglin. and we perceive it by intuition. Altogether indeter-
mined, it is neither Cxod nor creature ; it is an appurte-
Ontologirai (from 6y, tfr, tvrat^ being, and X^of, nance of God, it is something of the Word (''Teo*
science), an ideological system which maintains that sophia", I, n. 490; II, n. 848j cf. ^'Rosminianarum
God and Divine ideas are the first object of our intel- propo«tionum trutina theologica", Rome, 1892). At
ligence and the intuition of God the first act of our the origin and basis of every system of Ontologism,
intellectual knowledge. Expaaition, — Malebranche there are two principal reasons: (1) we have an idea
(q. V.) developed his theory of ''la vision en Dieu" in of the infinite and this cannot be obtained through
different worl^, particularly ** Recherche de la y^ritd ", abstraction from finite beinss, since it is not contained
III, under the influence of Platonic and Cartesian phi- in them ; it must, therefore, be innate in our mind and
losophies, and of a misunderstanding of St. Augustine's perceived through intuition; (2) our concepts and
and St. Thomas's principles on the origin and source fundamental judgments are endowed with the charao-
of our idjeas. It is also m large part the consequence teristics of universaUty, eternity, and necessity, e. g.,
of his theory of occasional causes (see Oocabional- our concept ofman is applicable to an indefinite num-
ism). Our true knowledge of things, he says, is the ber of individual men; our principle of identitv " what-
knowledge we have of them in their ideas. The ideas ever is, is", is true in itself, necessarily and always,
of things are present to our mind, endowed with the Now such concepts and judpnents cannot be obtained
essential characteristics of universality, necessity, and from any consioeration of miite*thiiigs which are par-
eternity, and are not the result of intellectual elaoora- ticular, contingent, and temporal. Gioberti insists
tion or representations of thinss as they are, but the also on the fact that God being alone intelligible by
archetvpes which concrete and temporal things real- Himself, we cannot have any intellectual knowledge of
ixe. Ideas have their source and real existence in finite things independently of the knowledge of God;
God; they are the Divine essence itself, considered as that our knowle^e to be truly scientific must follow
the infinite model of all things. ' ' God ia the locus of , the ontological, or real, order and therefore must begin
our ideas, as space is the locus of bodies." God with the Imowledge of God, the first being and source
is then always really present to our mind; we see all of all existing beings. Ontologists appeaJ to the au«
things, even material and concrete thin^, in Him, thority of the Fathers, especially St. Augustine and St.
Who contains and manifests to our intelligence their Thomas.
nature and existence. Vincenzo Gioberti (1801-52) Refutation, — From the philosophical point of view,
developed his OntologLsm in ' ' Introduzione alio studio the immediate intuition of God and of His Divine ideas,
della nloeofia" (1840), I, iii; II, i. Our first act of as held by Ontologists, is above the natural power of
intellectual knowledge is the intuitive judgment ''ens man's intelligence. We are not conscious, even bv
creat existentias" (Being creates existences). By reflection, of the presence of God in our mind; and,
that act, he says, our mind apprehends directly and if we did have such an intuition we would find in it
immediately in an intuitive synthesis (a) being, not (as St. Thomas rightly remarks) the full satisfaction
simply in general nor merely as ideal, but as necessary of all our aspirations, since we would know God in His
ana real, viz. , God ; (b) existences or contingent beings; essence (for the distinction between Grod in His essence
(c) the relation which unites being and existences, and God as containing the ideas of things, as advanced
viz.; the creative act. In this judgment being is the by Ontologists, is arbitrary and cannot be more than
subject, existences the predicate, me creative act the logical) ; error or doubt conceming God would be im-
oopula. Our first intellectual perception is, therefore, possible. (Cf . St. Thom. in Lib. Boetii de Trinitate,
XI.— 17
OITTOLOGT 258 ^ OlfTOLbOT
Q.I. a.3;deVeritate, Q. XVIII, a. 1.) Agtun.alIour human mind. In the Vatican Council, Cardinals
intellectual thoughts, even those concerning God, are Pecci and Sforsajpresented a postu^oh^m for an explicit
accompanied by sensuous images; they are made Of condemnation of (Jntologism. On 14 December, 1887,
elements which may be applied to creatures as well as the Holy Office reproved, condemned, and proscribea
to God Himself; only in our idea of God and of His forty propo«itions extracted from the works of Ro»-
attributes. these elements are divested of the charac- mim, in which the principles of Ontologism are con-
teristics of imperfection and limit which they have in tained (cf. Denzingel^Bannwart, nn. 1891-1930).
creatures, and assume the highest possible degree of Libbr^tom, TratUOo delta conoaemm inUUeOuaU (Roma,
perfection. In a word, our idea of God is not direct ^8^) : Ziouara, DeUa Luce inuUeuvaU « dor Otuoiogitmo (Rome,
and proper; it i? analogical (cf God; .Analogy). '^I^bri'^^^I^SZ^^ SMSl
This shows that God is not known by intuition. cibr. La Ptyeholcaie, HI (Louvain. 1890) , i. M; BoTODni
The reasons advanced by Ontologists rest on con- l^atvrai The^ogy, I (London, 1902), L
fusion and false assumptions. The human mind has Geobge M. Sauvaqe.
an idea of the infinite ; out this idea ma^r be and in fact
is, obtained from the notion of the fimte, by the sue- Ontology (6r, ^vrw, being, and X^yof, science, the
cessive processes of abstraction, eUmination, and science or philosophy of bemg). — I. DEFiNmoN. —
transcendence. The notion of the finite is the notion Though the term is us^ in this fiteral meaning by Clau-
of being having a certain perfection in a limited d&- berg (1625-1665) (0pp., p. 2^1), its special application
gree. By eUmmating the element of fimitation and to the first department of metaphysics was made by
conceiving the positive perfection as reaUzed in its ChristianvonWolff (1679-1754) (Philos.nat.. sec. 73).
highest possible degree, we arrive at the notion of the Prior to this time ''the science of being" haa retained
iimnite. We form in this way, a ne^ativo-positive the titles given it bv its founder Aristotle: "first philoso-
concept, as the Schoolmen say, of the mfiiiite. It is phv", "theology", "wisdom", llieterm "metaphys-
true also that our ideas have tne characteristics of ne- i<» (q- v.) was given a wider extension by Wolf!; who
oessity. universality, and eternity; but these are essen- divided "real philosephy " into general metaphysics,
tially oifferent from the attributes of God. God ex- which he called ontology, and special, under which he
ists necessarily, viz.. He is absolutely, and cannot not included cosmology, psychology^ and theodicy. This
exist: our ideas are necessary in the sense that, when programme has been Adopted with little variation by
an ODJect is conceived in ite essence, independently most Catholic philosophers. The subject-matter of
of the concrete beings in which it is realized, it is a ontology is usually arranged thus: (1) The objective
subject of necessary relations: man, if he exists, is concept of being in its widest range, as embracing the
necessarily a rational^ being. God is absolutely uni- actual and potential, is first analyzed, the problems
versal in the sense that He eminently possesses the concerned with essence (nature) and exist^ice, "act"
actual fulness of all perfections: our ideas are universal and "potency" are discussed, and the primary prin-
in the sense that they are applicable to an indefinite ciples — contradiction, identity, etc. — are shown to
number of concrete oein^. God is eternal in the emerge from the concept of entity. (2) The proper-
sense that He exists by Himself and always identical ties coextensive with being — ^unity, .truth, and good-
with Himself; our ideas are eternal in the sense that ness. and their immediately associated concepts, order
in their state of abstraction they are not determined and beauty — are next explained. (3) The fundamental
by any special place in space or moment in time. divisions of being into the finite and the infinite, the
^ It is true that God alone is perfectly intelligible in contingent and the necessary, etc., and the suboivi^-
Himself, since He alone has in Himself the reason of ions of the finite into the categories (q. v.) substance
His existence; finite beings are intelUgible in the very and its accidents (quantity, quality, etc.) follow in
measure in which they exist. Having an existence turn — ^the objective — reality of substance, the mean-
distinct from that of (jod, they have also an intelligi- ing of persoqiality. the relation of accidents (q. v.) to
bility distinct from Him. And it is precisely because substance being tne most prominent topics. (4) The
they are dependent in their existence that we conclude concluding portion of ontology is usually devoted to
to the existence of God, the first intelUgible. The as- the concept of cause and its primary divisions — effi-
sumption that the order of knowledge must follow the dent and final, material and formal — the' objectivity
order of things, holds of absolute and perfect knowl- and analytical character of the principle of causality
edge, not of all knowledge. It is sufficient for true receiving most attention.
knowledge that it affirm as real that which is truly Ontolo^ is not a subjective science as Kant de-
real ; the order of knowledge may be different from the scribes it (lib. d. Fortschr. d. Met., 98) nor " an inferen-
order of reality. The confusion of certain Ontologists tial Psychology", as Hamilton regards it (Metaphys-
regarding the notion of being opens the way to ran- ics, Lect. VII); nor yet a knowledge of the absolute
theism (q. v.). Neither St. Augustine nor St. Thomas (theology); nor of some ultimate reality, whether
favours (Jntologism. It is throu^ a misunderstanding conceived as matter or as spirit, which Monists sup-
of their theories and of their expression that the Ontol- pose to underlie and produce individual real beings
and God agree in this that
The (Council of Vienna (1311-12) had already con- each is a being, has a characteristic essence, an indi-
demned the doctrine of the Begards who maintained vidual unity, truth, goodness, is a substance and (God
that we can see God by our natural intelligence. On excepted) has accidents, and is or may be a cause. All
18 September, 1861, seven propositions of uie Ontolo- these common attributes demand definition and ex-
gists, concerning the immediate and the innate knowl- planation — definition not of their mere names, but
edge of God. being, and the relation of finite things to analysis of the real object which the mind abstracts
(xod, were aeclar^ by the Holy Office Udo tradi non and reflectively considers. Ontology is therefore the
posse (cf. Denzinger-Bannwart, nn. 1659-65). The fundamental science since it studies the basal constit-
same congregation, in 1862, pronounced the same cen- uents and the principles presupposed by the special
8UrQ against fifteen propositions by Abb6 Branche- sciences. All the other parts of philosophy, cosmol-
reau, subjected te its examination, two of which (xii ogy, psychology, theodicy, ethics, even logic, rest on
and xiii) asserted the existence of an innate and direct the foundation laid by ontelogy. The physica]
perception of ideas, and the intuition of God by the Bdenoes — ^physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics
OOSTAOKEB
259
OFHIB
likewise, presuppose the same foundations. Never-
theless ontology is dependent in the order of analysis,
though not in the order of synthesis, on these depart-
ments of knowledge; it starts from their data and uses
their information in clarifying their presuppositions
and principles. Ontology is accused of dealing with
the merely abstract. But all science is of the abstract,
the universal, not of the concrete and individual. The
physical sciences abstract the various phenomena
from their individual subjects; the mathematical
sciences abstract the quantity — number and dimen-
sions— ^from its setting. Ontology finally abstracts
what is left — the essence, existence, substance, causalty ,
etc. It is idle to say that of these ultimate abstrac-
tions we can have no distinct knowledge. The very
negation of their knowableness shows that the mind
has some knowledge of that which it attempts to deny.
Ontology simply endeavours to make that rudimen-
tary knowledge more distinct and complete. There is
a thoroughly developed ontology in every course of
Catholic philoscmhy; and to its ontology that philoso-
phy owes its denniteness and stability, while the lack
of an ontology in other systems explains their vague-
ness an4 instability.
11, History. — It was Aristotle who first constructed
a well-defined and developed ontology. In his " Meta-
physics" he analyses the simplest elements to which
the mind reduces the world of reality. The medieval
philosophers make his writings the groundwork of
their commentaries in which they not only expand and
illustrate the thought, but often correct and enrich it
in Uie light of Revelation. Notable instances are St.
Thomas Aquinas and Suarez (1548-1617). The "Dis-
putationes Metaphysics" of the latter is the most
thorough work on ontology in any language. The
Aristotelean writings and the Scholastic commenta-
ries are its groundwork and largelyits substance; but
it amplifies, and enriches both. The work of Father
Harper mentioned below attempts to render it avail-
able for English readers. The author's untimely
death, however, left the attempt far from its pros-
pected ending. The movement of the mind towards
the phymcal sciences — which was largely stimulated
and accelerated by Bacon — carried philosophy away
from the more abstract truth. Locke, Hume, and
their followers denied the reality of the object of
ontology. We can know nothing, they held, of the
essence of things; substance is a mental figment, acci-
dents -are subjective aspects of an unknowable nou-
menon; cause is a name for a sequence of phenomena.
These negations have been emphasized by Comte,
Huxley, and Spencer.
On the other hand the subjective and psychological
tendencies of Descartes and his followers dimmed yet
more the vision for metaphysical truth. Primary no-
tions and principles were held to be either forms innate
in the mind or results of its development, but which do
not express objective reality. Kant, analysing the
structure of the cognitive faculties — -perception, judg-
ment, reasoning — discovers in them innate forms that
present to reflection aspects of ^phenomena which ap-
pear to be the objective realities, beine, substance,
cause, etc., but which in truth are only subjective^
views evoked by sensory stimuli. The subject matter
of ontolo^ is thus reduced to the types which the
mind, until checked by criticism, projects into the
external world. Between these two extremes of Em-
piricism and Idealism the traditional philosophy re-
tains the convictions of common sense and the subtle
analysis of the Scholastics. Being, essence, truth, sub-
stance, accident, cause, and the rest, are woros ex-
pressing ideas but standins for realities. These reali-
ties are objective aspects of the individuals that strike
the senses and the intellect. They exist concretely out-
side of the mind, not. of course, abstractly as they are
within. They are tne ultimate elementary notes or
forms which the mind intuitively discerns, abstracts,
and reflectively analyses in its endeavour to compre-
hend fundamentally any object. In this reflective
analysis it must employ whatever information it can
obtain from empirical psychology. Until recently this
latter auxiliary has been insufficiently recognized by
the philosophers. The works, however, of Maher and
Walker mentioned below manifest a just appreciation
of the importance of psychology's co-operation in the
study of ontology.
Catholic; Harpbb, The Metaphynea of ifu SduHfl (Ix>ndon,
1879-84); Db Wdlt, SchoUulieiam Old and Neip.tr. Coftbt
(Dublin, 1907) ; Pbiuubb, The revival of SchoUutie Philoeophy in
the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1909) (full bibliography);
RicKABT, Oeneral Metaphyeiee (London. 1898); Waluer, Theo-
riee of KnovoUdge (Lonaon, 1910) ; Mabeb, Peuchoiogy (London,
1903); 'Ri^iMEA, Fundammial Philoeovhy (tr.. New York. 1864);
TuRKEB, Hielory of Philoeophy (Boaton. 1903) ; Mxbcier,
Ontolooie (Louvain. 1905): Domet db Vorobs, Ahriifi de mttor
phyeique (Paris, 1906); Db Rbonon, Mitaphyeique dee caueee
(Paris, 1906); QtrrsBBLVT, AUgemeine Metavhyeik (MQnster,
1897); Ubrabubu. Inetitutionee philoeophia (Valladolid, 1891);
Blanc, Dielionnaire dephiloeophie (Paris, 1906).
Non-Catbouc: McCosh, Firet and Fundamental Truthe (New
York, 1894): Idbm, The Intuitiane of the Mind (New York. 1880);
Ladd, Knowledge, Life and Reality (New York, 1909) ; Tatlob,
Blemente of Metaphyeiee (London, 1903); Windbuiand, Hietory
of Philoeophy (tr.. New York, 1901); Baldwin, Dictionary of Phi-
loeophy and Peycholoay (New York, 1902) ; Eisleb, WUrterbuch der
philoe, Begriffe (Beruin, 1904). F, P. SlBGFRIBD.
Oostacker, Shrine of, a miraculous shrine of the
Blessed Virgin, and place of pilgrimage from Belgium,
Holland, and Northern France. It takes its name
from a little hamlet two miles from Ghent in the Prov-
ince bf East Flanders, Belgium. Its origin as a cen-
tre of pilgrimage is comparatively recent, dating from
1873. In 1871 the Marquise de Calonne de Courte-
boume had built in the park of her estate at Oostacker
an aquarium in the form of an artificial cave or grotto.
One day, wldle on a visit to the park, M. Tabb6
Moreels, the parish priest, suggested that a statue
of Our Lady of Lourdes l)e placed among the rocks.
For two years the grotto remained simply an aqua-
rium, but gradually the members of the family formed
the habit of stopping there to recite a Hail M^.
Soon it was decioed to bless the statue publicly. The
ceremony took place on 23 June, 1873, and was at-
tended by nearly all the inhabitants of the village.
The pious Flemish peasants asked permission of tne
owner to come frequently to the park to give vent
to their devotion. Accordingly, access was allowed
them on Sundav afternoon. At that time the world
was ringing with the fame of Lourdes, and the shrine
at Oostacker soon became popular; marvellous graces
and wonderful cures were reported. Before long Sun-
day afternoon no longer sufficed to receive the throngs
of pilgrims, and the park was thrown open to the pub-
lic Dv the generous owner. Then a large Gothic church
was built, the corner-stone being laid on 22 May, 1875,
by M^ bracq. A priest's house followed, and the
marchioness in memorv of her son, a deceased Jesuit,
cocdQded shrine, church, and house to the Society of
Jesus. The fathers took possession on 8 April, 1877,
and on 11 September of tne same year the Apostolic
nuncio, Serapnino Vannutelli, consecrated the church.
That part of the estate, in which the grotto was, was
now definitivelv ^ven over to the service of Our Lady,
a long avenue being built from the road to the shrine
and a Way of the Cross erected. Fully 60,000 pilgrims
come annually from Belgium, Holland, and Northern
France, in ablout 450 organized pilgrimages.
Poncclbt, La Compagnie de Jieue en Befgume (BnuaelB, 1907) ;
PHerinagee c&Vbree aux eanctuairee de Notre Dame (Paris, 1901) ;
ScBiBBUKGK, Lourdet en Flandre (Ghent, 1874).
J. WiLFBID PaBSONB.
Ophir, in the Bibloi designates a people apd a
country.
The people, for whom a Semitic descent is claimed,
is mentioned in Gen.^ x, 29, with the other ''sons of
Jectan^', whose dwellmg "was from Messa as we go on
as far as Sehar. a mountain in the east'' (Gen., x, 30).
The place Ophir was that from which the Bible
OPBITIS 2€
represente Solomon's fleet bringing gold, silver, thyine
(probably Bantal) wood, precious stones, ivory, apea,
and peacocks (III Kings, ix, 26-28; x, 11, 22; II Par.,
viii, 17-18; ix, 10). Its location has been sought where
the articles mentioned are native productions; still,
wliile Ophir IS repeatedly spoken of aa a gold-produc-
ing r^on (Job, xxii, 24; xxviii, IG; Fa. xliy, 10; Is.,
xiii, 12), it does not follow that the other articles came
from Uiere; whether they were natural products, or
only bought and sold there, or even purchased by the
merchantmcQ at intervening ports, cannot Ije gathered
from the text, as it stat^ merelj' that they were
fetched to Auon^aber. The Bible does not give the
geographical position of Ophir; it only says that the
voyage out from Asiongaber and back lasted three
yeais (III KinRB, x, 22). Scholars have l>een guided
m their sever^ identifications of the site by the
importance they attach to this or that particular indi-
cation in the sacrod text — especially the products
brought t« Solomon — also by resemblaaces, real or
fancitul, between the Hebrew names of Ophir and of
the articles mentioned in connexion therewith and
names used in various countries and kngunges. The
Greek translators of the Bible, by rendering the He-
brew Ophir into Sophir, the Coptic name for India,
would locate the Bichcal El Dorado in India, accord-
iilK to some in the land of the Abhira, east of the delta
of the Indus, according to others, on the coast of Mal-
abar or at Ceylon, and accordinff to others still in the
Malay Peninsula. The opinion that it was situated on
the southern or south-eastern coast of Arabia has
many advocates, who contend from the text of Gen,,
X, 29, 30, that Ophir must be located between Saba
and Hevilatli. Another opinion says it was not in
Asia, but either on the south-eastern coast of Africa
(Sofola) or inland in Mashonaland.
!1ai.i. and Neai. Tha Anriml Ruim of Rliodaia (LoDdon.
1S03I: CoHT. Tlu RiM ef Seuth AJrica (Londan. 190B); Low,
DiMcffBm/. 1 (London. ISSl); PetboNi Lerietm lAnffiut
0 OPORTO '
into Moorish hands, and on its recovery, Hugo became
bishop (1114-1134-6). He secured exemption from
the Archbishop of Braga. He greatly enlarged his
diocese and the cathedral patrimony increased by the
donations he secured; thus, in 1120, he received from
D. Theresa jurisdiction over the City of Oporto with
all the rents and dues thereof. John Peculiar was
promoted to Braga (1138), his nephew, Pedro Rabal-
dis, succeeding at Oporto. Next came D. Pedro
PitOea (1145 to 1152 or 1155), D, Pedro Senior (d.
1172), and D. Femfio Martins (d. 11S5). Martinho
Pires instituted a chapter, was promoted to Braga,
1189 or 1190. Martinho Rodrigues ruled from 1191
to 1235. He quarrelled with the chapter over their
XV (Pmrii. 1842): Vi-
b od..hirto.
Solonini in Bbdieh d'e 1a MAnrtHiiiiE, TraiUi g&vnipAivuu tl
hiilorimfi pour facil-Urr finltUigtiHt dt iEcriturt Satnit, If (Tba
IIi«ue. 1730): Qhathm' " — ' " "■ ■- ■
oonnon*. toBiifcdiMf-
1896); Vivien de BAiin~MAiiTiH, Hiitnrt dt la giefmphte _ -
iU«iiHr4«0<opnipAuuu (PariA. 1S7G) ; GEaENicB, Ophir in Ebk
AHn Obuieb. Bact/klapadit da Watmtchojtn 11833); Quee
Siiiw der Getchidut imd aroaraphu ,4rn(™™. U (1990) ; Odth-
Kuria BibtbBdrUrhwA ITabinsea. 1903); Heufild. HandiU-
f€uMcUe dtr Jvdat dtr AUcrtkanu (1H7D ; LiHEN. Indudu Al-
Irrthamikundt. I (18661 ; Liebliih, Ilanddand Sr.hiff/ahrt auf dm
nlSen MeiTin oiKn Z«I<i> (Leipils. l$8e); Maitcb. Rniendt
inOtt-Atnka (1871); Mehehbe ~ . - -
AlriluH (1875); MAlleb, Atim
Drntm/llrm (iBS2)-. PEr^im. Dot aoUent Ophir
nicb, ISeS); Sdbtbeeb, Dai GMiand Ophir (188uj.
CbabliEb L. Sou vat.
OphltM. See Gnosticisii.
Opinions, Theological. See Tbeoloot.
Oporto, Diocese or (Portucalenbis), in Porta-
gal; comprising 26 civil eotuxlhcs of the districts of
Oporto and Aveiro; probably founded in the middle
of the sixth century. At the third Council of Toledo
f589) the Arian usurper Argiovito was deposed in
avour of Constancio the rightful bishop. In SIO
Bishop ArgebcrUi assisted at a council at Toledo,
eummonedliy King Gundemar to sanction the metro-
politan claimsof Toledo. Bishop Anmulfo was present
at the Sixth Council of Toledo (638) and BishoD Flavio
at the Tenth (656). Bishop Froorico attended the
Third Council of Braga (675) and the Twelfth, Thir-
teenth, and Fifteenth Councils of Toledo (681 , 683, and
688), ami his successor Fehx appeared at the Sixteenth
Council (693). No other bishop is recorded under the
Visigothic monarchy. After the Arab invasion Jus-
tus seems to have been the first bishop. Gomado
was probablv elected in 872, when King Affonso III
won back tne city. The names of only four other
prelates have been preserved: Froarengo (906), Her-
mogio (912), Ordonno, and Diogo. O^rto fell again
Wai or TH» Cboh. Catbidbal, Opobto
The buiUiiic, in Ootliio ityle, dilcB Irom ISSS— the munt
decorstiona dkM rrom Ihe XVIII oentuly
shore of the rents of the Bee. Later on, fresh dis-
agreements arose in which King Sancho intervened
against the bishop, who was deprived of his goods
and had to flee, but was restored by the king when
Innocent III espoused the bishop's cause. Another
quarrel soon arose between prelate and king, and the
bishop was imprisoned; but he escaped and fled to
Rome, and in 12O0 the king, feeling the approach of
death, made peace with him. His surceasor, Pedro
.Salvadores, figured prominently in the questions be-
tween the clergy and King Sancho 11, who refused to
ecclesiastics the right of purcboains oi; inheriting land.
Portugal fell into anarchy, in which the clergy's — ^'-■-
cent IV committed the reform of abuses to Affonso,
brother of Sancho, who lost his crown.
Under Bishop Julian (1247-60) the jurisdiction
difficulty became aggravated. A settlement was
effected at the Cortes of Leiria (1254), which the
bishop refused to ratify, but he had to gjve way. When
King Affonso III determined (1265T that all righta
and pniperties usurped during the disorders of San-
cho's reign should revert to the Crown, nearly »11 the
bishopa, including the Bishop of Oporto, then D.
OFPENOBDT 261 OPPENOBDT
Vloente, protested; and seven went to Rome for re- chapter. In 1641 John IV chose D. Sebastifio Cesar
lief , leaving Portu^ under an interdict. When the de Menezes as bishop, but the pope, influenced
king was dying, m 1278, he promised restitution, by Spain, woilld neither reco^ze tne new King
Vicente (d. 1296) was one of tne negotiators of the of Portugal nor conflrm his nominations. Next came
Concordat of 1289 and the supplementary Accord of Frei Pedro de Menezes; Nicolau Monteiro took
Eleven Articles. He was succeeded by Sancho Pires. possession in 1671, Fernando Correia de Laoerda.
who ruled until 1300. Qeraldo Domingues resigned m 1673, who was sucdbeded by JoSo de Sousa. Frei
in 1308 to act as counsellor of the King's daughter Jos6 Saldanha (1697-1708), famed for his austerity,
Constanta, future Queen of Castile. Tredulo was never relinquished his Franciscan habit, a contrast to
bishop for two and a half years. The Minorite Frei his successor Thomas de Almeida, who in 1716 became
E^tevan was succeeded in 1313 by his nephew Fer- the first Patriarch of Lisbon. The see remained va-
nando Ramires. Both uncle and nephew quarrellea cant until 1739, and, though Frei John Maria was
with King Denis and left the realm. Owing to the then elected, he never obtained confirmation. In the
hostility of the citizens. Bishop Gomes lived mostly same year Frei Jos6 Maria da Fonseca, formerly Com-
outside his diocese. When Pedro Affonso became missary General of the Franciscans, became bishop,
bishop in 1343, he had a quarrel over jurisdiction and, Several European States selected him as arbiter of
like his predecessor, departed, leaving the diocese their differences. He contributed to the canonization
under interdict. Six years later he returned, but of a number of saints. He founded and restored
again the monarch began to encroach, and it was not many convents and hospitals,
until 1354 that the bishop secured recognition of his Next in order were: Frei Antonio de Tavora (d.
rights. His successor was Alfonso Pires. £gidio is 1766), Frei Aleixo de Miranda Henriques, Frei John
profaNably the bishop represented in the old Chronicles Raphael de Mendonga (1771-3), and Louren^o
as being threatened with scourging by KinjE Pedro for Correia de S& Benevides (1796-8). Frei Antonio
having lived in sin with a citizen's wife. The accusa- de Castro became Patriarch of Lisbon in 1814, being
tion was probably groundless, but Egidio left the city, followed at Oporto by John Avellar. Frei Manuel de
which for twelve years had no bishop. In 1373 or Santa Ignez, thougn elected, never obtained con-
1375 John succeeded and supported the lawful popes firmation, but some years after his death, relations be-
in the Great Schism, and the Master of Aviz against tween Portugal and the Holy See were re-established
Spanish claims. by a concormit and Jeronymo da Costa Rebello be-
Other bishops were: John de Zambuja, or Estevans; came bishop in 1843. From 1854 to 1859 the see was
and Gil, who in 1406 sold the episcopal rights over held by Antonio da Fonseca Moniz; on his death it
Oporto to the Crown for an annual money payment, remained vacant until 1862, when John Castro e
reduced in the reign of D. Manuel to 120 suver marks; Moura, who had been a missionary in China, was ap-
Femando da Guerra, who in 1425 wa£ created Arch- pointed (d. 1868). The see was again vacant until
bishop of Braga; Vasco. — AntSo Martins de Chavis, the confirmation of Americo Ferreira dos Santos Silva
who succeeded Vasco in 1430, was sent by the pope in 1871. This prelate was obliged to combat the
to Constantinople to induce the Greek emperor to growing Liberalism of his flock and the Protestant
attend the Council of Basle. He succeeded, and as a propaganda in Oporto. A popular lawyer named
reward was made cardinal. He died in 1447. Sue- Mesquita started a campaign against him, because
ceeding incumbents were: Durando; GonQalves de the bishop refused to dismiss some priests, reputed
Obidoe; Luis Pires (1454-64), a negotiator of the reactionary, who served the Aguardente Chapel; get-
Concordat of 1455 and a reforming prelate; John de ting himseli elected judge of the Brotherhood of the
Azeyedo (1465-1494), a benefactor of the cathedral Tonple, he provoked a great platform agitation with
and clu^pter, as was his successor Diego de Sousa, the result that the chapd was secularizedand became
afterwards > Archbishop of Braga and executor of a school under the patronage of the Marquis of Pom-
King Manuel. The see was then held by two bal Association. In 1879 Americo was created cardi-
brothers in succession, Diego da Costa (1505-7) nal and on his death the present (1911) Bishop, Anto-
and D. Pedro da Costa (1511-39), who restored the nio Barroso, an ex-missionaiy, was transferred from
bi^op's pcdace and enriched the capitular revenues the See of Mylapore to that of Oporto,
from his own purse; Belchior BeUago; and the Car- The Diocese of Oporto is suffragan to Braga. It
melite Frd Balthazar limpo (153^52), the fiftieth has 479 parishes, 1120 priests, a Catholic population
bishop. He held a diocesan synod in 1540. of 650,000, and 500 Protestants.
In the time of Rodrigo Pinheiro, a learned hunumist, ^S»?™»*. ^'^i,^*'^*^ <^ ^MKlv*' Z***^ compoHo pelo
Onnrt^ wm viaitArl hv St Franpifl TUinnA atiH fhp ^^ ^' Rodngo daCunha (Oporto, 1742): Fobtunato db AL-
UportO was yiSltea Dy »t. i<iuncis Mrgia ana ine uvmA, HiHoria da Ip^eja em Portuoal,liC<Mmhn, 1910) \Bnvso,
Jesuits established themselves m the city. Ayres da PortiMfUM Ukutrn, ill (Oporto, 1908).
Sylva, ex-rector of Coimbra University, after ruling Edgar Pbebtaoe.
four years, fell in the battle of Alcacer in 1578 with
King Sebastian. Simfto Pere^rra was followed by the Oppenordt (Oppenoro), Gilles-Marie, b. in Paris,
Franciscan Frei Marcos de Lisboa. chronicler of his 1672; d. there, 1742; a celebrated rococo artist, known
order. He added to the cathedral and convoked a as ''the French Borromini". As a boy he was sent to
diocesan synod in 1585. In 1591 another ex-rector Rome as a ro^ral pensioner, where, for eight years he
of Coimbra, Heironymo de Menezes, became bishop; studied, principally under Bernini and Borromini.
he was succeeded by the Benedictine Frei Groncalo de The way nad been paved in France for this style, for
Moraes, a sealous defender of the rights of the Cnurch. in the latter days of Louis XIV a change had appeared
He built a new sacristy and chancel in the cathedral, in the architectural productions of the Baroque style.
In 1618 Bishop Rodrigo da Cunha, author of the his- The endowment of the Renaissance was adapted to the
tory of the Bishops of Oporto, was appointed. His taste of Louis XV's time. It was called the Style of
''Catalogo" describes the state of the cathedral and the Regency, the salon et boudoir style. Oppenordt,
enumerates the parishes of the diocese with their popu- in connexion with Robert de Cotte, developed the
lation and income in 1623 and is the earliest account voluptuous rocaiUe border and shell ornamentation
we possess. His successor was Frei John de ValliE^ founded on the Italian Grot^ue. The high altar of
dares, transferred from the See of Miranda. Caspar St. Germain des Pr^ and that of Saint-Sulpice (1704)
do Rego da Fonseca, who held the see four years gained for him the favour crif the regent. He was en-
(163&-39). King Philip III named Francisco Pereira trusted with the restoration and decoration of the
Pinto, but the revolution in 1640 prevented his taking Ch&teau \^llers Cotterets. for the reception of the
possession, so that the see was considered vacant untu king after his anointing at Reims. In the Palais Royal
1671, being ruled by administrators appointed by the ana the Hotel du Gri^ Priear de France he proved
OPPIDO
262
OPTATUS
himself an elegant decorator. In 1721 the continua-
tion of the work on Saint-Sulpice was transferred to
him. He had already (in 1710) built the chapel of St.
John the Baptist in the cathedral of Amiens and earlier
the Dominican' novitiate church in Pans. He pos-
sessed unusual talent as a draughtsman. In his '' Des-
sins, couronnements et amortissements oonvenables
pour dessus de ix>rte" etc., Huqui^res gives many of
Oppenordt's designs.
Oppbnord, L'Arf tUcontif du 18* tikU (PariB, 1888); Gnii/-
MABD, IjU maitrea omnnanuUt (Parifl, 1881); Dsstaillbub,
Recueil d*e8tampe9 (Parifl, 1863—); Iobm, Noticn aur gtuiqueM
ortiHee frartfaia (Parifl, 1863) ; Lancb, DicHonnaire dea arehiUetea
/ranfoia (Parifl, 1873).
G. Gdstmakn.
Oppido Mamertina. Diocesb of (Oppidensis),
suff rf^an of Reggio Calabria. Italy, famous for its pro-
longed resistance to Roger (eleventn century) . Bishop
Stefano (1295) is the first prelate of whom there is
mention. In 1472 the see was united to that of Ge-
race, under Bishop Athanasius Calceofilo, b^r whom the
Greek Rite was abolished, although it remained in use
in a few towns. In 1536 Oppido became again an inde-
pendent see, under Bishop Pietro Andrea Ripanti:
among other bishops were Antonio Cesconi (1609) ana
Giovanni Battista Montani (1632), who restored the
cathedral and the- episcopal palace; Bisanzio Fill
(1696), who foimded the seminary; Michele Caputo
(1852)j who was transferred to the See of Anano.
where it is suspected that he poisoned Kins Ferdinand
II; eventually, he apostatized. C^pido has 19 par-
ishes, with 28,000 ixihabitants.
Cappblubtti, Le Chieae d* Italia, vol. XXI.
U. Bbnigni.
OptatiUy Saint, Bishop of Milevis, in Numidia. in
the fourth century. He was a convert, as we gatner
from St. Augustine: "Do we not see with how great a
booty of gold and silver and garments Cyprian, doctor
suavissimuSf came forth out of Esypt, and likewise
Lactantius, Victorinus, Optatus, Hilary?" (De Doo-
trina Christ., xl) . Optatus probably haa been a pagan
rhetorician. His work against the Donatists is an an-
swer to Parmenian, the successor of Donatus in the
See of Carthage. St. Jerome (De viris iU., ex) tells us
it was in six books and was written under Valens and
Valentinian (364-75). We now possess seven books,
and the list of popes is carried as far as Siricius
(384-98). Similarl3r the Donatist succession of anti-
popes is given (II, iv), as Victor, Bonifatius, Encol-
pius. Macrobius, Lucianus, Claudianus (the date of
the last is about 380), though a few sentences earlier
Macrobius is mentioned as the actual bishop. Tlie
plan of the work is laid down in Book I, and is com-
gleted in six books. It seems, then, that the seventh
ook, which St. Jerome did not know in 392, was an
appendix to a new edition in which St. Optatus made
additions to the two episcopal lists. The date of the
original work is fixed by the statement in I, xiii, that
sixty years and more had passed since the persecution
of Diocletian (303-5). rhotinus (d. 376) is appa>
ently regarded as still alive: Julian is dead (363). Thus
the first books were published about 366-70, and the
second edition about 385-90.
St. Optatus deals with the entire controversy be-
tween Catholics and Donatists (see Donatists). He
distinguishes between schismatics and heretics. The
former have rejected unity, but they have true doc-
trine and true sacraments, hence Parmenian should
not have threatened them (and consequentlv his own
party) with eternal danmation. This mild doctrine is
a great contrast to the severity of many of the Fathers
against schism. It seems to be motived by the notion
that all who have faith will be saved, though alter long
torments, — a \'iew which St. Augustine has frequently
to combat. Donatists and Catholics were agreed as to
the necessary unity of the Church. The question was,
where is this One Church? Optatus argues that it can-
not be only in a comer of Africa; it must be the eaOuh
lica^ (the word is used as a substantive) which is
throughout the world. Parmenian had enumerated
six dotes, or properties, of the Church, of which Opta-
tus accepts five, and argues that the first, the episco-
pal chair, cathedra^ belongs to the Catholics, and there-
fore they have all the others. The whole schism had
arisen throiu^ the quarrel as to the episcopal succes-
sion at Carthage, and it mi^t have been expected
that Optatus would claim this property of cathedra by
pointing out the legitimacy of the Catholic succession
at Carthage. But he does not. He replies: "We must
examine who sat first in the chair, and where. . . .
You cannot deny that you know tiiat in the city of
Rome upon Peter first the chair of bishop was con-
ferred, in which sat the head of all the Apostles, Peter,
whence also he was called Cephas, in which one chair
unity should be. preserved by fdl, lest the other Apos-
tles should each stand up for his own chair, so that now
he should be a schismatic and a sinner who should
against this one chair set up another. Therefore in the
one chair, which is the first of the dotes Peter first sat,
to whom succeeded Linus. ' ' An incorrect list of popes
follows, ending with, "and to Damasus Siricius, who
is to-day our colleague, with whom the whole world
with us agrees by the communication of commenda-
tory letters in the fellowship of one communion. Tell
us the origin of your chair, vou who wish to claim the
holy Church for yourselves". Optatus then mocks at
the recent succession of Donatist antipopes at Rome.
Optatus arsues, especially in book V, against the
doctrine which the Donatists had inherited from St.
Cyprian that baptism by those outside the Church
cannot be valid, and he anticipates St. Augustine's
argument that tne faith of the baptiser does not mat-
ter, since it is God who confers the grace. His state-
ment of the objective efficacy of the sacraments ex
opere operate is well known: "Sacramenta per se esse
sancta, non per homines" (V, iv). Thus in baptism
there must be the Holy Trinity, the believer and the
minister^ and their importance is in this order, the
third bemff the least important. In rebuking the sac-
rileges of tne Donatists, ne says: "What is so profane
as to break, scrape, remove the altars of God, on which
you yourselves had once offered, on which both the
prayers of the people and the members of Christ have
been borne, where God Almighty has been invoked,
where the Holy Ghost has been asked for and has
come down, from which by many has been received
the pledge of eternal salvation and the safeguard of
faith ana the hope of resurrection? . . . For what is
an altar but the seat of the Body and Blood of Christ? "
In book VII a notable argument for unity is added:
St. Peter sinned most grievously and denied his
Master, yet he retained the keys^ and for the sake of
unity and charity the Apostles did not separate from
his fellowship. Thus Optatus defends the willingness
of the Catholics to receive back the Donatists to unity
without difficulty, for there must be always sinners
in 4;he Chiu-ch, and the ccckle is mixed with the
wheat; but charity covers a multitude of sins.
The style of St. Optatus is vigorous and animated.
He aims at terseness and effect, rather than at flowing
periods, and this in spite of the gentleness and charity
which is so admirable in his polemics against his
"brethren", as he insists on calling the Donatist bish-
ops. He uses Cyprian a great ded, though he refutes
that saint's mistaken opinion about baptism, and does
not copy his easy style. His descriptions of events are
admiraole and vivid. It is strange that Dupin should
have called him tnintis nUidus ac pdiius, for both in
the words he employs and in their order he almost in-
curs the bUune of preciosity. He is as strict as Cyp-
rian as to the metncal cadences at the close of every
sentence. He was evidently a man of good taste ais
well as of high culture, and he has left us in his one
work a monument of convincing dialectic, of elegant
OPTIMISM 263 OPTmiSM
literary fomii and of Christian charity. But the gen- the universe as a whole is good and that maa's ulti-
eral maraiialhng of his arguments is not so good as is mate destiny is one of happiness. The Old Testam^t
the development of each by itself. His allegorical in- is optimistic because of such passages as the following:
terpretations are far-fetched; but those of Parmenian ''And God saw all things that he had made, and they
were evidently yet more extravagant. An appendix were very good" (Gen., i. 31). Even in Eccl. we
contained an important dossier of documents which read, "He hath made all tnings good in their time"
had apparently be^i collected by some Catholic con- (iii, 11). The New Testament is optimistic because
troversialist between 330 and 347 (see Donati&tb). it shows that the sufferings of this life are not wortl^
This collection was already mutUated when it was to be compared to the glory that is to come. If
copied by tibe scribe of the only MS. which has pre- optimism and pessimism are to be taken as emotional
served it, and that MS. is incomplete, so that we have dispositions, either one or the other may exist in the
to deplore the loss of a great part of this first-rate ma- ascetic or the profligate. It cannot be argued that
terialfor the early history of Don^tism. We can tell the doctrine of Our Lord was pessimistic because
what has been lost by the dtations made by Optatus He taught asceticism and celibacy. For as a rule
himself and by Aiigustine. ascetics and celibates have been and are, as a matter
St. Optatus has apparently never received any eo- of fact, disposed to look upon the bright side of life,
clesiastical cultus; but his name was inserted in the They surely believe that it is better to live than not
Roman Martyrology on the fourth of June, though it to Uve, that the world which God has made is good
is quite unknown to all the ancient Mart3rrologies and and beautiful, and that man's destiny is eternal
calendars. The editio mincepa was by Cochleua bliss.
(Mainz, 1549). More MSS. were used by Balduinus As typical metaphysical exponents of optimism one
(Paris, 1563 and 1569), whose text was fre^iuently re- may mention the extreme position of Leibniz, and the
printed in the seventeenth century. Dupin's edition more moderate doctrine ot St. Thomas Aquinas,
includes a history of the Donatists and a geography of Leibniz looked upon the series of possible worlds as
Africa (Paris, 1700 — ) ; -it is reprinted in Gallandi actually infinite. This entire series must have passed
and in Miene (P. L^ XI). The best edition b that of as it were, through the mind of the AU-CrOod and
Ziwsa (C.S.E.L., XXVI, Vienna, 1893), with descrip- Omniscient God. In spite of the fact that the series
tion of the MSS. is intnite, He must have seen that one of its members
TiLLBMONT. Mimoim, VI ; Dupin'b ^rafaoe; Pbxllott in Did. was supremelv perfect. Each one of these series strives
Chriat. Biog., s. v.; Bardbnhxwxb in iCfrdk«niex.. b. v.; Habnacx to be realized in proportion to its perfection. Under
^^&% 5i^^^£^<d^"Txf vri^To°i'?E.**iS: ri* •^ri^.T'' ** «TP°f JKte that a 1«8 pep.
ponded dooumenta, V6urBB, Sbbck. DtJCHBBNB (see DoNATiBTB). lect worid snould come into oeinff. omce^ lurtner-
JoHN Chapman. more, the wisdom and goodness of Uod are infinite, it
is necessary that the world that proceeds from His
OptixnUfli (Latin opttmtia, best) may be understood intellect and will should be the best possible one that
as a metaphysical theory, or as an emotional disposi- under any circumstances can exist. Only one such
tion. The term became current in the early part of world is possible, and therefore God chooses the
the eighteenth century to designate the Leibnizian best. The very fact of the world's existence makes
doctrine that this is the best of all possible worlds, it metaphysicall^r certain that it is the very best
The antithesis of optimism is pessimism (q. v). Be- possible. [See Leibniz, IX, 137, subsection (4) Op-
tween these extremes there are all shades of opinion,' timism.] This argument might seem convincins, if
so that it is at times hard to classify philosophers, one overiooks the fact of the evil in the world. The
Those, however, are to be classed as optimists who world as it is, Leibniz maintained, with all its evil,
maintain that the world is on the whole good and is better than a world without any evil. For
beautiful, and that man can attain to a state of true the physical evil of the universe only serves to set
happiness and perfection either in this world or in off by contrast the beauty and glory of the good. As
the next, and those who do not are pessimists. The to moral evil, it is a negation and therefore cannot
term optimism as thus extended would also include be looked upon as a real object of the Divine Will. Its
''meliorism", a word first used in print by Sully to presence, therefore, does not conflict with the holiness
designate the theory of those who hold that things of the Divine decrees by which the world was ordained,
are, indeed, bad, but that they can be better, and that Furthermore, since a morally evil being is only a less
it is in our power to increase the happiness and wel- perfect creature, the absolutely perfect series of beings
fare of mankind. m order to contain all possible perfection, must, by
As an emotional disposition optimism is the ten- necessity, contain the less as well as the more per-
dency to look upon the bright and hopeful side of life, feet. For if the series contained no beings lacking in
whereas pessimism gives a dark colouring to every moral perfection, it would be a shortened senes,
event and closes the vistas of hope. The emotional and therefore lacking in the types of less perfect
disposition is one that depends upon internal organic beings.
conditions rather than external good fortune. To what Against the extreme optimism of Leibniz, one might
extentthe emotional disposition nas influenced theopin- say that God is not necessitated to choose the best of
ion of philosophers cannot be decided off-hand. It has all possible worlds, because this is in itself an im-
no doubt been a factor, but not always the only or even possibility. Whatever exists besides God, is finite.
the decisive factor. A list of optimists will show that Between the finite and the infinite there is always a
in general the greater minds have taken the hopeful field of indefinite extent. And since the finite cannot
view of life. As optimists are to be reckoned: Plato, become infinite, simply because the created can never
Aristotle, the Stoics, St. Augustine, St. Thomas be uncreated, it therefore follows that whatever exists,
and the Scholastics, Leibniz, Kant, Fichte, Hegel besides God, is, and always will be, limited. If so, no
(sou^t to unite optimism and pessimism), matter what may exist, something better could be
Lotae, Wundt. conceived and brought into being by God. An abso-
It has been held by some that the Old Testament lutely best possible world would, therefore, seem to be
b optimistic, and the New Testament pessimistic, a contradiction in terms and impossible even by the
The evidence brought forward for this theory is found Omnipotence of God, who can bnn^ into beins aU and
mainly in the passages of the Old Testament which only that which is intrinsically possible. If, then, one
point to the rewards of the present life, and those in should take the words "doing the best possible"
the New which call attention to the transitoriness of as meaning creating something than which nothing
all human joys. This view is too narrow, and is not better is possible, no world could be the best possible,
correct. Optimism as a philosophical term means that But there is another sense in which the words may be
Aptiolt
264
0&4GLS
taken. Though one is not making the beist tkiA^ that
can be made, he still may be doing what he does in the
best possible manner. In this sense, according to St.
ThomaSi God has made this world rdalively the best
Eossible. " When it is said that God can do anything
loiter than He does it, this is true if the words 'any-
thing better' stand for a noun. No matter what you
may point out, God can make somethine that is better.
• . . If y however, the words are used aaverbially, and
designate the mode of operation, God cannot do better
than He does, for He cannot work with greater wisdom
and Koodness" (I, Q. xxv^ a. 5. ad 1^°^). It is just
this oustinction which Leibnis failed to make, and was
thereby led to his extreme position. According to St.
Thomas, God was free to make a less or more perfect
world. He made the "morld that would best fit the
puri>oses of creation, and wrought it in the best
possible manner.
Against this optimism may be urged the same ob-
jections from the presence of physical and moral
evil which troubled Leibniz. But there are several
considerations that reduce their force. (1) We see
only in part. We cannot criticize the Divine plan
intelligentlv until we see its full development, wnich
indeedf will only be in eternity. (2) The physical
evils and suffermgs of this life are not worthy to
be compared with the glory that is to come.
Should one object that it would be better to have
glory both in this world and the next, one uaght i
answer that this is not certainly true. Only by |
the endurance of suffering and sorrow do we attain to )
the true strength and glory of our manhood. That
which we acquire by the sweat of our brow is earned
and truly our own. That which comes to us by in-
heritance is but loaned and possessed by us for a time,
till we can hand it on to another. What is true of the
individual is true of the human race as a whole. It
seems to be the Divine plan that it should work its
way on, from little beginnings, with great toil and
Bu£fering, to its final goal of perfection. When all
things are fulfilled in eternity man can then look back
upon something as his own. Perhaps this will then
seem to us much more beautiful and glorious than, if
God had allowed us to remain forever in a garden of
paradise, happy indeed, but lifting nothing with the
strength He gave us. (See also in this connexion the
the article Evil.)
St. Thomas, I, Q. zix, a. 9; I, Q. zzv, aa. 5 and 6; Enoxjbb, Dor*
§Ulluno und KrU%k de$ Uibnitznsehen Optimtsmua (Jena, 1883);
QxrmiACHBB, Optimum and Pestimitm in the O. and N. Testae
menu (Baltimore, 1903) ; Kxludr, Ojiiimum (New York, 1903) ;
KOPPKBL, Die Venoandt echaft Lethniteene mit Thomae «. Aqitino
in der Lehre vom B6$en (Jena, 1892) ; von Prantl, Ueber die
Bereehtiffung dee Optimiemue (Munich, 1879) ; Sullt, Peeaimiem
(New York, 1891) ; Willarbth, Die Lehre wm Uebel bei Leibnie,
eeiner SehuU in Deuteehlandt und bei Kant. Diee, (Straaburg. 1898).
For an extensive bibliography see Baldwin, Diet, of Philoeophy
and Ptycholoov, III, Part ii. 9()3-907
Thomas V. Moorb.
Option, Right of. — ^In canon law an option is a
)vay of obtaining a benefice or a title, by the choice of
the new titulary himself. Many chapters enjoyed
this right formerly and it is still the privilege of some:
the canon, who has held his office for the loneest time,
may, in conformity with the statutory regulation, re-
sign the prebend he enjo3rs to accept another that has
b^ome vacant. A second right of option existed in
France before 1789: by virtue of a custom a preben-
dary, who was appointed to and had entered into pos-
session of a benence incompatible with one he already
held, was entitled to select whichever of the two he
preferred, when, according to the common law, he had
already lost the incompatible benefice which he had
previously held. The right of option still exists with
reeard to cardinalitial titles (see Cardinal).
ScBNiiDBR, Die bieehOfiiehen DomkapiJtel (Mayenoe, 1885);
Van £bpsn, Jue ecdeeia^ieum unieeraum (CToiOKne, 1778). part
II, s. Ill, tit. 8, 0. 4, t. I, 691: BiNSCHiUB, Syetem dee AotAoti-
fdUn KirchrnvtuhU, II (Berlin. 1878), 616, 701.
A. Van Hovb. •
O'Qttealft Malachias (Maolsheaehlainn O Cadh-
la), Archbishop of Tuam. Ireland, b. in Thomond,
date unknown; d. at Ballipodare, 27 October, 1645
(N.S.). He studied in Paris at the College of Navarre.
Having administered Killaloe as vicar Apostolic, he
was consecrated Archbishop of Tuam at Galway,
11 October, 1631. His subjects^ who received him
unwillingly, soon learned to admire him. He held a
Provincial svnod at Galway in 1632 to promulgate the
'ridentine decrees and correct abuses, and his unremit-
ting labours in Tuam provoked a coinplaint from the
Protestant archbishop m 1641 . Dr. O'Oueely attended
the national synod, of 1643. by whida the CathoUe
Confederation was brganizea, and at the first meeting
of the General Assembly he was elected to the Su-
preme Council, being afterwards appointed President
of Connaught. He undertook to recover Sligo from the
Scottish Covenanters in 1645, but the Scots surprised
his camp at Ballysodare. 17-27 October, 1645.
Evervone abandoned him out his secretary. Father
Thaddeus O'Connell, and another priest. Tiie arch-
bishop was cut down with his companions, and the
victors discovered in his carriage a draft of the secret
treaty between King Charles and the Confederates,
which the English Parliament published to prejudice
both parties. His body was redeemed for £30 and
buried with solemn ceremonies at Tuam. He wrote
an account of the Aran Islands, printed in Colgan's
'' Acta Sanctorum ".
Mbbran. Irieh Hierarchy in the 17th Century (16th edit.. Dub-
lin, about 1888); Mubpht, Our Mariyre (Dublin, 1896).
Oracle (oraculum; orare, to speak) . a Divine com-
munication given at a special place tnrough specially
appointed persons; also the place itself. This form
of divination (q. v.) was found among various peoples
of the ancient world.
I. Babylon and Ajbstbia. — Extremely ancient
texts present the oracle -priest [bArd, 'he who sees':
Mra barii, 'to see a sight'; hence, to give an oracle,
divine the future. Cf. KHH of Samuel, I Sam., ix, 0;
I Chr., ix, 22 etc.; of Hanani, II Chr., xvi, 7, 10: cf.
Is., xxviii, 7; xxx, 10] alongside of the dskipu (wnose
rdle is incantation, conjuration) as officer of one of the
two main divisions of the sacerdotal caste. He is the
special servant of Shamash and Adad; his office is he-
reditary (cf. the "sons of Aaron", ''of Zadok"); blem-
ish of person or pedigree (cf . Lev., xxi, 23) disqualifies
him; he forms part of a college. Lengthy imtiation,
^aborate ritual, prepare him for the reception, or ex-
ercise, of the hdriUu, He rises before dawn, bathes,
anoints himself with perfumed oil, puts on sacred vest-
ments [cf. Ex., XXX, 17, 23; Lev., xvi. 4. Lagrange, -
"Etudes sur les rehgions siSmitiques (Paris, 1905)^
236, n. 1; and "Rev. Bibl.", VIII (1899), 473; also An-
cessi, "L'figypte et Moise"^ pt. i (1875); hea v6te-
ments du Grand-Pr^tre, c. iii, plate 3. Is the blood-
red, jewelled Babylonian scapular the analogate to the
Hebrew ephod and pectoral?]. After a preliminary
sacrifice (usually of a lamb: but this, as those of expi-
ation and thMiksfflving, we cannot, in our limits^ de-
tail), he escorts Uie inquirer to the presence of the
gods, and sits on the seat of judgment; Shamash and
Adad, the great gods of oracle, lords of decision, come
to him and give nim an unfailing answer [Urtu, pres-
age: Divine teaching. Probabl^r not connected with
mm. There is no likelv borrowing or adaptation of
Babylonian oracle-woros by the Hebrews (Lamnge,
op. cit., 234, n. 8)| . All the customary modes of divinar
tion (interpretation of dreams, of stars, monstrosities,
of signs in oil, the liver etc.) culnunated in oracles;
but an enormous literature of precedents and princi-
ples left little initiative to a hdrA whose memory was
good. We may add a characteristic example of oracle
style (about 680 b. c).
O Shamash, sreat lord, to my demand in thy
faithful favour, deign to answer! Between this dasr.
the 3rd day oi this month, the month of Art, until
OBAOU
!265
OBAOLB
the 11th day of the month of Abt. of this year, withm
these hundred days and these hundred nights . . .
within this fixed space of time will Kashtariti with
his troops, or the troops of the Cimmerians .... or
aU other enemy, succeed in their designs? By as-
sault, .by force ... by starvation, by the names of
the god and goddess, by parley and amicable confer-
ence or by any other method and stratagem of siege,
shall they take the town of Kishassu? shall they enter
the walls of this town of Kishassu? . . . shall it fall
into their hands? Thy great godhead knoweth it. Is
the tiddng of this town of lushassu, by whatsoever
enemy it oe, from this day unto the (last] day ap-
pointed, ordained and decreed bv the order and man-
date of thy ^reat srodhead. O Shamash, o-eat Liord?
Shall we see it? Snail we near it? etc. Observe the
preoccupation of leaving the god no avenue of elusion —
every possible contingency is named.
Among the nomad Arabs the priest is primarily
a ^ver of oracles (by means of arrow-shafts, cf . Ezech.,
XX], 21), though named KAhin the Hebrew VJD* But
since in Hebrew^ Phoenician, Aramaic, and Ethiopian
Kdhen means pnest, and cannot be etymologically con-
nected with 'divination'', we must conclude (La-
grange, op. cit., 218) that the Arabian oracle-monger
IS a degenerate priest, not (Wellhausen) that all Se-
mitic priests were aborifldnally oracle-mongers.
II. Thb Hebrews. — Oracles were vouchsafed to the
Hebrews by means of the Urim and Thummim, which
are to be connected with the Ephod. The yiZH (see
Efhod) was (i) a linen dress worn in ritual circum-
stances (by priests. I Sam., xxii, 18, the child Samuel,
ibid., ii, 18; David, II Sam., vi. 14); (ii) 'the' ephod,
described in Exod., xxviii, peculiar to the high-priest:
over it was worn the pectoral containing Urim ana
Thununim; (iii) an idolatrous, oracular miage, con-
nected with the Teraphim (also oracular) ; that which
Gideon erected weired 1700 sikels of gold (Judges,
viii^ 27 ; xvii, 5; xviii, 14, 20; Osee, iii. 4 etc.) . But why
wafl this image called an ephod (a dress)? In Isaias,
xxx, 22, ^^tV the silver overlaying of idols, is parallel
to mtH, their golden sheath. If then the Israelites
were alreadjr familiar with an oracle operating in close
connexion with a jewelled ephod, it will have been ea^
to transfer this name to a nchly plated oracular ima^e.
See van Hoonacker, "Sacerdoce l^vitique" (Louvam,
1899), 372.
The law directs (Num.. xxvii, 18) that the leader of
the people shall stand beiore the priest, and proffer his
request: the priest shall "inquire for him by the judg-
ment of Urim and Thummim before Yahweh". The
priest alone [for the A^^i-jah of I Sam., xiv^ 3, 18, is
the Ahi-melek of xxi, 1 ; xxii, 9. with the Divme name
corrected] carries the ephod before Israel, and inquires
on behalf of the chief alone (for A^^imelek, I Sam.,
xxii, 13-15, denies having inquired for David while
Saul still is king: see van Hoonacker, op. cit., 376).
Thus history would a^ee with the Law as to the
unity of the oracle, and its exclusive use by priest and
^ prince.
Josephus thought the D^'^sni D*'*)^^ were stones of
changing lustre. The meaning of the names is un-
known. Though they seem to have been used for
sacred lots, and tlioueh I Sam., xiv, 37 sqq. (especially
in LXX) makes it fairly clear that they gave answer by
Yes and No (in I Sam., xxiii, 2, 4, 11, 12; xxx, 8, the long
phrasing is priestlv commentanr), and though I Sam.,
xiv, 42 (if mdeed this still refers to the oracle ana
not to a private ordeal offered by Saul to, and rejected
by, the people) by using the word ib'^DH /3<lXX«r€, '^hrow
(between me and Jonathan)", suggests a casting of
lots, yet the U and T were not mere pebbles (e. g.,
black and white), for besides answering Yes and No.
they could refuse answer altogether. This happened
when the inquirer was rituall^ unclean (so Saul, m the
person of his son, I Sam., xiv, 37; cf. the exclusion
from the new-moon meal^ ibid., xx, 2&\ sexual inter-
oouise precludes from eating sacred bread, ibid., za,
4). — Observe the lack, in Yahweh's oracle, of the
magicttJ element, and extreme complication, which
disfiigure those quoted in I. Notice, too, how Hebrew
priest and prince alike submit unquestioningly to the
Di^ne communication. The prmce does not dare
to seek to cajole or terrify the priest; nor the priest to
distort or invent the answer. Finally, when once the
era of the great prophets opens, it is through them
God manifests His will; the use of the ephod ceases;
the Urim and Thummim are silent and ultimately
lost.
III. Greece and Home. — ["Oraculum: auod inest
in his deorum oratio**, Cic, "Top.", xx. ''Voluntas
divina hominis ore enuntiata", Senec., "Controv.", I.
prf. Marrccby: yMA as in iiaivoitai^ mens. The luimt
was the mouthpiece, the rftwft'fyrrp^ the interpreter of
the oracle (so already Plato, "Tim.", Ixxii. B).
X/M7<rrV(or: xpdut "furnish what is needful"; nenoe
(active), to give (middle), to consult an oracle] .
Oracles in the familiar sense flourished best in
Greek or hellenized areas/ though even here the ec-
static element probably came, as a rule, from the East.
The local element, however (for Hellenic oracles es-
sentially localize divination), and the practice of in-
terpreting divine voices as heard in wind, or tree, or
water (^if/ii? BtQv] Scaa, 6fuf>ii At6§ — Zeus was rapofuffo^
cf . the Italian fauni^ kannenUs) were rooted in Greek
or pre-Greek religion. An enormous history lies be-
hind the oracles of " classical" times. Hius at Delphi
the stratification of cults shows us. undermost, the
prehistoric, chthonian worship of the pre-Achseans:
Gaia (followed by, or identical with^ "Tnemis"?) and
the impersonal nymphs are the earhest tenants of the
famous chasm and the spring Kassotis. Dionysos,
from onpast Thrace, or, as was then held, from the
mystic East, invaded the shrine, importing, or at least
accentuating, elements of enthusiasm and religious
delirium; for the immense development and Orphic
reformation of his cult, in the seventh century, can but
have modified, not introduced, his worship. Apollo,
disembarking with the AchsBans on the Krisean
shore, strives to oust him, and, though but sharing
the year's worship and the temple with his predeces-
sors, eclipses what he cannot destroy. Echoes of this
savage fight, this stubborn resistance of the dim, old-
fashioned worship to the brilliant new-comer, reach
us in hymn ana drama, are glossed by the devout
iEschylus (Eumen. prol.), and accentuated by the
rationalist Euripides (Ion etc.); vase paintings picture
the ultimate reconciliation- For, in the end^ a com-
promise is effected: the priestess stiU sits by the cleft,
drinks of the spring, still utters the frantic inarticulate
cries of ecstasy; but the prophets of the rhythmic
Apollo discipline her ravings into hexameters, and
thus the will of Zeus, through the inspiration of Apollo,
is uttered by the pythoness to all Greece.
Apollo was the cause at once of the glory and the
downfall of Delphi. Partly in reaction against him.
partly in imitation of him. other oracles were restored
or created. In our brief Umit^ we cannot describe or
even enumerate these. We may mention the ex-
tremely ancient oracle of Dodona, where the spirit
of Zeus (i rod A«Af oTifiolpMi — the oracles began) spoke to
the priestesses in the oak. the echoing bronze, the
watmall; the underground Trophonius oracle in Le«
badsea, with its violent and extraordinary ritual
(Pans., IX, 39, 11: Plut., "Gen. Socr.", 22); and the
incubation oracles of Asklepios, where the sleeping
sick awaited the epiphany of the hero, and miraculous
cure. Thousands of votive models of healed wounds
and straightened limbs are unearthed in these shrines:
and at Dodona, leaden tablets inquire after a vanishea
blanket, whether it be lost or stolen; or by prayer to
what god or hero faction-rent Corcyra may find peace.
Other especially famous oracles were those of Apollo
at Ab.s,, Qelos, Patara» Claros; of Poseidon at Oncheo-
OBAN 266 ORANai
toe: of Zeus at Olympia; of AmphiraoB at Thebes and ^ dmnt^Utn dan» ff^ai^uiu (Pjrij 1875^^. md DAjunono
Oropos; about a hundred of AsklepiOS are known. Couokt. AnthoL ar<Be., append. (Paria, 1890). 464-633 for relics
Most were established by a source, many near a me- of vene oraolet; BoiaaiBR, Fin du paganinM, II. On Sibylline
phiticchasmorgrottO. XJsually the clients would stand Hterature; Wolw. ^amwimmo oranJomm ffltote (Beriin. 1864);
m a large vestibule, or ckresmoQraphMn, irom which ^32^1866); HENcSai. Oraada, graca (HaUe. 1877); RoSm.
they could see the naoa or shrine, with the god S Gredb FoCim Offenng» (Cambridge, 1902) ; Fabnsll, VUUa of Me
statue. In the centre, usually at a lower level, was g«g 1^2 *'*'" ^^^' ^''"* ^ ^eOenieo (London,
the adyton, where the roring, chasm, tripod, and ^' q q Mabtindalk.
laurel bushes were seen. Here the prophetess received ^ *
the divine inspiration. Nearly all the oracles were Oran, Diocese of (Oranensis), m Algiers, sep-
admmistered by a group of officiate, ongin^y, no crated from the Archdiocese of Algiers, 25 July, 1866,
doubt, members of some privileged family. At Del- to which it is suffragan. In the early centuries there
phi, the saints (fc-wO ; at Miletus, the Branchidai and ^ere no less than 123 dioceses in Caesarean and Tingi-
Euangelidai, etc. These usually elected the staff of tan Mauretania. Tlemcen (in the present diocese)
resident priests, the schools of prophets (at the oracle ^^g an important see. Victor, Bishop of Tlemcen,
of Zeus Ammon, e. g.. under an arch-prophet), and assisteti at the Council of Carthage (411); Honoratus
even, at times, the pythoness. At Delphi, the pnests (454) was exiled by King Huneric for denying Arian-
elected her from the neighbourhood: she was to be over igm. Though the Arabs (708) destroyed many
fifty (so, on account of a scandalous incident), and churches, according to Abou-Obed-el-Bekrii in his
quite ignorant. Her guidance was not to be too *' Roads and Empires", there were in 963, churches and
positive! Christians at Tlemcen. Until 1254 Christian troops
In its best days, the Delphic oracle exercised an were in the service of the Moorish kinns of Tlemcen;
enormous influence: its staff was international and from a Bull of Nicholas IV (1290) it is evident that
highly expert : gold flowed in unceasing streams into a bishop of Morocco, legate of the Holy See, had
its treasury, free access to it was guaranteed to pil- jurisdiction over this region, ravaged by a violent
grims even in time of war. In constitutional and persecution in the second half of the thirteenth
colonial history, in social and religious crises, in things century.
artistic as in matters of finance^ its intervention was Oran, probably of Moorish origin, was taken by the
constant and final. Had it reahzed its own position, Spanish m 1509. The expedition which Comte d'Al-
its work of unification, .whether as regards religion or caudette, captain general from 1534 to 1558, led
politics in Hellas, might have been unlimited. like against Tlemcen (1543) was in fact a crusade. The
all human things, it but half-saw its ideal (human as Spaniards ruled until 1708, and again from 1732 to
that ideal could at best have been) and but half-realized 1792. The Bey having sought the protection of
what it saw. Easily corrupted by the gold and pray- France, the French occupied Oran (10 December,
ers of kings, the centre of Asiatic and African, no less 1830).
than of European intrigues, it became an end to itself. The pilgrimage of Notre-Dame du Salut at Santa
At the time of the Persian War, it sacrificed Athens Cruz near Oran was founded in 1849. Before the
and imperilled all Westerd civilization. It was re- Associations Law of 1901 the diocese had Jesyits;
sponsible for more than one war. It drained the Lazarists; and several orders of teaching Brothers, one
colonies of their revenues. It gradually set against native to the diocese, namely the Brothers of Our
itself the indignant rivalries of the local cults of Greece. Lady of the Annunciation, with their mother-house
No moral or rehgious instruction can be accredited at Misserghin. The Trimtarian Sisters, with their
to it. Thus, while formidable enemies were ranged mother-house at Valence (Dr6me) are numerous,
against it at home, the conquests of Alexander The diocese in 1901 contained 273,527 Europeans,
dimmed national glories, and opened the gates to far excluding the French army; in 1905 there were 5
the oracles (De defect, orac.). In Rome diviners and ^ ^"^E^i^^jMJSJllPom %SiyR !»"& dS^^^JSH
astrologers, always suspected, had long found lerislar «paj^ ^ 8iSn »au, uSSuL^HStiru du cLuFAleaudtUe] isss-
tion active against them. The Sibylline books, huge I668 (Paria, 1900).
records of oracles ceaselessly interpolated by each new Gborges Gotau.
philosophy, by Jewish and even Christian apocalyptic
prophecy, nad been famous by the side of mdigenous Orange, Councius op. — ^Two councils were held at
oracles, the carmina Mardana, for example: yet as Orange (Arausio), a town in the present department of
early as 213 b. c. the Senate began its confiscations; Vaucluse in southern France. The first met on 8 No-
Augustus made an aiUo-dd-fi of over 2000 volumes; vember, 441, in the chureh called ''Ecclesia Justinian-
Tiberius, more scrupulous, expurgated the rest. Con- ensis" or "Justianensis". The council is designated
stant enactments provea vain against the riot of either by the nanie of the chureh, ''s3modu8 Justinian-
superstition in which the empire was collapsing; the ensis", or by that of the episcopal city, "Arausicana la"'
sanest emperors were themselves adepts; Nlareus (first of Orange). St. Hilary of Aries presided, as the dio-
Aurelius consulted the miserable charlatan Alexander, cese formed part of his metropolitan district. Among
with his snake-oracle at Abonoteichos. Christianity the other sixteen bishops present was St. Eucherius who,
alone could conquer the old homes of revelation, as Metropolitan of Lyons, signed the acts in the name
Constantine stripped Delphi and Dodona, and closed of all his suffragans. The council, as appears from its
:£g8e and Aphaka; Julian tried to re-awake the stam- twenty-ninth canon, was held in obedience to an ordi-
mering, failmg voices; but under Theodosius the re- nance of the Synod of Riez (439) prescribing semi-
pression is complete, and henceforward the oracles annual provincial sjTiods. The thirty canons which it
are dumb. (See Divination.) issued nave occasioned considerable controversy.
Babtlov awd Abstria: Ja-trow. Di. Rdiaum BdbvUmien, u. Theb subject-matter was:, the .administration of the
A»avrieM. (Giessen, 1906). xix, and in Hastinos. Did. of the BibU, sacraments (canons i-iv, xii-xvii), the nght of sanctu-
extra vol. (London, 1904). 666-63; Knudtbon, A8»vri»ehe Go- ary (v-vi), mutual episcopal relations (viii-xi), cate-
te ti^^!'3^^t <i^il<SXS;J^ (^iSS; chupens (xviu.«c) bUops (xri, ^), the marmjge of
203, 291 etc. • . ir » » clencs (xxii-xxv), deaconesses (xxvi), widowhood and
THB Hebrews: Dhormb. Let Ktret de Samuel (Paria, 1910); virginity (xxvii-XXviii), the holding of councils (xxix).
kiT;XfBiSe"ri^v.;fXn»fll2?''64l'?^^ To Uieee genuine canona Gratian and oth^ added un-
OwBiDQa A>tp Hoiob; cf. especially Bouc^ii-i^BcuBBcq, Hift, (h authentic Ordinances pnnted m the Cx>rpus Juno
ORANQl
267
o&AMax
Ganonid '' and reproduced by Mansi in kis oollection of
councils (VI, 441-3).
Much more important was the second council (held
on 3 July, 529), tne first in Gaul to publish a decision
in matters of faith- The occasion was the dedication
of a church built at Orange by Liberius, the pretorian
prefect of Narit>onensian Gaul. It was attended by four-
teen bishops with St. Cflssarius of Aries as president, and
its dcdiberations bor^ on the current errors concerning
the doctrine of grace and free will, i. e. Semipelagian-
ism. Cnsarius had informed Felix IV (III) of the per-
nicious activity of the Semipelagians in Qaul and had
applied to him for support. The pope, in response,
sent him a series of "Capitula", i. e. propositions or
decrees drawn almost in their entirety from the works
of St. Auf;uBtine and the "Sententis" of St. Prosper
of Aquitaine. These "Capitula" became the basis Of
the twenty-five issued by theSjmod of Orange, and
these in turn were freely used by the Council of Trent
in its condemnation of Luther. The acts of the Synod
of Orange contain, after a preamble: (a) eight canons
or anathematisms; (b) seventeen merely (teclaratory
propositions (both of these classes are known as
^'Capitula")i (c) a sort of demonstration of the de-
fined doctrine af^ainst the objections of the Semipela-
gians. The subjects of the "Capitula" are thus logi-
cally grouped by Portalid in "Diet. Th6ol. Cath." (I,
2526). (1) Causes of the necessity of grace. They
are: (a) original sin which cannot oe wiped out with-
out it (can. ii) : (b) the weakness of the will resulting
from the fall of man (i) ; (c) the very condition of cre^
ture (xix). (2) Operation of grace before justifici^
tion. It precedes every effort conducive to salvation.
From it proceed: (a) prayer (can. iii) ; (b) the desire of
justification (iv); (c) the inception of faith (v); (d)
every effort towards faith (vi) ; (e) every salutary act
(vii); (f) everv preparation to justification (viii^ xii):
(g) all merit (xviii). (3) Operation of grace in mitial
justification or baptism. It restores (xiii), justifies
(ziv), improves (xv), confers the justice of Christ
(xxviii). (4) Work of grace after justification in the
just: It is necessary for good actions (ix); persever-
ance (x) ; the taking of vows (xi) ; Christian fortitude
(xvii): the life of Christ within us (xxiv); the love of
God (xxv). (5) Universal necessity of grace. This
need of ^prace to do good and avoid evil is expressed in
propositions ix, xx, and the variously interpreted prop-
osition xxii. in the demonstration which follows the
"Capitula" the fathers also reject the doctrine of pre-
destmation to evil and declare salvation within the
reach of all baptized. The acts of the council, which
were signed by the bishoi»,'the pretorian prefect Li-
berius and seven other distinguished laymen, were for-
warded to Romd and approved by Boniface II on 25
January, 531 (see Boniface II). They consequently
enjoy oecumenical authority and are printed in Den-
zinger's '^ Enchiridion Symbolorum" (10th ed., nos.
174-200).
Manbi. Concilia, VI. 433-52; VIII. 711-34; Maabsbn. Concilia
avi merovinoici (Hanover, 1893). 44-54; HBraLB-LBCUBRCQ, Am-
toire dea eonciUt, II. i. 430-54; II. u. 1085-1108 (Paris, 1908).
The acta of both councils and abundant bibliographical details
will be found in the latter work. HiniUD, tr., III» 159-64;
IV, 152 sq. ; Woods, Canons of the Second Council oS Oranoe^ A. D,
6i0 (London, 1882). N. A. WSBER.
Orange Free 8tate» one of the four provinces of
the Union of South Africa, lies between 29^ 30' and 30"*
40' S. lat., and between 24"" 20' and d(f £. long. The
Orange and Vaal rivers which separate it from the
Cape Province and the Transvaal form respectively
its southern and northern boundaries; Natal and Ba-
sutoland bound* it on the east, and the northern por-
tions of the Cape Province on the west. Its name is
derived from the Orange River which flows along its
southern frontier for over 200 miles. It has an area of
50,392 square miles and a population, according to the
census of 1904, of 387,315; of these only 142,679 are
whites, the remainder belonging to the coloured raoei
— mostly Kafirs and Hottentots. The climate is excel-
lent. With a mean altitude of from four to five thou-
sand feet above sea level and an average yearly rain-
fall of only twenty-two inches, it is a country well
suited to persons sufferinij from pulmonary troubles,
the air being dr^ and invigorating and the nights al-
ways cool. Bemg an immense grassy plateau and
almost treeless, its sceneiy is uninteresting (even de-
pressing) except on the eastern border where the vast
IDrakensburg mountain range comes into view. It is
mainl^r a pastoral country, though a portion of it
alongside Basutoland contains some of the finest com
lands in Africa. The exports, valued in 1908r-09 at
17,80(X000 dollars, are principally diamonds, wool, os-
trich leathers, and maize; its imports in the same
period amounted to 15,000,000 dollars.
The white inhabitants are mostly the descendants
of the Voortrekken (or emigrant Dut-ch farmers) from
the old Cape Colony, who in 1836 and subsequent
years crossed the Orange River in thousands ana set-
tled on territories peopled by various Bantu tribes un-
til their virtual extermination by Moselekatce and his
hordes of Matabile warriors — a short time previously.
The "Great Trek'', as the migration of these farmers
came to be called, brought about an anomalous politi-
cal situation. Rather than live under British rule in
the dlolonv, they had abandoned their homes and
souiB^t ind,ependence in "the wilderness''. But the
British Cxovemment, whilst always claiming them as
its subjects and forbidding them to molest tne neigh-
bouring native tribes, refused to annex the territory to
which they had fled. Such a state of things mani-
festly could not long endure, and so in 1848 the coun-
tiy between the Orange and Vaal Rivers was offici-
ally proclaimed British territory under the title of the
"Orange River Sovereigntv". The emigrant Boers,
headed by a farmer namea Andreas Pretorius, strug-
gled to retain their independence but were defeat^ at
the battle of Boomplaats by the English general, Sir
Harry Smith, in August, 1848. The British Govern-
ment, finding the newly annexed territory of little
value and desiring in view of European complications
and the enormous cost of Kafir wars to limit its
responsibilities in South Africa, soon determined to re-
trocede their country to the Boers; thus, at a conven-
tion held in Bloemfontein on 23 February, 1854, Sir
George Clark in the name of Queen Victoria renojunced
British dominion over the Oninge River Sovereignty.'
The Boers thereiipon set up a Republic^ whidi, under
the name of the Orange Free State, enjoyed a peric^
of peace and prosperity that lasted up to the Anslo-
Boer War of 1899-1902. In that struggle the Free
Staters, having joined the Transvaallers, shiu^ in
their defeat, and their country was annexed to the
British Empire under the title of the Orange River
Colony. For some years the new colony was adminis-
tered by a governor and a lieutenant-governor assisted
by an executive and a legislative council, but in June,
1907j responsible ^vemment was conferred on it with
a legislative council of eleven, and a legislative assem-
bly of thirty-eight members.
Since 31 May, 1910, under the title of "The Orange
Free State Province of the Union of South Africa", it
forms part (together with the Transvaal, Natal, and
the Cape of Good Hope) of a self-governing dominion
of the British Empire, the first parliament of which
was opened at Cape Town on 4 November, 1910. In
that parliament the Orange Free State Province is
represented by sixteen senators — one-fourth of the en-
tire number — and by seventeen members of the House
of Assembly (out of a total of 121). English and
Dutch are the official languages. The rorroer is
spoken mostly in the towns and the latter — or rather a
oialect of it known as the Afrikansche TaaL — ^in the
country districts. The relijpon of the great majority
of the white inhabitants is Calvinism (Dutch Re-
OBANai 268 ORANai
formed). Those of EngUah origin belong to the differ- ekm is like that of whites much browned by jaundice,
ent dommationfl usually founcTin the British colonies and their build more like that of the Egyptians as seen
and in the United States of America. The Orange on ancient monuments; or again, resembling that of
Free State oontaina a ^pod number of neat little towns the Chinese, only exceeding them or any other race on
with populations varying fiom one to eight thousand, earth in their ugliness, especially when burdened with
Bloemfontein^ capital of the province, so called from a years. Unselfish hospitauty appears to be their only
spring (fontem) on the farm of Jan Bloem, an early natural virtue. They love music. Their habit of inn-
German settler, is a spacious, clean, and well-built city tating }b such as to rouse either a smile or exaspera-
of 33,000 inhabitants, and the seat of the provincial tionj a crowd of Hottentots at Holy Mase, when re-
council as well as the le^al and judicial centre of the oeivmg the priest's blessing, aJl repieated the sign of
entire Union. It is distant 40Q miles from East Lon- the Cross over him I The late Max Miiller, neverthe-
don, the nearest seaport, and 290 miles from Pretoria, less, vouched for their ancestors having been a cul-
the executive capital. Other' important towns are tured race. Although they have in their language a
Kroonstad, Hamsmith, Jagersfontein, and Smith- word signifying Deitjr, it took a long time to make
field, in each of which there is a Catholic church. The them understand spiritual doctrines oUier than that of
total number of Catholics in the Orange Free State is the existence of the devil. They are extremely cUsin-
abo\it 2000, mostly of European origin or descent, chned to any form of labour or exertion. To induce
The province forms part of tne Vicariate of Kimber- them, for example, to navigate, the missionaries built a
ley (q. v.), which is in the Cape Province, and in which boat by which to cross the Orange River. For weeks,
the vicar Apostolic resides. The present (1910) vicar neither encouraging words nor exhibitions of safe sail-
Apostolic is the Right Reverend Matthew Gaughren, in^ appeared to make any impression on them. One
O.M.I., titular Biahop of Tentyra. Catholics enjoy missionary relates that, among his Hottentot catechu-
absolute freedom of worship, but receive no govern- mens, there was one who never could learn how to
ment aid for their clergy or schools. The Roman make the sign of the Cross, nor the answers of the cate-
Dutch Law, which is administered in the courts, is chism, nor any prayer except these words of the Pater
favourable to Catholics on such points as tenure of ec- Noster: ''Our Father, give us this day our daily
clesiastical property, marriage^ wills, and charitable bread." The missionaries have shown here what an
bequests. The cler^ are not bable to serve on juries uplifting influence the Catholic Church exercises over
or as burghers "on command ' ', nor are churches taxed, the moat forlorn nations, nnce the younger generation,
Flourishmg convent schools and academies are di- trained by the missionaries as far as circumstances
rected bv tne Sisters of the Holy Family at Bloemfon- allowed, are considerably more intelligent and suscep-
tein and Jagersfontein, and by the Sisters of Notre tible of culture than their elders.
Dame (of Namur) at Kroonstad. Bushmanland. — In this territory are found the
-.v^"**"' ?J^- of our otm lime* in South A/Hea (London. 1S97- Bushmen (or Bojesmen), a tribe kindred to the Hot-
g-i^^^Bltifi^. 'J^^}f:^i^^kZ"i'm: j??tof • They «« short in rtatjire and genewJly ma-
to the Jameton Raid (Oxford. 1899); Cana, 5. A. from the Great ucious and mtractable. Intellectually and morally
3?**^** ^.J&^^^°^*^^' ;909i ; Bbtcb. /mpre»«on« of S.A. they are not on a higdier level than the Hottentots,
^^^^io^'i^X'^Z 'iS^i%fcii^''^^'l} bH*. « f« «f tfaey have bem ac^ble to the mi«rioa-
S, A, ((Jape Town, 1910). anes, they have improved m both respects.
H. MagShbrrt. Bechuanaland. — ^The Bechuanas belong to the
Kafir race. Many of them i^ow soihc skill in iron and
Orange River, Vicariatb Apostolic of, and the copper working and in mining, also in tanning hides.
PBETEcnriiE Apostolic of Great Namaqu aland, in Veiy different from the Hottentots, many of them
South Africa. The vicariate was erected in 1897 alter present a pleasing lappearance, and some are hand-
having been a prefecture Apostolic since July. 1885. It some.
comprises the whole of Little Namaqua1and<b^inning Missions. — ^When the Oblates of St. Francis de
on the northern line of Clan William County in Cape Sales arrived in Little Namaqualand, to which the
Colony, i. e. 30^ 35' S. lat.); extends to the Atlantic mission was then confined, they found not one hun-
Ocean on the west, and to the Orange River on the north, dred Catholics. In 1903, without any change of popu-
It further includes Bushmanland, the districts of Ken- lation, thev counted 2735. There were six stations
hardt, Van Rhyns, Dorp, and Frazerburg on the east^ with churches and resident priests, five other stations
and beyond the Orange Kiver, the district of Gordonia regularly attended, 125 conversions during the year,
in Bechuanaland. The prefecture, detached from and 98 children were baptized; 122 confirmations,
the vicariate in July, 1909, is bounded on the west by 25 marriages: 3 hospitals and homes for the aged, 8
the Atlantic Ocean. It extends from the Orange schools, 3 orphanages, 82 orphans, 8 missionary priests.
River as far as Damaraland (23^ 20' S. lat.), and com- 3 catechists; 15 missionary sisters aided the mission,
prises the city of Rehboth and its district. The east- Some fifty places are now visited by the priests to
em boundary line is 20^ £. long. attend to the spiritual and temporal want« of the
Great Namaqualand. — For thirty or forty, or in people. In several places, all Catholic adults receive
certain districte even a hundred miles inland, this dis- Holy Communion on the first Friday of every month
trict is only a sandy desert, which extends on the east- and the ^p-eat feasts of the year. Sella is the residence
em side to the great Kalahari desert. The central por- of the vicar Apostolic, and Hierachalis that of the
tion depends Tor its fertility almost exclusively on prefect Apostolic. These results are most encourag-
thunder-storms, without which it would be nearly des- mg, when the great difficulties confronting the mis-
titute of water. The vicariate is but little better in sionaries are considered. In 1909 the approximate
tlds respect. ^When, however, a sufficiently long rain statistics for the two missions were: 1 bishop; 14
waters these forlorn regions, the richest pastures priests; 3 catechists; 22 missionfuy sisters; 480 chil-
spring up in an incredibly short time. The very air drenin Catholic schools; 175 baptisms of children, 315
then l>ecomes saturated to such a degree with the of adults. In Little Namaqualand the natives under-
odour of vegetation that many suffer from headache, stand Dutch or Enghsh; but in Great Namaqualand,
Swarms of locusts devour the exuberant produce, un- besides German, the extremely difficult language of
less some powerful east wind carries them into the sea. the Hottentots has to be mastered.
The ''aristocracy" in Great Namaqualand consists of For reports and sUtistics of the miasioxM, conmilt the following
German immigrants, and, in the other parts of the mis- ?«"«H^J»* ^r^\ "'t^^J^*™^; *? .^H^^*^ ^^^^^'*
»:^- ^t -i?««i:«u tJ«u L^a n«^. ^4*\^w^ «*1.:1a *u^ 3>»c*< (Vienna) i Echo of the Oblatee of Satnt Franete de Salee
Bion, of English, Insh, and Boer settlers, while the (Childs. Maryland). Cf. also Mieeionea Catholica (Rome, 1907);
Hottentots form the bulk of the scanty population in staieeman*9 rwr Book (London).
the two Namaqualaiids. They are not negroes. Their J. J. Isbnrino.
Oruu (Obantb]. — Among the aubjecta depicted
in the art of the Roman cataoomba one of those most
numerously represented ie that of a female figure
with estended arms known aa the Orana, or one who
stretched, raised arms was common to t>oth Jews and
Gentiles: indeed the iconofp^phic type of the Orane
was itself strongly inftuenced by classic representa-
tions (see Leclercq, " Manuel d'u^, chi^t.", I, 155).
But the meanins of' the Orans of Christian art is quite
different from that of its prototypes. Numerous Bib-
lical figures, for instance, depicted in the catacombs —
Noah, Abraham, Isaac, the Three Children in the
Fiery Furnace, Daniel in the Uons'den — are'pictured
adcing the Lord to deliver the soul of the person on
whose tombs they are depicted as He once delivered
the particular personage represented. But besides
these Bibhcal Orans figures there exist in the cata-
(0 OBATI
dating from the early fourth century, is interpreted by
Wilpert as the Blessed Virgin intercedins for the
friends of the deceased. Directly in front of Mary is a
boy, not m the Onuw attitude and supposed to be the
Divine Child, while to the right ana left are mono-
grams of Christ.
LowBii. UmummU of Ou Sarin Church (N«<r Yotk, 1901):
Kuira. OtMchicUt drr ekriid. Xurul. (Fieibiuf , IBSSJ : Wilfibt,
Sin Ci/Uut abwIoIivMeAer OtmObU (Freibur«, IBBll; Nortb-
COTE AND BuiwHLDW, Rama Seorminta (LoDdDD, 187S).
MArnucE M. Hassbtt.
Orat« Itfttm, the exhortation ("Pray brethren
that my sacrifice and yours be acceptable to God the
-Father almighty") addressed by the celebrant to the
people before the Secrets in the Roman Mass. It is
answered: " May the Lord receive the sacrifice from
thy hands to the praJae and glory of his name, and for
our boaefit also and for that of all hie holy Church."
mmbs many ideal figures (153 in all) in the ancient at-
titude of prayer, which, according to Wilpert, are to be
regarded aa symbols of the deceased's soul in heaven,
praying for its friends on earth. This symbolic mean-
ing accounts for the fact that the great majority of the
fi^u^ee of this order are female, even when depicted on
the tombs of men. One of the most convincing proofs
that the Oraos was regarded as a symbol of the soul is
an ancient lead medal in the Vatican Museum show-
ing the martyr, St. Lawrence, under torture, while Jiis
BOul, in the form of a female Orans, is just leaving the
body (see Kraus, "Gesoh. der christl. Kunst", I, 126,'
fig. 56). An arcosolium in the Ostrianum cemetery
represents tat Orans with a petition for her interaes-
aaaiyietariaVirffini . . . PeU. . . . TheAotsot St.
Cecilia speaks of aoula leaving the body in the form of the same
virgins: Vidit egredientes animae eonim de corpori- in a ahght
bus, quasi viigineede thalamo", and so also the Acts proof that
of Sts. Peter and Morcellinus.
Very piobably the medieval representations of
a diminutive body, figure of the soul, issuing from
the mouths of the dyi^g, to be received by angels
or demons, were reminiscences of the Orans as a
B^bol of the soul. The earlier Orantea were de-
picted in the aimplGst garb, and without any strik-
ing individual traita, but in the fourth century the
figures become richly adorned, and of marked individ-
uality— an indication of the approach of historic art.
One of the most remarkable figures of the Oraos cycle.
The celebrant adds: "Amen", The form is merely an
expansion of the usual Oremat before any prayer. It
is a medieval amplificatdon. The Jaoooite rite has
an almost identical form before the Anaphora (Bright-
man, "Eastern Utuigies", Oxfrad, 1896, S3); the
Nestorian celebrant says: "Mybrethrcn-priirfor me"
(ib., 274). Such invitations, (rft«n made t^ the dea- '
□on, are common in the Easters rites. 'Rte Oallican
rite had a similar one (Duchesne, " Chiiatian Worship",
London, 1904, 109). The Moiarabic invitation at this
place is: " Help me brethren byyour prai
)y your prayeis and pray
:V, 537). The medieval
to God for me'' (P. L., LXXX'
ites had similar foi ..
. Burntisland, 1861-3, 596).
old Roman Secrets (really Offertory prayers) contain
the same ideas. Durandus knows the Orate Fratrt*
in a ahghtly different form ("Rationale", IV, 32). A
Eroof that it is not on integral port of the old Roman
Isss is that it is always said, not sung, aloud (as also
are the prayers at the foot of the altar, the last Gospel
etc.). The celebrant after the "Suscipe Sancta Tri-
nitas" kisses the altar, turns to the people and says:
Orale/ratres, extending and joining his hands. Turn-
ing back he finishes the sentence inaudibly. At high
Mass the deacon orsubdeooon, at low Mass the server,
answers. The rubric of the Missal is: "The server or
people around answer, if not the priest himself." In
this last case he naturally changes the word fuia to
OBATOEIAm 270 ORATORIO
am, Th4 Holy aaerific* ofths Mas9 (3id ed.. St. Louis, 1908). mtuico-drainatic productions throughout thifl period
Adrian Fortbscub ^^^ ^® Jesuits, who, especially m Germany, used
these musical plays in their schools and colleges every-
Oratorians. See Oratory of Saint Phiup Nbri. where. Up to the latter part of the seventeenth cen-
tury the burden of the texts for these compositions
Oratorio, as at present understood, is a musical was either a legend, th^histonr of a conversion, the
composition for solo voices, chorus, orchestra, and life of a saint, or the passion of a martyr,
organ, to a religious text generally taken from Holy Among those who cultivated, or helped in develop-
Scripture. The dramatic element contained in the ing, the oratorio in Italy were Benedetto Ferrari
text depends for its expression on the music alone. (1597-1681), ''Samsone"; Agostino Agazzari (1578-
The tradition that the oratorio originated in St. 1640), dramma jxutorcde, "Eumeho"; Loreto Vitorii
Philip Neri's oratory has reoentljr been attacked, (1588-1670) ''La pellegrina oostante'', ''Sant' Ig-
notably by the historian and critic E. Schelle, in nazio Lovola''. Giacomo C)arissimi (1604r-74)y
''Neue Zeitschrift fUr Musik^' (Leipzig, 1864). The through whom the oratorio made a notable advanpe,
chief point he makes is that the oratories of San Gir- was the first master to turn to Holy Scripture for
olamo and Santa Maria in Vallicella, at Rome, were his texts. His works, with Latin or Italian texts,
unsuitable for theperformance of sacred dramas. In many of which have been preserved (see Carissimi)
refutation, it suffices to recall the established fact together with those of his contemporaries, show prao-
that Emiglio del Cavaglieri's rappraaenUizume sacra^ tically the same construction as is followed in the
''Anima e corpo", had its first performance in the present time: recitatives, arias, duets, and terzettos,
Vallicella (Chiesa Nuova) in 1600, five years after the alternating with single and double choruses and in-
death of St. Philip. Although the name oratorio was strumental humbers. The kUUrricus or narrator (in
not applied to the new form until sixty years later some scores designated by the word iesto^ "text") has
(Andrea Bontempi, 1624r-1705), there is an unbroken replaced scenic display and dramatic action. Caris-
tradition connecting the exercises established by St. simi's orchestration exhibits a resourcefulness and
Philip with the period when the new art-form received charm before unknown. His oratorio '' Jephtha" (in
its definite character. While in the sixteenth centurv an arrangement by Dr. Immanuel Faiast) was per-
liturgical polyphonic music reached its highest devel- formed successfully at Leipzig as recently as 1873.
opmenL secular music boasted only one ensemble or After him. the greatest Italian master was Alessandro
choral form^ the madrigal. The spirit of the Renais- Scarlatti (1659-1725) a pupil of Francesco ProvenzaJe
sance, that IS the revolt against the domination of the and Carissimi. Chief among his works are "I dolori '
arts by the spirit of the Church, led to the restoration di Maria'' and ''U Sacrificio d'Abramo''.
of Greek monody, and gradually perfected composi- About this time the leadership passed to Germanv^
tions for one or more voices and instruments wnich where Heinrich Schtitz (1585-16/2) had previously
ultimately culminated in the opera. prepared the soil by his compactions Known a^
St. Philip, realizing the great power of music, pro- Passion music" and other works resembling the
vided in the rule for his congregation, "that his fatners Italian oratbrio. Others who had received their for-
together with the faithful, should rouse themselves to mation in Italy, but whose activitv was chiefly oon-
the contemplation of heavenly things by means of fined to Germany, and who transplanted the oratorio
musical harmony''. He seized upon the good in the thither, were Ignatius Jacob Holzbauer (1711-83),
new trend and made it the foundation of a new form ''Bethuliaiiberata"; Johann Adolphe Hasse (1699-
upon which he, perhaps unconsciously, put a stamp re- 1783), '' La Conversione di S. Agostino " etc. ; Antonio
tained ever since. He practically created a style mid- Caldara (1670-1736); Nicolo Jomelli (1714-1774):
way between liturgical and secular music. His love Marc-Antoine Charpehtier (1634-1704), a pupil of
of simphcity caused him to oppose and counteract the Carissimi and a gifted composer, wrote, besides a
prevailing artificial semi-pagan, literary, and oratori- lar^e number, of works for the church, eighteen ora-
cal style which had its musical counterpart in the tonos in the style of his master which had great vogue
display of contrapuntal skill for its own sake prac- in France. lus ''Reniement de St. Pierre" has re-
tised to so great an extent at that time. He drew to centl]^ been revived with great success in Paris, and
himself masters like Giovanni Annimucda and Pier • has since been published. In the hands of Jonann
Luigi da Palestrina, formed them spirituallv, and bade Mattheson (1681-1764), the oratorio becomes identi-
them set to music, in simple and clear style, for three fied with Protestant worship in Germany; Contem-
or four voices, short poems in the vernacular, ^en- porary with George Frederick H&ndel (1685-1759)
erally written by himself, and called "Laudi spirit- ne wrote twenty-four oratorios, intended to be divided
uali". Man^r ot these were preserved by F. Soto di into two parts by a sermon, tne whole constituting a
Langa, a musician and a disciple of the saint. Their reli^ous service. His texts were mostly taken from
performance alternated with spiritual reading, prayer, Scnpture. Biblical events are brought into con j unction
and a serinon by one of the fathers, by a layman, or and contrasted with contemporary happenings, and
even by a boy. From these exercises, which attracted a moral is drawn. Others who cultivated the oratorio
enormous crowds, and obtained great renown through- form, particularly in Protestant Germany, were George
out Italy, it was but a step to the CommediaAannonica Philip Telemann (1681-1767). Constantine Beller-
''Amfipamasso", by OrazioVecchi (1550-1605), adia- mann (1696-1758), and Dietrich Buxtehude (1637-
logue in madrigal form between two choirs (first per- 1707).
formed at Modena in 1594), and the ravpraserUasMne Through H&ndel the oratorio attained a position
sacra "Animaecorpo",byCavagfieri. The latter con- in musical art more important than at any previous
sisted of short phrases for a sin^e voice, more varied period in its history and never surpassed since. In
in form than the redtativo eecco, but not yet sufficiently nis hands it became the expression of the sturdy Saxon
developed to have a distinct melodic physiognomy, faith unaffected by the spirit of doubt latent in the
accompanied by instruments^ and chonJ numb^, or religious revolt of the sixteenth century. 'Formed in
madrigals. Similar productions multiplied rapidly. Germanv and Italy, he united in a pre-eminent degree
Wherever the Oratonans established themselves they the highest creative gifts. The most productive
cultivated this form to attract the young people. The period of his life was spent in England, and, after
municipal library of Hamburg contains a collection, having cultivated the opera for a number of years,
gathered by Chrysander, of twenty-two different texts he finally turned to the oratorio, producing a series
which originated with the disciples of St. PhiUp during ofworks("The Messiah", "Israel in Egypt's "Saul"
the second half of the seventeenth century. Even "Jephtha", "Belshazar", "Samson" etc.) unrivalled
more active in the creation and propagation of these for heroic grandeur and brilliancy. It may be said
ORATORY 271 ORATORY
that they expreaa the national reli©oiiB ideal of a i»W); Bmu^, Getchicfue der ^^i^heorU (^^^y^^i
Protestant Christian people more adMuately than sdbflte (pamburg. 1893); Jahrhuch d» MutikMKotkek Ptunf^r
does their form of worship. This undoubtedly ao- leos (Leipiic, 1904).
counts for the interest taken in oratorio performances JoaBPH Ottbn.
by the people in England and in Protestant Germany.
Joseph Haydn (1732-1809) produced two of the Oratory (Lat. oratortiim, from orarey to pray), as
greatest oratorios which we possess: "The Creation'' a general term, signifies a place of prayer, but tech-
and "The Seasons". While composed to secular nicall;^ it means a structure other than a parish church,
texts, they breathe the most tender piety and joy set aside by ecclesiastical authority for prayer and the
through an inexhaustible wealth of lyric and lofty celebration of Mass. Oratories seem to nave orisi-
music. A third oratorio, "Ritomo di Tobia", on a nated from the chapeb erected over the tombs of the
Biblical text, has not the same importance, nor does early martyrs where the faithful resorted to pray, and
Mozart (1756-91), in his only oratorio, "Davidde also from the necessity of having a place of worship
penitente'^ attain the artistic level of most of his pro- for the people in country districts when churches
auctions. Ludwig van Beethoven (1770-1827) wrote proper were restricted to cathedral cities. We also
one oratorio, "The Mount of Olives", which shows fina early mention of private oratories for the celebra-
him at his best. tion of Mass by bishops, and later of oratories at-
FeUx Mendelssohn-Bartholdy (1809-47). in "Eli- tached to convents and to the residences of noblep. In
lah" and "St. Paul", returns to ijie early Protestant the Eastern Church, where the parochial organization
feature of letting the supposed congresation or audi- is neither so complete nor so rigid as in the West, pri-
ence participiate in the performance by singing the vate oratories were so numerous as to constitute an
chorales or church hymns, the texts of which consist abuse. In the Latin Church oratories are classed as
of reflections and meditations on what has preceded. XI) public, (2) semipubUc, and (3) private.
From this period the oratorio begins to be cultivated (1) Pubuc Oratories are canonically erected by
almost exclusively by Catholics. Franz Liszt (1811- the bishop and are perpetually dedicated to the Divine
86), with his "Christus" and "Legende der Heiligen service. They must have an entrance and exit from
Elizabeth", opens up a new and distinctly Catholic the public road. Priests who celebrate Mass in public
era. France, which, since the days of Charpentier, oratories must conform to the office proper to those
had practically neglected the oratorio, probably on oratories, whether secular or regular. If, however,
account of the opera appealing more strongly to thecalendarof an oratory permits a votive Mass to be
French taste and temperament, and because of the said, the visiting priest may celebrate in conformity
lack of amateur singers has, within the last thirty with his own diocesan or regular calendar,
years, furnished a nuinber of remarkable works. (2) Semipublic Oratories are those which, though
Charles-Francois Gounod (1818-93) with his "Re- erected in a private building, are destined for the use
demption", and " Mors et Vita", gave a renewed im- of a community. Such are tne oratories of seminaries,
petus to the cultivation of the oratorio. The "Sam- pious congregations, colleges, hospitals, ^prisons, and
son and Delilah" of Camille Saint-Saens (1835 — ) such institutions. If, however, there be several ora-
may be performed either as an oratorio or as an opera; tones in one house, it is only the one in which the
as opera it has atttdned the greater favour. Jules Blessed Sacrament is preserved that has the privileges
Massenet (1842 — ) has essayed the form with his of a semipublic oratory. All semipublic oratones
"Eve" and "Mary Magdalen", but his style is en- (which class technically mcludes the private chapel of
tirely too sensational and melodramatic to carry the a bishop) are on the same footing as public oratories in
text. Gabriel Piem^'s (1863—) " Children's CrusjEule" regard to the celebration of Mass. The calendar of
and the smaller work, "The Children at Bethlehem", feasts to be observed in them (unless they belong to
have both obtained great popularity in Europe and ' a regular order having its proper calendar) is that of
America. the oiocese. In oratories belonging to nuns, the feasts
Italy's sole representative of any note in more than of their community are to be celebrated in accordance
two hundred years is Don Lorenzo Perosi (1872 — ), with the decrees or indults they have received from
with his trilogy "The Passion of Our Lord according the Holy See. Regulars visiting a semipublic oratory
to St. Mark , "The Transfiguration of Christ", and cannot celebrate the feasts of samts of their own order
"The Resurrection of Lazarus", a "Christmas Ora- unless the calendar proper to the oratory prescribes
torio", "Leo the Great", and "The Last Judgment", the same or permits of a votive Mass. Public and
Belgium and England have produced the three most semipublic oratories are ordinarily under the control
remarkable exponents of the oratorio within the last of the bishop. The Congregation of Rites declared ^23
fifty years. Udsar Auguste Franck's (1822-90) ora- Jan., 1899): "In these (oratories), as. by the authonty
tonos, "Ruth", "Rebecca", "Redemption", and, of the ordinary, the holy sacrifice of the Mass can bie
above all, his "Beatitudes", rank amons^the greatest offered, so also all those present thereat can satiefy
of modem works of the kind. Edward William Elgar thereby the precept which obliges the faithful to hear
(1857 — ) has become famous bv his "Dream of Ger- Mass on prescribed da;^s." The same decree also si vea
ontius" and his "Apostles'. But Edgar Tinel an authoritative defimtion of the three species ofora-
(1854—) is probably the most gifted among the mod- tories.
em Cathohcs who have reclaimed the oratorio from (3) Private Oratories are those erected in private
non-Catholic supremacy. His world-famous "St. houses for the convenience of some person or family by
Francis of Assisi ' is perhaps more remarkable for the an indult of the Holy See. They can be erected only
spiritual heights it reveals than for its dramatic power, by permission of the pope. Oratories in private houses
Other works of his which have attracted attention are date from Apostolic times when the Sacred Mysteries
"Godoleva" and "St. Catherine". It is a happy could not be publicly celebrated owing to the persecu-
omen that all these authors, in the fore-front of pres- tions. Even after the peace of Constentine, the cus-
ent-day composers, command the highest creative tom continued to prevail. Kings and nobles espe-
and constructive skill which enables them to turn into cially had*such oratories erected in their palaces. As
Catholic channels all the modem conquests in means early as the rei^ of Emperor Justinian, we find regu-
of expression. The Catholic Oratorio Society of New lations conoermng private oratories as distingui^ed
York was founded in 1904 to promote the knowledge from public churehes, and prohibitions against saying
and reproduction of oratorios that best exemplify the Mass in private houses (Novel., Iviii and cxxxi). Per-
religious ideal. missions to celebrate were granted, however, freely in
Capk»latbo. tr. Pop., The lAfe of Si. Philip Neri (London. ^^^ W^ by popes and councUs. The latest decree
1894) ; KBvnacHMAB, Fnhrtr dwreh dm ConettUatU, II (Leip^ regulatmg pnvate oratones IS that of the Sacred Con-
0&4T0K7 272 OBATOET
pMsiioii of the I^adpline of 4he Bacnunents of 7 Qriitor^ of Saint Phfl^ Hflri. THC^Under this
Fab^ 1909. Aooording to this, privBte oratories are head are included the Itahan, Spaniah, Knriiith, and
conceded by the Holy See only on account of bodily other communitieB, which follow the rule of St. Phitip
infirmity, or difficulty of acceas to a public church or aa Neri. The revolt of the sixteenth century, thoufdi ap-
a reward for aervicea done to the Holy See or to the parcntly threatening in ita apread and atrengih the
Catholic cauae. The grant of a private oratory may very life of the Church, evoked a marvelloua display of
be temporary or for the life of the grantee, according its Divine fecundity. That century saw the on^^ of
to the nature of the cauae that ia adduced. In either the Society of Jesua, founded by St. Ignatius Loyola;
ease, the simple concession of an oratory implies that the Theatmes, by St. Cajetan: the Bamabites, by St.
only one Mass a day may be celebrated, that the pre- A. M. Zaocaria; the Brothers HoepitallerB, by St. John
eept of the Church concerning the hearing of Mass on of God; the Oratory of St. Philip. The foundation of
prescribed days (certain roecial festivius generally the last was laid at S. Girolamo, Rome, where his dis-
iqiiecified in the indult exduoed) may be there satined ciples gathered for smritual instruction. Gradually
only by the grantees, and that the determination of these conferences took definite shape, and St. Philip,
the place, city, and diocese where the oratory is to be now a priest, constructed an oratory over the aisle of
erected is approved. The rescript will be forwarded to S. Girolamo, where they might be held : from this
the ordinary. The decree then recites the various ex- probably the congregation was named. In 1564 he
tensions of the before-mentioned privileges that may took charge of the church of the Florentines, where hb
be conceded to grantees : disciples who were priests said Mass and preached four
(a) As to the gaiitfaction of the precept of hearing sermons daily, intcnspersed by hymns and popular de-
Mosb: This is usually conceded by the indult only to votions. Eleven years' work at St. John's proved to
the following: relatives of the grantee living under the the growing community the ncksessity of having a
same roof, dependants of the family, and guests or church of their own and of living under a definite rule,
those who share his table. The others Uving in the They obtained from the pope the church of S. Maria in
house may not satisfy the precept except it oe a fu- Valhcella, rebuilt and now known as the Chiesa
neral Mass or on accouift of the oistance of the public Nuova, where the congregation was erected by Greg-
diurch. If the oratory be a rural one, those employed ory XIII, 16 July, 1675. The new community was to
on the estate may there hear Mass, but in that case be a congregation of secular priests living under obedi-
the grantee must provide for a catechetical instruc- ence^ but bound by no vows. So particular was St.
tion and anexplanation of the Gospel. The same holds Phihp on this point that he ruled, that even if the ma-
for a private oratory in a camp or castle or a wide- jority wished to bind themselves by vows, the minor-
spreaa domain. In very peculiar circumstances (to be ity who did not were to possess the property of the
judged by the ordinary) all others may also hear Mass community. " Habeant possideant ", were St. Philip's
m a private oratory while the conditions prevail. words. Another characteristic of the institute was the
(b) A» to hearing Mase in the absence of the grantees: fact that each house was independent, and when it was
This is allowed in the presence of one of the relatives represented to him, that while one Ubuse misht have
living under the same roof, but the concession is to be but a handful of members and another a surplus, both
understood of a temporary absence of the grantees and would benefit by a transference of subjects from the
that the relative be expressly determined. The same more numerous community, he replied, "Let each
is extended to the principal one among the familiars, house live by its own vitality, or pensh of its own de-
rural servants, or dependants. crepitude. " His motive prooably was to exclude the
(c) As to the numoer of Masses: If the grantees are possibility of any community lingering in a state of
two priests who are brothers, both may celebrate decay.
Mass. A thanksgiving Mass is also allowed if the or- The rule, an embodiment of St. Philip's mode of
dinary recommends it. Priests who are guests may governing, was not drawn up till seventeen years after
say Mass in the oratory of the house where they are his death, and was finally approved by Paul V in 1612.
staying if they have commendatory letters from the The provost is elected for three years by a majority of
ordinary, provided they are infirm or the church is ail the decennial Fathers, i. e., those who have oeen ten
distant. Several Masses may also be said during years in the congregation. To assist him in the gov-
the last agony or at the death or anniversary of one of ernment of the congregation four deputies are elected,
the grantees and likewise on the feast of his patron All matters of grave importance are decided by the
saint. general congregation, only the decennial Fathers vot-
(d) As to greater festivals: By an extension of privi- mg. Admission to the congregation is also by election,
leges, Mass may be allowed in private oratories on all and the candidate must be ^'natus ad institutum".
days except on the feast of the local patron, the As- between the ages of eighteen and forty, and possessed
sumption, Christmas, and Easter. Sometimes the con- of sufficient income to maintain himself. The noviti-
oossion may extend to the first three feasts, but very ate lasts three years, and was probably thus extended
rarely to Laster, and then only on the urgent recom- to test thoroughly the vocation to an institute not
mendation of the ordinary^ exception being made for bound by vows. At the conclusion of the three years,
grantees who are infirm pnests. the novice if approved becomes a triennial Father ana
(e) As to concessions: Sometimes a grantee may have a member of the congregation, but he has no elective
the rights of a private oratory in two dioceses, but then vote till his ten years are completed, when by election
both ordinaries must give testimonial letters. In case he becomes a decennial. Expulsion is effect^ by a
the oratory is situated in a place where the parish majority of two-thirds of the voters. No member is
priest has to say two Masses on the same day, a priest allowed to take any ecclesiastical dignity. Regula-
irom some other place may say Mass in the oratory tions for the clothing, mode of life in the community,
but he may not say another Mass in addition. An and for the refectory are also laid down. The object
oratory near a sick-room is also allowed occasionally of the institute is threefold: prayer, preaching^ and the
during sickness. This decree likewise allows ordina- sacraments. "Prayer" includes special care m carry-
ries (lor ten oases only) to grant a private oratory to ing out the liturgical Offices, the Fathers being pres-
poor priests who are aged and infirm. It will be noted ent in choir at the principal feasts, as well as assisting
that this legislation is a very liberal extension of the at the daily popular devotions. The "Sacraments'^
provisions formerly governing private oratories. Imply their frequent reception, which had fallen, into
Taunton, lav, af iA« Church (London. 1906). s. r. Oroiory; ^isuse at the foundation of the ()ratoiy . For this pur-
Pmum^ M'UioiAMa eanonica (Rome. 1889), «. v Ontorium: ipoBB one of the Fathers IS to Sit daily m the oonfes-
4fMlMto lr«0lM. (Rome. April. 1910). sional, and all are to be present in their confessionals
William H. W. Faivminq. on the eve of feasts. The mode of direction as taught
ORATORY
273
ORATORY
bv St. Philip IB to be gentle rather than severe, and
abuses are to be attacked indirectly. ''Once let a little
love find entrance to their hearts/' said St. Philip,
"and the rest will follow."
"Preaching" included, as has been said^ four ser-
mons in succession daily, an almost impossible strain
upon the hearers as it would now appear, but the dis-
courses at the Oratory had an attraction of their own.
Savonarola had already compared the inability of the
preachers of his day to awaken dead souls with their
subtle arguments and rhetorical periods, to the impo-
tent efforts of the flute-players to revivify hy their
mournful music the corpse of Jairus's daughter, and
Bembo in St. Philip's day reiterated this reproach.
"What can I hear in sermons", he says, "but Doctor
Sobtilis striving with Doctor^Angelicus, and Aristotle
coming in as a third to decide the quarrel." The ser-
mons at the Oratory were free from these defects.
They were simple and familiar discourses; the first an
exposition on some point of the spiritual reading which
preceded them and therefore impromptu; ike next
would be on some text of Holy Scripture; the tlidrd on
ecclesiastical history, and the fourth on the lives of
the saints. Each sermon lasted half an hour, when a
bell was rung and the preacher at once ceased speak-
ins. The music, though popular, was of a hi^ order.
Palestrina, a penitent of the sunt^ composed many of
the Laudi which were sung. Their excellence excited
the admiration of foreigners. John Evelyn in his
diary, 8 November, 1644,. speaks of himself as ravished
with the entertainment of tne sermon by a boy and the
musical services at the Roman Oratory. Animuccia.
choir master at St. Peter's, attended constantly to leaa
the singing. In close connexion with the Oratory is
the Brotherhood of the Little Oratory, a confraternity
of clerics and laymen, first formed from the disciples of
St. Philip who assembled in his room for mental prayer
and Mass on Sundays, visited in turn a hospital daily,
and took the discipline at the exercises of the Passion
on Friday. They made tosether the pilgrimage of
the seven churches, especially at carnival time, and
their devout and recollected demeanour converted
many.
The "exercises ", as the Oratory services were called,
aroused bitter opposition. Tlie preachers were de-
nounced as teaching extravagant and unsound doc-
trine, the processions were forbidden, and St. Philip
himself was suspended from preaching. He submitted
at once and forbade any action being taken in his fa-
vour. At length Paul iV, having made due investiga-
tion, sent for him and bade him go on with his good
work. Baronius sajrs of these exercises that they
seemed to recall the simplicity of the Apostolic times;
Bacci testifies to the holiness of many under St.
Philip's care. Among the most celebrated members
were Baronius, author of the "Ecclesiastic^ Annals",
and the "Martyrology". to prepare him for which
work St. Philip obliged nim to preach the history Of
the Church for thirty years in the Oratory ;Bozio Tom-
maso, author of many learned works; B. Giovenale
Ancina, Superior of the Oratory at Naples, and later
Bishop of Saluzaso, a close friend of St. Francis de
Sales; B. Antonio Grassi of the Oratory of Fermo; B.
Sebastian Valfrd, the " Apostle of Turin ", and founder
of the Oratoiy there. The Oratory Library of S.
Maria in Vallicella is celebrated for the number and
quality of its contents, among them the well-known
Codex Vallicensis. Up to 1800 the Oratory continued
to spread through Italy, Sicily, Spain, Portugal, Po-
land, and other European countries; in South /^erica,
Brazil, India^ Ceylon, the founder of which was the
celebrated missioner Giuseppe de Vaz. Under Napo-
leon I the Oratory was in various places despoiled and
suppressed, but the congregation recovered and, after
a second suppression in 1869, ^gain revived; many of
its houses still exist.
Oratorianb, English. — The Oratory was founded
XI.— 18
In England by Cardinal Newman in 1847. Converted
in 1845, he went to Rome in 1846 and with the advice
of Pius IX selected the Oratory of St. Phihp Neri as
best adapted for his future work . After a short noviti-
ate at Santa Croce he returned in 1847 with a Brief
from Pius IX for founding the Oratory. He estab-
lished himself at Mar3rvale. Old Oscott, where in 1848
he was joined by Father Faoer and his Wilfridian com-
munity. After a temporary jsojoum at St. Wilfrid's,
Staffordshire, and Alcest^ St., Birmingham, the com-
munity found a permanent home at Edgbaston, a sub-
urb of that town, in 1854. The institute of the English
congregation is substantially that of the Roman. The
Fathers live under St. Philip's Rule and carry out his
work. In compliance with a widely expressed wish of
Enghsh Catholics, Cardinal Newman foimded at Edg-
baston a still flourishing higher class school for boys.
A Brotherhood of the Little Oratory is also attached to
the community and the exercises are a focus of spirit-
ual life. Among the best known writers of the Engjish
Oratory are, besides its illustrious head. Father Cas-
well, a poet, Father Ignatius Ryder, a controversialist
and essa3ri8t, and Father Pope. A Newman memorial
church in the classical style was opened in 1910. The
library contains among many valuable works Cardi-
nal Newman's series of the Fathers.
The London Oratory. — In 1849 Cardinal Newman
sent a detachment of his community to found a house
in London. Premises were secured at 24 and 25 King
William St^ Strand, a chapel was speedily arranged,
and on 31 Miay, Caroinal Wiseman assisted pontifically
and preached at the high Mass; Father Newman de-
livered at Vespers the sermon on the " Prospects of the
Ca^olic Missioner", now published in his "Dis-
courses to Mixed Congregations". The Catholic
Directory of 1849 shows that the Oratory at King Wil-
liam St. was the first public church served by a relig-
ious community to be opened in the diocese. The ex-
ercises of the Oratory, accoinpanied as they were with
hymns composed by Father Faber and the Roman de-
votions and processions, then strange to England,
seemed to many a hazardous innovation. Time
f roved the popularity of the exercises, and Father
'aber's preachmg attracted large crowds. His spirit-
ual woricsjpublished year by year increased the inter-
est in his Oratory, while the fives of the saints edited
by him, forty-two in number, in spite of their
literary defects, did a ffe&t work in setting forth the
highest examples of Christian holiness. The com-
munity removed to their present site in South Kensing-
ton in 1854, and in 1884 their new church was openM
in the presence of the bishops of England. Among the
writers of the London Oratory may be named, after
Father Faber, Father Dalgaims (o* v.); Father
Stanton, "Menology of England and Wales" (Lon-
don, 1887); Father Hutchison, "Loreto and Naza-
reth" (London, 1863); Father Knox, "The Douai
Diary" (London, 1878), and "Life of Cardinal Al-
len" (London, 1882); Father Philpin de Riviere, "The
Holy Places", and other works; Father John Bowden,
"Life of Fr. Faber" (London, 1869); Father Morris,
"Life of St. Patrick"; and Father Antrobus, transla-
tor of Pastor's "Popes" (vols. I-VI, St. Louis, 1902)
and the "Pri^ deU' Oratorio".
WooDHSAD, The Iruiitutiona of the Oratory (Oxford, 1687);
Gallonio. Vita Beati Philippi Nerii (Rome. 1600, tr. into Itatian,
Rome. 1601); Bacci. Vita del B. Pilippo Neri (Rome. 1622. fre-
auently reprinted; tr. into English, 2 vols., 1847: new ed.. witii
lustrations, notes, etc., by Antrobub, 2 vols., London. 1902) ;
InsM. Vita eon Voffgiunta cTuna notUia d'aleuni etui eompoffni per
Q. Ricci {p.p.), tr. into English, The Companione of SL PhUip
(London. 1848); Soneonio. Vita del Santo Patr., Pilippo Neri
(Venioe. 1727; 2nd ed., Padua, 1733) ; Capbcklatro. La Vita di S,
Pilippo Neri (2 vols., Naples. 1879; tr. into English by Pora, 2
vols., London, 1882); Idkm, Card. Newman e la relioione Cattoliea
in Inghilterra (2 vols., Naples, 1859); Fabcr, The Spirit and
Genius of St. Philip (London. 1860); Idem. The School of St.
Philip, tr. from Italian (London, 1850) ; Preoi delta Conor. deW
Oratorio (Venioe, 1825; tr. into English by Antrobub. London,
1881); Mabciano, Metnorie Hiatoriehe della Congr. dett' Oratorio
(6 vola. lol., Naples. 169^1702) ; Conimario di S. FiUppo Neri in
ORATOEY 274 ORATORY
Ptiriodico MmauaU (Rome, 18»4^); see alao works dtod in pref- ]ege of Juillv. The succeeding generals were: Fran-
toe, to tr«ua»tkmo?Bacci.ed,.Aim»o»us(Ix>^n^l»^^^ ^^ Bourgoing (q. v.; 1641^2); Francis SenauH
.n. BOWDBN. (i662-r72), a cdebrated preacher; Abel-Louis de
Oratory, French Congregation of the, founded Sainte-Marthe, who resigned in 1696, only to die the
at Paris at the beginning of the seventeenth centurv following year. During his generalship the congreg&-
by Cardinal Pierre de B^rulle (a. v.)) who, in Bossuet^ tion was ereatly disturbed by the troubles of Jansen-
words, ''made glisten in the Church of France the ism (see A. M.P. Ingold, "L^pretendujans6nismedu
Surest and most sublime hghts of the Christian priest- P. de St&-Marthe '', Paris, 1882). There was the same
ood and the ecclesiastical life". It was precisely to disturbance under his successor, Father Pierre d'Ar6-
work more effectively towards the rehabihtation of the rez de la Tour (1696-1733), who began by appealing
ecclesiastical life that Cardinal de Bundle founded (in against the Bull "Unigenitus", with the Archbishop
1611) the new congregation, which he named after of Paris and a large part of the French clergy. Later,
that of St. Philip Neri, adopting also in part the rules however, having a better knowledge of the facts, he
and constitutions of the latter. To meet the special revoked ids app^, and also obtained the submission of
needs of the Church in France at the period, however. Cardinal de Noailles — ^which shows that his difficulty
and because of the tendency towara centralization was not a doctrinal one^ut arose rather from consid-
which "especially from thi^ period' forms one of the erations of discipline and opportuneness. Many Ora-
dominant characteristics of the French national spirit" torians have been caluminated on this point by preju-
(Perraud), he made one very important modification; diced or ignorant historians, as the present writer h^
whereas in the Italian congregation the houses were endeavoured to prove in several pubUcations. Father
independent of one another, de B^rulle placed the d'Ar^z de la Tour was one of the most esteemed
government of all the houses in the hands of the supe- spiritual directors of his time. The seventh general
rioivgeneral. On 10 May, 1613, Paul III issued a Bull was Father Thomas de la Valette (1733-72); the
approving the new institute, which now made great eighth, Father. Louis de Muly (1773-9) ; the ninth,
progress. During the lifetime of its founder, more than Father Sauv^ Moisset (1779-90) .
fifty houses were either established or united to the On the death of this last, at the height of the French
Oratory; subsequently there were more than twice this Revolution, the congregation was unable to meet in a
number. divideKi into four provinces. ^ St. Phihp general assembly to elect a successor, and was soon
had wished, so also the fVench Oratory was solely for engulfed in the revolutionary storm, which over-
priests; the members were bound by no vows except whelmed the Church in France j but, in dying, the
those of the priesthood, and had for sole aim the oer- Oratory again attested to its faithful attacnment to
feet f ufilment of their priestly functions. The (jon- the Chair of Peter. If some of the Oratorians at this
gre^ation of the Oratory is not a teaching order; Ora- time supported Constitutionalism, the great majority
torians have directed many colleges, notably de Juilly ; remunea faithful to the Catholic Faith, and a certain
but neither this nor instruction in seminaries was ever number among them paid for their fidelity by their lives
the sole object of the congregation, though it was the (cf . Ingold, '* l70ratoireet la Revolution ", Paris, 1885).
first to organize seminaries in France according to the It was only in 1852 that the French Congregation
ordinances of the Council of Trent. The congrega- of the Oratory was restored by Father Gratry (q. v.)
tions of M. Bourdoise, St. Nicolas du Chardonnet, and Father P^t^tot. the latter, who was earlier pastor
Saint-Sulpice, and Saint-Lazare were all inspired by of Saint-Roch de Paris, becoming first superior-gen-
the ideas of Cardinal de B^rulle. The definite aim and eral of the revived institute. In 1884 he resigned
characteristic of the French Oratory is in the words of and was replaced iby Father Qater Cardinal) Perraud.
Cardinal Perraud "the pursuit of sacerdotal ^perfeo- Father P^tltot died in 1887. Father Perraud'ssucces-
tion ". sor. Father Marius Nouvelle, still governs the con^^re-
The supreme authority of the congregation is gation, which, n-eatly weakened dv the persecution
vested in the superior-general (elected for li^) and in which reigns in France, numbers only a few members,
the general assemblies convoked regularly every residing for the most part in Paris,
three years — or extraordinarily immecfiately on the . The French Oratory at various stages in its histoiy
resignation or death of a general. These assemblies has idven a large number of distinguished subjects to
are composed of members who have been seven years the Church: preachers hke Lejeune (q. v.), Massillon
in the congregation and three in the priesthood; the (q. v.), and Mascaron: philosophers like Malebranche,
number of members is one out of every twelve Orato- (q. v.); theolo^ans like Thomassin (a. v.), Morin (q.
rians thus qualified, and they are elected by all Orato- v.); exegetes Ince Houbigant (q. v.), Richard Simon,
rian priests three years in the congregation. The gen- Duguet. One must note, however, that the last two
eral assemblies appoint all the officers — a superior were forced to leave the congregation where they had
general (if necessary), his three asmstants, the visitors, been trained — the former on account of the rashness
the procurator general, and the secretary general, of his exegesis, the latter in consequence of his Jansen-
They also examine and decide upon all questions of istic tendencies.
any importance concerning the congregation in gen- Naturally, the Oratory of France exercised Uttle di-
eral; the general and his assistants, in the intervafbe- rect influence in foreim countries, except through its
tween the assemblies, exercise only ordinary adminis- houses, St. Loui»-des-Fran9ais in Rome, Madrid, and
tration. The founder, who died at the altar in 1629, Lisbon. In connexion with England, Father de
was succeeded by Father Charles de Condren, who. B6rulle's mission with twelve of his confreres at the
like Father de B^rullCj was imbued with the spirit or court of Henrietta of France (1625), wife of the unfo>
the Oratorians from his youth. Even during his life, tunate Charles I, must be remembered. Among the
Saint Jeanne de Chan tal wrote of him that "it would Oratorians were Father Harlay de Sancy. Father de
seem that Father de Condren was capable of teaching Bidfour, the latter of an old English family, and Fa-
the angels''; St. Vincent de Paul was wont to say that ther Robert Philips, a Scotchman and theologian of
"there had never been a man like him". Father de great merit, who entered the Oratory in 1617 after
Condren governed the Oratory most wisely, complet- having been tortured for the Faith in his own country,
ing its organization according to the intentions of its When Protestant intolerance forced the other Orato-
founder. Among his works must be specially remem- rians to leave England, Father Philips remained as oon-
bered the part he played in the institution of Saint- fessor to the queen, and in 1644 returned with her to
Sulpice, whose founder, the saintly and celebrated France, where he died in 1647. Later other Endish
01ier(q. v.), was under his direction. He died in 1641; ecclesiastics joined the Oratory. Among the best
his remains, recovered by the present writer in 1884, known are: Father William Chalmers of Aberdeen (d.
are now preserved iu the choir of the chapel of the col- about 1660), who entered the Oratory in 1627, author
of "Diaput&tionee philosophicfe" (IdSO) and on edi-
tion (d various patnatic works (1634). After leaviag
the Oratory in 1637, he published aeveral other w<n^s.
including ''A Brief HiBtory of the Church in Scotland ''
(1643). Father John Whyte, of Loughill in Ireland, en-
tered the Oratory in 1647 and died a member in 1678.
He was also a not«d theologian and published "Theo-
remata ex universa theoloKia" (1670). A still more
distinguished member about this period was Father
Stephen Gough of Sussex. At first chaplain to the
AnRlican Archbiehop of Canterbury and doctor at Ox-
ford, he was converted to Catholicism by the Orato-
rians of the court of Henrietta of Franoe, whom we
mentioond above, and ia 1652 entered the OratoiTOf
Paris, at the &ge of tweoty-aeven. The Kcueral of the
'5 OaOAONA
in France. He appears to have been proreaaor of
theolocy and philosophy in theUniveraty of Angera.
where he enjoyed great reputation as an expounder of
the teaching of John Duns Scotus. After 1465 he
wrote bis luiief woric, a commentary on the Four
Books of Sentences. He was interred in the church
of the Ara Cceli on the CapitoUne. His chief works
are: "Expositio in IV Sententiarum Librae", a com-
pilation based on the teachings of John Duns Scotus,
published first at Rouen without date or place (s. I.
et a.)and then at Rouen without the year (s. a.); at
Paris, twice in 1^, agwn in 1499, 1511, and 1517: at
Ljrwit, 1603: at Usflenau, 1503; Venice, 1507; "E-
"TBitao in XII Ubroa M^"*""""" a—"*'^"''" ■""•'
Oratory, Father Bourgoing,^ stationed him at Notre-
Dame-de»-Vertu8, near Paris, at the head ot a semr-
naivf or English Catholic priests which he had founded,
ancf for which the English clergy thanked the Oratory
in a beautiful letter of congratulation. From 1661
Father Gough lived in Paris as almoner of the Queen
of England. He died of apoplexy In 1632, without
publisning t^e commentary on the Epistles of St. Paul
with immediate reference to the Protestant contro-
versy, which be had been preparing for many years.
In contrast to this illustrious convert is Father Levas-
aor of OrMans, who entered the Oratory in 1667, A
man of ability, but, according to Batterel, "too fond
of sport and good cheer", he ended by leaving the Ora-
tory uul apostatiiing, and died in England m 1718, a
canon in the EstabliSied Church.
Pessaud. L'OnioiTt dt Frana (ISU): Battuii. Utmoirtt
dmiHlifiiu, Ihoold, BMioerafikit onUrimm.
A. M. P. Ingou).
Orbellll, Nicolas d', Frandscan theologian and
fhilosopher, Scotist; b. about 1400; d. ^ Rome,
476. He seems to have entered the monastery of
the Observan tines, founded in 1407, one of the first
Cunpo Suto, FIw
positio Logics secundum Doctrinom Doctoris Sub-
tilia Scoti'^^fParma. 1482; Basle. 1494; VenieeJ607);
"Lo^OB Summula", with passages fromE^Wioii
(Ver ,
ticum" appeared without place or date (about I490;
(Bologna, 1485); "Dc Scientia Mathematica, Phy-
sica" etc. (Basle, 1494 and 1503).
Waddiho. Annoln 0. Min.. XIII (Rome, 1735), Iflfl; XIV.
136; XV, 310: WiDDiNO, Scri^tora O. Min. (Roau. IBSO), 268;
ibid. (ISOe). 182«q.; ibid. (1006), 170 sq.: Sbibaua, juppl*.
mtnl. nd Strift. O. Min. (Rome. 18061, 561-2: Guhbihoir,
Clinmia Oburt. in Analnda Fraiciirana. II IQuvuchi, 1887).
MO; OosiKDI. Serijilara ledaiait.. Ill (Leipiii. 172Z|, 2S46-7;
Pon, Dia. it Mot'oKl-iXrf, III (Piiris, JS7S). 35: Bain, Atfw-
(or, WWiojr., 12011m. " -.. — i_ ■~>..>_
■m. JS7S
Michael BtHL.
(the conventional name in art history of
Andrka di Cione, also called Arcaqnuolo or Arcan-
Qio) ; b. at Florence, early in the fourteenth century ; d.
there, 1368. The son of a goldsmith, he became arohi-
tect, sculptor, mosaist, pamter, and poet. His broth-
ers, Nardo, Jacopo, and Matteo, were also architects,
sculptors, and paintere: Nardo, the eldest, punted thr
J
OBCISTUS 276 ORDEALS
famous fresco of *' The Last Judf;inent '', still to be seen intersection of four roads and formed part of the " Dio-
in the Strozzi chapel in S; Mana NoveUa. a oomposi- cese of Asia"; consequently it must have belonged to
tion inspired by the " Divina Conmiedia , and com- Phrygia. In 451 it was in Galatia Secunda or Salu-
prising the Judgment, Paradise, and Hell as its three taris, probably from the formation of that province
parts. This fresco has been erroneously attributed about 386-05. The name comes from a tribe called
to Andrea, who became the most famous of the Cioni, Orci, which dwelt in the plains on the eastern fron-
but Lorenzo Ghiberti testifies to its beine the work of tier of Phrygia. Only three bishops are known : Dom-
Nardo. In the same way, the ''Triumph of Death" nus, at Ephesus (451); Lon^us, at Chalcedon (451);
and ''The Last Judgment" in the Campo Santo of andf Segemias, at Constantmople (692). But the see
Pisa, owing to their similarity to the S. Maria Novella is mentioned by the " Notitise episcopatuum" until
fresco, used to be attributed to Nardo and Andrea di the thirteenth century among the suffragans of Pes-
Cione. Both these brothers were registered in the sinus.
Florentine Guild of Painters in 1357. In that year , ^r!^"? -*•*• ^V*^' U? ^^"SJ?®?' ^«»"«*«L *'» ^*^ ^•^^T*
Andrea (Orcagna) collaborated with Francesco di J^^' ^^^^' ^'*^ ^•"^' ^28; Lb Qumn. Onen. cknu.. I.
Talento on plans for the enlargement of S. Maria del g^ PtTRmisB.
Fiore. In 1358 he executed mosaics for the facade of
the cathedral of Orvieto. Vasari makes Andrea Pi- OrdealB {ludicium Dei; An^lo-Saxon, orddl; Ger.
sano his master in the art of sculpture, but thid honour Urteil) were a means of obtaimng evidence by trials,
is more probably due to Neri di Fieravante, his spon- through which, by the direct interposition of Uod, the
Bor when he matriculated in the Guild of "masters of guilt or innocence of an accused person was firmly
stone and wood", in 1352. established, in the event that the truth could not be
According to Vasari, the Brotherhood of Orsam- proved by ordinary means. These trials owed their
michele took the offerings made to the Blessed Vir^n existence to the firm belief that an omniscient and just
during the plague of 1348 and used them to build God would not permit an innocent person to be re-
around her image an elaborately ornamented marble garded as guilty and punished in consequence, but
tabernacle. Orcagna was entrusted with this work, that He would intervene, by a miracle if necessary, to
which he completed in 1359. For brilliancy and rich- proclaim the truth. The ordeals were either imposed
ness of architecture as well as of decoration, Burck- oy the presiding judge, or chosen by the contesting
hardt regards this tabernacle as the most perfect work iMirties themselves. It was expected that God, ap-
of its kind in Italian Gothic. The mysteries of the* proving the act imposed or permitted by an authorized
life of the Blessed Vir^ are represented in bas-relief judge, would give a distinct manifestation of the truth
with a series of allegorical figures of the Virtues. The to reveal the guilt or innocence of the accused. It
Announcement of Mary's Death and the Assump- was believed fropa these premises that an equitable
tion are especially worthy of note. This tabernacle judgment must surely result. Ordeals are of two
of Orsammichde is Orcagna's only authentic sculp- kinds: those undergone only by the accused, and those
tural work, but his manner is discernible in the "An- taken part in by both parties to the action. It was
nunciation" of Santa Croce and in the bas-reliefs of the common opinion that the decision of God was
the Campanile of S. Maria del Fiore which repre- made known in the result of the test, either immediately
sent the Virtues and Liberal Arts. or after a short time. Ordeals were resorted to when
The chief paintings of Orca^a which have survived the contesting parties were unable to bring forward
are: a St. Matthew, painted, m collaboration with his further evidence, for according to the ancient German
brother Jacopo, for S. Maria Novella, now in the law, the production of evidence was not arranged for
Uffizi; a "Virgin with Angels", in the Somz^e coUec- by the court itself, but was left to the contestants,
tion at Brussels; a "Vision ol St. Bernard", in the Ordeals were known and practised by various peo-
Academy of Florence; a "Coronation of the Virgin", pies of antiquity, and are still to be met with to-day
executed for San Pier Maggiora^ Florence, now in the amon^ uncivilized tribes. The Code of Hammurabi
National Gallery, London. In 1357 Tommaso di prescnbes their use for the ancient Babylonians. The
Rossello Strozzi commissioned Orpagna to paint an person accused of a certain crime was subjected to the
altar-piece for the same chapel in which Nardo had test of cold water, which consisted in the person's
painted the frescoes.. This re-table is divided into five plunging into a river; if the river bore him away his
parts: in the centre Christ is enthroned, a pyramidal f^lt was established; if he remained quiet and unin-
crown on his brow, two little an^ls at his feet, playing mred in the water, his innocence was believed to have
music; at Christ's right hand is the Blessea Virsin, been proved (Winkler, "Die Cresetze Hammurabis",
E resenting St. Thomas Aquinas to Him; at His left Leipzig, 1902, 10). Among the Jews existed the test
and is the Precursor who indicates Christ to a kneel- of the Water of Jealousy, conducted by the priests,
ing St. Peter. In the last two compartments are seen, in which the woman accused of adultery must
on one side St. Lawrence and St. Paul, on the other consume the draught in their presence, after having
St. Michael and St. Catherine. Orcagna was commis- offered certain sacrifices, and the effects of which estatn
sioned in the following year to paint the life of the lished the woman's guilt or innocence (Num.. v, 12-
Blessed Virgin on the walls of the choir of S. Maria 31). Among the Indians are to be found likewise
Novella. These paintings were ruined by damp, ow- various kinds of ordeals, particularly that of the red-
ing to a leaking roof, but were restored by Ghirlandajo hot iron. This test of holdinga red-hot iron was also
who drew his inspiration from the happy "inventions known amon^ the Greeks. The Romans, however,
of Orcagna" (Vasari). with their highly-developed system of dispensing
Vasabi. Le vtte de' M eeeeUenH ptttori, ed. Milanbsi. I (Flor- justice, did not employ this means of obtaining proof.
'^^J!!!^'!^kTtZ,^Tvi^'ni'S^SS;^ I^Jii Ordeab found their cWef development among the
profettori del diaegno, II (Florence. 1768) ; Cbowb anb Catalca- Germamc peoples, in Germany itself as well as m those
BELLS, A New History of Painting in Italy, II (London, 1865); kingdoms which came into existence, after the migra-
fp^TsSS?; *B".°T*^^''fStSr«„i'*l^,^;. f(^S^ ««" «J,t^e nation* in the old Roman Provinces of
1003); SufDA. Plorentinitehe Maler urn die Wiue dea XIV Jahr- Gaul, Italv, and Bntam. They Were an essential part
Jl^**^* ^i®™^w^5' ^^Sl Y*'*''^^' -^^^ ^^ ^^ italiana, of the judicial system of the Germanic races in pagan
IV, 637; V. 767 (Milan. 1906-07). fi^„^,^„ times. Were preserved and developed after the con-
UABTON DORTAis. ycrsion of these peoples to Christianity, became wide-
OreistUB, titular see in Galatia Secunda. It is only spread and were in constant use.
mentioned in Peutinger's "Table". An inscription of The Christian missionaries did not in general com-
331 fixes the site at Alikel Yaila, also called Alekian, bat this practice. They opposed only the duel, and
in the vilayet of Angora. It was then a station at the endeavoured to minimize the barbarity attendant
OBDBIXS
277
0BDEAL8
upon the practice of ordeals. By prayer and reli(pous
oeremonies, by the hearing of holy Mass and the recep-
tion of holy communion before the ordeal, the mission-
aries sou^t to ^ve to it a distinctly religions charac-
ter. The liturgical pravers and ceremonies are to be
found in Frans. ''Die kirchlichen Benediktionen im
Mittelalter" (pWburg im Br., 1909), II, 364 sqq.;
the celebration of Mass on the occasion of the ordeal,
in Franz, ''Die Messe in deutschen Mittelalter'' (Frei-
burg im Br., 1902), 213 sqq. This attitude of the
clergy in regard to ordeals ma^ be explained if one
t^es into consideration the religious ideas of the times,
as well as the dose connexion which existed between
ordeals and the Germanic judicial ^stem.
The principal means of testing the accuser as well
as the accused in the Germanic judicial practice was
the Oath of the Co-jurors. It beins oft^ difficult to
find jurors who were properly quaufied, perjury fre-
auently resulted, and the oath could be rejected by
bie opposing party. In such cases, the ordeal was
brougnt forward as a substitute in determining the
truth, the guilt, or the innocence. This mode of pro-
cedure was tolerated by the Church in Germanic coun-
tries in the early Middle Ages. A thoroushgoing op-
position to ordeals would have had litUe prospect
of success. The only bishop to take measures against
the practice of ordeaJs during the conversion to Chris-
tiamty of the Germanic races was St. Avitus of Vienne
(d. about 518). Later, Agobard of Lyons (d. 840)
attacked the judicial duel and other ordeals in two
writing^ (" liber adversus l^em Grundobadi and Liber
contra iudiciimi Dei", in Migne. P. L., CIV, 125 sqq.,
254sq(i.). On the other nana, shortly afterwaros,
Archbishop Hincmar of Reims, at the time of the
matrimomal disagreement between King Lothair and
Theutberga, declared himself to be of the opinion that
ordeals were permissible, in support of which he must
assuredly have brought forws^ noteworthv argu-
ments ("De divortio Lotharii regis et Tetbergse",
in Migne, P. L.. CXXV, 659-80; cf. also Hincmar's
" Epistola ad £Qldep;arium episcopum ", ibid., 161 sqq.) .
The universal opimon among the peoples of the Frank-
ish kingdom favoured the authorization of ordeals,
and the same may be said of Britain. In 809 in the
Capitulary of Aachpn, Charlemagne declared: "that
aU should believe in the ordeal without the shadow of
a doubt" (Mon. Germ. Hist., Capitularia, 1, 150). In
the Bvzantine Empire also, we encounter in the later
Middle Ag;es the practice of ordeals, introduced from
the countries of tne West.
The ordeals, strictly speaking, of the Germanic coun-
tries are the following:
(1) The dudj cailed judicium Dei in the Book of
Laws of the Burgundian King Gundobad (c. 500).
(Mon. Germ. Hist., Leges. Ill, 537.) The outcome of
the judicial duel was looked upon as the judgment
of God. Only freemen were qualified to take part, and
women and ecclesiastics were permitted to appoint
substitutes. The duel originated in the pai^an times
of the Germanic peoples. In certain individual na-
tions were to be found various usages and regulations
regarding the manner in which the duel was to be
conducted. The Church combatted the judicial duel ;
Nicholas I declared it to be an infringement of the law
of God and of the laws of the Church ("Epist. ad
Carolum Calvum", in Migne, P. L., CXIX, 1144),
and several later popes spoke against it. Ecclesiastics
were forbidden to take part in a duel either personally,
or through a substitute. Only English books of
ritual of the later Middle Ages contain a formula
for the blessing of the shield and the sword for use in
the judicial duel; otherwise, no medieval Ritual con-
tains prayers for these ordeals, a proof that they were
not looked upon favourably by tne Church.
(2) The cra88, in which both parties, the accuser and
the accused, stood before a cross with arms out-
Stretched in the form of a cross. Whoever first let
fall his arms was defeated. The earliest informati<Ni
we possess regutling this form of ordeal dates from the
eighth century. It was destined to replace the duel,
and was prescribed by various capitularies of the
ninth century, especially for disputes with ecclesiastics.
(3) The hot iron, employed in various ways, not only
in courts of law, where the accused in ancient times
to prove his innocence must pass through fire or place
his hand in the flames, but also to prove the authen-
ticity of relics, and to reveal the truth in other ways.
The judicial te^t by fire, as an ordeal, was ordinarily
conducted in the following manner: the accused must
walk a certain distance (nine feet, among the Anglo-
Saxons) bearins a bar of red-hot iron in his hands, or
he must pass barefooted over red-hot ploughshares
(usually nine). If he remained uninjuied, ms inno-
cence was considered established. Medieval ecclesias-
tical Rituals of various dioceses contain prayers and
ceremonies for use before the undergoing of the test.
The accused was also obliged to prepare himself be-
forehand by confession and fasting.
(4) Hoi toateTf or the cauldron. The accused must
draw a stone with his naked arm from the bottom of
a vessel filled with hot water, after which the arm
was bound up and the bandage sealed; three days later
it was removed, and, according to the condition of his
arm, the accusra was considered innocent or gpilty.
The religious ceremonies for this ordeal were similar
to those used for the ordeal of the hot iron.
(5) Cold toater, in use at an early date among the
Germanic races, and which continued to be practised
notwithstanding theprohibition of the Emperor Louis
the Pious in 829. The accused, with hands and feet
bound, was cast into the water; if he sank, he was
considered guilty; if however he floated upon the
water, his innocence was believed to be established.
For tnis test also, the accused prepared himself by
fasting, confession, and commumon, and by assisting
at Mass.
(6) The bleeeed morsel {iiAdiciumoffcB, Anglo-Saxon
eormaed, nedbread), which consisted in the consuming
by the accused of a piece of bread and a piece of cheese
in the church before .the altar, the morsels being
blessed with special prayers. If he was able to swal-
low them, his innocence was established, but if not, he
was considered guilty. This test was in use princi-
pally among' the An^o-Saxons. It is not mentioned
m the ancient Crermanic codes of the Continent.
(7) The euapended loaf, — ^A loaf of bread was baked
by a deacon from meal and blessed water, through
which a stick of wood was passed. The suspected
person then appeared with two witnesses, between
whom the bread was suspended, which, if it turned in
a circle, was supposed to be a proof of guilt.
(8) The Psalter, which consisted in clamping into the
Book of Psalms a stick of wood with a knob attached,
and then placing the whole in an opening made in
another piece of wood, so that the book could turn.
The guilt of the accused was established if the Psalter
turned from west to east, and his innocence, if it
turned in a contrary direction.
(9) The Exdmen in mensuris. — ^Though forms of
prayer in connexion with its use have been handed
' down to US) they do not give us a clear idea of how this
I test was conducted. It would seem to have been
practised but seldom. It appears to have been an
ordeal decided by lot, or by the measuring of the ac-
cused by a stick of a determined length.
(10) bleeding, to discover a murderer. The person
suspected of the murder was forced to look upon the
body or the wounds of the victim. If the wounds
then began to bleed afresh, the guilt was supposed to
have been proved.
In addition to these forms of genuine ordeab, two
other kinds are frequently considered, which, however,
do not exactly correspond to the idea of a judgment of
God, as in their case there is no question of a direct
OBDIB 278 OKDVBlCm
establishment of a fact by the interposiiion of God. Peter Cantor (d. 1197) against the proceedinjn of the
The first of these is the oath, which is but a means of civil courts with regard to ordeals (in his ''Veibum
establishing the truth, accompanied by a solemn abbreviatum", Migne, P. L., CCV, 226 sqq.) had a
calling upon God, but which is not in any sense a far neater success. In "Tristan", Gottfried of
judgment of God. Another example is furnished by Strasburg sets forth his disapproval of ordeids.
the oelief that the perjured would, sooner or later, be As a result of the General Council of 1215, several
overtaken by death, which was God's punishment for synods of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries
perjury, but this was not a judicial ordeal. The same published prohibitions in this connexion. A synod
IS true of the Eucharistic test. The firm belief existed held at Valladolid in 1322 declares in Can. xxvii:
that if anyone to prove his innocence should receive ''The tests of fire and water are foibidden; whoever
Holv Communion, he would, if guilty^ be punished by participates in them is ipso facto excommunicated"
God with instant death. Here also it is quesUon of (Hefele, "Konjdhengesch.", Yl, 616). The Emperor
Divine chastisement : the judgment however not tak- Frederick II also prohibited the duel and other oraeqjs
ing place by means ot a juoiciiu process. When at the in the Constitution of Melfi, 1231 (Michael, ''Ge-
S}mod of Worms in 868 it was Grdered that the bishops schichte des deutschen Volkes ", I, 318) . Neverthe-
and priests should clear themselves of suspicion by less, there are to be found in Germanic code books as
the celebration of Mass, and the monks by the recep- late as the thirteenth century, regulations for their use.
tion of Holy (Communion, this was in reality of the However, a clearer recognition of the false ground for
same significance as the oath of purgation, by which beUef in ordeals, a more highly-develop^ judicial
those under shadow of suspicion swore to Uieir in- system, the fact that the innocent must be victims of
nocence. y the ordeal, the prohibitions of the popes and the sy-
The ecclesiastical authorities of the Prankish and nods, the refusal of the ecclesiastical authorities to co-
Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, as we have remi^ked above, operate in the carrying out of the sentence — ^all these
were very broad-minded in their acceptation of the causes worked together to bring about, during the
greater number of species of ordeals: several councils course of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, the
publishing regulations concerning them [cf . Hefele, gradual discontinuance of the practice. The ancient
*' Konziliengeschichte, " 2 ed., IIi; 611, 614, 623, 600. test of the cold water was resuscitated in the sixteenth
732; IV, 555; Synod of Tribur (895), IV, 672; Synod and seventeenth centuries in the ducking of so-called
of Seligenstadt (1022)]. Ordeals were practised in witches, consequent upon the trials for witchcraft.
Britain, France, and Crennany in connexion with Zsitmxb, Formula Merowngiei H KaroUni mi in Mon. Gemu
legal processes before civil as well as ecclesiastical S»^:i.£;^"»» -^'JL JSf^^yr/i^i???^' ^*^* ?jfe«^*'S!S^
« JL,.«.«i« «« *« «« J ^..•:»» 4.1.^ 4-\^i^^^^^*u -J f^„«- BenedtHumen %m M%tMaUer, II (Freiburg un Br., 1909), 307-9S;
tnbunalS up to and dunng the tmrteenth and four- Philups. Ueber die OrdaUen hei dm Oermanen CMunich. 1847);
teenth centuries. From then on they were gradually Ptali, Die germanitchen GaUenarieiU in BeriefU Hiber die ReaUchule
discontinued. gieipBig, 1865); Dabn, Studien Mur OeeehictUe der o^rmanieehen
The tribunals of Rome never made use of ordeals, ^ei diritto O'urii 189(S?2b BwmilLi^H^Si^difdl^j^i^
The popes were always opposed to them, and began, in Btudee rdigieueeB, LXIII, 1894. 337 sqq.; Idbm, Le dwl ;Wi-
at an early date, to take measures for their suppres- ««« «< W"«. •S^i^XIV. 1896, 49 Mq.; Vacanpabd. l;Wm«
Sion. It is true that in the beginning no geneSde- f^^^^^ ^^^dee de cni^ip^ et dl^uio^re relnneuee iP^rm.
cree was published regarding them; however, in indi- ' j p^ Kirsch.
Orctor, Supernatural. See Sxtpbrnatural Order.
vidua! cases concerning ordeals brought to Rome, the
popes always pronounced against the practice, and
designated it as unlawful. This course was followed
by Nicholas I when, in 867, he prohibited the duel by OrdericUB VitftUl, historian, b. 1075; d. about
which King Lothair sought to aecide his matrimonial 1143. He was the son of an English mother and a
dispute with Theutberga. The latter had previously. French priest who came over to, England with the
through one of her servants, submitted to the test ot Normans and received a church at Shrewsbury. At
hot water to prove her innocence, and indeed with the age of ten he was sent over by his father to St.
favourable results. Upon the inquiry of the Arch- Evroult in southern Normandy and remained for the
bishop of Mainz as to whether or not the tests of the rest of his life a monk of that abbe^. He must have
hot water and the glowing iron could lawfully be made travelled occasionally: we have evidence of his pres-
use of in the case of parents who were accused of hav- ence at Cambrai, for instance, and at Clunv, and he
ing smothered their sleeping child, Stephen V (885- went three or four times to England: still he passed
891) forbade these ordeaLs (Deer. C. 20. C. II, qu. 5). most of his days at home. He considered himself.
Alexander II (1061-73) likewise conaemned these however, an Englishman, "Vitalis Angligena", ana
tests, and Alexander III (115^81) prohibited the was always full of interest in English affairs. His his-
bisbop and the clergy of the Diocese of Upsala from tory was mtended at first to be a chronicle of his abbev
countenancing a dud or other ordeal imposed by law, but it developed into a general ** Historia Ecclesiastica
as such a practice was disapp>roved of by the Catholic in 13 books. Books I and II are an abridged chronicle
Church. Before long dennite condemnations were^ from the Christian era to 1143; books Ill-V describe
J>ubli8hed by the popes, as for example, that of Ce- the Norman Conquests of South Italy and England;
estine III (1191-98) regarding the duel. At the* book VI ^vee the history of his abbey. Books VII-
Council of the Lateran in 1215, Innocent III promul- XIII consist of his universal history from 751 to 1141,
gated a general decree against ordeals, which pro- book IX being devoted to the first Crusade. The
ibited anyone from receiving the blessing of the work begins to have real historical importance from
Church before submitting to the test of the hot water about the date of the Norman Conquest, but Ordericus
or to that of the glowing iron, and confirming the is discriminating throuf;hout in his choice of authori-
validity of the previous prohibition against the duel ties. Chronologically it^is ill-arranged and very in-
(Can. xviii; in Hefele, 1. c, V, 687). accurate; it is often pedantic in form. The author
Various accounts in regard to the co-operation of has, however, a wide interest and a keen sense of detail
the popes in the practice of ordeals in Prankish times and picturesque incident. He was a very well-read
which are contained in apocrvphal writings have no man. but he united to his leaminjg a taste seldom so
historic value. From the twelfth century, a thorough frankly admitted for popular stories and songs. He
and widespread opposition to ordeals, as a result of the was a man of observation and he attempted to give
stand taken by the popes, began to majiifest itself the outward appearance of the characters he described,
generally, and whereas, at an earlier date, no one was He was fair-minded, anxious to give two sides of a ques^
found to support Agobard of Lyons in his opposition to. tion and to be moderate in his judgments. In spite,
these tests, which was without result, the writings of . thereforeiof its clumsy arrangements and chronological
OBDIBS
279
ORDIBS
errors the "HistoriaEcclesiastica" eJvee a verv vivid
picture of the times and is of great historical value.
A competent authority has declined it the best French
historv of the twelfth century. Ordericus was also
Bometningof a poet and there are manuscripts of his
collected Latin poems. The best text of the " Historia
Ecclesiastical' is that edited by Le Provost for the
"Soci^t^ de Thistoire de France'' (5 vols., 1838-55).
The fifth volume contains a valuable introduction bv
L. Delisle. There is also a text in Migne. vol.
CLXXXVIII. A French translation i was published
in Guixot's "Collection des m^oires'' ana an Eng-
lish translation in Bohn's ''Antiquarian library^'
(4 vols., 1853-5).
MoLDOSB, Lm toureet de rhiaUnnde France, II. 219; Fbubiiaii,
Norman Convteet, IV, 495-600.
F. F. Ubquhart.
Ordon, Anglican. See Anoucan Obdbbs.
Orders, Holt.— Order is the appropriate disposi-
tion of things equal and unequal, by ^ving each its
proper place (St. Aug., " De civ. Dei," XIX, xiii).
Oroer primarily means a relation. It is used to
designate that on which the relation is founded and
thus generally means rank (St. Thom., "Suppl.",
Q. xxxiv, a. 2, ad 4um). in this sense it was applied
to clergy and laity (St. Jer., "In Isaiam", XlX,
18; St. Greg, the Great, "Moral.", XXXII, Mt).
The meaning was restricted later to the hierarchy
as a whole or to the various ranks of the clergy.
Tertullian and some early writers had already used
the word in that sense, but generally with a quali-
fying adjective (Tert., "De exhort, cast.", vii, ordo
sacerdotalis. ordo ecclesiasticus; St. Greg, of Tours.
"Vit. patr.", X, i, ordo clericorum). Order is used
to signify not only the particular rank or general
status of the clergy, but also the outward action by
which they are raised to that status, and thus stands for
ordination. It also indicates what differentiates laity
from clergy or the various ranks of the clergy^ and thus
means, spiritual power. The Sacrament ox Order is
the sacrament by which grace and spiritual power for
the discharge of ecclesiastical offices are conferred.
Christ founded His Church as a supernatural soci-
ety, the Kingdom of God. In this society there must
be the power of ruling ; and also the principles by which
the members are to attain their supernatural end, vis.,
supernatural truth, which is held by faith, and super-
natural grace by which man is formally elevated to the
supernatural order. Thus, besides the power of juris-
diction, the Church has the power of teaching (magis'
terium) and the power of conferring grace (power of
order). This power of order was committed by our
Lord to His Apostles, who were to continue His work
and to be His earthly representatives. The Apostles
received their power from Christ : " as the Father hath
sent me, I iJso send you "(John, xx, 21). Christ pos-
sessckl fullness of pojver in virtue of His priesthoodyof
His office as. Redeemer and Mediator. He merited
the grace which freed man from the bondage of sin,
whidi grace is applied to man mediately by the Sacri-
fice of the Eucharist and immediately by the sacra-
ments. He gave His Apostles the power to offer the
Sacrifice (Luke, xxii, 19), and dispense the sacraments
(Matt., xxviii, 18; John, xx, 22, 23) ; thus making them
priests. It is true that every Christian receives sanc-
tifying grace which confers on him a priesthood. Even
as Israel under the Old dispensation was to (jrod "a
priestly kingdom" (Exod., xix, 4-6), thus under the
New, all Christians are "a kingly priesthood" (I Pet.,
ii, 9); but now as then the special and sacramental
priesthood strengthens and perfects the universal
priesthood (cf. II Cor., iii, 3, 6; Rom., xv, 16).
Sacrament of Order. — From Scripture we learn
that the Apostles appointed others by an external rite
(imposition of hanas), conferring inward grace. The
fact that grace is ascribed immediately to the ex-
. temal rite, shows that Christ must have thus ordained.
The fact that x^^^'^^^t x*i^vro9ia,y which meant elect- ^
ing b^ show of hands, had acquired the technical
meaning of ordmation by imposition' of hands before
the mi(mle of the third century, shows that appoint-
ment to the various orders was made by that exter-
nal rite. We read of the deacons, how the Apostles
"praying, imposed hands upon them" (Acts, vi, 6).
In IITlm., i, 6 St. Paul reminds Timothy that he was
made a bishop by the imposition of St. Fi^ul's hands
(cf . I Tim., iv, 4), and Timothy is exhorted to appoint
presbyters by the same rite (I Tim^ v, 22; cf . Acts, xiii.
3; xiv, 22). In Clem., "Hom.". Ill, Ixxii, we read oi
the appointment of Zacheus as bishop b]^ the imposi-
tion of Peter's hands. The word is used in its techni-
cal meaning by Clement of Alexandria ("Strom.",
VI, xiii, cvi; cf. "Const. Apost.", II, viii, 36). "A
priest lays on hands, but does not ordain" (x««po^er<?
o^ xevoroFci) "Didasc. Syr.", IV; III, 10, 11, 20;
Cornelius, "Ad Fabianum" in Euseb., "Hist. EccL",
VLxliii.
Urace was attached to this external sign and con-
femd by it. " I admonish thee, that thou stir up the
grace of God which is in thee, through (dti) the in-
position of my hands" (II Tim., i, 6). The context
clearly shows that there is question here of a grace
which enables Timothy to rightly discharge the office
imposed upon him, for St. Paul continues "(xod hath
not given us the spirit of fear: but of power, and of
love, and of sobriety." This grace is something per-
manent, as appears from the words "that thou stir
up the grace which is in thee " ; we reach the same con-
clusion from I Tim., iv, 14, where St. Paul sasrs, " Neg-
lect not the grace that is in thee^ which was given thee
by prophecv, with iji^i) imposition of hands of the
priesthood." This text shows that when St. Paul
ordained Timothy, the presbyters also laid their hands
rn him. even as now the presbyters who assist at or-
ition lay their hands on the candidate. St. Paul
here exhorts Timothy to teach and command, to be
an example to aU. To neglect this would be to neglect
the grace which is in him. This grace therefore en-
ables him to teach and oommanof, to discharge his
office rightly. The grace then is not a charismatic
gift, but a gift of the Holy Spirit for the ri^tful
discharge of official duties. The Sacrament of Order
has ever been recognise^ in the Church as such. This
is attested by the Belief m a special priesthood (cf . St.
John Chrys., "De sacerdotio": St. Grejp^. of Nyss..
" Oratio in baptism. Christi " ) , which requires a special
ordination. St. Augustine, speaking about baptism
and order, says^ "Each is a sacrament, and each is
given by a certam consecration, . . . If both are sac-"
raments, which no one doubts, how is the one not lost
(bv defection from the Church) and the other lost?"
(dontra. Epist. Parmen., ii. 28-30). The Council of
Trent says. "Whereas, by the testimony of Scripture,
by Apostolic tradition, and by the unanimous con-
sent of the Fathers, it is clear that grace is conferred by
sacred ordination, which is performed by words and
outward signs, no one ought to doubt that Order is
truly and properly one of the Seven Sacraments of
Holy Church '^(Sess. XXIII. c. iii, can. 3).
Number of Orders. — The Council of Trent (Sees.
XXIII, can. 2) defined that, besides the priesthood,
there are in the Church other orders, both major ana
minor (q. v.) . Though nothing has been defined with
regard to the number of orders it is usually given as
seven: priests, deacons, subdeacons, acolytes, exor-
cists, readers, and doorkeepers. The pnesthood Is
thus counted as including bishops; if the latter be
numbered separately we have eight ; and if we add first
tonsure, which was at one time regarded as an order,
we have nine. We meet with different numberings in
different Churches, and it would seem that mystical
reasons influenced them to some extent (Marttoe, " De
antiq. eccl. rit.", I, viii, 1, 1 ; Densinger^ "Rit. orient."
»
ORDIBS
280
OBDBR8
n, 155) . The " Statuta ecdesis antiqua " enumerate
nine orders, adding psalmists and counting bishops and
priests separately. Others enumerate eight orders,
thus, e. g. the author of ''De divin. offic", 33, and St.
Dunstan's and the Jumidges pontificals (Marttoe I,
viii, 11), the latter not counting bishops, and addin|^
cantor. Innocent III, "De sacro alt. minister.'', I, i,
counts six orders, as do also the Irish canons, where
acolytes were unknown. Besides the psalmista or
cantor, several other functionaries seem to have been
recognized as holding orders, e. g., fosaarii (Josaorea)
grave-diggers, hermeneuUK (interpreters), cuatodes mar^
tyrum etc. Some consider them to Inive been real
orders (Morin, ''Comm. desacriseccl.ordin.", Ill, Ex.^
llj 7); but it is more probable that they were merelv
offices, generally committed to clerics (Benedict XIV,
"De syn. dioc.^'j VIII, ix, 7, 8). In the East there is
considerable variety of tradition regarding the number
of orders. The Greek Church acknowledges five, bish-
ops, priests, deacons, subdeacons, and reisulers. The
same number is found in St. John Damascene (Dial,
contra manichsBos, iii) ; in the ancient Greek Church
acolytes, exorcists, and doorke^>ers were probably
considered only as offices, (cf. Denzinger, "Hit.
orient.", I, 116).
In the Latin Church a distinction is made between
major and minor orders (q. v.). In the East the sub-
diaconate is regarded as a minor order, and it includes
three of the other minor orders (porter, exorcist,
acolyte). In the Latin Church the priesthood, dia-
conate, and subdiaconate (q. v.) are the major^ or
sacred, orders, so-called because theyhave immediate
reference to what is consecrated (St. Thom., ''Suppl.",
Q. xxxvii, a. 3). The hierarchical orders strictly so-
called are of divine origin (Cone. Trid., Sess. XaIII,
can. 6). We have seen that our Lord instituted a
ministry in the persons of His Apostles, who received
fullness of authority and power. One of the first ex-
ercises of this Apostolic power was the appointment of
others to help and succeed them. The Apostles did
not confine their labours to any particular Church,
but, following the Divine command to make disciples
of ail men, they were the missionariejs of the first gen-
eration. Others also are mentioned in Holy Scripture
as exercising an itinerant ministry, such as those who*
are in a wioer sense called Apostles (Rom., xvi, 7), or
grophets, teachers, and evangelists (Eph., iv, 11).
ide bv side with this itinerant ministry provision is
made for the ordinary ministrations by the appoint-
ment of local ministers, to whom the duties of the
ministry passed entirely when the itinerant ministers
disappeared (see Deacon).
Besides deacons others were appointed to the min-
istry, who are called rpevft&refHK and hrlvKowoi, TTiere
is no record of their institution, but the names occur
casually. Though some have explained the appoint-
ment of the seventy-two disciples in Luk.e x, as the in-
stitution of the presbyterate, it is generally agreed that
they had only a temporary appointment. We find
presbyters in the Mother Church at Jerusalem, re-
ceiving the gifts of the brethren of Antioch. Thev ap-
pear in dose connexion with the Apostles, and the
Apostles and presbyters sent forth tne decree which
freed the gentile converts from the burden of the Mo-
saic law (Acts, XV, 23). In St. James (v, 14, 15) they
appear as performing ritual actions, and from St. Peter
we learn that they are shepherds of the flock (I Pet.
V, 2). The bishops hold a position of authority
(rhil., i; I Tim., iii, 2; Tit., i, 7;) and have been ap-
pointed shepherds bv the Holy Ghost (Acts, xx, 28).
That the ministry of both was local appears from Acts,
xiv, 23, where we read that Paul and Barnabas ap-
pointed presbyters in the various Churches which they
founded during their first missionary journey. It is
shown also by the fact that they had to shepherd the
flock, wherein thev have been appointed, the presby-
ters nave to shepherd the flock, that ia anwnn^t thm
We cannot argue from the difference of names to
the difference of official position, because the names
are to some extent interchangeable (Acts, xx, 17, 28;
Tit., i, 6, 7). The New Testament does not clearly
show the distinction between presbyters and bishops,
and we must examine its evidence in the light of later
times. Towards the end of the second centunr there
is a unive/rsal and unquestioned tradition, that bicdiope
and their superior authority date from Apostolic times
(see HiERABCHT OF THE Eablt Chubch). It throws
much light on the New-Testament evidence and we
find that what appears distinctly at the time of Isna-
tius can be traced through the pastoral epistles ofSt.
Paul, to the very beginning of the history of the Mother
Church at Jerusalem, where St. James^ the brother
of the Lord, appears to occupy the position of bi^op
(Acts, xii, 17; xv. 13; xxi, 18; Gal., ii, 9); Timothy and
Titus possess full episcoi)a] authority, and were ever
thus recognized in tradition ^cf. Tit., i. 6; I Tim., v,
19 and 22) < No doubt there is much ODscurity in the
New Testament, but this is accounted for by many
reasons. The monuments of tradition never give us
the life of the Chuirch in all its fullness, and we cannot
expect this fullness, with regard to the internal organi-
zation of the Church existing in Apostolic times, from
the cursory references in the occasional writings of
the New Testament. The position of bishops would
necessarily be much less prominent than in later
times. The supreme authority of the Apostles, the
Kreat number of charismatically gifted persons, the
fact that various Churches were ruled by Apostolic
delegates who exercised episcopal authority under
Apostolic diiection, would prevent that special
prominence. The union between bishops and presby-
ters was close, and the names remainea interchange-
able long after the distinction between presbyters and
bishops was commonly recognized, e. e.. in Iren.,
" Adv. hajree.", IV, xxvi, 2. Hence it woula seem that
already, in the New Testament, we find, obscurely no
doubt, the same ministry which appeared so distinctly
afterwards.
Which of the Orders are Sacramentalt — ^AU agree
that there is but one Sacrament of Order, i. e., the
totality of the power conferred by the sacrament is
contained in the supreme order, whilst the others con-
tain only part thereof (St. Thomas, "Supplem.", Q.
xxxvii, a. i, ad 2""). The sacramental character of the
priesthood has never been denied by anyone who ad-
mitted the Sacrament of Order, and, thou^ not ex-
plicitly defined, it follows immeoiately from the state-
ments of the Council of Trent. Thus (Sess. XXIII.
can. 2), ''If any one saith that besides the priesthooa
there are not m the Catholic Church other orders,
both major and minor, by which as by certain steps,
advance is made to the priesthood, let him be anath-
ema.'' In the fourth chapter of the same session^ after
declaring that the Sacrament of Order imprints a
character ''which can neither be ^aced nor taken
away; the holy synod with reason condemns the opin-
ion of those who assert that priests of the New Testa-
ment have only a temporary power ". The priesthood
is therefore a sacrament.
With regard to the episcopate the Council of Trent
defines that bishops belong to the divinely instituted
hierarchy, that they are superior to priests, and that
they have the power of confirming and ordaining
which is proper to'them (Sess. XXIII, c. iv, can. 6, 7).
The superiority of bishops is abundantly attested in
Tradition, and we have seen above that the distinction
between priests and bishops is of Apostolic origin.
Most of tne older scholastics were of opinion that the
episcopate is not a sacrament; tlus opinion finds able
defenders even now (e. g.. Billot, *'De sacramentis",
II)i though the majority of theologians hold it is oer^
ORDIBS
281
ORDIBS
tain that a bishop's ordination is asacrament. VClth
regard to the sacramental character of the other orders
see Dkaconb: Minor Ordbbs; Subdbacons.
Matter ana Form, — In the question of the matter
and form of this sacrament we must distinguish be-
tween the three higher orders and the submaconate
and minor orders. The Church having instituted the
hitter, also determines their matter and form. With
regard to the former, the received opinion maintains
that the imposition of hands is the sole matter. This
has becna undoubtedly used from the beginning; to it,
exclusively and directly, the conferring of grace is as-
cribed bv St. Paul and manv Fathers and councils. The
Latin Church used it exclusively for nine or ten cen-
turies, and the Greek Church to this day knows no
other matter. Many scholastic theologians have held
that the tradition of the instruments was the sole
mattOT even for the strictly hierarchical orders, but this
position has long been umversally abandoned. Other
scholastics held that both imposition of hands and the
tradition of the instruments constitute the matter
of the sacrament; this opinion still finds defenders.
Appeal is made to the Decree of Eugene IV to the
Armenians, but the pope spoke "of the integrating and
accessory matter and form, which he wi&ed Arme-
nians to add to the imposition of hands, long since in
use amongst them, that thev might thus conform to
the usage of the Latin Church, and more firmlv adhere
to it, by uniformity of rites" (Bened., XIV. "De S3m.
dioc", VIII, X, 8). The real foundation of the latter
opinion is the^power of the Church with regard to the
sacrament. Christ, it is argued, instituted the Sacrum
ment of Order by instituting that in the Church there
should be an external rite, which would of its own na-
ture signify and confer the priestly power and corre-
sponding ^ace. As Christ aid not ordain His Apostles
by imposition of hands, it would seem that He left
to the Church the power of determining by which par-
ticular rite the power and grace should be oonfeired.
The Church's determination of the particular rite
would be the fulfilling of a condition required in order
that the Divine institution should take effect. The
Church determined the simple imposition of hands for
the East and added, in the course of time, the tradition
of the instruments for the West — changing its sym-
bolical language according as circumstances of place
or time requirra.
The question of the form of the sacrament naturally
depends on that of the matter. If the tradition of the
instruments be taken as the total or partial matter,
the words which accompany it will be taken as the
form. If the simple imposition of hands be consid-
ered the sole matter, the words which belong to it are
thevform. The form which accompanied the imposi-
tion of hands contains the words "Accipe spintum
sanctum", which in the ordination of priests, however,
are found with the second imposition of nands, to-
wards the end of the Mass, but these words are not
f oimd in the old rituals, nor in the Greek Euchology.
Thus the form is not contained in these words, but m
the longer prayers accompanying the former imposi-
tion of hands, substantially the same from the begin-
ning. AU that we have said about the matter and
form is speculative : in practice, whatever has been pre-
scribed by the Church must be followed, and the
Church in this, as in other sacraments, insists that any-
thing omitted -should be supplied.
Effect of the Sacrament, — ^The first effect of the sac-
rament is an increase of 8anctif3ring grace. With this,
there is the sacramental jprace which makes the recip-
ient a fit and holy minister in the discharge of his
office. As the duties of God's ministers are manifold
and onerous, it is in perfect accord with the rulings of
God's Providence to confer a spedal grace on His min-
isters. The dispensation of sacraments requires grace,
and the rightful discharge of sacred offices presupposes
a speml degree of spiritual excellence. Thid external
sacramental sign or the power of the order can be re-
ceived and may exist without this grace. Grace is
required for the worthy, not the valid, exercise of the
power, which is immediately and inseparably con-
nected with the priestly cliigtracter. The prmcipal
effect of the sacrament is the character (q. v.), a
spiritual and indelible mark impressed upon the soul,
by which the recipient is distinguished from others,
designated as a minister oi Christ, and deputed and
empowered to perform certain offices of Divine wor-
ship (Summa, III, Q. bdii, a. 2). The sacramental
character of order distinguishes the ordained from the
laity. It gives the recipient in the diaconate, e. ^.,
the power to minister officially, in the priesthood, the
power to offer the SjMirifice and dispense the sacra-
ments, in the episcopate the power to ordain new priests
and to confirm the faithful. The Council of Trent de-
fined the existence of a character (Sees. VII, can. 9).
Its existence is shown especially by the fact that ordi-
nation like baptism, if ever valid, can never be re-
peated. Though there have been controversies with
regard to the conditions of the validity of ordination,
and different views were held at different times in ref-
erence to them, ''it has ^ways been admitted that a
valid ordination cannot be repeated. Reordinations
do not suppose the negation of the inamissible charac-
ter of Order — ^they presuppose an anterior ordinaticm
which was null. There can be no doubt that mistakes
were made regarding the nullity of the first ordination,
but this error of fact lei^ves the doctrine of the initer^
ability of ordLaation* untouched" (Saltet, ''Les R^
ordinations", 302).
Minister, — ^The ordinaiy minister of the sacrament
is the bishop, who alone has this power in virtue of his
ordination. Holy Scripture attributed the power to
the Apostles and their successors (Acts, vi, 6; xvi, 22;
I Tim., V, 22; II Tun., i, 6; Tit., i, 5), and the Fathers
and councils ascribe the power to the bishop exclu-
sively. Con. Nic. I, can. 4, Apost. Const. VIII. 28
''A bishop lays on hands, ordains. . . a presbyter lays
on handSj but does not ordain." A council held at
Alexandria (340) declared the orders conferred by
Caluthus, a presbyter, null and void (Athanas.,
" Apol. contra Arianos", ii). For the custom said to
have existed in the Church of Alexandria see Egypt.
Nor can objection be raised from the fact that cAor-
episcopi are known to have ordained priests, as there
can be no doubt that some charepUcopi were in bish-
ops' orders (Gillman, ''Das Institut der Chorbischdfe
im Orient," Munich, 1903; Hefele-Leclercq, "Con-
ciles", II, 1197-1237). No one but a bishop can give
any orders now without a delegation from the pope,
but a simple priest may be thus authorized to confer
minor orders and the subdiaconate. It is generally
denied that priests can confer priests' orders, and hi»-
tory, certainly, records no instance of the exercise of
such extraordinary ministry. The diaconate cannot
be conferred by a simple priest, according to the ma-
jority of theologians. This is sometimes questioned,
as Innocent Vlfl is said to have granted the privilege
to Cistercian abbots (1489), but the genuineness of the
concession is very doubtful. For lawful ordination
the bishop must be a Catholic, in communion with the
Holy See, free from censures, and must observe the
laws prescribed for ordination. He cannot lawfully
ordain anv except his own subjects without authoriza-
tion (see below).
Svhject, — ^Every baptized male can validly receive
ordination. Though in former times there were sev-
eral semi-clerical ranks of women in the Church (see
Deaconesses), they were not admitted to orders prop-
erly so called and had no spiritual power. The firat
requisite for lawful ordination is a Divine vocation;
by which is understood the action of God, whereby He
selects some to be His special ministers, endowing
them with the spiritual, mental, moral, and ph^cal
qualiUes required for the fitting discharge of th^ or-
OSDIB8
282
der and inspiring them with a sincere desire to enter
the ecclesiastical state for God's honour and their own
sanctification. The reality of this Divine call is mani-
fested in general by sanctity of life, right faith, know-
ledge corresponding to the proper exercise of the order
to which one is raised, abscoice of physical defects, the
age reauired by the canons (see iRREGULARmr).
Sometimes this call was manifested in an extraordi-
nary manner (Acts, i, 15; xiii, 2); in general, however,
the ''calling" was made according to the laws of the
Church founded on the example of the Apostles.
Though clergy and laity had a voice in the election of
the candidates, the ultimate and definite determina-
tion rested witib the bishops. The election of the can-
didates by clergy and laity was in the nature of a tee-
timonv of fitness, the bishop had to personall^r ascer-
tain the candidates' ouidificationff. A public inquiry
was held regarding tneir faith and moral charact^
and the electors were consulted. Only such as were
personally known to the electing congregation, i. e.,
members of the same Church, were chosen.
A specified a^ was requirea, and, though there was
some diversity in different places, in ^neral, for dea-
cons the age was twenty-nve or thirty, for priests
thirty or thirty-five, for bishops thirty-five .or forty
or even fiftv (Apost. Const., II, i). Nor was physical
age deemed sufficient, but there were prescribed speci-
fied periods of time, during which the ordained should
remain in a particular degree. The different degrees
were considered not merely as steps preparatory to the
priesthood, but as real chureh offices. In the begin-
ning no such periods, called interstices, wefe appointed,
though the tendency to orderly promotion is attested
already in the pastoral Epistles (I Tim., iii, 3, 16).
The fiirst rules were apparently made in the fourth
century. They seem to nave been enforced by Siricius
(385) and somewhat modified by Zosimus (418), who
decreed that the office of reader or exorcist should last
till the candidate was twentv, or for five years in case
of those baptized as adults : four years were to be spent
as acolyte or subdeacon, five years as deacon. This
was modified by Pope Gelasius (492). according to
whom a layman who had been a monK mi^ht be or-
dained priest after one year, thus allowing tliree
months to elapse between each ordination, and a lay-
man who had not been a monk might be ordained
priest after eighteen months. At present the minor
orders are generally conferred toother on one day.
The bishops, who are the ministers of the sacrament
ex officio, must inquire about the birth, person, age,
title, faith, and moral character of the candidate.
They must examine whether he is bom of Catholic
parents, and is spiritually, intellectuidly, moraJly, and
physically fit for the exercise of the ministry. Ine age
required by the canons is for subdeacons twenty-one,
for deacons twenty-two, and for priests twenty-four
years completed. The pope may dispense from any
irregularity and the bishops generally receive some
power of dispensation also with regard to age^ not
usually for subdeacons and deacons, but for priests.
Bishops can generally dispense for one year, whilst the
pope gives dispensation for over a year; a dispensation
for more than eighteen months is but very rarely
granted. For admission to minor orders, the testi-
mony from the parish priest or from the master of the
school where the candidate was educated — generally,
therefore, the superior of the seminary — is required.
For major orders further inquiries must be made.
The names of the candidate must be published in the
place of his birth and of his domicile and the result of
such inquiries Bxe to be forwarded to the bishop. No
bishop may ordain those not belonging to his diocese
by reason of birth, domicile, benefice, or familiariUu,
without dimissorial letters from the candidate's bishop.
Testimonial letters are also required from all the
bishops in whose dioceses the candidate has resided
for over six months, after the age of seven. Tran»-
gression of this rule is punished by suefpension latm
sentenUcf against the ordaining bishop. In recent
years several decisions insist on the stnct interpreta-
tion of these rules. Subdeacons and deacons snould
pass one full year in these orders and they may then
proceed to receive the priesthood. This is laid down
by the Council of Trent (Sess. XXIII, c. xi.), which did
not pr^u»ibe the time for minor orders. The bishop
generally has the power to dispense from these inter-
stices, but it is absolutely forbidden, unless a special
indult be obtained, to receive two major orders or the
minor orders and the subdiaconate in one day.
For the subdiaconate and the higher orders there
is, moreover, required a title^ i. e., the right to receive
maintenance from a determmed source. Again, the
candidate must observe the interstices, or times re-
auired to elapse between the reception of various or-
ers; he must also have received confirmation and the
lower orders preceding the One to which he is raised.
This last .requirement does not affect the validity of
the order conferred, as every order gives a distinct and
independent power. One exception is made by the
majority of theologians and canonists, who are of
opinion that episcopal consecration requires the pre-
vious reception of priest's 6rdcrB for its validity.
Others, however, maintain that episcopal power in-
itr
without having previously received priest's orders,
and though most of the cases are somewhat doubtful
and can be explained on other grounds, it seems im-
possible to reject them all. It is further to be remem-
bered that scholastic theologians mostly required the
previous reception of priest's orders for valid episcopal
consecration, oecause they did not consider episcopacy
an order, a view which is now generally abandoned.
Obligaiiana. — For obligations attached to holy Or-
ders see Breviary; Celibacy of the Clerqt.
Ceremonies of Ordination, — From the beginning the
diaconate, priesthood, and episcopate were conferred
with special rites and ceremonies. Though in the
course of time there was considerable development and
divernty in different parts of the Church, tne imposi-
tion of hands and prayer were always and univeisally
employed and date from Apostolic times (Acts, vi, 6;
xiii, 3; I Tim., iv, 14; II Tim., i, 6). In the early
Roman Churcn these sacred orders were confeired
amid a great concourse of clergy and people at a
solemn station. The candidates, who had been pre-
viously presented to the people, were summoned by
name at the beginning of the solemn Mass. They
were placed in a conspicuous position, and anyone
objecting to a candidate was called upon to state
his objections without fear. Silence was regarded as
approval. Shortly before the Crospel, after the candi-
dates were presented to the pope, the entire congrega-
tion was invited to prayer. Ail prostrating, the litan-
ies were recited, the pope then imposed his nands upon
the head of ^each candidate and recited the Collect
with a prayer of consecration corresponding to the
order conferred. The Gallican Rite wais somewhat
more elaborate. Besides the ceremonies used in the
Roman Church, the people approving the candidates
by acclamation, the hands of the deacon and the head
and hands of priests and bishops were anointed with
the si^ of the Cross. After the seventh century the
tradition of the instruments of office was added, alb
and stole to the deacon, stole and planeta to the priest, .
ring and staff to the bishop. In the Eastern Cnureh,
after the presentation of the candidate to the congre-
gation and their shout of approval, ''He is worthy",
the bishop imposed his hands upon the candidate and
said the consecrating prayer.
We now give a short description of the ordination
rite for priests as found in the present Roman Pon-
tifical. All the candidates should present themselves
OBDIBS
283
OBDIBS
in the church with tonsure and in clerical dreaB, carry-
ing the vestments of the order to which they are to be
raised, and lighted candles. They are all summoned
bv name, each candidate answering **Ad8Ufn*\
When a general ordination takes place the tonsure is
given after the Introit or Kyrie, the minor orders after
the Gloria, subdiaconate after the Ck>llect, the diaconate
after the Epistle, priesthood after Alleluia and Tract.
After the Tract of the Mass the archdeacon summons
aU who are to receive the priesthood. The candidates,
vested in amice, alb, girole, stole, and maniple, with
folded chasuble on left arm and a candle in their right
hand, f,o forward and kneel around the bishop. Tbe
latter mquires of the archdeacon, who is here the rep-
resentative of the Church as it were, whether the can-
didates are worthy to be admitted to the priesthood.
The archdeacon answers in the affirmative and his
testimony represents the testimony of fitness given in
ancient times by the clergy and people. The bii^op,
then charging the congr^ation and insisting upon the
reasons why the Fathers decreed that the people also
should be consulted", asks that, if anyone has anv-
thing to say to the prejudice ot the candidates, he
should come forward and state it. '
The bishop then instructs and admonishes the can-
didates as to the duties of their new office. He kneels
down in front of the altar; the ordinandi lay them-
selves prostrate on the carpet, and the Litany of the
Saints is chanted or recited. On the conclusion of the
litany, all arise, the candidates come forws^, and
kneel in pairs before the bishop while he lays both
hands on the head of each candidate in silence.
The sam^ is done b^ all priests who are present.
Whibt bishop and pnests keep their light himds ex-
tended, the former alone recites a prayer, inviting all
to pray to God for a blessing on the candidjEites. ^ter
this follows the Collect and then the bishop says the
Preface, towards the end of which occurs tne prayer,
''Grant, we beseech Thee etc.'' The bishop then
with appropriate formuke crosses the stole over the
breast of each one and vests him with the chasuble.
This is arranged to han^ down in front but is folded
behind. Though there is no mention of the stole in
many of the most ancient Pontificals, there can be no
doubt of its antic^uity. The vesting with the chasuble
is also very ancient and foimd already in MabiUon
"Ord. VIII and IX." Afterwards the bishop recites
a prayer calling down God's blessing on the newly-
ordained. He then intones the ''Veni Creator", and
whilst it is being sung bv the choir he anoints the
hands of each with the oil of catechumens.
In England the head also was anointed in ancient
times. The anointing of the hands, which in ancient
times was done with chrism, or oil and chrism, was not
used by the Roman Church, said Nicholas I (a. d.
864). though it is generally found in all ancient or-
dinals. It probably became a general practice in the
ninth century and seems to have been derived from the
British Church (Haddan and Stubbs, "Councils and
Ek;cl. Documents", I, 141). The bishop then hands
to each the chalice, containing wine and water, with
a paten and a host upon it. This rite, with its corre-
sponding formula, which as Hugo of St. Victor says
(''Sacr. , III, xii), sixties the power which has al-
ready been received, is not found in the oldest rituals
and probably dates back not earlier Uian the ninth or
tenth century. When the bishop has finished the
Offertory of the Mass, he seats himself before the mid-
dle of the altar and each of those ordained make an
offering to him of a lighted candle. The newly-
ordained priests then repeat the Mass with him, all say-
ing the words of consecration simultaneously. Before
the Communion the bishop gives the kiss of peace to
one of the newly-ordained. After the Communion
the priests again approach the bishop and say the
Apostles' Creed. The bishop laying his hands upon
each says: ''Receive ye the Holy uhost, -whose sins
you shall forgive they are forgiven them: and whose
sins you shall retain, they are retained." This imposi-
tion of hands was introduced in the thirteenth century.
The chasuble is then folded, the newly-ordained make
a promise of obedience and naving received the kiss of
peace, return to theix place.
Time and Place. — During the first centuries ordi-
nation took place whenever demanded by the needs
of the Church. The Roman pontiffs generally or-
dained in December (Amalarius, "De offic", 11, -i).
Pope Gelasius (494) decreed that the ordination of
priests and deacons should be held at fixed times and
days, viz., on the fasts of the fourth, seventh, and
tenth months, also on the fasts of the beginning and
midweek (Passion Sunday) of I^ent and on (hol}^)
Saturday about sunset (Epist. ad ep. Luc, xi). This
but confirmed what Leo the Great laid down, for he
seems to speak of ordination on Ember Saturdays
as an Apostolic tradition (Serm. 2. de jejun. Pentec.)
The ordination may take place either after sunset on
the Saturday or early on Sunday morning. The or-
dination to major orders took place before the Gospel.
Minor orders might be given at any day or hour.
They were generally given after holy communion . At
§ resent minor orders may be ^ven on Sundays and
ays of obligation (suppressed mcluded) in the morn-
ing. For the sacred orders, a privilege to ordain on
other days than those appointed by the canons, pro-
vided the ordination tidces place on Sunday or day of
obligation (suppressed days included), is very com-
monly pven. Though it was always the rule that
ordinations should take place in public^ in time of per-
secution they were sometimes held in pn vate buildings.
The place of ordinations is the churcn. Minor orders
may be conferred in any place, but it is understood
that they are ^ven in the church. The Pontifical
directs that ordmations to sacred orders must be held
publicly in the cathedral church in presence of the
cathedral chapter, or if they be held in some other
place, the clergy should be present and the principal
church, as far as possible, must be made use of (cf .
Cone. Trid« Sess. XXIII, c. vii). (See Subdbacon,
Deacons, Hibrarcht, Minor Orders, Alimenta-
tion).
The subject of Ordbb ia treated in its various aspects in the
general works on Dognuttic Theology (Church and Sacra-
ments). Billot; Pbsch, De Soar,, pars II (Freiburg, 1909);
Tanquvbbt; Hubtbb; Wilbblm and Scajtnxll, A liantuU of
Catholie Theology, II (London, 1908). 491-509; Einio; TefI.;
Tournblt; Sasbb; Palmibrx. De Romano Pontifiee: Petaviub,
De Bcdeaia; Hibrabch in Dogm., Ill; Ds Auoustinis, Halts-
CLAU in Wireelntrgeneee, In Moral Theology and Canon Law,
Ldhiuttrl: Noldin, De Sacr. (Innsbruck, 1906); Acbtnts;
Qknzcot; Ballxriki-Palmikbi; Laurbmtiub; Dsvon; Craia-
bon: LoKBARni; Eikio in Kireherdex.^ s. y. Ordo; Funk in Kraus,
Reai-BncykhpOdiet s. v. Ordo; Hatch in Didionary of ChrieHan
arUiquitieet s. v. Order; HoLy. Special: Halueb, De Saerie Eleo*
iionUnu et OrdinaHonibtu (Paris. 1636), and in Miqnb. Theol,
Cwretut, XXIV; Mobin, CommerU. hiaiorieo-dogmatictia de eaerie
eedeevB ordinationibtu (Paris, 1655); Martins, De Antiquie Eo-
eUnct Ritibua (Venioe. 1733); Bekedict XIV. De Synod. Dio-
eaeana (Louvain, 1763) ; Witabsb, De Sacramento Ordinie (Paris,
1717); Dbmsinobb, RUum OrierUalium (WQrsburg, 1863); Oab-
PABU, Trtuiatua Canonicua de Sacra Ordinatione (Paris, 1894);
Brudbbs. Die Verfaetung der Kirche (Mains, 1904), 365; Word»-
WORTH, The Minietry of Grace (London, 1901) ; Insu, OrdiruUion
ProbUma (London, 1909) ; Whithaii, Holy Ordere in Oxford Library
of Practical Theology (London, 1903); Mobbrlbt, Miniaterial
Prieethood (London, 1897) ; Sanday, Conception ofPrieethood (Lon-
don, 1898); Idem, Prieelhood and Sacrifice, a Report (London,
1900); Habnack, tr. Owbn, Sourcee of the Apoetolic Canona (Lon-
don, 1895) ; Sembbxa, Dogma^ Gerarchia e CuUo (Rome. 1902) ; Du-
CHE8NB, Chrietian Worehip (London, 1903) ; Saltbt, Lee Rtordi-
natione (Paris, 1907) ; Mbbtens, Hierarchie in de eerate xeutoen dea
Chriatendoma (Amsterdam, 1908); Qorb, Ordera and Unity (Lon-
don, 1909). For St. Jerome's opinions see Sajtobbs, Bludea aur
St, Jirome (Brussels, 1903), and the bibliography on Hierarchy,
«6ftd., pp. 335^-44.
H. Ahaus.
OrctorSt Mendicant. See Mendicant Friars.
Orders, Militart. See Military Orders.
Orders, Minor. See Minor Orders.
Orders, Religious. See Religious Orders.
Orders of Merit. See Decorations, Pontifical.
ORDZNARIATE
284
ORDINIS
Ordinaiiate (from Ordinart, q. v.). — This term
Ss used in speaJdng collectively of all the various or-
gans through which an ordinary, and especially a
bishop, exercises the different forms of his authority.
This word, which is employed particularly in German]^,
does not occur in strict canonical language; but it is
exactly equivalent to what canonists caff the curia.
Just as the pope is officiall^r responsible for all that
is done in his name and by his authority in the differ-
ent branches of the Roman Curia (congr^ations of
cardinals, tribunals^ offices), so, too, an ordmary and
especially a bishop bears the official renx)nsibiut3r of
whatever is done, m his name and with £ds authority,
by the persons or committees composing his curia,
who are the organs of his administration (vicar-general,
official, judges, secretaries, councils of various kinds).
Whatever may be the exact form of this administra-
tion in each diocese, it is still the diocesan adminis-
tration and the ordinariate. (See Bishop; Diocesan
Chancery; Official; Vigar-Genbral; Vicar Ca-
pitular.)
A. BotTDINHON.
Ordinary (Lat. ordinariti8f i. e., judex), in ecclesi-
astical language, denotes any person possessing or
exercising ordinary jurisdiction, i. e., jurisdiction con-
nected permanently or at least in a stable way with
an office, whether this connexion arises from Divine
laW;^ as in the case of popes and bishops, or from posi-
tive church law, as in the case mentioned below. Or-
dinary jurisdiction is contrasted with delegated juris-
diction, a temporary communication of power made
by a superior to an inferioir; thus we speak of a dele-
gated judge and an ordinary judge. A person may
be an ordinary within his own sphere, and at the same
time have delegated powers for certson acts or the ex-
ercise of special authority. The jurisdiction which
constitutes an ordinary is real and full jurisdiction in
the external forum, comprising; the power of legis-
lating, adjudicating, and govemmg. Jurisdiction in the
internal forum, being partial and exercised only in
private matters, does not constitute an ordinary.
Parish priests, therefore, are not ordinaries, though
they have jurisdiction in the internal forum, for they
have not jurisdiction in the external forum, being in-
capable of Ic^slating and acting as judges; their ad-
ministration is the^exercise of paternal authority rather
than of jurisdiction properly so called.
There are various classes of ordinaries. First, they
are divided into those having territorial jurisdiction
and those who have not. As a rule ordinary juris-
diction is territorial as well as personal, as in uie case
of the pope and the bishops; but ordinary jurisdiction
may be restricted to certun persons, exempt from the
local authority. Such for instance is the jurisdiction
of re^Iar prelates, abbots, generals, and provincials
of rehgious orders making solemn vows; they can legis-
late, adjudicate, and govern; consequently they are or-
dinaries: but their jurisdiction concerns individuals,
not localities; they are not, like the others, cidled local
ordinaries, ordinani locorum. Superiora of congre-
gations and institutes bound b^ simple vows are not
ordinaries, though they may en^oy a greater or less de-
gree of administrative exemption. The jurisdiction
of local ordinaries arises from Divine law or ecclesias-
tical law. The pope is the ordinary 'of the entire
church and all the faithful; he has ordinaiy and im-
mediate jurisdiction over all (Cone. Vatic, Const.
'* Pastor sBtemus'', c. iii). Bishops are the pastors
and ordinary judges in their dioceses, appointed to
govern their churches by the Holy Ghost (Acts, xx,
28). Certain bishops have, by ecclesiastical law, a
mediate ordinary power over other bishops and dio-
ceses; these are the metropolitans, primates, and pa-
triarchs. In a lower rank, there is another class of
ordinaries, viz., prelates who exercise jurisdiction in
the external forum over a given territory, which is not
a diocese, either in their own name, as in the case of
E relates or abbots nuUiua or in the name of the pope,
ke vicare and prefects Apostolic until the erection of
their territories into complete dioceses.
Local ordinaries being imable personally to perform
all acts of their jurisdiction may and even ous^t to
communicate it permanently to certain persons,, with-
out, however, divesting themselves of their authority;
if the duties of these persons are specified and deter-
mined by law, they also are ordinaries, but in a re-
stricted and inferior sense. This is vicarial jurisdic-
tion, delegated as to its source, but ordinary as to its
exercise, and which would be more accurately termed
quasi-ordinary. In this sense vicars-general and dioc-
esan officials are ordinaries; so also, m regard to the
pope, the heads of the various organs of the Curia are
ordinaries for the whole Church; the cardinal vicar
for the Diocese of Rome and his district; the legate a
latere, for the country to which he is sent. Finally,
there are ordinaries with an interimary and transitory
title during the vacancy of sees. Thus when the Holy
See is vacant, the ordinaries are the College of Cardi-
nals and th^ cardinal camerlengo; when a diocese, the
chapter and also the vicar capitular, and in general the
interimary administrator; so, too, the vicar, for re-
ligious orders. These persons possess and exercise
exterior jurisdiction, although with certain restric-
tions, and this in virtue of their office; they are
therefore ordinaries.
In practice, the determination of the persons in-
cludea under the term ordinary is of importance in the
case of indults and. the execution of rescripts issued
from Rome. Since the decrees of the Holy Office
dated 20 February, 1888, and 20 April, 1898, indults
and most of the rescripts, instead of being addressed
to the bishop, are addressed to the ordinary; and it
has bMBen declared that the term ordinary comprises
bishops, Apostolic administrators, vicars, prelates
or prefects with separate territorial jurisdiction, and
their officials or vicars-general; and also, durins the
vacancy of a see, the vicar capitular or lawful admin-
istrator. Thus the powers are handed on, without
intermission or renewal, from one ordinary to his
successor. (See Jxtrisdiction.)
See the canonic*! writers on the titles De officio judicia onhnarii,
1. 1, tit. 31, and De officio ordinarii, 1. 1« tit. 16, in VI ; SXOM«Ujni,
Lehrbuch de» kathoLKirehenreehU (Freiburg. 1009), |60, 87 aq.
A. BOUDINUON.
Ordination. See Ordbrs, Holy.
' Ordinas Romani. — The word Ordo commonly
meant, in the Middle Ages, a ritual book containing
directions for liturgical functions, but not including
the text of the prayers etc., recited by the celebrant
or his asssistants. These prayers were contained in
separate books, e. g., the Sacramentary, Antiphonary,
Psalter, but the Ordo concerned itself with the cere-
monial pure and simple. Sometimes the title ' ' Ordo "
was given to the oirections for a single function,
sometimes to a collection which dealt m one docu-
ment with a number of quite different functions e. k.»
the rite of baptism, the consecration of a church,
extreme unction, etc. Amalarius (early ninth cen-
tury) speaks of the writings "qu» continent per
diversos libellos Ordinem Romanum" (P. L., CV,
1295). SpesJdng generally, the word Ordo in this
sense gave place after the twelfth century to "Caere-
moniale", "Ordinarium" and similar terms, but was
retained ^ other senses, especially to denote the
brief conspectus of the daily Office and Mass as adap-
ted to the local calendar (see Directories).
A considerable number of Ordines are preserved
among our manuscripts from the eighth to the twelfth
century. The first printed in modem times was the
so-called ''Ordo Romanus Vulgatus''. which after
an edition published by George Cassanaer at Cologne
(in 1561) was reprinted by Hittorp in his "De divinis
. catholics ecclesis officiis" (Cologne, 1568) and is
OBDINIS
285
OBDINIS
hence often known as the Ordo RomanuB of Hittorp.
This is not a pure Roman document of early date.
Already in the seventeenth century G. M. Tomasi
rightly characterized it as a ''farrago diversorum
rituum secundum varias consuetudines", and de-
clared that its heterogeneous elements could onl^ be
disentangled by careful studv of the earlier Ordmes.
At present it is regarded as tne work of a compiler in
Gaul in the secona half of the tenth century, tne pre-
cise date being still disputed (cf . Monchemeyer. '' Am-
alar von Metx '\ 140 and 214; B&umer in " Katholik",
1889, 1, 626). Moreover, tins conflated Ordo Roma-
nus of Hittorp which is lai^ely derived from the first,
second, third, and sixth of the Ordines of MabiUon,
mentioned below, is only one among a number of
analogous compilations. Similar documents of about
the same period have^been published by other scholars ;
e.K.,by»
valuable
by Muratori v *-»«. ^»vr^. w^v. .. **, ««*„ ^j v-«.vw.ww
("Acta oeremon.", I, 226), and by Gerbert ("Mon.
Vet. lit. aJem.", II, 1 sqq.). In view of its composite
character, the Ordo Vulgatus is of no ereat litur^-
cal importance, though it sometimes nils a gap m
our knowledge upon points not elsewhere minutely
treated. It deals primarily with pontifical high Mass,
but it also describes the rite of the consecration of the
Eope aod of a bishop, the dedication of churches, the
leesing of bells, the coronation of the emperor and
of a kinig, the blessing of a knight, that is of a soldier
(mUitU) dedicated to the service of the Church, the
benediction of a bride, and the ceremonies to be ob-
served in the opening of a general or provincial coun-
cil. It should be noticed, moreover, that in these
miscellaneous offices we do not find the characteristic
features of an ordo in its technical sense. In the later
portions of the Ordo Romanus of Hittoip not only are
' the details of the ceremonial indicated in their due
sequence, but, as in a modem Pontifical, the text of
the prayers, blessings etc., to be recited by the cele-
brant, is given in full.
Much more valuable to the Uturgical student is the
series of fifteen consuetudinaries, first printed bv
Mabillon in his ''Museimi Italicum" (1689), to which
the term Ordinea Romani is commonly applied. They
are not indeed all of them pure and homogeneous
documents, neither do they represent an unadul-
terated Roman tradition, nor are they all, strictly
Ordines in the sense defined above. But
in default of better material, and while we are waiting
for more profound critical investigation to sort out our
earliest documents and assign to them their proper
date and provenance, MabiUon's Ordines constitute
the most reliable source of information regarding the
early liturgical usages of the Roman Church. Cov-
ering the whole period from the sixth to the fifteenth
century, they may be said, taken collectively, to have
some pretensions to completeness.
Ordo I. — ^The first of these Ordines Romani, de-
scribing the ceremonies of a solemn Mass celebrated
bv the pope himself or his deputy^ is the most valua-
ble, as it is also one of the most ancient. Modem opin-
ion inclines to the belief that the early part of it (num-
bers 1-21) reallv represents in substance the usages
of a stational Mass in the time of Pope Gr^ory Sie
Great (Kosters, ''Studien zu Mabillons rdm. Ord.", 6;
6f. Grisar, '' Analecta Romana", 1, 193), but there are
also, undoubtedly, in our present text adjustments and
additions which must be attributed to the end of the
seventh century (Atchley, "Ord. Rom. Primus", 7, fa-
vours a later date, but in this he only follows Probst).
The fact that Amalarius, who seems to have had a copy
of this Ordo before him, did not find its description
of paschal ceremonies in agreement with the actual
Roman practice of his day, as expounded to him bv
Archdeacon Theodore in 832, need not lead us. with
MdQchemeyer C'Amalar", 141), to the oonoluaioa
Uiat the oeremonial never represented the official Ro-
man use, and that it was merely an outline serving afl
a model for similar ceremonies in the Prankish domin-
ions. On the contrary, so far as regards numbers !-> ,
21, every detail attaches itself in the closest way to the
pontifical ceremonies of Rome. An introduction por-
tions out Ihe liturgical service among the clerics of the
sevto regions. Then the procession to the stational
church and the arrival and reception there are mi-
nutely described. This is followed with an account of
the vesting, the Introit, the Kyries, the Collects, and
all the eany part of the Mass. Very full detaiu are
also given of the manner of the reception of the offer-
ings of bread and wine from the clergy and people,
and to this succeeds a description of the Canon, the
Kiss of Peace, the Commumon, and the rest or the
Mass. The accoimt ends with number 21.
This is the section which Grisar has proved^ with all
reasonable probability, to belong to the time of Gr^-
ory the Great C'Analecta Romana", 195-213). In
one or two points the evidence of early date must im-
press even the casual reader. Such is the bringing of
the holy Eucharist to the pontiff when the procession
moves towards the altar-steps before the banning of
Mass. It is thus described in n. 8: '^ But before they
arrive at the altar . . . two acolytes approach holding
open pixes containing the Holy Things [tenerUes capaaa
cum Sanctis patenUs]; and the subdeaoon attendant
taking them and keeping his hand in the £j>erture of
the pix shows the Holy Things to the pontiff or to the
deacon who goes before him. Then the pontiff or the
deacon salutes the Holy Things with bowed head."
NotMng of this appears in the account of Amalarius,
who could hardly have failed to record it if it had been
in existence in his time. Quite in accordance with
such an inference, this bringing of the Eucharist to the
pontiff has, in the second Ordo Romanus, adinittedly
of later date, been replaced by a sort of visit of the
pontiff to the Blessed Sacrament in the chiirch, a
practice observed in pontifical Masses to this day.
Again we may note that the first Ordo contains no
mention of the Oedo, which was certainly in use in
Rome, according to Walafrid Strabo, about the year
800. Again the word cardinaleSf in accordance with
the usage of St. Gregory's own letters, is not applied to
the bishops, priests, and deacons attached to the papal
service, but in the later chapters of the same Ordo,
we do find reference to preabyUri cardinaJLes (n. 48).
All these, with other indications of early date, are
pointed out by (Grisar. It is not easy to prove that
the second portion of the first Ordo, nn. 22-61, was all
originally one document. On the contrary, nn. 22
and 48-51 seem to be closely connected, while all the
intervening numbers (23-47). giving an account of
the services in Lent and the last three days of Holy
Week and showing, in several details, signs of a later
origin, are clearly continuous and independent of the
rest. ' The fact that Pope Hadrian and Charlemagne
are mentioned in this section, as also that the Mass of
the Presanctified (contrary to the Einsiedeln Ordo of
the seventh century pubhshed by De Rossi in ''In-
scrip. Christ.'', II, i. 34) was celebrated by the pontiff
on Good Friday after the veneration of the Cross,
prove that this section can hardly be older than the
ninth century. Finally the chapters published by
Mabillon from another manuscript as an appendix
to Ordo I under a separate numeration have clearly no
immediate connexion with what goes before. They
simply provide another series of directions for L^t
and the last days of Holy Week, sometimes coinciding
even verbally with the rubrics given in nn. 23-47 and
sometimes differing in various particulars. This ap«
pendix is generally assumed to be later in date than
the second section of the Ordo.
Ordo II. — ^The second Ordo Romanus printed by
Mabillon describes again a solemn pontifical Mass ana
Sb cleariy based upon the firat portion of Ordo I, BOin^
ORDINIS 286 • OBDINIS ^
«
times quoting, or epitomizing, but elsewhere develop- up one of the children upon his left arm, lay his right
ing and adapting the directions of the earlier docu- hand upon the child's head and recite the Creed in
ment. It contains some ritual features whjch are Greek, while another acolyte, holding another child,
certainly not of Roman but of Gallican origin (for subseouently recites the Creed in Latin. None the
example the recitation of the Creed in the Mass, wfaach less^ the ceremonial of the scrutinies was originally
some, in spite of Walafrid Strabo, consider not to have designed for adult catechumens who were ci^>able of
been known in Rome before the eleventh centuiy, as understanding the Gospels and of learning and reciting
also the giving of a pontifical blessine after the^'^Pax the Creed for themselves. On the other hand, if the
Domini''). It is generally accepted that this Ordo II Ordo VII consistently regards, tiie catechumens as
belongs to the time of the general introduction of the infanUs, this cannot l>e interpreted as a proof of rel»-
Roman Liturgy into Gaul in the days of Charlemume, tivel^ late date^ for we find that already at the be-
i. e. about the beginning of the ninth century. This ginning of the sixth centuiy the vir UluabriSf Senarius,
Ordo, as well as Oido I and probably another now lost, asks of John, deacon of Rome, 'Square tertio ante
was known to Amalarius, who in his ''Eclo^" has Pascha scrutinentur infantes" (why the inifants have
annotated it with a view to the spjuitftal edification to undergo the scrutinies three times before Easter,
of his readers. Migne, P. L., LIX, 401). Seeing that the Gelasian
Ordo III and Obdo IV oont^n yet another series - Sacramentary also seems to know onlv of three scru-
of directions for a solemn Mass celebrated by the pope, tinies, it is possible that Ordo VII which requires seven
That of Ordo IV is onl^ a fragment, but both III and scrutines may be of even older date thsii the sixth
IV are generally considered older than the eleventh century, fo?* it is hardly* likely that when there was
century. Mabillon considered Ordo III to be dis- question of none but infant catechumens, the number
tinctly of later date than II and the fact, that the of scrutinies should have been increased from three to
stational church in III is called ''Monasterium", a seven. The whole tendency must have been in the
designation which does not seem to have come into use direction of simplification. It may be noticed that
before the ninth century, lends support to this view. Mabillon's Ordo VII is incorporated entire in an in-
It is also confirmed by the fact that this Ordo III was struction on baptism by Jesse, Bishop of Amiens, c.
apparently unknown to Amalarius. On the other 812.
hand III has clearly been extensively used in the com- Ordo VIII is concerned with the subject of ordina-
pilation of the Ordo Romanus Vulgatus, which, as tions and falls naturally into two divisions. The first
already stated, probably took shape in the second half part deals with the ordination of acol3rtes, subdeacons,
of the tenth century. That the fragmentaiy Ordo deacons, and priests, the second with the ceremonial of
IV is of later date than any of those previously men- the consecration of a bishop. Although the firat par^
tioned has been inferred by Mabillon from the fact is extremely concise, and the second, more particu-
that the pope is here described as communicating at larly in regard to the quatuor capittda (four forms of
the altar and not at his throne, as in the preceding crime held to be a bar to ordination), is relatively
rituals. Still, the manuscript in which it is found can- developed, there seems no sufficient reason for ques-
not be later than the first half of the eleventh century tioning the essential unity of the whole document. In
(Ebner, ''Quellen", 133). spite of certain expressions, notably the ''anciUa del
Ordo V AND Ordo VI are again entirdy consecrated sacrata quse a Fnuicis nonnata dicitur", which may
to the celebration of a pontifical high Msubb, Ordo V easily be an interpolation or a gloss, and of references
goes into details as to the vestments worn by the pope, to the Ember seasons, to the nomenclatory and the
and separately as to the vestments worn by a Roman schola (i. e. the choir — which last seems to suggest an
bishop and the lesser clergy. It is specifically a Ro- age posterior to Gregory the Great) certain critics,
man aocument and throughout assumes that the pope notably Kdsters (Studien, 21-^23) , make no difiiculty in
is pontificating. The pope here communicates at his assigning the document to the early part of the sixth
throne and the Credo IS sung after the gospel. But century. It is certainly noteworthy tnat though there
though Bemo of Reichenau affirms that this last cus- is no mention in Ordo VIII of exorcists or any cleric
tom only began at Rome in 1014, the fact that Wala- lower than the ^ade of acolyte, the usages described
f rid Strabo describes it as sung at Rome about the year closely agjree with the language of the letter of Jo-
800 (P. L., CXIV, 947) renders this a very unsatis- hannes Diaoonus to Senarius at the beginning of the
factory test of date. On the other hand, the sixth sixthcentury (Migne, P. L., LIX,405). Themnction
Ordo IS not directly connected with Rome, but like of the acolytes ' portandi Sacramenta", here as in
Ordo II it describes the ceremonies of a pontifical Ordo I, is reco^zed by assigning to them little bags
Mass adapted from the papal function for use else- {aacculi) as their distinctive attribute, instead of the
where. In the opinion of Kosters, (Studien, 17) it candlestick of a later date, while the deliveiy of the
probably belongs to the first half of the tenth century, chalice is emphasized as the significant act in the con-
since it was used by the compiler of the Ordo Vulgatus. secration of a subdeacon. When Bishop John Words-
It has been copied by a later twelfth century hand worth (Ministry of Grace, 180) assumes that the deliv-
upon a blajik page ot the English ''Benedictional of ery of the chahce is a Gallican ceremony and that it
Archbishop Robert ", and is there described as a '' rit- was introduced into the Roman Church in the seventh
ual drawn up by the ancient Fathers of the West", century at the earliest, he has clearly forgotten the
Ordo VII is probably the most ancient of all Mabil- explicit language of the latter to Senarius: ^* hie apud
Ion's Ordines and is assigned by Probst, Kosters, and nos ordo est ut accepto sacratissimo calice in quo con-
others to the sixth century. The whole document suevit pontifex dominici sanguinis immolare myste-
deals with the ceremonies of Christian initiation, i. e. rium subdiaconus iam dicatur . Again both Kosters
the catechumeoate with its Lenten scrutinies (see and Grisar (Creechichte Roms, 765) regard the testing
Baptism) , the rite of the consecration of the baptismal of the candidate for ordination by the ^iotuor capitrda]
water, the baptism itself, and finally confirmation, requiring him to swear his innocence of certain un-
The Ordo is closely related to the Gelasian Sacrament- natural crimes, as an indication which points to an age'
ary, and the prayers, given in full in the Gelasianum, when many adult pagans still entered the Church as
are here for the most part only indicated by their converts and were likely to be promoted to orders,
beginnings. Like the Gelasianum, the Ordo speaks Ordo IX is entitled ''De gradibus Romans eccle-
throughout of infantes as if they alone were likely to be osr" and deals briefly with uie ordination of deacons
subjects for baptism, and the whole ceremony is modi- and priests, with the consecration of a bishop some-
fied to suit the case of infants in arms. When the what more fuUy, and finally with the consecration and
catechumens are called upon to recite the Nicene coronation of a pope, while an appendix with a sepa-
CiiBedyitisdirectedthatoneof the acolytes shall take rate heading treats oi the ember days. The date and
ORDINIS 287 ORDINIS
composition of this document has recently been inves- seems to have been completed just before the year
tisated by Dr. Kdsters in a very able chapter of his 1143.
** Studien . His conclusions are, that the substance of Ordo XII likewise contains a somewhat minute de-
the Ordo was drawn up in the time of Po|)e Constan- scription of the papal ceremonial in ecclesiastical and
tine I (708-15), and underwent some revision under quasi-ecclesiastical functions throughout the year.
Pope Stephen III (752-7). However, the most much space being occupied by a detailed record ot
startling part of Dr. Kdsters' discussion is his demon- the regulations foUowed in the distribution of the
stration tnat the section describing the coronation of bounties cidled presbytaria. This Ordo is* avowedly
the pope, which incidentally intrc^uces the name of extracted from the "l2ber Censuum", a treatise corn-
Leo, belongs not to the period of Pope Leo III (c. 800), piled towards the end of the twelfth century by Cardi-
as has hitherto been supposed, but to that of Saint nal Cencius de Sabellis, afterwards Pope Honorius III
Leo IX (1044), and that m fact the papal return, or (1216-1227). But here again Kdsters has shown that
crown, which this Ordo describes as "made of white the last two sections, dealing with the election and
cloth in the form of a helmet", was for the first time consecration of the pope and with the crowning of the
worn by that pontiff. The statement made in this emperor, can be traced back to the ''Polilicus" of
Ordo tJiat the new pope should be a priest or deacon Benedict. Various miscellaneous matters, concern-
ordained by his preaecessor and that he ou^t not to ing, e. g., the duties and dues of certain minor officials,
be a bishop {nam episcopua esse nan potent) is oarticu- the oath taken by senators to the pope, etc., also find a
larly , interesting in view of the iw^ that (Jardinal place in this collection.
Deuscledit in the eleventh century, who comments on Obbo XIII is one of the few Ordines which we pos-
the text of this document, had apparently before him sess, at least substantially, in the form in which it was
no clause to this effect. It is probably an interpola- first written. This is admittedly an official treatise
tion of about that period. Other points of interest are drawn up by command of Pope Gr^ry X, shortly
the mention of diaconissce and presbiterissce, and the after the publication of the Constitution Ubi pericu-
ceremonv of holding the book of the Cxospels over the lum'', issued in 1274 to regulate the procedure of the
pope at his ordination (tenet evangelium super caput vd cardinals assembled in conclave for a papal election.
cervicem eius). We hear of this last ceremon3r eanier in The earliest portion of the document (nn. 1-12) is in
the East (cf . Apostolic Constitutions, VIII, iv) tod in fact concerned with the choice, consecration, and coro-
Gaul, and it is now part of the rite of consecration of nation of a new pope, provision being made for the
every bishop, but it apt)ear8 late at Rome. The ap- case of his being a bishop, priest, or deacon. The trea-
pendix on tne ember days, attached to this Ordo m tise seems to presuppose an acquaintance with Ordo
the Saint-Gall Manuscript, had probably no original XI and Ordo XII and it is probably in consequence of
connexion with it and may be assumed to be not this that the directions for the ordinary ceremonial are
Roman. ver^ concise. This Ordo marks the transition stage to
Ordo X is a relatively long and very miscellaneous a different type of liturgical document, much more de-
document and has no real claim to be included in the veloped and, distinctively framed witn a view to the
series of Ordines. It is, strictly speaking, a primitive part played by the Roman pontiff and hisneat retinue
form of Pontifical, though it is Roman in origm, and it of ecclesiastical officials. Up to Ordo XlII we may
is difficult to persuade oneself that it has not resulted say that the Ordines Romani are represented at the
from the fusion of at least two separate elements. - The present day by the " Pontificale " and the '' Cseremoni-
description of the Holy Week ceremonies which occu- ale Episcoporum" (q. v.), which are liturgical text-
pies nn. 1-24 may be described as a Csremoniale pure books common to the whole of Latin Christianity,
and simple, and so is the burial service for the Roman But the two remaining Ordines, XIV and XV, are rep-
cler^ in nn. 36-40, the Roman character of both being resented to-day by the ''Cseremoniale Romanum ,
unmistakabte, but the intervening; sections 26-35, which constitutes the rubrical code for papal functions
which consist of an Ordo for administering the Sacri^ in Rome and has no application in the ceremonial of
ment of Penance, and for visiting, anointing, and giv- the Catholic Church outside the Eternal City,
ing Viaticum to the sick, form a service-book comple^ 0|u>o XIV. which in the manuscripts bears the sig- '
in itself, including not merely the incipits but the eb- nificant title ^'Ordinarium'^ instead of Ordo, is a mudi
tire text of the prayers to be said by the priest, like longer document than any of those hitherto consid-
any modem Ritual. Thalhofer (liturgik, I. 48) has ered. It is in fact the first rou^ outline of the bulky
sought to draw a presumption of late date trom the ''Ceeremoniale Romanum" which regulates the detail
form of absolution m n. 29, which is indicative and not of papal functions at the present day. The history of
precative, absohnmus te vice heati Petri etc. ; but sub- Ordo XIV has been very carefully worked out by Dr.
stantially the same formula occurs with an interpo- Kdsters in his "Studien . The substance of the docu-
lated Anglo-Saxon translation in the Egbert Pontifical ment seeniiB to have been the work of Napoleone Or-
of the tenth century. Neither are the reasons con- sini and Cardinal Jacopo Gaetani Stefaneschi, the lat-
vincing, upon which Kdsters bases his conclusion that ter having by far the larger share of its composition,
the document as a whole is posterior to the year 1200. By the aid of a manuscript found by Father Enrle, the
We must probably be content to leave the question of librarian of the Vatican, at Avignon, we are able to
date unsettled. trace how the work took shape. (See Denifle and
Ordo XI has a tolerably full account of the papal Ehrle. '^Archiv. f. Lit- und firchengeschichte des.
ceremonial as it extended through the whole ecdesias- M.A.^', V, 564 sqq.) It was begun in Rome before the
tical year. This description is particularly viduable, popes left for fYance^ but it was further developed and
inasmuch as it includes not only the functions of great modified during the nrst third of the fourteenth century
solemnities but also the everyday usages and a consid- while the papalCourt was at Avignon, and we know at
able amount of detail regarding the Divine Office. It any rate tnat the first nine chapt^ were quoted, as we
has lately been shown by Dr. Kdsters that what we now have them, in the conclave which assembled in
now possess in Ordo XI is only a fragment of a much 1334. But there must have been a revision of the trea-
larger work compiled by Benedict, Canon of St. tise about or after 1389, when the long chapter 45:
Peter's, which was primarily a treatise upon the dig- "Incipit Ordo qualiter Romanus Pontifex apud basili-
nity of the Roman pontiff and upon the cardinals and cam beati Petn Apostoli debeat consecrari , with its
various officials of the Roman Court, and which from directions for the possessio'', or taking possession of
the nature of its contents was called "Liber Politicus". the Lateran, was orawn up, the ceremony being in
This title has left a trace of itself in the heading of the abeyance while the popes were at Avignon. Long,
manuscript used by Mabillon, where by a strange per- however, as the document is^ and f uUy as it may seem
version it appears as "liber pollidtus'^. The treatise to cover the ordinary requirements of papal official
OBIOOH 2f
fife, it may be doubted whether we poeaeaa the trcfttiae
b its BDtirety. In the original plan of Stefaneachi we
know that the papal omequiea were included, but
nothing upon this head is now contained in Ordo XIV,
and it ib difficult to conceive that this omission can
'have taken place through an oversialit when bo many
other needs are minutely provided tor.
Oedo XV is a fresh attempt to work up the same
materials, while supplying at the same time the lacu-
me which had hitherto enated. According to Kdaters,
chapters 1-100 and 143-153 were first drafted in the
middle of the fourteenth century and were revised and
supplemented by Pietro Amelii down to the year 1400.
But the work of^revision and modification was further
earned on ae far as 1435 by Peter, Bishop of Oloyca,
while a final editor, who may very possibly have been
Peter Kirten, Bishop of Olivna, put a last hand to the
work in the second half of the same centuiy. A selec-
• lion of some of the more noteworthy headings of the
153 chaptere of the work will perhaps servfe better than
anything else to ^ve an idea of tiie comprehensjveness
of this prototype of the Cferemoniale Romanum,
which Mabillon prints under the name of Hetro
Amelii :—
Advent; VIgilof the Nativity; Entoning of the An-
tiphoDSj Matins; Reading of the Lenons; First Mass
on Chnstmas DavL Second Mabs; Third Mass; St.
Stephen and the following feasts: Epiphany; Bless-
ing of the Candles on 2 Feb. with the Proceteioo; Serv-
ing the Pope; Ash Wednesday; What happens when
the King receives Ashes; Different occurrences in
Lent; The PrcwreSBee of the Pope in penitential Sea-
sons; Taking off the Pope's Mitre; Fourth Sunday of
Lent which is called Rose Sunday; Blesnng of the
Palms, followed by detailed instructions for Se Holy
Week ceremonies, eepecialty regarding the Maundy
and the banquet on Maundy Thureday: Cardinal-
Priest who serves the Pope on Holy Saturday; Esater
and the Communion of the Cardinal Deacons etc.;
Short details regarding the other Feasts of the Year;
Office for the Dead on All Souls' Day; Wliat islo be
Observed when the Pope Sickens; Death of the Pope:
Exequies of the Pope; Novendiale; Distributions of
Cloth after the Pope s Death; Directions for the Con- ,
clave. Meeting a Cardinal who comes to the Roman
Court; Canonisations, notably that of St. Bridget
(1391). ^
Ordinsb RouaNi Pdbltshbd aiNCB Mabillon. —
Mabillon's selection by do means eidiausted the ma-
toials of this nature still available. Documents un-
known in his time have since come to li^t and have
been published by scholars who recognised their value.
Foremost amongst these is the Einmedein Ordo, al-
ready alluded to, which was first printed by De Roaai
in his " laecriptiones Ciiristianie (II, I, 34) and has
fflnce been re-edited by Duchesne in his "On^neg du
Culte Chretien" (tr. Christian Worahip, 481)7 This
supplies an earlier and more purely Roman account of
the ceremonial of the last three days of Holy Week
than that contained in Mabillon's Ordo I. Again an
extremely important text covering much the same
ground as Ordo I but including, besides the pontifical
Mass and the Holy Week ceremonial, some account
of the ember-day ordinations, the rite of the dedica-
tion of a church with relics, and the candle procession
on the feast of the Purification, has been published by
Mgr Duchesne in the work just named from a ninth-
century manuscript of St-Amand. Other documents
M^t,
"Monumenta vet. lit. aleman." (St. Blaaen. 1770), by
Mart^ne in his "De antiquis cedes, ritibus , by K6e-
ters as an appendix to his "Studien" and by others.
Ths Ordina Raiaani dl Madiixon wtn first publiahod in hu
tfouuM /(olteum (Fuii, 168S), with & fulJ introduotion and sit-
LXXXVIII. 861 •no. By far the belt duciunon of the"«ubjeo't
"" B ifnWIIoiu nfrmOrd. (MdMler. 190S);
t8 OBKOOH
r^niuMm 5a^raM<n(iirun und Onfinei (MDoMar, IBSZ). 3Sfl in.;
Oktbam in ZwiuOtrifl /. talk. Thteloaii,, IS§1. pp. 899 iqc]., IBSS,
pp. 38fi iqq., 1886. pp. 727 nil.; Idem. Aulsrfa Komau (Roma.
1890), 198 Kjg.; TBALHorGM-EB.iEB, Liltirgik, I (Freiburi. 1S94).
46 sqg.: Mhel in ThtolBg, Quarlaiidirm. 1802, 00 aqq.; Atck-
txT, drdo SamaiHU PHmui (LoniiDn. I9D6).
HZBBERT ThUBSTOM.
Onpui, one c^ the Pacific Coast States, seventh in
site among the states of the Union. It received it«
name from the Oregon (now the Columbia) River,
wiuch is the state's greatest inland waterway.
The ultimate origin of the name is obscure. Oregon
is bounded on the north by the State of Washington,
on the east by Idaho, on the south by Nevada and
California, and on the west by the Pacific Ocean. Its
length is 300 miles from north to south; its breadtji
396 miles. Its total area is 96,030 sq, miles, including
1470 of water surface. It lies between 42° and 46
18' N. lat., and between 116° 35' and 124° 35' W. long.
Physical Ckaracteristics. — In the western por-
tion of the state two mountun ranges one hunared
miles apart run parallel with the coast fine; in the
eastern part there
stretches out a
vast inland pla-
teau. The coast
range traverses
the state at a dis-
tance of about
twenty miles from
the ocean: it has
he^t
eet, and
is densely covered
with fir, spruce,
and cedar, most oi
which is valuable
for lumber. The
Cascade Moun-
tains, a proton-
Sation of the Sierra Nevada, extend through the state
■om north to south at a distance of about 120 miles
from the coast. While the average height of this
range is about 6000 feet, it is crowned wiUt a line of
extinct volcanoes whose snow-capped peaks reach a
height of 9000 feet, Mt. Hood, just east of the city of
Portland, attaining an altitude of 11,225 feet.
DtvisiON. — The state is divided phs^ically into
three sections known as Western, Southemj and East-
em Or^on, differing in temperature, rainfall, and
Sroducta. The Willamette Valley lies in Western
'regon. It js bounded on the north by the Columbia
River, on the east by the Cascades, on the west by the
Coast Range, and on the south by the Calapooia Mts.
It is the most thickly settled part of the state, and is
noted for its beautiful farm homes and equable climate.
The vidley is about 160 miles long, and Jiaa an average
width of sixty miles, not including its mountain
slopes. It presents one beautiful sweep of valley con-
taining about 5,000,000 acr^ all of which is hiRhly
fertile. It is drained by the Willamette River, which
runs north, receives tlie waters of many important
streams rismg in the Cascades and coast range, and
dischargee into the Columbia River, just north of
Portland. Western Oregon also includes the impot^
tant counties west of the Willamette Valley on the
coast. Southern Oregon lies west of the Cascades,
between the Willamette Valley and California. It
comprises the counties of Douglas, Coos, Curry, Jose-
phine, and Jackson. The prmcipal streams of this
section are the Umpqua and Rogue Rivers, which
rise in the Cascades, pierce the Coast Range, and
empty into the Pacific Ocean, The valleys of these
rivers are notable for their abundant and varied fruit
production. The mountains in this section are rich
in gold, which is extenaively mined. The portion of
this section west of the coast range is generaUy heavily
OBEGOH 289 OBEOON
timbered with fir, spruce, and cedar. Extensive coal found to a greater or less extent in seventeen counties,
deposits are found, some of which are developed and and b the only, mineral mined to any notable extent,
yield largely. Coos Bay is one of the best It is found especially in the Blue Mountains. A large
harbours on the Or^^n Coast. Eastern Ore^n number of quartz mills are operated in Eastern and
embraces all the state east of the Cascade Mountams, Southern Oregon, and in these districts placer minxes
forming a parallelogram 275 miles long and 230 miles yield largely. There are two pronounced copper
wide. It IS a great inland plateau of an altitude sones in the state— one in Baker County, the other
varying between 2000 and 5000 feet. The southern in the south-western section. Oregon coals are ligni-
hall of this plateau belongs to the Great American tic, the largest bed uncovered being in the vicinity
Basin, while the northern portion slopes towards the of Coos Bay. The largest iron beds in the state are
Columbia river vallev. In the north-eastern p^ of in the Willamette Vimey. The ore is of limonite
^Q^ state, between the Snake and <]k>lumbia rivers, variety, showing about fifty per cent of metallic iron,
are the Blue Mountains whose summits are more than Fisheries. — (Segon is unequalled by any other state
6000 feet hi^, and whose streams are used for the pur- in salmon fisheries and cannine. llie most notable
pose of imgation. The Government is reclaiming species of salmon is the Columbia River Royal Chi-
large tracts oy irrigation in this section. Here also nook. The fish industry in the state produces up-
is me most valuable^ and important mineral belt of wards of $5,000,000 annually. Reckless overfishing
the state. In the southern portion of Eastern Oropn threatened to exhaust the supply and to imperil the
are several short mountain ran^^es from 2000 to 3000 industiy, until the state regulated it by law and pro-
feet high which are a continuation of the longitudinal vided for it by hatcheries. The state through its
basin-ranges of Nevada. Irrigation is contributing depiurtment of fisheries operates at the annual expense
largely towards bringing this section into prominence, of $50,000 tcsi salmon hatcheries, from which nearly
The Klamath irrigation project, under the super- 70,000,000 young salmon are liberated annually.
Vision of the United States Government, contains Thus the Columbia River is made to produce year
about 200,000 acres and is making rapid progress. after year practically the same supply of salmon. In
Resources. — ^All the four great natural resources — addition to the canneries, cold storage plants are
^z: forest, fisheries, soil, and minerals — are present operated, practically the whole output of which is
in almost inexhaustible supply awaiting development, snipped to European markets.
Lumber. — Oregon has approximately three hundred Agriculture. — Late years have seen a great expan-
billion feet of standing merchantable timber (or sion in all lines of fanning. In 1908 the total produc-
nearly one-fifth of the standing merchantable timber tion of the farms of the State represented a gross value
in the United States), valued at $3,000,000,000. Tim- of about one hundred million aollars. Owing to the
ber covers about 57 per cent of the area of the state, lack of a large rural population, however, only a frac-
Apart from the value of this timber as a source of tion of the agricultural lands ot the state yield even a
lumber supply, it serves an important purpose in respectable revenue. The most thickly settled agri-
maintaining a perpetual flow of water in the mountain cultural sections are the great Willamette Valley in
streams by retarding the melting of snow and holding Western Oregon (where nearly everything grown in a
a continuous supply of moisture in the ground during temperate chmate thrives), and a stretch of nearly
the summer. The most densely timbered area of the five hundred miles of rich bottom land along the Co-
state is west of the Cascade Range, due to the greater lumbia River and the shore line of the coast cotmties.
rainfall in that section. The average stand of timber The great wheat and meat producing section of the
on the forested area west of the cascades is 17,700 state is in Eastern and Central Oregon. The C3olum-
feet B. M. to the acre. Localities where the stand is bia River Basin in Eastern Or^n is one of the heat
50,000 feet per acre for entire townships are common in grain districts in the world. Wasco, Sherman, Gil-
the coast counties of Clatsop and Tillamook. Some Bam, Morrow, and Umatilla counties produce from
sections are found where a yield of 150,000 feet to the ten to fifteen million bushels of wheat annually. The
acre is estimated, many of the trees scaling 40,000 soil is mainly a volcanic ash and silt, very fertile and
feet or more of commercial lumber. The Douglas generally deep. Hood River^ among the best-known
fir sometimes attains a height of 300 feet, and five to apple regions in the world, is included in this district.
six feet in thickness. Bridge timbers more thim 100 ifmatilla County may be taken as typical of this sec-
feet in length are obt^ned from these trees. About tion: its wheat crop averages about 5,000,000 bushels
66 per cent of the timber is of this variety, which annually, while the alfalia lands, comprising about
yields more commercial product to the acre than any 50,000 acres, yield three crops each year, totalling
other tree in North America. Three per cent of the seven tons to tne acre. Live stock is also an extensive
merchantable timber of Oregon is harawood, such as industry: there are in this coimty about 350,000 sheep
ash, oak, maple, and myrtle. There are about ninety- (with fleeces averaging OH pounds) and 30,000
five species that attain to the dignity of trees: of these cattle. Most of the sheep and a large proportion of
thirty-eight are coniferous, seventeen deciduous soft- the cattle of the state are raised in central Or^on
woods, and forty hardwoods. At present the lumber which comprises about twenty million acres. This
industry is one of Oregon's chief sources of revenue, immense territory has been hitherto without any rail-
The output of sawed lumber for 1906 was 2.500,000,000 road communication whatever, and is at present de-
feet valued at $30,000,000. The output ot other forest voted to range systems of husbandry. South-eastern
products (piling, poles, shingles, ties, ete.) brought Oregon, comprising Klamath and Lake Counties,
the total forest product from the state for that year is a stock and dairy section. On 1 Jan., 1909, the
to the sum of $60,000,000, which is about the average live stock of the state was valued at $54,024,000. The
annual production. Portland is the largest lumber revenue to the state from dairy products was $17,-
shipping port in the world. The work ofpreventine 000,000. In Southern Oregon poultry raising has
destructive forest fires is carried on by the United become quite an industry, and this section practically
States Government on its forest reserves, and the supplies the large cities on the coast,
state maintains a patrol of 300 men to protect the Means of Communication. — Oregon is bounded on
forests of the state. three sides by navigable water : the Pacific Ocean on the
Minerals. — There is a great wealth and variety of west, the Columbia River on the north, and the Snake
minerals to be found in Oregon, including gold, silver. River on the east. Nine inlets on the western coast
copper, iron, asbestos, nickel, platinum, coal, antr- provide harbour facilities. Of these Coos Bay ranks
mony, lead, and clay, salt and alkali deposits, and next in importance to the C3olumbia harbour. Ocean-
an inexhaustible supply of buildinj^ stone (including going vessels enter the Columbia, and find at Portland
sandstone, limestone, and volcamc rock). Gold is the only freshwater port OQ the Pacific coast. Deep
XI.— 19
ORiaON
290
ORIQON
water navigalaon now extends 150 miles along the
northern boundaiy of Oregon, and, with the comple-
tion of the ship railway above the Cascades, will ex-
tend to 250 miles. The Snake River runs along the
eastern boundary of the state for 150 miles, and is
navigable for a considerably 8P[eater distance from
where it enters the Columbia. The Willamette River
which empties into the Columbia just north of Port-
land is navigable as far as Eugene, 150 miles from
Portland. The region between the coast and the
Cascade ranges, and the northern fringe of the state
along the Columbia and Snake rivers are well supplied
with railroad facilities. The vast area of Eastern
Oregon, however, has been hitherto practically with-
out railroad service. This immense territorjr is fi-
nally being opened up (1910) bv the construction of
railroads by two rival systems through the Deschutes
Valley.
Educational System. — ^The State Board of Edu-
cation is composed of the governor, the secretary of
state, and a superintendent of public instruction. In
each county there is a superintendent who holds office
for two years, and each school district has a board
comprising from three to five directors whose term is
three years. The state course of study provides for
eight grades in the grammar schools ana four years
in the high schools. The state university at Eugene
and the agricultural oolle^ at Corvallis complete the
state school system. An irreducible fund of $3,500,-
000 has been secured by the sale of part of the school
lands of the state. In 1884 Congress set aside sec-
tions 16 and 36 of all the public domain in Oregon for
public schools. For many years previous to 1909
there were four state normal schools, which were
practically local hi^ schools subsidizea by the state.
The subsidv was withdrawn by the legislature of that
year, and there is now one state normal located at
Momnouth. The state university was esti^lished in
1872. The agricultural college at Corvallis, which
abo gives a college course in the Uberal arts and
sciences, has about one thousand students. There are
a large number of denominational colleges and secon-
dary schools in the state. At Salem, the state capital,
are located the charitable and pen^ institutions of
the state, viz., the schools for the blind and deaf mutes,
the insane asylum, boys' reform school, and the peni-
tentiary.
HisTORT. — Explorations. — In 1543 the Spanish nav-
isator Ferrelo explored the Pacific Coast — ^possibly to
the parallel of 42^, the southern boundary of Oregon.
Sir Francis Drake in "The Golden Hmd" (1643),
carried the English colours a few miles farther north
than Ferrelo had ventured. The same point was
reached by the Spaniard Vizcaino in 1603. In 1774
Juan Perez sailed m the "Santiago" from the harbour
of Monterey and explored the north-west coast as far
as parallel 55^. The following year the Spanish ex-
plored the north-west coast under Heceta, who, on
nis return, observed the strong currents at the mouth
of the Columbia. Nootka &und was visited and
named by the En^^ish navigator Cook in 1778. The
visit of Cook had important consequences. The na-
tives loaded his ship with sea-otter skins in exchange
for the merest trifles.* The value of these skins was
not suspected, until the ship touched at Asiatic and
European ports where they were sold for fabulous
prices. The commercial value of the north-west had
been discovered. The ships of aJl nations sought for a
profitable fur-trade with the Indians, and the strife
for the poesessidn of the territory entered a newphase.
Captain Robert Gray of Boston discovered the Colum-
bia River in 1792 and named it after his ship. The
country was first explored by the American expedition
of Lewis and Clark in 1804-5. Astoria, at the mouth
of the Columbia, the first white settlement in Oregon,
was founded in 1811 by the American Fur Company
under the direction of J ohn Jacob Astor. Two years
later the Northwest Companv (a Canadian fur com-
pany) bought out Astoria, and maintained commercial
supremacy until it merged with the great Hudson's
B^ Company in 1821.
This latter company dominated Oregon for a quar-
ter of a century. The Oregon country at liiat time
embraced an area of 400,000 sq. miles and extended
from the Rocky Mountains on the east to the Pacific
Ocean and from the Mexican ix)sse88ioiis on the souUi
to the Russian possessions on the north. In 1824 a
commanding perspnality arrived on the Columbia as
chief factor of the Hudson's Bay Co., in the Oregon
country. This was Dr. John McLoughlin (c). v.), the
most heroic figure in Oregon history. Resizing that
the great tracung post should be at the confluence of
the Columbia and Willamette Rivers, McLoughlin
transferred the headauarters of the company from
Fort George (Astoria) to Fort Vancouver. He re-
fused to seU liquor to the Indians, and bought up the
supplies of rival traders to prevent them from selling
it. He commanded the absolute obedience and re-
spect of the Indian population, and Fort Vancouver
was the haven of rest for all travellers in the Oregon
country. Speaking of McLoughlin's place in Oregon
histonr, his oiographer, Mr. fYederick V. Holman, a
non-Cfatholic, pays him the following just tribute:
"Of all tiie men whose lives and deeds are essential
puts of tJie history of the Oregon country. Dr. John
McLoughlin stands supremely first, — there is no
second .
Missionaries. — ^The first tidings of the Catholic
Faith reached the Oregon Indians through the Cana-
dian emplo^rees of the various fur-trading companies.
The expedition of Astor in 1811 was accompanied by a
number of Canadian voyageurs, who some years later
founded at St. Paul the first white settlement in the
Willamette Valley. These settlers applied in 1835 to
Bishop Provencher of Red River (St. Boniface, Man-
itoba) for priests to come among them to bless their
marriages with their savage consorts, to baptize their
children, and revive the Faith among themselves. It
was in answer to this petition that Fathers F. N.
Blanchet and Modeste Demers were sent to the Ore-
gon country in 1838. On their arrival the mission-
aries found a log church idready erected on the prairie
above St. Pam. Meanwhile another request for
missionaries had Kone forth. The Indians in the
Rocker Mountains had repeated the Macedonian cry
to their brethren in the East. In 1831 the Flatheads
witJi their neighbours, the Nez Percys, sent a deputa-
tion to St. Louis to ask for priests. They had heard
of the black robes through Iroquois Indians, who had
settled among them and thus transplanted the seed
sown by Father Jogues. It was not until 1840 that
Bishop Rosati of St. Louis was able to send a mission-
ary. In that year Father De Smet, S.J., set out on
his first trip to the Oreron country where he became
the apostle of the Rocky Mountain Indians. A peculiar
perversion of the facts concerning the visit of the In-
dians to St. Louis got abroad in the Protestant re-
ligious press and started a remarkable movement
towards Oregon. The Methodists sent out Jason and
Daniel Lee m 1834, and the Methodist mission was
soon reinforced until it was valued in a few years at
a quarter of a million dollars and became the domi-
nating factor in Oregon politics. The American Board
Mission was founoed oy Dr. Marcus Whitman, a
ph3rsician, and Mr. Spalding, a minister. With them
was associated W. H7 Gray as agent, the author of a
"History of Or^^n" which was responsible for the
spread of a great deal of misinformation concerning
tne early missionary history of Oregon.
The savage muraer of Dr. Whitman in 1847 was a
sreat catastrophe. Dr. Whitman, who was a man of
highly respected character, opened his mission amonjg
the Cayuse Indians near Fort Walla Walla. His
position as physician made him suspected by the
OBIQON
291
OBIQON
IndianB when an epidemic carried off a large number of
the tribe. Thev were accustomed to kill the " medicine
man" who failed to cure. Besides the Indians were
rendered hostile by the encroachments of the whites.
The immediate cause of the massacre seems to have
been the story of Jo Lewis, an Indian who had the
freedom of the mission and who reported that he over-
heard a conversation of Whitman and Spalding, in
which Whitman said he would kill off the Indians so
that the whites could get their land. The massacre
took place on 29 Nov., 1847. Dr. and Mrs. Whitman
and several others were brutally slain. Spalding was
saved only by the prudence of Father Brouillet whose
mission was near by. Spalding seems to have been
crazed by the outra^. He began to charge the Cath-
olic priests with instigating ihe massacre. There had
been hard feeUngs before between the missionary
forces, but now the embers were fanned into a flame
and, in spite of the fact that all serious historians have
exonerated the Catholic missions of the slightest com-
plicity in the outrage, Spalding's ravings instilled a
prejudice which half a century has be«i required to
obliterate.
Nearty twenty years after Whitman's death Spald-
ing originated a new story of Whitman's services in
saving Oregon to the United States^ in which the
Catholics were again brought into prominence. " His-
tory will be searched in vain", says Bourne, "for a
more extraordinary growth of fame after death." The
story as published in 1865 by Spalding represents that
in autumn, 1842, Whitman was aroused by discovering
that the Hudson's Bay Co. and the Catholic mission-
ary forces were planning to secure the Oregon Country
for England. He immediately set out for Wadiington
to urge the importance of Oregon to the United States
and to conduct a band of immigrants across the plains
to settle the country with Americans. It is repre-
sented further that he found Webster ready to ex-
change^ Oregon for some cod fisheries on the shores of
Newu)undland and some concessions in settling the
bounduy of Maine. Whitman, however, had re-
course to President Tyler, who promised to delay the
n^tiations between Webster and Ashburton until
Whitman could demonstrate the possibility of leading
a band of emigrants to the north-west. Finally, the
legend relates that Whitman organized a great band
of immigrants and conducted them to Oregon in 1843,
thus proving to the authorities at Washington the
accessibility of the disputed territory and fiUing the
territory with American home builders. Thus Oregon
was saved to the United States. Ever^ detail of this
story has now been completely discredited by critical
historians. The core of fact consists merely in this,
that in 1842 Whitman went east to plead with the
authorities of the American Board not to close down
the southern section of his mission, and on his return-
to Oregon in 1843 he happened in with a band of im-
migrants who had assembled imder the leadership of
Peter Burnett. The legend is gradually being ex-
pimged from school books.
Government and Legislation. — In 1843 a pro-
vittonal government with an executive council was
organized by the settlers in the Willamette Valley.
Two years later a governor was chosen who held office
until the Oregon Territory was organised under the
U. S. Government on 14 August, 1848. Lane, the
first governor of the territory, arrived in 1849. Oregon
was admitted as a State 14 Feb., 1859. with its present
boundaries. The primary election law is in opera-
tion, and there is a provision that the state legislators
mav obligate themselves with their constituencies
under Statement No. 1, to cast their ballot for United
States Senator for the candidate receiving the highest
popular vote at the primary election. Thus it hap-
pened that United States Senator Geo. E. Chamber-
lain was elected in 1907 representing the minority
party in the state legislature. The initiative and
referendum obtain, and a large number of measures
are brought before the people by petition under tiie
initiative power. The state l^islature provides a
subsidy for institutions caring for dependent and de-
linquent minors.
Freedom of Worship is provided for in the Bill of
Rights in the Oregon Constitution. By its provisions
all persons are secured in their ''natural fignt to wor-
ship Almi^ty God according to the dictetes of their
own conscience" . No law shall in any case control the
free exercise and enjoyment of religious opinion. No
religious test shall be required as a qualification for any
office of trust or profit. No mon^ shall be drawn
from the treasury for the benefit of any religious or
theological institution, nor shall money be appro-
Eriated for the payment of religious services in dther
ouses of the legislative assembly. But by recent
enactment the salaries of two chaplains, one a Cathl>lic,
the other a non-Catholic, for the Stete Penitentiary
is provided for at the expense of the State. The Con«
stitution further provides that no person shall be
rendered incompetent as a witness or juror in conse-
quence of his religious opinions, nor be questioned in
any court of justice toucmng his religious belief to af-
fect the weight of his testimony. Oaths and affirma-
tions shall be such as are most consistent with and
most binding upon the consciences of the persons to
whom they are administered. No law shall be passed
restraining freedom to express opinions, or the right
to speak, write, or print freely on any subject, but
every person shall be held responsible for the abuse of
this ng^t. Persons whose religious tenets or con-
scientious scruples forbid them to bear arms shall not
be compelled to do so in time of peace, but shall pay
an equivalent for personal service.
There are many enactments regarding the observ-
ance of Sunday. The Sundays of the year as well as
Christmas are l^al and judicial holidays. No person
may keep open a house or room in which liquor is re-
tailed on Sunday. — ^the penalty being a fine which
goes to the school fund of the county in which the
offence is committed. In general it is illegal to keep
open on Sunday any establishment " for the purpose of
labor or traffic", except drug stores, livery stables,
buteher and bakeiy shops, etc.
The seal of the confessional is guarded by the fol-
lowing provision: "A priest or clergyman shall not,
without the consent of the person making the confes-
sion^ be examined as to any confession made to him
in his professional character in the course of discipline
enioined by the church to which he belongs."
Persons over eighteen years of age may dispose of
goods and chattels by will. ** A person of twenty-one
years of age and upwards and of sound mind may by
last will devise all nis estete, real and personal, saving
to the widow her dower." The will must be in writing.
It must be signed by the testetor or by some other
person imder his direction and in his presence, and
also by two or more competent witnesses subscribing
their names in presence of the testator.
Divorce. — ^The following grounds are recognised
in Or^;on for the dissolution of marriage: (l) Im-
potency existing at the time of marriage and contin-
uing to the time of suit. (2) Adulteiy. (3) Convic-
tion of felony. (4) Habitual gross drunkenness con-
tracted since marriage. (5) Willful desertion for one
year. (6) Cruel and inhuman treatment or personal
mdignities rendering life burdensome. (Bellinger and
Cotton, " Annotated Codes and Statutes of Oi^n.")
Cathouc Education. — One of the earliest cares
of Vicar-General Blanchet on arriving in Oregon was
the Christian education of the youth committed to his
charge. In autumn, 1S43, it was decided to open a
school for boys at St. Paul. On 17 October in that
year, the vicar-general opened St. Joseph's Colle{;e
with solenm blessing and placed Father Langlois m
charge. On the opening day thirty boys entered as
OBIGON 292 OREGON
boarders — all sons of farmers except one, the son of nia), the Sisters of the Immaculate Heart of Mary
an Indian chief. The first Catholic school for girls (Scranton, Penn.)i the Sisters of Mercy, and the
in Oregon was opened early in October, 1844^ by six Sisters of St. Francis (Milwaukee) conduct a number
Sisters of Notre Dame de Namur who had just ar- of excellent schools in the archdiocese. About nine-
rived from Belgium with Father De Smet. So im- teaiths of the parishes of the ardidiocese are provided
mediate was the sucoess of the sisters that Father De with Catholic schools. An annual Catholic Teachers'
Smet writing under date of 9 Oct., 1844, says that Institute has been held under the auspices of the
another foundation was projected at Oi^on City. Catholic Educational Association of (irqgon since
This plan was not realized until 1848. In September 1905. These sunmier meetings have become very
of that year four sisters took up their residence and popular, and are attended by all the teachers in the
opened a school at the Falls. Meanwhile two events Catholic schools of the archdiocese. Prominent ed-
occurred which paralysed all missionary woik for a ucators from various sections of the country are in-
decade. The first was the Whitman massacre already vited to address the institute. The meetings serve
referred to, which aroused the intenseet hostility to the also to promote interchange of ideas and goodfellow-
Catholic missionaries. The second was the discovery ship between the teaching communities and contribute
of ^Id in California which for the time caused a large noti^ly to the uniform educational progress of the
emigration of the male population from Oregon. TISb schools.
movement of the population deprived the Archdiocese CnABrrABLB iNSTrrunoNS. — ^The archdiocese is
of all reli^ous, both men and women. In May, 1849, well* equipped with institutions of charity. St. Vin-
a large brigade composed of Catholic families from St. cent's Hospital, conducted by the Sisters of Charity
Paul, St. Louis, and Vancouver Btaited for the CaJi- of Providence, was established in Portland in 1874.
fomia mines. As a consequence St. Joseph's College It will accommodate about 350 patients. The same
was permanently closed in June of tiie same year, community conducts a hospital at Astoria. The Sis-
The Jesuit Fathers closed the mission of St. Francis ters of Mercy have charge of hospitals at Albany.
Xavier on the Willamette; the Sisters of Notre Dame North Bend, and Roeeburg. The Asters of the Good
closed their school at St. Paul in 1852, and the fol- Shepherd have conducted a home for wayward girls
lowing spring closed the school at Oregon City and in Portland since 1902. The judges of the juvoiile
left for Cuifomia. The outlook was very dark, court have repeatedly commended the work of these
The tide of immigration soon turned a^ain towards fosters in the highest terms. Tlie archdiocese has
Oregon, but found the Church crippled m its educa- three homes for dependent children. St. Agnes' Baby
tional and missionanr forces. A ddbt had been con- Home-, conducted by the Sisters of Mercy at Park
tracted in building the cathedral and convent at Ore- Place near Oregon City, was estabh^ed in 1902; it
gon City. To raise funds Archbishop Blanchet went receives orphans and foundlings under the age of four
to South America in September, 1855, and remained y^^^^^ &^d cares constantly for about ninety babies,
there making collections until the end of 1857. Bt. Mary's Home for Boys is situated near BeavertoiL
A new era opened for CathoUc education in Oregon and is in charge of the Sisters of St. Mary. Here too
in Oct.. 1859, when twelve Sisters of the Holy Names is the location of the Levi Anderson Industrial school
anivea from Montreal and opened at Portland St. for boys. Occupying a commanding site on the Wil-
Mary's academy and college, which as the mother- lamette near Oswego is the magnificent new home for
house of the community in the province of Oregon has orphan girls under the care of the Sisters of the Holy
for half a century played an honourable part in the Names. Since 1901 the Sisters of Mercy have con-
educational work of the norfJi-west. In August, ducted in Portland a home for the aged, where more
1871, a school for boys, called St. Michael's Cofiege, than a hundred old people of either sex find a home
was opened with 64 pupils. Its first principal was '^ their decliniiu; years. St. Vincent de Paul's and
Father Glorieux, now Bishop of Boise. In 1875 we women's charitable societies (e. g. St. Ann and Ladies'
*• 1.1 •! fl«.«. H nmt A % A i J\ 11 • J i l* At J T:*^ a I
lege in 1886. The name was subsequently changed to all of which are flourishing) aid materially in the relief
that of Blanchet Institute in honour of the first arch- of the poor. The Cathohc Women's League of Port-
bishop. This school has since been superaeded by the land was organized in the interests of young women
modem and ample structure of the Christian Broth- wage-earners, especially for that very lai^e dass who
ers' Business College. In 1882 the Benedictine Fa- have come west to find positions and are without home
thers. at the invitation of Archbishop Seghers, estab- ties. The proportion of Catholics to the entire popu-
lishea their community first at Gervais, and two years lation of Oregon nas never been very great, perhaps
later at Mt. Angel. A college for young men at Mt. not more thaja one-tenth, though recent immigration
Angel was opened in 1888. The destruction of the has tended to increase the percentage. Catholics
monastery by fire in 1892 was the occasion of building have, however, been well represented in public life and
the magnificent monastery and college in its present in professional and business pursuits. In early Ore-
commanding position. While Mt. Ansel's theological gpn history Dr. McLoughlin and Chief Justice Peter
department is intended primarily for the education of Burnett were distinguished converts. The latter,
young men for the order, it has been the Alma Mater who subsequently became first governor of Cahfomia.
of a number of the priests of the archdiocese. In 1904 is the author of "Reminiscences of an old Pioneer'
the priory was raised to the dignity of an abbey. At and "The Path which led a Protestant Lawyer to the
Mt. Angel, too, has been located since 1883 an acad- Catholic Church". General Lane, the first Governor
emy for gurls conducted by the Benedictine Sisters, of Oregon, was also received into the Church. Among
and the mother-house of the community in Oregon, the most distinguished citisens of the state to-day are
Columbia University was opened at Portland by Arch- ex-United States Senator John M. Gearin and General
bishop Christie in 1901. The following year it was D. W. Burke.
placed in charge of the Holy Cross Fathers, under Tratuaduma of ike O. Pioneer Aeeodatum (Salem. 1874-«7);
whose direction the institution has experienced a qitarterlyofiheO.Hitt.8oei0lviVoTiiand,19(Xh-);TheOr^ffonian
gratifying development and has come to occupy a 2'°^S*^'JSSr^ir?l?* J'^f "1^.2^
Tl...^ ^i«^^ :» 4^k»Y^««i.^i:« i;/«. ^t *i.«. ,^^^<m^^^u^ a* files; Bancroft, H%^. of the Northweat Voau (Han Franoaoo*
large place m the Catholic Me of the metropolis. St. igg^) . i^bm. Hiei. o/O. (San Frandaco. 188S-88) ; Schafek. Hiet.
Marys Institute near Beaverton, an academy for of the Pacific Northweet (New York, 1906); Holman, Dr, John
girls, is the mother-house of the Sisters of St. Mary. if^^.^^Y" ^^fe''l*"Anl?^'»^?™"'.^4!*;fl ^2^?JiS^
O'u:- ..^«.^»»«4^:^,. «^«- r^»«^.»^ u,, A^i.t.:.u^^ r»— ^1- Criticism (New York, 1901). oontainmg a ontioal examination of
This congregation was founded by Archbishop Gross ^1,^ whitman Ixigend: MAnaHALL. Hieiory m. the Whitman 8ned
in 1886. The Pomimcan Sisters (San Jose, Califor- Oreg<m si»ry (Chicago. i904): O'Hara, Dr. John MciAmtkUn u
OREGON 293 . O'BULLY
CaOuMe Univ. BvUdin, XIV. n. 2; Idem, De Snut in Uu Oregon Buatcsarr, Hittorieal Skdehea (PortUnd, 1870); TU CaihoUc
Country in Quarterly of O. Hiat. Soe, (September. 1909) ; Cbittbk- Sentinel (Portland, 1870-1910). files; CathoUe Directory; Dioceaan
DBM AND RiCHARDaoN, D< 8met*9 Lif€ and Travda; mt Babtb, Archive;
Mor Seohert (Paria. 1896); Bbouillbt. Authentic Account of the EdwIN V O'HaBA
Murder of Dr, Whitman ^d ed., Portland, 1869) ; Snowdkn.
//if/. o/Tr<uM'n0ton. I-II (New York. 1909); SiaTBB or THB Holt O'SaIIIv RvnwAitn Viiflt/)n<in h 9Q flAnf 1JW« in
Nambb. Gleaningt of Fifty Yean (Portland, 1909). ^ ^ T^St' *>*™AK^ JUfltomil, D. ^ Sept., 1»ZU, m
Edwin V. O'Hara. County Mayo, Ireland; d. in New York. U. S. A., 26
April, 1907. In early life he emigrated to Canada,
Oregon CitJiARCHDiocESB OF (Oregonopoutan), where in 1836 he entered Laval University. He was
includes that part of the State of Oregon west of the ordained priest in Quebec, 12 Sept., 1843, and minis-
Cascade Mountains, being bounded on the east by the tered in several parishes of that diocese. He was one
counties of Wasco, Crook, and Klamath. It com- of the heroic priests who attended the plague-«tricken
prises an area of 21 ,398 square miles. By an indult of Irish emigrants in the typhus-sheds along the St. Law-
the Holv See dated 28 Feb., 1836, the Or^on Counti^ rence after the ''black ^47". Later he entered the
north of the American line was annexed to the vi- Sodetv of Jesus and was attached to St. John's Col-
cariate Apostolic of Mgr Provencher of Red River, lege, Fordham, New York. When the Civil War broke
By letters of 17 April, 1838, Rev. F. N. Blanchet was out he went as a chaplain in the Irish Brigade and
appointed vicar-general to the Archbishop of Quebec served with the Army of the Potomac during a large
and assigned to the Oregon mission. The vicar-gen- part of its campaigns. He then withdrew nom the
era] established his first mission at St. Paul on the Wil- Jesuits and devoted himself to literature, becoming
lamette, and on 6 Jan., 1839, dedicated at that place one of the editorial staff of the " New Amencan CVclo-
the first Catholic church in Oregon. The church had pedia" to whidi he contributed articles on Catholic
been constructed three years earlier by the Canadian topics. At the conclusion of this work he travelled ex-
settlers who had anticipated the coming of a mission- tensively in Europe, sending for several years an in-
ary among them. ^ teresting series of fetteis to the New York ^ Sun". He
As the line of demarcation between British and lived for a long period in Rome where t^ope Leo XIII,
American territory was still undecided, and missionary besides appointing him a prothonotary Apostolic in
priests had been sent into the country both from 1887, gave him the special materials for his ''life of
Canada and from the United States (De Smet had Leo XIII" (New York, 1887). Among the many
come from St. Louis), Oregon became a joint mission books he published these were notable: 'Uife of Pius
depending upon the Bishops of Quebec and Baltimore. IX" (1877) : " Minor of True Womanhood " (1876) ;
At the suggestion of these bishops, the mission was "True Men" (1878); "Key of Heaven" (1878); "The
erected into a vicariate Apostolic by a brief of 1 Dec., Two Brides" (1879); "Lite of John MacHale, Arch-
1843. On 24 July, 1846, the vicariate was trans- bishopof Tuam" (1890). On his return to New York
formed into a province comprising the Archdiocese from Europe he was made chaplain at the convent of
of Oregon City and the Dioceses of Walla Walla MountSt. Vincent, where he spent the rest of his days,
and Vancouver's Island. With the transfer of the On the occasion of his sacerdotal jubilee he was given
See of Walla Walla to Nesqually (1848), the northern a signed testimonial of appreciation of his fdlow
boundary of the Archdiocese of Oregon City was fixed priests and friends.
at the Columbia River and the 46** lat. This territory Catholic^ Nem (New York. May, 1907) ; Am Maria (Notre
was diminished by the erection of the Vicariate of ^•^•' Indiana), files; Nat. Cydo, "^J^i"^"^ ^w„,„ „
Idaho (1868) and finaUy received its present limits by l^oftAS J^ . Mbkhan.
the erection of the Diocese of Baker City (1903). 0'R6illy» Chablbs Joseph. See Bakbr City,
Bishops: (1) Francois Norbert Blanchet (q. v.), b. Diocbsb of.
3 Sept., 1795, consecrated 25 July, 1845. There were
in the diocese in 1845 ten priests, thirteen Sisters of O'Railly, Edmund, Arehbishop of Armagh, b. at
Notre-Dame, and two educational institutions. The Dublin, 1616; d. at Saumur, France, 1669, was edu-
fiist priest ordained in Oregon was Father Jayol, the cated in Dublin and ordained there in 1629. After
ceremony being performed By Archbishop Blanchet at ordination he studied at Louvain, where he held the
St. Paul, 19 Sept., 1847. On 30 Nov., tibe aitshbishop position of prefect of the college of Irish Secular Ec-
oonsecrated at Sf. Paul, Bishop Demers of Vancouvers desiastics. In 1640 he returned to Dublm and was
Island. He convened the First Provincial Coimoil of appointed vicaivgeneral. In 1642 the Archbishop of
Oregon City, 28 Feb., 1848. On 21 Dec., Arehbishop Dublin, Dr. Fleming, having been appointed on the
Blanchet left St. Paul and took up his residence at Supreme Council of the Confederate Catholics, trans-
Oregon City. In 1852 the first chureh in the City of ferred his residence to Kilkenny and imtfl 1648
Portland was dedicated under the title of the Immao- O'Reilly administered the Arehdiocese of Dublin,
ulate Conception. It became the pro-cathedral when With the triumph of the Puritans he was imprisoned,
Arehbishop Blanchet moved to Portland in 1862. and in 1653, ordered to quit the kingdom, he took
(2) Charies John Severs, b. 26 Dec., 1839, at Ghent, refuge at the Irish College of Lisle where he was noti-
successor to" the pioneer Bishop Demers of Vancou- fied of his appointment to the See of Armagh, and
ver's Island, was transferred to Oreeon City, 10 Dec., shortly after consecrated at Brussels. Ireland was
1878, and became coadjutor to Arehbishop Blanchet then a dangerous place for ecclesiastics, and not until
who at once retired from active life. Arehbishop 1658 did he attempt to visit his diocese; even then he
Seghers is remembered for his heroic devotion to the could proceed no farther than London. Ordered to
Indian missions of Alaska (q. v.), which led him to quit the kingdom, he returned to France, but in the
resign the See of Oregon City in 1884. (3) William following year went to Ireland, this time directly from
H. Gross (consecrated Bishop of Savannah, 1873) France, and for the next two years exercised his nun-
was promoted to the arehiepiscopal See of Oregon istry. Accused of favouring the Puritans and of being
City, 1 Feb., 1885, and invested with the pallium in an enemy of the Stuarts, he was ordered by the pope
Portland by His Eminence Cardinal Gibbons 9 Oct. to quit fceland. At Rome he was able to vindicate
On his death 14 Nov., 1898, he was succeeded by the himself, but he was not allowed to retium to Ireland by
present archbishop. (4) Most Rev. Alexander Christie the English authorities until 1665, and then only in the
(consecrated Bishop of Vancouver's Island, 29 June, hope Uiat he would favour the Remonstrance of Peter
1898);was promoted to the arehiepiscopal See of Ore- Walsh. O'Reilly, like the great majority of the Irish
gon City, 12 Feb., 1899. Statistics for 1909: diocesan bishops and priests, rejected it. nor coiUd the entrear
priests, 50; priests of rel. orders, 40; colleges, 3; sec- ties of Walsh or the threats of Ormond change hiin.
ondary schools, 12; dementary schools, 35; pupils. In consequence he was imprisoned bv Ormond, and
5500. when released, driven from the kingdom. He spent
O'RIXLLY 294 O'BIILLY
the renuunine years of his life in France, chiefly con- Wherever the primate's partisans oommanded, the
cemed with the care of the Irish colleges there. Protestant bishops, ministers, and people were safe,
»ruijKT,u%Mtoneal Memoirt of Armagh, ed. Cpuui^ (Dub- and were even protected in the exercise of their own
mon in Inland and England (Rom«, 1876). out the war and the temble years that followed it, the
£. A. D'Ai;roN. soul and guide of the nationtd party; he did his utmost
^•» ill i:u. XL 1 • u • T J o/i *® restram the violence of the people, who would have
* ^!^?^' r^!*???',. ^^*^' *J: '^ , ii?« ?; r" wreaked vengeance on their persecutors had they been
April, 181 1; d. at Dublin. 10 November, 1878. Edu- left to their own instincts at that crisis. He urged Sir
cated at Clongowes and Maynooth, he made his the- Phelim O'NeUe and Lord Iveagh to keep the armed
olo^ studies at Rome^ where ^ter seven years in multitudes in check and prevent the massacre and pil-
^e Roman a)UM5e he gamed the decree of Doctor of Lige of Protestants. Such salutary restraint produced
Divimty by a ^^pubhc act " dc unwaraa thedogui. the most happy results, for even the rudest of the
After his ordination m 1838 he taudit theology for northern chieftains respected him too much to violate
thirteen years at Maynooth mtp whach he was mamly his lessons of forbearance and charity. When the
ms^mental m mtroducmg the Roman spmt and great chieftain, Owen Roe, was dying, he had himself
traction, aftw which he Altered the Jesmt novitiate taken to Ballinacorgy Castle, the residence of his
at Naples. He teu^t theology for some years at brother-in-law PhilipX)'Reilly, wher« he was attended
St. Beuno's CoUege m North Wales tiU he was ap- by Archbishop O'Reilly. Local tradition gives the
pointed Professor of Theolocr under Newman in the ruined Abbey of the Holy Trinity, on an island a few
Catholic Umveiwty of heland. During the rrao^nder miles from Ballinacorgy Castle, as his last resting-
of his hfe he resided at Milltown Pw-k near Dubhn as place. In the s^e locality Archbishop O'ReiUy was
r^f^rof A Bouae of Spiritual Exctciscs; and he buried. The primate's signature is stifi to be seen in
was Provmcial of Ireland 1863-70. Constantly con- most of the manifestoes of the Confederation of KU-
suited on theological questions by the bishops and kenny as "Hugo Armacanus".
priests of Ireland, Cardinal Newman in his famous D'Aiax>n, Biuory of Ireland, iii (Dublin. iQio); Qilbbbt,
''Letter to the Duke of Norfolk" calls him "a great iJ<^-,«/ft? A**\S?S^Jf{f^''^*^ "^ ^ ^"^ •»* ^»'<*»~'. mo-4i
authority" and "one of the first theologians ofthe (7 vols.. Dublin. ISSMI). an.,^„ _„ *__„
day". Dr. W. G. Ward, editor of "TheTDublin Re- S'^™* ^' Stanislaub Austin.
view", said: "It is a great loss to the Chureh that so O'Beillyv John. See Adblaidb, Archdiocbsx or.
distingiiisherf a theologian to Father O'Reilly has
in the ancient theological paths, cannot but be of ftjjnded Uie National School, conducted by his
signal benefit to the cSthohc reader in these anxious ^^^^ ^^^J^^A^n successively as pnnter
and perilous times." 2V**^®J^^^^ Argus", and on the staff of
FrJeman'a Journal (Dublin. November. 1878); Irith Monthly, The Guardian", Preston, England: he aftor-
VI. 095. wards became a trooper in the Tenth Hussars. En-
Matthew Rubbbll. terinp actively into the Fenian movement, believ-
A»B^ii. TT^^ Avu-u t k utj* "^ ^ ^ inexperience that Ireland's grievances
^iTnT^' Hugh. Archbishop of Armagh, h«|d of ^ould be redressed only by physical forw, he was
i^f9?^ T ^^^^^^^^^ir:^^^' J*J^?^J*y betrayed to the authoritii and duly court-mai-
Island in Lou^ Eme. He first conceived the idea ti^Ued. On account of his extreme youth, his hfe
of forming this national movement mto a repilar eentence was commuted to twenty years' penal ser-
grwrnzation. He convened^ a provinciaJ raiod at ^itude in Australia. Later study of his country's
Kelb wly m Mardb, 1642, in which the bishops de- ^ause made him before long an earnest advocate of
clared the war undertaken by the Insh peopk for their constitutional agitation as the only way to Irish Home
fang, i«hgion, and TOim^ The ruI^, j^ i869, O'Reilly escaped from Austraha,
following May (1642) he convened a natioiwl synod, ^^h the assistance of the captain of a whaUng barque
consisting of prelate wid avil lords, at Kilkeimy. f^m New Bedfoni. Massachusetts. In 1870, he
After havmg ratified ihea formw declaration, they became editor of "The Pilot", Boston, and from 1876
fmmed an oath of association to be taken by aU their ^^^ ^m death in 1890 he was also part proprietor,
adherents, bmdinK them to m^ntam the fundamental ^eing associated with Archbishop WUIiams of fioston.
laws of Ireland, the free«rerciseof rehgion, and true Hisbooks include four volumes of poems: "Songs
aUegianoe to Charles L Ordcra were issued to lepr of the Southern Seas", "Songs, Legends, and Balladis^
men and raise money; to estabhdi a mmt and an offi- urj^ Statues in the Block^ imd "In Bohemia"; a
cnal printing oress; to take the duty off such foreign ^^vel, "Moondyne", based on his Australian ex^e-
imports as wheat and corn, lead, iron, arms and am- Henoes; his collaboration in anothernovel, "TheKing's
mumtion; the birfiops and cleror should pay a certain Men", and "Athletics and Manly Sport ^'. A sincere
sum for national purposes out of ^e ecclesiastical CathoUc, his great influence, used lavishly in for-
revenues that Iwji come back mto their possession; warding the interests of younger Catholics destined to
and ag^ts should be sent to (^thohc courts to sohcit ^^^ careers, and in Uf ting up the lowly without re-
aid. They gave letters of credit and chartered some ^^ ^ny claim but their need, was for twenty years
hght vessels that were to fly the Confederate colours * valuable factor in CathoUc progress in America, He
and protect the coast, and they drafted a remon- ^^s married in 1872 to Mary Murphy, in Boston, who
Btrance to the kmg declanng their loyalty and protest- ^^ ^ 1397^ Their four daughters survive them,
ing against the acts of tyranny, injustice, and mtoler- Rochb, Life of J(ikn BoyU 0*RHUy csew York, 1891); Con-
ance of the Puritan lord justices and Parliament of wat, WatehvfordM from John BoyU o*Re%ay (Rotitoa, 1891).
Dublin in confiscating Catholic lands and putting a Kathkrinb E. Conwat.
ban on Catholic school-teachers. The assembly lasted ...•.,«. ....
until 9 January, agreeing to meet 20 May following. O'EeUly* Mtlbs Wiluam Patrick, soldier, pub-
The seal of the Confederation bore in ite centre a large licist, litUrateur, b. near Balbriofan, Co. Dublin, Ire-
cross rising out of a flajning heart, above were the land, 13 March. 1825; d. at Dublin, 6 Feb., 1880. In
wings of a dove, on the left a harp, and on the right a 1841 he entered Ushaw College (England), and grad-
crown; the legend read: pbo dbg, bbqb, bt patbia, uated a B.A. of London Univermty. From 1845 to
HiBBBNiUNANiicKB. 1847 he Studied in Rome, and then retumcd to Ireland
O'BEILLT
295
ORENSS
to assist the fanune-Btricken peasants. In 1851 he
was associated with Newman and Archbishop Leahy
to report on the projected Catholic University, and, in
1854 he became captain of the Louth Bifles. He
married Miss Ida Jemingham, 3 Aug.^ 1859. Some
months later he offered his services to Pius IX, against
Garibaldi. Having formed an Irish Brigade, he was
appointed major, under Gener^al Pimodan, and fought
gallantly in eveiy engagement until the surrender of
Spoleto, 18 Sept^ 1860. From 1862 to 1876 he repre-
sented County Longford in the British Parliament,
and was one of those who signed the remiisition for
the famous Home Rule Conference under Isaac Butt.
He ably supported Catholic interests, and assisted in
the movement to obtain Catholic cnadlains for the
army. B[e wrote "Sufferings for the Faith in Ire-
land" (London, 1868). He also contributed to the
"Dublin Review" and other periodicals, writing
especially in defence of the Holy See and or Catholic
eoucational matters. After the death of his wife in
1876, he accepted the position of Assistant Commis-
sioner of Intermediate Education for Ireland in April.
1879, which he filled until his death. He was interred
at Philipstown, not far from his family residence in
Co. Louth.
O'Clsrt, The Making of lUdy (London. 1896); Contemporary
newspapers ; Conbt. Th$ Iruh BrigadB in Italy (Dublin, 1007);
OoQABTT. MS, Memoir (1910).
W. H. Grattan-Flood.
O'RalUyi Peter J. See Peoria, Diocese of.
OremuB, invitation to pray, said before coUects
and other short prayers and occuring continually in
the Roman Rite. It is used as a sinpe ejaculation in
the Elast (e. g., Nestorian Rite, Brightman^ "Eastern
Liturgies", Oxiford, 1896, 255, etc.; Jacobite, ib., 75,
80, etc.), or the imperative: "Pray" (Coptic, ib., 162),
"Stfuid for prayer . (ib., 158); most commonly, how-
ever with a further determination, "Let us pray to
the Lord" (toO iwpfov dnytfi^ficv, throughout the Bysan-
tine Rite), and so on. Mgr Duchesne thinks that the
GaUiean collects were also introduced by the word
Oremvs ("Origines du Culte", Paris, 1898, 103). It
is not so in the Mozarabic Rite, where the celebrant
uses the word only twice, before the AgioB (P. L.,
LXXXV,113)andPa/eri\r(wter(ib.,118). Oremw is
said (or sung) in the Roman Rite before all separate
collects in the Mass, Office, or on other occasions (but
several collects may be joined with onQ^Oremtw), before
Post-Communions; in the same way, alone, with no
prayer following, before the offertorv; also before the
introduction to tne Pater noster and before other short
prayers (e. g., Anjer a nobis) in the form of collects. It
appears that the Oremua did not originalljr apply to
the prayer (collect) that now follows it. It is thought
that it was once an invitation to private prayer, very
likely with further direction as to the object, as now on
Good Friday (Oremu8 pro ecclena aancta Dei, etc.).
The deacon then said: Fledamus genua, and all knelt
in ffllent prayer. After a time the people were told to
stand up {Levate), and finally the celebrant collected
all the petitions in one short sentence said aloud (see
Collect). Of all this our Oremue followed at once
by the coUect would be a fragment.
QxHB. The Holy Saerijiee of the Mate (St. Louis. 1908), 368, 416,
497.
Adrian Fortescue.
Orensa, Diocesb of (Attriensis), suffragan of
Compostela, includes nearly all of the civil Province
of Oronse. and part of those of Lugo and Zamora, be-
ing bounded on the north by Pontevedra, Lugo, and
L^n; on the east by Leon and Zamora; on the south
by Portugal ; on the west by Portugal and Pontevedra.
Its capital, Orense (pop., 14,168)^ is a very ancient
city on the banks of the Mifio (Minho), famous since
classical antiquity for its hot springs. The See of Or-
ense dates from a remote period, certainly before the
fifth centuiy. The First Council of Braga (561) cre-
ated four (uoceses, the bishops of which afterwards
signed the acts of the Second Council of Braga below
the Bishop of Orense — an indication that they were of
junior standing. Moreover, the signatures of the Bish-
ops of Tuy and Astorga, two very ancient Churches,
come after that of the Bishop of Orense. According to
Idacius, two bishops, Pastor and Siagrius, were conse-
crated in the convent of Lugo in 433, and one of them
(it is not known which) was a Bishop of Orense.
In 464, the Suevians, who had invaded Galicia, em-
braced Arianism, and only in the time of King Char&-
ric (560) were ttiey reconciled to Catholicism. St.
Gregory of Tours tells us that the Galicians embraced
the Faith with remarkable fervour. The conversion
and instruction of both king and people appear to have
been completed by St. Martin of Lhunium. The
names of the bishops of Orense are unknown until 571,
when the diocese was governed by Witimir. a man of
noble Suevian lineage, who assisted at tne Second
Council of Braga. He was an intimate friend of St.
Martin of Braga, who dedicated to him as his "most
de^r father in Christ", his treatise " De ira". In 716
Orense was destroyed oy Abdelaziz, son of Musa. In
832 Alfonso II combined the two Dioceses of Orense
and Lugo: Orense, nevertheless, appears to have re-
tained its titular bishops, for a chiuter of Alfonso the
Chaste is witnessed by Maydo, Bishop of Orense.
When Alfonso III (866H910) had reconouered Orense,
he gave it to Bisho|) Sebastian, who had been Bishop
of Arcabica in Celtiberia and was succeeded by Cen-
seric (844), Sumna (886), and Egila (899), who took
part in the consecration of the church of Santiago and
m the Council of Oviedo. In the episcopacy of An-
surius (915-22) the holy abbot Franquila (906) erected
the Benedictine monastery of S. Esteban de Ribas del
Sil (St. Stephen on the Sil), where Ansurius him-
self and eigtkt of his successors died in the odour of
sanctity.
At the end of the tenth centunr the diocese was laid
waste, first by the Northmen (970) and then by Al-
manzor, after which it was committed to the care of
the Bishop of Lugo until 1071, when, after a vacancy
of seventy years, Sancho II appointed Ederonio to the
see. Ederonio rebuilt the old cathedral called S. Maria
la Madre (1084-89). The most famous bishop of this
period was Diego Velasco, whom his epitaph calls
" light of the Church and glory of his country '\ He as-
sisted at a council of Pslencia and three councils of
Santiago, and, with the assent of Dofia Urraca and her
son Alfonso, granted privileges (fueros) to Orense. He
ruled for thirty years and was succeeded by Martin
(1132-56) and Pedro Segufn. The latter was confes-
sor to Ferdinand II, who granted him the lordship of
Orense. Bishop Lorenzo was the jurist whom Tu-
dense called the "pattern of the law'' (regla dd dere^
cho) ; he rebuilt the cathedral and the bishop's palace,
and constructed the famous bridge of Orense, with its
principal arch spanning more than 130 feet. He as-
sisted at the Council of Lyons in 1245. Vafiez de No-
voa quarrelled with the Franciscans, while he was pre-
centor, and burned their convent, which had sheltered
oneof his enemies, but, having become bishop, he re-
built it magnificently. Vasco Perez Marifio (1333-43)
was distinguished for his devotion to the "Holy Christ
of Orense , which he caused to be transferred from
Finisterre to Orense and built for it a beautiful chapel,
modified in subsequent periods. Other distinguisned
occupants of this see were Cardinal Juan de Torque-
mada, a Dominican, who assisted at the Councils of
Constance and Basle; Diego de Fonseca (1471-84),
who repured the cathedral; Cardinals Antoniotto Pal-
lavicino and Pedro de Isvidles, and the inquisitor
general Fernando Vald^. Francisco Blanco founded
the Hoepital of S. Roque, assisted at the Council of
Trent, tounded the Jesuit coUeges at Malaga and
Compostela, and endow«l that at Monterey. The
\
OEESMS
296
OBSSBOB
zealous Juan Mufios de la Cueva, a Trinitarian, wrote
" Historical Notes on the Cathedral Church of Orense "
(Madrid, 1727). Pedro Quevedo y Quintana (d. 1818),
having been oresident of the Regency in 1810, was ex-
iled by the Cortes of Cadiz; he founded the conoiliar
seminary of Orense in 1802.
The original cathedral was dedicated to the Mother
of God, and is still known as Santa Maria la Madre.
The Suevian king Chararic (see above) built ^550) an-
other, more sumptuous, church Iq honour of St. Mar-
tin of Tours ana made it the cathedral, as it is to this
day. Both churches, having sufferea severely from
time and the invasions of Aruis and Northmen^ have
been repeatedly restored. Tlie later cathedral is Ro-
manesque, with features of Gothic transition: its old-
est portions date from the thirteenth century, and its
latest from the early sixteenth; the facade has oeen re-
built in modem times. The high altar has a silver tab-
ernacle, given by Bishop Miguel Ares, and statues of
Our Lady and St. Martin. In two side altars are the
relics of St. Euphemia and her companions in martyr-
dom, Sts. Facundus and Primitivus. The plan of the
church is a Latin cross, with three naves, the tower
standing apart. The choir stalls are the woijc of Diego
de Soils and Juan de Anges (late sixteenth century).
Of the cloisters only a small portion remains, a perfect
gem of ogival work. The church of St. Francis and the
Trinity should also be mentioned; it was founded
Erobably about the middle of the twelfth century as a
ospice for pilgrims.
The famous men of the diocese include Padre Fei-
j6o, a polymtpher who exploded ma^ superstitions;
Antonio oe Kemes^ the historian of Qiiapa and Gua-
temala; Gre^orio Biemandez, the sculptor; Castellar
Ferrer, the historian of Galicia> St. Francis Blanco, a
martyr of Japan.
Pblato. Helerodoxo$ mimAoIm, I (Madrid, 1879) ; Mados, Dice.
oeoip^MeO'^atadUiieo-kittMeo d* E9patUi (Madrid, 1848) ; Floru,
Btp. Sagrada (Madrid, 1789) ; ob ul Funrrap //m(. ed. de Btp,
(Barcelona. 1855)
Ram6n Ruiz Am ado.
Oi^eune, Nicolb^ philosopher, economist, mathe-
matician,-andphysicist, one of the principal founders of
modem science j b. in Normandy, in the Diocese Qf
Bayeux; d. at Lisieux, 11 July, 1382. In 1348 he was
a indent of theology in Paris; in 1356 grand master
of the College de Navarre; in 1362, already master of
theology, canon of Rouen; dean of ^e chapter, 28
March, 1364. On 3 August, 1377. he became Biwop
of Lisieux. There is a tradition tnat he was tutor to
the dauphin, afterwards Charles V, but this is irrecon-
cilable with the dates of Oresme's life. Charles seems
to have had the highest esteem for his character and
talents, often followed his counsel, and made him write
many works in French for the purpose of developing a
taste for learning in the kingdom. At Qiarles's m-
stance, too, Oresme pronounced a discourse before the
papal Court at Avignon, denoimcing the ecclesiastical
disorders of the time. Several of the French and
Latin works attributed to him are apocryphal or
doubtful. Of his authentic writings, a Uhristolo^cal
treatise, '^ De communicatione idiomatum in Christo '',
was commonly used as early as the fifteenth century
by the theological Faculty of Paris.
But Oresme is best known as an eoonoinist, mathe-
matician, and physicist. His economic views are con-
tained in a Commentary on the Ethics of Aristotle, of
which the French version is dated 1370; a commen-
tary on the Politics and the Economics of Aristotle,
French edition, 1371; and a "Treatise on Coins''.
These three works were written in both Latin and
French; all three, especially the last, stamp their au-
thor as the precursor of the science of political econ-
omy, and reveal his mastery of the French lanf;uage.
The French Commentarv on the Ethics of Anstotle
was printed in Paris in 1488: that on the Politics and
the Economics, in 1489. Tne treatise on coins, "De
origine, natura, jure et mutationibus monetarum",
was printed in Paris early in the sixteenth century,
also at Lyons in 1675, as an appendix to the "De re
monetaria'' of Marquardus Freherus, and is included
in the "Saera bibuotheca sanctorum Patrum" of
Margaronus de la Bigne IX, (Paris, 1859), p. 159, and
in the "Acta publica monetaria" of David Thomas
de Hagelstein (Augsburg, 1642). The "Traicti^ de la
premiere invention des monnoies", in i^rench, was
printed at Bruges in 1477.
His most important contributions to mathematics
are contained in "Tractatus de figuratione potentia-
rum et mensurarum difformitatum", still m manu-
script. An abridgment of this work printed as
'^Tractatus de latitudinibus formanim" (1482, 1486,
1505, 1515). has heretofore been the only source for
the study oi his mathematical ideas. In a quahty, or
accidental form, such as heat, the Scholastics dis-
tinguished the irUensio (the degree of heat at each
point) and the exlenaio (e.g., the length of the heated
rod) ' these two terms were often replaced by UUitudo
and longiindo, and from the time of St. Thomas until
far on in the fourteenth century, there was lively de-
bate on the IcUitudo fonncB, For the sake of lucidity,
Oresme conceived the idea of employing what we
should now call rectangular oo-ordmates: in modem
terminology, a length proportionate to the lonqitudo
was the abscissa at a given point, and a perpendicular
at that point, proportionate to the latUum, was the
ordinate. He shows that a geometrical prop^y of
such a figure could be regarded as corresponding to
a property of the form itself only when this property
remains constant while the units measuring tne Icmgi"
tudo and IcUitudo vary. Hence he defines UUUudo
unifdrmis as that which is represented by a line paral-
lel to the longitude, and any other latitudo is difformis;
the latitudo uniformiter difformis is represented by a
right line inclined to the axis of the longitude. He'
proves that this definition is equivalent to an alse-
braical relation in which the longitudes and latitudes
of any three points would figure: i. e., he nves the
equation of the right line, and thus forestalls Descartes
in the invention of analytical geometry. This doc-
trine he extends to figures of three dimensions.
Besides the longitude and latitude of a form, he
considers the mensura, or qtuintitaSf of the form, pro-
portional to the area of the figure representing it. He
proves this theorem: A form uniformiler difformis
Las the same quantity as a form uniformiB of the same
longitude and having as latitude we mean between
the two extreme linuts of the first. He then shows
that his method of figuring the latitude of forms is
applicable to the movement of a point, on condition
that the time is taken as longitude and the speed as
latitude; quantity is, then, the space covered in a
given time. In virtue of tnis transpositidn, the the-
orem of the latitude uniformiler difformis became the
law of the bp^Use traversed in case of uniformlv varied
motion: Oresme's demonstration is exactly the same
as that which Galileo was to render celebrated in the
seventeenth century. Moreover, this law was never
forgotten during the interval between Oresme and.
Ga&leo: it was taught at Oxford by William Heytes-
bury and his followers, then, at Paris and in Italy,
by all the followers of that school. In the middle of
the sixteenth century, long before Galileo, the Domin-
ican Dominic Soto applira the law to the uniformly
acclerated falling of heavy bodies and to the unifprmly
decreasing ascenmon of projectiles.
Oresme B physical teachings are set forth in two
French works, the " Traits de \& sph^ ", twice printed
in Paris (first edition without date; second, 15CN3), and
the "Traits du ciel et du monde", written in 1377 at
the request of Kin^ Charles V, but never printed.
In most of the essential problems of statics and dynain-
ics, Oresme foUows the opinions advocated in Pane
by his predecessor, Jean Buridan de B6thune, and hit
ORGAK
297
ORGAK
contemporary, Albert de Saxe (see Saxe, Albert de).
In opposition to the Aristotelean theory of weight,
according to which the natural location of heavy
bodies is the centre of the world, and that 9f light
bodies the concavity of the moon's orb, he proposes
the following: The elements tend to dispose themselves
in such manner that, from the centre to the periph-
ery their specific weight diminishes by degrees. He
thmks that a similar rule may exist m worlds other
than tins. This is the doctrine later substituted for
the Aristotelean by Copernicus and his followers, suc)i
as Giordano Bruno. The latter argued in a nuumer so
similar to Oresme's that it would seem he had read
the ** Traits du ciel et du monde ". But Oresme had a
much stronger claim to be r^arded as the precursor of
Copernicus when one considers what he says of the
diurnal motion of the earth, to which he devotes the
§loss following chapters xxiv and xxv of the ''Traits
u ciel et du monde **, He begins by establishing that
no experiment can decide whether the heavens move
from east to west or the earth from west to east; for
sensible experience can never establish more than
relative motion. He then shows that the reasons
proposed by the physics Qf Aristotle against the move-
ment of the earth are not valid : he points out, in par-
ticular, the principle of the solution of the (Ufficulty
drawn from the movement of projectiles. Next he
solves the objections based on texts of Holy Scripture;
in interpreting these passases he lays down rules uni-
versally followed by Catholic exegetists of the present
day. Finally, he adduces the argument of simplicity
for the theory that the earth moves, and not the heav-
ens, and the whole of his argument in favour of the
earth's motion is both more explicit and much clearer
than that dven by Copernicus.
Mwmnn^B$9ai tur la tie Hie* ouvraoet de NieoU Oretme (Paris,
1857) ; Woi/>w8XX ed., Traieiii de la premUre intention dee fium-
noiee de Nicole Oreeme, textee frangaie el latin d'aprie lee manu-
aerite de la BihliolMque Jmptriale, et Traiti de la monnoie de Coper'
nie, texte latin ei traduction franeaise (Paris, 1864); Jourdain,
Mfmaire aur lee eommeneeiHenle de VEeonomie politique done lee
Seolee du Moyen-Age in Mhnoiree de FAcadimie dee Ineeriplione
el BeUee-LeUres, XXVIII, pt. II (1874) ; Cubteb, Der Alaoriemue
?''oportionuM dee Nioolaue Oreeme in Zeitaehr, /fir Mathematik u.
hjfik, XIII, Supplementary (Leipsig, 1868), 65-79; Idem. Der
Tradatue de LaOtudinibue Formarum dee Nieolaue Oreeme (Ibid.,
1868), 02-97; Iorm, Die mathematieehen Schri/ten dee Nicole
Oreeme (Berlin, 1870) ; Sutbb. Einebiejelzt unbekannle 8chri/t dee
Nie. Oreeme in Zeilechr. /fir Mathematik und Phpeik, XXVII.
HielAitter, AhtheUung (Leipsui^ 1882), 121-25; Camtoii, Vor-
leeungen Hber die Oeeeh. der Mathematik^ II (2nd ed., Leiptift,
1900), 128-36; Duhbm, Un pricureew fran^aie de Copemie: Nicole
Oreeme (1S77) in Reeue gSnirale dee Sciencee (Paris, 15 Nov.,
1909); loBM, Dominioue SoIq et la Seolaelique parieienne in Bui-
letin hiepanique (Bordeaux, 1910-11). PiSRRE DuhEM.
Organ (Greek fyyawop^ "an instrument '')i a musi-
cal instrument which consists of one or several sets of
pipes, each pipe giving only one tone, and which is
blown and played by mechanical means. I. Origin
AND Development. — As far as the sounding material
is concerned, the organ has its protot3rpe in the syrinx,
or Pan's pip^, a httle instrument consisting of several
pipes of oinering length tied together in a row. The
application of the mechanism is credited to Ctesibius,
a mechanician who hved in Alexandria about SOO b. c.
According to descriptions by Vitruvius (who is now
generally believed to have written about A. d. 60)
and Heron (somewhat later than Vitruvius), the or-
gan of Ctesibius was an instrument of such perfection
as was not attained again until the eighteenth century.
The blowing apparatus designed by Ctesibius con-
sisted of two parts, just as in the modem organ; the
first serving to compress the air (the "feeders"); the
second, to store the compressed air, the "wind", and
keep it at a uniform pressure (the "reservoir"). For
the first purpose Ctesibius used air-pumps fitted with
handles for convenient working. The second, the
most interesting part of his invention, was constructed
as follows: a bell-shaped vessel was placed in a bronze
basin, mouth downwards, supported a couple of inches
above the bottom of the basm by a few blocks. Into
the basin water was then poured until it rose some
distsjice above the mouth ofthe bell. Tubes connect- ^
ing with the air-pumps, as well as others connecting ,
with the pipes of^ the organ, were fitted into the top
of the bell. When, therefore, the idr-pumpe were
worked, the air inside the bell was compressed and
pushed out some of the water below. The level of the
water consequently rose and kept the air inside com-
pressed. Any wind taken from the bell to supply the
i)ipes would naturallv have a tendency to raise the
evel of the water in the bell and to lower that outside.
But if the supply from the air-pumps was kept slightly
in excess of the demand by the pipes, so that some
of the air would always escape throuui the water in
bubbles, a very even pressure would be maintained.
This is what was actually done, and the bubbling of
the water, sometimes described as "boiling", was fd-
ways prominent in the accounts given of the instru- '
ment.
Over the basin there was placed a flat box contain-
ing a number of channels corresponding to the num-.
ber of rpws of pipes. Vitruvius speaks of organs hav-
ing four, six. or eight rows of pipes, with as many
channels. Each channel was supplied with wind
from the bell by a connecting tube, a cock being in-
serted in each tube to cut off the wind at will. Over the
box containing the channels an upper-board was placed ,
on the lower side of which small grooves were cut trans-
versely to the channels. In the grooves close-fitting
"shders" were inserted, which could be moved in and
out. At the intersections of channels and grooves,
holes were cut vertically through the upper board and,
correspondin^y , through the top covering of the chan-
nels. The pipes, then, stood over the holes of the
upper-board, each row, representing a scale-like pro-
gression, standing over its own channel, and all the
pipes belonging to the same key, standing over the
same groove. The sliders also were perforated, their
holes corresponding to those in the upper boani and
the roof of the channels. When^ therefore, the slider
was so placed ihat its holes were m line with the lower
and upper holes, the wind could pass through the
three holes into the pipe above j but if the slider was
drawn out a httle, its solid portions would cut off the
connexion between the holes in the roof of the channels
and those in the upper-board, and no wind could pass.
There was thus a double conth>l of the pipes. By
means of the cocks, wind could be admitted to any one
of the channels, and thus supply all the pipes standing
over that channel, but only those pipes would get
the wind whose slide was in thp proper position.
Again, by means of the slide, wind coulcf be admitted
to all the pipes standing in a transverse row, but
only those pipes would 1^ blown to whose channels
wind had been admitted by the cocks. This double
control is still a leading principle in modem organ-
building, and a row of pipes, differing in pitch, but
having the same quality of tone, is called a stop, be-
cause its wind supply can be stopped by one action.
It is not quite certain what the stops in the ancient
organ meant. It is veiy unlikely that different stops
produced different qualities of tone, as in the mod-
em organ. Most probably they represented different
"modes". For the convenient management of the
slides each was provided with an angular lever, so that
on pressing down one arm of the lever, the slide was
pushed in; the lever being released, the slide was
pulled out again by a spring.
This organ, called hydravluSf or organum hydraulic
cunif from the water used in the blowing apparatus, en-
joyed great popularity. Writers like Cicero are loud
m its praise. Even emperors took pride in playing
it. It was used to heighten the pleasures of banquets
and was associated p^icularly with the theatre and
the cirous. Numerous representations, particularl^r
on coins called contomiat€», also testify to its g(
repute. At an early period we meet organs in
OBOAR 298 OBOAR
the air pumps were replaced by bellows. Whether in laiiger instrument known simply as the or|mn. Later
these organs the water apparatus was dispensed with, on, when in reality several organs were combined in the
is not quite c&rtam. It would be strange^ however, if same instrument, one of the softer divisions was called
this important means of regulating the wmd pressure ''positive". Tms name is still retained on the Conti*
had be^ discontinued while the hydraulus was still in nent,*while in Elnglish-flnDeaking countries it has been
vogue. About the sixth century organ-building seems changed to "choir organ . There was still another in-
to nave gone down in Western Europe, while it was strument of the organ kind called a "regal". Its
continued in the Eastern Empire. It was a great event peculiarity was that, instead of pipes, it bad reeds,
when, in 757, the Emperor Constantine V Copibny- fastened at one end and free to vibrate at the other,
mus made a present ox an organ to I^ng Pepin. In It was therefore the precursor of our modem hiomo-
826 a Venetian priest named Georgius erected an nium. In the fourteenth oenturv organs were con-
oigan at Aachen, poesibly following the directions ^ructed with different key-boards placed one above
le^ by Vitruvius. Shortly afterwards organ-buildine the other, each controlling its own oivision of the or-
seems to have flourished in Germany, for we are tola pan. Soon afterwards couplers were designed, that
(Baluse, ** Misc.", V, 480) that Pope John VIII (872- is, mechanical appliances by which a key depreased in
80) asked Anno, Bishop of Freising, to send him a good one key-board (or manual) would sunultaneously pull
organ and an organist. By this time the hydraulic down, a corresponding key in another. The invention
apparatus for equalizing the wind-pressure had cer- of a special key-board to be played by the feet, and
tainly been abandoned, presumably oecause in north- hence called "pedals'', is also placed in the fourteenth
em climates the water might freeze in winter time, century. Sometimes the pedal keys merely pulled
The wind, therefore, was supplied to the pipes directly down manual keys by means of a chord : sometimes
from the bellows. To get anything like a regular flow they were provided with their own rows of pipes, as in
of wind, it was necessary to have a number of bellows some fourteenth-century Swedish organs described by
worked by several men. Thus, an or^an in Winches- C. F. Hennerberg in a paper read at the Intemationiu
ter cathedral, built in 951, ana containing 400 pipes, Musical Congress at Vienna, in 1909 C'Bericht", 91
had twenty-six beUows, which it took seventy men to sqa., Vienna and Leipzig, 1909).
blow. These seventy men evidently worked m relays. it seems that stops were not reinvented until the
In all probability one man would work one bellows, but fifteenth century. The form then used for a stop ao-
the work was so exhausting that each man could con- tion was tiiat of a "spring-box''. About the four-
tinue enlv for a short time. The bellows were pressed teenth century, it appears, uie slider for the key action
down either by means of a handle or by the blower had been discontinued, and channels (grooves) had
standing on them. It seems that the device of weight- been used, as in the ancient hydraulus, but running
in^ the bellows — so that the blower had merely to transversely, each under a row of pipes belonging to
raise the upper board and leave the weights to press the same key. Into these grooves wind was a&iitted
it down agam — was discovered only in the beginning through a slit covered by a valve (pallet), the valve
of the sixteenth century. being pulled down and opened by the key action, and
Another point in which the medieval organ was closed again by a spring. Sucn an arrangement is
inferior to the hydraulus, was the absence of stops, found in some remnants of the fourteenth century
There were, indeed, several rows of pipes, but they Swedish organs (see Hennerberg, 1. c). In these
oouTd not be stopped. All the pipes belonging to one grooves, then, about the fifteenth century, secondary
key soimded always together, when that key was de- spring valves were inserted, one under each hole lead-
pressed. Thus the Winchester organ had ten pipes to ing to a pipe. From each of these secondary valves
each key. What the difference between these various a slbing lea to one of a number of rods running k>ngi-
pipes was, we do not know; but it appears that at an tudinally under the sound-board, one for each set of
early date pipes were introduced to re-enforce the over- pipes corresponding to a stop. By depressing this
tones of the principal tone, giving the octave, twelfth, rod, all the secondary valves oelongin^ to the oorre-
and their duplicates in still higher octaves. Then, to sponding ^top would be opened, and wmd could enter
counterbalance these high-pitched pipes, others were the pipes as soon as it was admitted into the grooves
added giving the lower octave, and even the second by tne key action. Later on it was found more con-
lower octave. In the absence of a stop action, variety venient to push these valves down than to pull them,
of tone quality was of course unattainable, except by Little rods were made to pass through the top of the
having different organs to play alternately. Even the sound-board and to rest on the front end of tiie valves.
Winchester organ had two key-boards, representing These rods could be depressed, so as to open the valves,
practically two organs (some authorities think there by the stop-rod running over the sound-board. From
were three). From a contemporary description we these secondary valves the whqle arrangement re-
leam that there were two organists (or three according ceived the name spring-box,
to some), each manayng his own "alphabet". The The spring-box solved the problem in principle, but
term cUphabei is explamed by the fact that the alpha- had the drawback of necessitating frequent repairs,
betical name of the note was attached to each slide. Hence, from the sixteenth century onwards, oigan-
The modem name key refers to the same fact, though, builders began to use sliders for the stop acUoi^. Thus
according to Zarlino ("Istitutioni armoniche", 15^), the double control of the pipes by means of channel
in a roundabout maimer : he says that the letters of the and slide was again used as in the hydraulus, but with
alphabet placed at the beginning of the Guidonian exchanged fimctions, the channel now serving for
staff (see Neum, p. 772^ col. ^ were called keys the key action and the slider for the stop action. In
(doves, defs) because they unlocked the secrets of modem times some builders have returned to the an-
the staff, and that, hence, the same name was ap- cient method of using the channel lon^tudinally, for
plied to the levers of instruments like Uie organ the stops (KegeUade and similar contrivances; pneu-
inscribed with the same alphabetical letters. matic sound-boards). Mention should also be made
While, in the Winchester organ, the two key-boards of attempts to do away with the channels alto^ther.
belonged to one organ, we know tiiat there used to be to have all the pipes supplied directly from a umversal
also entirely separate organs in the same building, wind-chest, and to bring about the double control of
The smallest ot these were called "poTtsAAvea" , be- key and stop action by the mechanism alone. Each
cause they could be carried about. These were known pipe hole is then provided with a special valve, and
in France in the tenth century (VioUet-le-Duc, "In- key and stop mechanism are so arranged that only
struments de musiaue", p. 298). A larger kind was their combined action will open the vaJve. Shortly
called "positive", because it was stationary, but it, after the stop-^ustion had been reinvented, builders
agaizi, seems to |ii^ve beei) distinguished f roni a still bedpan \o design varieties of stops. The earlier pipep
OBOAN
209
OBOAN
had been all of our open diapason kind, which in
principle is the same as the toy-whistle. These were
now made in different '^scales'' {9oale being the ratio
of diameter to length). Also, the form of a cone,
uprijE^t or invertedj re^laoea the cylindrical form.
Stopped pipes — ^that is, pipes closed at the top — were
added, and reeds — ^pipes with a "beating'' reed and a
body hke the "flue pipes — ^were introouced. Thus,
by the sixteenth century all the main types now used
had been invented.
The keys in the early medieval organs were not, it
seems, levers, as in the ancient organ and modem in-
struments, but simply the projecting ends of the slides,
bein^, presumably, furnished with some simple device
making it convenient for the fingers to push in or pull
out the slides. The invention of key-levers is gener-
ally placed in the twelfth century. These were for a
long time placed exactly opposite their sliders. When,
therefore, larper pipes began to be placed on the sound-
board, the distances between the centres of the keys
had to be widened. Thus we are told that oi]sans had
keys from three to five inches wide. This incon-
venience was overcome by the invention of the roller-
board, which is placed in the fourteenth century. The
rollers are rods placed longitudinally under the sound-
board and pivoted. From each two short arms pro-
ject horizontally, one b&nf; placed over a key, the
other under the corresponding slider or valve. Thus
the length of the key-board oecame independent of
the length of the sound-board. Consequently we
learn that in the fifteenth century the keys were so
reduced in size that a hand could span the interval of
a fifth, and in the beginning of the sixteenth the key-
board had about the size it has at present.
Tlie number of keys in the early organs was small:
only about one or two octaves of natural keys with
at most the addition of b flat. Slowly the number of
keys was increased, and in the fourteenth century
we hear of key-boards having thirty-one keys. In
the same century chromatic notes other than h flat
began to be added. Then the question of tuning be-
came troublesome. Various systems were devised,
and it was not till the eighteenth century, through the
powerful influence of J. S. Bach, that equal tempera-
ment was adopted. This consists in tuning in fifths
and octaves, making each fifth sli^tly flat so that the
12th fifth mil ^ve a perfect octave. About the be-
ginning of the sixteentn century the lower limit of the
key-boards b^gan to be fixed on the Continent at
C, the c that lies below the lowest tone of the average
bass voice and requires an open pipe of about 8 feet
in length. In England organ k^-boards were gen-
erally carried down to the G or F below that C, and
only about the middle of the nineteenth century the
continental usage prevailed also here. The total
pompass of the manuals now varies from four and a
half to five octaves, that of the pedals from two oc-
taves and three notes to two octaves and six notes
(C— <i' of C— f ). In 1712 it occurred to a London
organ-builder named Jordan to place one manual de-
partment of the organ in a box fitted with shutters
which could be opened or closed by a foot-worked
lever, a kind of crescendo and decrescendo being thus
obtained. This device, which received the name
of 9uMj soon became popular in England, while in
Germany it found favour only quite recently.
As we have seen, all through the Middle Ages the
blowing i^paratus consisted of bellows which deliv-
ered the wmd directly to the sound-board. It was
only in the eighteenth centuiT' that two sets of bellows
were employed, one to supply the wind, the other to
store it and keep it at even pressure. Thus, after an
interval of about a thousand years, the blowing appar-
atus regained the perfection it had possessed in the
hydraulus during uie preceding tibousand years. In
1762 a clock-maker named Cummings invented a
square, weighted bellows, serving as a reservoir, and
supplied by other bellows called "feeders". The
feeders are generally worked by levers operated either
by hand or foot. In quite recent times machinery has «
been applied to supersede the human blower, hydrau-
lic, or gas, or oil engines, or electromotors being used.
The difficulty of regulating the supply is easily over-
come in the case of hydraulic engmes, which can be
made to go slowly or fast as required. But it is serious
in the case of the other engines. Gas and oil engines
must always go at the same speedy and eyen with elec-
tromotors a control of their speed is awkward. Hence,
nowadays, bellows serving as feeders are frequently
superseded by centrif u|^ fans, which can go at 'their
full speed without dehverin^ wind. It is sufficient,
therefore, to fit an automatic valve to the reservoir,
which will close when the reservoir is full. There is
this drawback in the fans: that to produce a pressure
as required in modem organs, they must go at a high
speed which is apt to produce a disturbing noise.
To obviate this difficulty several fans are arranged in
series, the first raising titie wind only to a slight pres-
sure and so delivering it to a second fan, which de-
livers it at an increased pressure to the next, and so on,
until the requisite pressure is attained by a practically
noiseless process.
A genume revolution in the building of organs was
brou^t about by the invention of the pneumatic
lever. Up to the twelfth century, it appears, the
"touch" (or key-resistance) was li^t, so that the or-
gans could be played with the fingers (see an article by
Schubiger in "Monatshefte filr Musikgeschichte", I,
No. 9). Later on, possibly with the change to the
groove and pallet system, it became heavy, so that the
Keys had to be pushed down by the fists. With im-
provement in the medianism a lighter touoh was se-
cured again, so that playing with the fingers became
possible after the fifteenth century. StiU, a difficulty
was always felt. In large organs the valve whidi ad-
mits the wind to the key channels (the pallet) must be
of considerable size, if lul the pipes are to get sufficient
wind. Consequently, the wind-pressure which has ta
be overcome in opening the valve oecomes so great that
it taxes the power of the oiganist's fingers unduly.
This difficulty is increased when couplers are used, as
the fin^ then had to open two or more valves at the
same tune. To overcome this difficulty. Barker, an
Englishman, in 1832, thou^t of using the power or the
wind itself as an intermecuate agent, and he induced
the French organ-builder CavaiuMJoU to adopt his
idea in an organ erected in 1841. The device consists
in this: that the key, by opening a small valve, ad-
mits the wind into a bellows which acts as motor and
pulls down the pallet. Once this appliance was thor-
oughly appreciated, the way was opened to dispense
altogether with the mechanism that connects the key
with the pallet (or the draw-stop knob with the slider),
and to put in its stead tubular-pneumatic or electro-
pneumatic action. In the former the key opens a very
small valve which admits the wind into a tube of smaU
diameter; the wind, travelling through the tube in the '
form of a compression wave, opens, at the far end, an-
other small valve controlling the motor bellows that
opens the pallet. In the electro-pneumatic action the
key makes an electric contact, causing the electric cur-
rent to energize, at the organ end, an electro-magnet
which, by its armature, causes a flow of wind and thus
operates on a pneumatic lever.
With these mventions all the restrictions in organ-
building, as to number of stops, pressure of wind, dis-
tances etc., were removed. Also means of control
oouldeasily be multiplied. Couplers were increased in
number, and besides those connecting a key of one
manual with the corresponding key of another, octave
and sub-octave couplers were aidd^, both on the same
manual and between different manuals. In the matter
of a stop-control, combination pedals — ^that is foot-
worked levers drawing a whole set of stops at a time—
ORQAK 300 OBOAK
had been in use before the pneumatic lever. They in a flourifihing condition, but the Puritans destroyed
were now often replaced by small pistons placed con- most organs, and organ-ouilders almost disappeared,
veniently for the hands. These pistons are sometimes When organ-building was taken up again, m 1660,
so designed as not to interfere with the arrangement there was a scarcity of competent builders, and Bei^ .
of stops worked by hand; sometimes they are made nard Schmidt, with his two nephews Gerard and Ber-
''adjustable" — ^that is, so contrived as to draw any nard, came over from Germany. Bernard the elder
oonibination of stops which the player may previously was commonly known as Father Smith, to distinguish
arranse. Attempts have also been made to nave indi- him from his nephew. At the same time John Harris^
vidua! stops playable from several manuals. This is a a son of Thomas Harri^ of Salisbmy, who had been
^at advantage, but, on the other himd, it implies working in France, returned to England. His son,
maccessible mechanism. Casson's ''Octave-duplica- Renatus, became tne principal rival of Father Smith,
tion" avoids this objection, whUe, by making a whole In the following century another German, John Snets-
manual playable in octave pitohj it considerabl>r in- ler (1710-c. iSOO) settled in England and became
creases the variety of tone obtamable from a given famous for the quality of his oiganpipes. His busi-
niunber of stops. ness ev^itually became that of W. Hill and Son, Lon-
A special dimcultv in organ-plasdng is the manipu- don. In the nineteenth century the most prominent
lation of the pedal stops. Chi the manuals quick builder was Henry Willis (1821-1001), who designed
changes of strength and quality can be obtain^ by several ingenious forms of pneumatic actions and
passing from one ke>[-board to another. But, as only brought the intonations of reeds to great perfection,
one pedal key-board is feasible, similar changes on the Mention should also be made of R. Hope-Jones of
pedals can only be made by change of stops. Hence Birkenhead, whose electro-pneumatic action marked
special facilities are here particuk^ly desirable. Gas- a great step forward.
son's invention, in 1889, of "pedal helps" — ^little In Italv the Antegnati family were prominent dur-
levers, or pistons, one for each manual, which make ing the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. Bartolomeo
the pedal stops aajust themselves automatically to all Antegnati built an oTfsn in 1486 for Brescia cathedraf,
changes of stops on the corresponding manual — ^is the where he was organist. He had three sons: Giovan
most satisfactorv solution of this difficultv. Francesco, Giov. Giacomo, and Giov. Battista. Fran-
II. Famous Organ Buildebs. — Ctesibius, the in- cesco is also known as a maker of harpsichords. G.
ventor of the hydraulus, and the Venetian ueorgius, Giacomo was the organist of Milan cathedral and built
who bmlt the first organ north of the Alps, have al- for Brescia cathedral a choir organ which was famous
ready been mentioned. It is interesting to find a pope in its time. Graziado, a son of G. Battista, bmlt a new
among the organ-builders of history: Sylvester II large organ for Brescia in 1580. His son Costanso (b.
(999-1003), who seems to have built a l^dnmlic organ ' 1557) was an organist and a composer of renown. In
(Pretorius, ''Syntagma Musicum '', II, 92). We mav the preface to a collection of ricercari (1608) he gives a
also record here the first instructions on organ-build- list of 135 organs built by members of his famuy (cf.
ing since the time of Vitruvius and Heron, contained Damiano Muoni, ''Elgi Antegnati", Milan, 1883).
in a work, " Diversarum artium schedula ", by Theoph- Vincenso Columbi built a fine organ for St. John Late-
ilus, a monk, who seems to have written before 1100 ran in 1549. In France we hear of an organ in the Ab-
(Dc^ering, ''Die Orgel'', p. 65). After this names are bey of Fecamp in the twelfth centmy. In the dgh-
scarce until the thirteenth century. Then we hear in teenth century a well-known organ-builder was Joh.
Germany of a large organ in .(Cologne cathedral, built, Nicolaus le Ferre. who, in 1761, built an organ of 51
probably, bv one Johann, while the builders of famous stops in Paris. More famous is Don Bedos de (Jelles
organs m Erfurt Cathedral (1225) and in St. Peter's (1714-97), who also wrote an important book, "L'art
near Erfurt (1226) are not known. A Master Gunce- du facteur d'orgues" (Paris, 1766-78). In the nine-
lin of Frankfort built a large organ for Strasburg teenth century a renowned firm was that of Daublalne
cathedral in 1292, and a Master Raspo. also of Frank- & dk)., founded 1838; in 1845 it became EKicrocquet &
fort, probably built one for Basle catnedral in 1303. Co. and sent an organ to the London Exhibition of
The famous organ at Halberstadt, with four key- 1851; in 1855 it changed its name again to Merklin,
boards, was built between 1359 and 1361 by Nicholas Schtltze & Co. and erected some of the earliest electro-
Faber, a priest. Of the fifteenth century we will men- pneumatic organs. The most famous builder of mod-
tion only Steffan of Breslau, who built a new organ for em times, however, was Aristide Cavaill^-Col (1811-
Erfurt cathedral in 1483. In the sixteenth century 99), a descendant of an old organ-buildine family,
Gregorius Vogel was famous for the beautv and van- mentioned above in connexion with Barkers inven-
ety of tone of his stops. In the seventeenth and eigh- tion of the pneumatic lever: he was a\ao highly es-
teenth centuries the oilbermann family were renowned, teemed for the intonation of his reeds.
The first of them to take up organ-building was Andreas In America the first organ erected was imported
Silbermann (1678-1733) ; his brother Gottfried (1683- from Europe in 1713 for Queen's Chapel, Boston. It
1753), the most famous organ-builder in the family, was followed by several others, likewise imported. In
was also one of the first to ouild pianofortes. Three 1745 Edward Broomfield of Boston built tne first or-
^ sons of Andreas continued the work of their father and gan in America. More famous was W. M. Goodrich,
uncle: Johann Andreas (1712-^), Johann Daniel who began business in the same city in 1800. The best
(1717-1766). and Johum Hdnrich (1727-1799), the known of American organ builders is Hilbome L.
last two building mainly pianofortes. In a third gen- Roosevelt of New York, who, with his son Frank, ef-
eration we meet Johann Josias (d. 1786), a son of Jo- fected many bold improvements in o]]gan building. In
hann Andreas, and Johann Friedrich (1762-1817), a 1894 John Tumell Austin patented his "universal air-
son of Johann Heinrich. In the nineteenth century chest", an air-chest large enough to admit a man for
we -mav mention Moser, who, about 1830, built a large repairs and containing all the mechanism^ as well as the
organ for Freiburg in Switzerland, where they imitate magazine for storing the wind and keepms it at equal
thunder-storms; Schulze of Paulinzelle, Ladegast of pressure (Mathews, "A Handbook of tne Organ").
Weissenfels, Walcker of Ludwigsburg, Mauracher of III. The Organ in (Dhttbch Sebvige. — In the early
Graz, Sauer of Frankfort-on-theOder, Weigle of Stutt- centuries the objection of the (Dhureh to instrumental
gart, StahlHuth of Aachen. music applied also to the organ, which is not surprir
In England we hear in the fourteenth centmy of if we remember the association of the hydraulus wiu
John the Organer and of Walter the ()rganer, who was theatre and cireus. According to Platina (" De vitis
also a clock-maker. From the fifteenth and sixteenth Pontificum". (Cologne, 1693), Pope Vitalian (657-72)
centuries the names of a large number of orf^an-build- introduced tne organ into the church service. This,
ers are transmitted to us, ejiowing organ-bwlding was however, is very doubtful. At all events, a strong ob-
ORGAN
301
ORGAN
jection to the organ in church service remained pretty
general down to the twelfth century, which may oe ac-
counted for partly by the imperfection of tone in or-
gans of that time. But from the twelfth century on,
the organ became the privileged church instrument,
the majesty and unimpassioned character of its tone
makinc[ it a particularly suitable means for adding
solemnity to Divine worship.
According to the present legislation organ music is
allowed on all joyful occasions, both for purely instru-
mental pieces (voluntaries) and as accompaniment.
The organ alone may even take the place of the voices
in alternate verses at Mass or in the Office, provided
the text so treated be recited by someone in an audible
Toice while the organ is played. Only the Credo is ex-
cepted from this treatment, and in any case the first
verse of each chant and all the verses at which any
liturgical action takes place — such as the ^'Te er^o
qusesumus'', the "Tantum ergo", the "Gloria Patn"
— should be sung.
With some exceptions, the organ is not to be played
during Advent and Lent. It may be played on the
Third Sunday in Advent (Gaudete) and the Fourth in
Lent (Lstare) at Mass and Vespers, on Holy Thurs-
day at the Gloria, and on Holy Saturday at and, ac-
cording to general usage, after the Gloria. Moreover,
it may be played, even in Advent and Lent, on solemn
feasts of tne saints and on the occasion of any joyful
celebration — as 'e. g. the Communion of children [S.
R. C, 11 May^ 1878. 3448 (5728)]. Moreover, by a
kind of indult, it would seem, the organ is admitted,
even in Lent and Advent, to suppmrt tne singing of the
choir, but in this case it must cease with the singing.
This permission, however, does not extend to the last
three days of Holy Week (S. R. C, 20 March, 1903,
4009) . At Offices of the Dead organ music is excluded ;
at a Requiem Mass, however, it may be used for the
accompaniment of the choir, as above.
It is appropriate to play the organ at the beginning
and end of Mass, especially when a bishop solemnly
enters or leaves the church. If the organ is played
during the Elevation, it should be in softer tones;
but it would seem that absolute silence is most fitting
for this august moment. The same may be said about
the act of Benediction with the Blessed Sacrament. It
should be observed that the legislation of the Church
concerns itself only with liturgical services. It takes
no account of such things as singing at low Mass or
popular devotions. But it is fitting, of course, to ob-
serve on such occasions the directions given for liturgi-
cal services.
IV. Organ-Playing. — In ancient times and in the
early Middle Ages organ-playing was, of course, con-
fined to rendering a melody on the organ. But it is
not improbable that the earliest attempts at poly-
phonic music, from about the ninth century on, were
made with the organ, seeing that these attempts re-
ceived the name of organum. From the thirteenth
century some compositions have come down to us
under that name without any text, and probably in-
tended for the organ. In the fourteenth centurv we
hear of a celebrated organ-player, the bhnd musician
Francesco Landino of Florence, and in the fifteenth
of another Florentine player, Squarcialupi. At this
time Konrad Paumann flourished in Germany, some
of whose organ compositions are extant, showing
the feature which distinguishes organ, like all instru-
mental music, from vocal music, namely the diminu-
tion or figuration, ornamentation, of the melodies.
With Paumann this figuration is as yet confined to the
melody proper, the top part. With Claudio Merulo
(1533-1604) we find the figuration extended to the
accompan3ring parts also. More mature work was
produced by Giovanni Gabrieli (1557-1612) in his
"Canaone e Sonate" (1597 and 1615). Further devel-
opment of a true instrumental style was brought about
by Samuel Schddt (1587-1654). Then follow a series
of illustrious composers for the organ, of whonv we may
mention Girolamo Frescobaldi (1583-1644), Johann
Jacob Froberger (died 1667), Dietrich BuXtehude
(died 1707), and Johann Sebastian Bach (1685^1750),
at whose hands organ composition reached its highest
]x>int.
After Bach the general development of music, beix^
in the direction of more individual expression and con-
stantly varying emotion, was not favourable to organ
composition. Accordingly, none of the best men
turned their attention to the or^an, Mendelssohn's
compositions for the instrument bems a notable excep-
tion. In modem times a lar^e number of composers
have written respectable music for the or^an, amone
whom we may mention the French Gmlmant ana
Widor and the German Rheinberger and Reger. But
none of them, with the possible exception of Reger,
can be counted as first-class composers. The scarcity
of really good modem organ compositions has led or-
ganists to the extended use of arrangements. If these
arrangements are made with due regard to the nature
of the organ, they cannot be altogether objected to.
But it is clear that they do not represent the ideal of
organ music. As the characteristic beauty of organ
tone hes in its even continuation, legato playing must
be the normal for the organ even more than for other
instruments. While, therefore, staccato playing can-
not absolutely be excluded, and an occasional use of it
is even desirable for the sake of variety, still the mod-
em tendency to play everything staccato or mezzo-
legato is open to great objections. The alternation and
contrast of tone-colours afforded by the variety of
stops and the presence of several manuals is a legiti-
mate and valuable device. But too much variety is
inartistic, and, in particular, an excessive use of solo
stops is alien to the true organ style.
A word may be added about the local position of the
orpan in the church. The considerations determining
this question are threefold: the proximity of the organ
to the singers, the acoustical effect, and the architec-
tural fitness. The combination of these three claims
in existing churches frequently causes considerable
difficulty. Hence it is desirable that in planning new
churches architects should be required to provide am-
ple room for an organ.
There is no good hiaUny of the organ. On the aneient organ a
good book ia DcoBRiNa. Dit OrgeL (MQnater. 1905) ; cf. Maclban,
The Principle of the Hj/draulie Organ in Quarterly Mag. of the Inr
terruUional Musical Society, pt. 2 (Leipsig, 1905), and Sehlesingert
Researches into the Oriain of the Organ* of the Ancients, ibid., pt. 2
(Leipzig, 1901). On the later history, Wiluamb. The Story of the
Organ (London, 1903) ia fairly reliable. The hiatorical part of
Hopkins and Rimbaul/t, The Organ, Its History and ConUruction
(London. 1877), though out of date, is still useful. Further works
are: Ritter, Zur Oeschichte des Orgdspids im IJ^.bis 18. Jahrhun-
dert (Ldpiig, 1884); Wangemann, Oeschichte der Orgd (Leipzig,
1887); GrRAaonuB. Histoire de I'orgue (Antwerp. 1865); Hinton,
Story of the Eledric Organ (London. 1909); Bbwebungb, Die
Rdhrenpneumatik in Kirehenmusikalisdus Jahrbuch (Ratisbon,
1905); BuHLE, Die musikalischen Instrumente in den Miniaturen
des frOhen MittelaUers: I. Die Blasinstrumenie (Leipsig. 1903);
ViOLurr-LB-Duc, Dictionnairs raisonni du nurinlier frangais de
Vipoque Carolingienne d la Renaissance: IL Instruments de musique
(Pans, 1874).
On the construction of the organ the principal works are: Auda-
LXT, The Art of Organ-Building (2 vols.. 4^, New York and Lon-
don, 1905) ; RioBBBTSON, A Practical Treatise on Organ-Building
(London, 1897) ; TOprsB-ALUHN, Die Theorie und Praxis des Or-
geUMues (Weimar, 1888) ; Hill, Oi^in Cases and Organs of the
Middle Ages and Renaissance (2 vols., folio, London, 1883, 1891) ;
WBDOwboD. Dictionary of Organ Stops (London, 1905); Mat-
thews, A Handbook of the Organ (London, 1897) (treats also of
orgaB*pIa3ring) ; Dibnel, Die modeme Orgel (Berlin, 1891);
ScHWBiTZBB, Deutsche u. fransdsische Orgelbaukunst und Orgelr-
kunsl (licipzig. 1906); Casson, 7*^ Modem Organ (Denbigh,
1883); Idem, The Pedal Organ (London. 1905); Idem, Modem
Pneumatic Organ Mechanism (London, 1906) ; Swanton, Lecture
on Or^an Blowing (London, 1905) ; International Rides for Organ
Building, issued by the Third Congress of the IrUemationtd
Musical Society (Leipni|, 1909).
The ecclesiastical legislation on organ-playing is contained in
the Caeremoniale Bpiseoporum and in Decrees of the S. Congrega-
tion of Rites. The latter, as far as they concern the subject, are
conveniently put together in Aubr, Die Entscheidungen der h.
Riten-Kongregation in Betug auf Kirehenmusik (Ratisbon ''
New Yotk, 1901).
H. Bewebunq:
o
ORGANIC
302
ORIENTAL
Organic ArtioleB. See Articles, Thb Organic.
Oiia» DiocssE of (Uritana), in the Province of
Lecoe. Apulia, Italy, sufiFra^n of Taranto. In the
Middle Ages, Oria was a principality that passed to
the Borromei; St. Charles sold it for iOjOOO crowns,
which he distributed among the poor. Oria was be-
sieged by Manfred ^i 1266. When Brindisi was de-
stroyed by the Saracens in the ninth century, its
bishops established their see at Oria and called them-
selves Bishops of Brindisi and Oria^ even after their
return to their former capital. It would appear*
that Oria, in early times, had bishops of its own, be-
cause there is a record on a slab m the cathedral,
dating from the ei^th or ninth century, in which
there is mention ofa Bishop Theodosius, not one of
the bishops of Brindisi. In 979 Bishop Andrew was
slain by Porphyrins. In 924 and 977 Oria was sacked
by the Mohammedans. The town was erected into
an episcopal see in 1591; its first bishop was Vincent
Tufo. T^e diooese has 15 parishes, 120.000 inhab-
itants, 9 religious houses of men, and 11 oi women.
CAPPBLLnn, L« Chiut d'ltalia, XXI.
U. Bbniqni.
Orianif Barnaba, Italian Bamabite and astrono-
mer, b. at Carignano, near Milan, 17 July, 1752; d.
at Milan, 12 November, 1832. After receiving an
elementary education in his native town, he studied at
the College of San Alessandro, Milan, where he was
educated and supported by the Barnabites. He later
joined the Barnabites, and, after stud3ring the human-
ities, physical and mathematical sciences, philosophy,
and tneology^ was ordained priest at the age of twenty-
three. Specially interested in astronomy, he was
shortly after his ordination (1776) appointed on the
staff of the Observatory of Brera in Milan. 'He be-
came assistant astronomer in 1778, and director in
1802. In 1778 he began tp publish the dissertations
on astronomical subjects which form an important
part of the original memoirs appearing in the ''Effe-
meridi di Miljmo" during the next Mty-two years.
His work soon attracted considerable attention, and in
1785 a notable memoir contiuning his calculation of
the orbit of Uranus and a table of elements for that
planet won for him a prominent place among the
astronomers of his time. He was admitted to mem-
bership in numerous learned societies, and offered the
C'tion of professor of astronomy at Palermo, which,
ever, he did not accept. In the following year he
travelled throughout Europe at the expense of the
state, visiting the chief observatories. When Napo-
leon set up the republic in Lombardy, Oriani refused
absolutely to swear hatred towards monarehy ; the new
government modified the oath of allesianoe in his re-
gard, retained him in his position at the observatory,
and made him president of the commission appointed
to rc^gulate the new system of weights and measures.
When the republic was transformed into the Napo-
leonic kingdom, Oriani received the decorations of the
Iron Crown and of the Lc^on of Honour, was made
count and senator of the kingdom, and was appointed
in company with De Cesaris, to measure the are of the
meridian between the zeniths of Rimini and Rome.
He was a devoted friend of the Theatine monk Fiaszi,
the discoverer of Ceres, and for thirty-seven years co-
operated with him in many ways in his astronomical
labours. Besides his constant contributions to the
''Effemeridi di Milano", he published a series of im-
portant memoire on spherical trigonometry (Memorie
deir Istituto Italiano, 1806-10) and the "Istnisione
suelle misure e sui pesi'' (Milan, 1831).
Gabba in TiPALOo. ftaliani lUiutri, III (Venice, 1836), 473-81;
PoooBNDORfT, Handwihierhuek tur Otaeh, dtr exaeten W%M9en'
aeha/Un, II (Leipiic, 1863): Caccxatobb and Schiapparblu,
Corrttpimdetua Aatronomiea fra (Htueppt FioMti § Bamaba Oriani
(MilBO, 1874). introduoUoD.
Edward C. Philups.
Orlmtal Churoh. See EAarsBN CHUBcaaB.
/Oriental Study and Beseareh.— In the broad-
est iense of the term, Oriental study comprises the
scientific investigation and discussion of all topics —
linguistics, arehsology, ethnology, etc. — connected
wiSi the East, in particular,, the discoveiy and inter-
pretation of Eastern literary and areluBological re-
mains. So vast is tJie subject that it has of a necessity
been divided into many dei)artments, each of which in
turn embraces various specialised branches. Thus the
study of the language, customs, philosophy, and reli-
gion of China and the Far East is in itself a vast
though relativelv little-explored field of scientific in-
vestiffation. while the study of Sanskrit, together with
the classic lore of the ancient Hindus, which has cast
so much light on our knowledge of the European lan-
Siages andpeoples, forms another great division of
riental researeh.
From the religious point of view, however^ the
greatest and most valuable results have been achieved
by the study of the group of languages generallv
termed Semitic, and through arehsological research
in the so-called Bible Land*--Assyria and Babylonia,
Syria and Palestine, Arabia and the Valley of the
Nile. Not only have these studies and explorations
cast a great deal of light on the Old-Testament writ-
inss but they have, moreover, revealed with consider-
able precision and detail the well-nidi forgotten history
of empires and civilizations that nad nourished for
many centuries and passed away even before Greece
or Rome had acquired any great poUtical or literaiy
importance. The earliest efforts of European schol-
ars in the field of Oriental research were naturally
connected with the scientific study of Hebrew, the
language of the Old Testament. To say nothing of
the work done by the rabbis of the medieval period
under the influence of Arabic culture in the Jewish
colonies of Spun and northern Africa, we find prior
to the Reformation the names of Johann Reuchlin
(1455-1522) and the Dominican Santes Pagninus
(1471-1541), pioneers who prepared the way for such
scholars as the famous Johann Buxtorf (1564-1629)
and his son (15W-1664). both successively prof essore
at Basle, and others of the same period. For ulterior
developments in the study of Hebrew see article He-
brew Language and Literature.
In connexion with the impetus given to Biblical
Oriental studies in the sixteenth century, mention
should be made of the Complutensian Polyglot pub-
lished under the direction of Cardinal Ximenes (1436-
1517). It was the first printed edition of the Scrip-
tures in the original text accompanied by the principal
ancient versions, and antedated by more than a cen-
tury the London Polyglot of Brian Walton. This
great work, which is dedicated to Pope Leo X, com-
prises six foUo volumes, the last being devoted to a
Hebrew lexicon and other scientific apparatus. It
waa begun in 1502 and finished in 1517, though not
published until 1522. In its preparation the cardinal
was aided by several Greek and Oriental scholars,
among whom were the celebrated Stunica (D.
L6pez de Zdftiga). Vergara, and three Jewish con-
verts. The seal tor Hebrew naturally led to the
study of other Semitic languages (Syriac, Arabic,
Ethiopic, etc.), which were eagerly taken up notonly as
a means of obtaining a more comprehensive knowledge
of Hebrew through the newly-introduced methods of
comparative philology, but also on account of the liter-
ary treasures they contained, which had hitherto
remained practically unknown to European scholars.
In this broader field the greatest credit is due to the
illustrious Maronite famfly of the Assemani (q. v.).
(For the work done by scholars in the study of Synac
see Striac Languaqe and Literature.)
The first European scholar who turned his atten-
tion to Ethiopic was Potken of Cologne, about 1513.
A grammar and dictionanr were published by Jacob
WemmerBi a Canndite of Antwerp, in 1638; and in
ORIKNTAL
303
ORIENTAL
1661 appeared the first edition of the great Lexicon
by Job Ludolf. who in the edition of 1702 prefixed a
''Dissertatio ae Harmonia linguae ^th. cum. cet.
Orient." Ludolf was also the author of a oomrnen-
tary on Ethiopic history. Later scholars who have
attained eminence in this branch are Dillmann, who
among other works published several books of the
Ethiopic version of the Old Testament: Octateuch
(Leipzig, 1853), the four Books of Kings (Leipzig,
1861-71), the Book of Enoch (1851), and the ''Book
of the Jubilees" (1859) : R. Lawrence, who published the
"Ascensiolsaifle" (Oxford, 1819), and the ''Apocalypse
of Ezra" (1820); Hupfeldt, "Exercitationes iEthio-
pic»" (1825); Ewalcf "Ueber des iEthiop. Buch's
Henokh Entstehung" (1854) etc. (See article Ethi-
opia.— Language and Literature.)
In the field of Arabic the greatest honour is due to
Baron Sylvestre de Sacy (1758-1838), a scholar of
marvellous erudition and versatility, equallv pro-
ficient in the other Semitic languages as well as in
Greek, Latih, and the modem European tongues. He
may be said to have laid the foundations of Arabic
grammar. Among his works are a "Chrestomathie
arabe" (3 vols., Paris, 1806); "Grammaire arabe*^
(2 vols., 1810) etc. In Germany, George W. Freytag
(1788-1861) became a great authority on Arabic.
His greatest work is the "Lexicon Arabico-Latinum"
(1830^7). Among the great number of more recent
scholars may be mentioned Brockelmann, " Geschichte
der Arabischen Literatur" (2 vols., Berlin, 1899-
1902) ; Hartwig Derenbourg, C. Caspari, Theo. Noel-
deke etc. In uiis connexion it may be noted that an
important school of Arabic studies has been instituted
by the Jesuit Fathers in Beirut, Syria. As regards
the study of Armenian, modem scholarship owes not a
Uttle to the scientific and literary labours of the
Mechitarists (q. v.), a religious community of Arme-
nians established at Venice since 1716. From this in-
stitution, which is eciuipped with excellent printing
facilities, have been issued numerous pubUcations of
Armenian texts, as well as translations of the same into
vario>i8 Europ€»an languages. The latter half of the
nineteenth century was marked by a great revival of
inteilest in Oriental studies, owing to the magnificent
and unexpected results of archaeological exploration
in the Bible Lands, particularly in Ai»yria, Babylonia,
and Egypt. The accoimt of the discovery and de-
ciphering of the historic remains unearthed in these
countries is of fascinating interest, and records one of
the greatest scientific triumphs in the annals of West-
em scholarship. Of this great movement, which has
resulted in the production of hundreds of voltunes,
only the briefest account can be given here.
Aasyro-Babykmian Research.^^Though preceded by
the tentative work of Rich in 1811 and 1820, syste-
matic explorations in Assyria may be said to have
been inaugurated in 1843 by Paul-Emile Botta
(French vice-consul residing at Mosul), at Kuyunjik
(site of ancient Ninive), and at Khorsabad. These
were interrupted the following year, but were resumed
by Victor Place, Botta's successor, in 1851 and con-
tinued till 1855. all at the expense of the French
C^vemment, which also published the results in
monumental form. Henry Austen Layard also began
excavations in 1845 at the Mounds of Nimmd, near
Mosul, and his work was continued on this and other
sites until 1847. In 1849 he began another exploring
expedrtion which lasted three years. It was under
the auspices of the British Museum and was remark-
ably successful. Layard also deserves great credit
for the graphic and scholarly manner in which he pre-
sented ms discoveries to the public, and for having
aroused interest by connecting them with the Bible
story. In the mean time another- expedition sent
out by the French Government, under the direction
of Fulgence Fresnel, was exploring Babylonia, but un-
fortunately the material results of the excavations
were lost through the sinking of a raft on the Tigris
(1851). In 1852 the Assyrian Exploration Fund was
organized in England, and, under the direction of Sir
Henry Rawlinson, Loftus, and Taylor, excavations
were carred on in various parts of Babylonia, and by
Hormuzd Rassam at Kuyunjik. Less attention was
being now paid to the identification of ancient sites,
and more to the inscribed clay tablets which were dis-
covered in great quantities; and Rassam, without
knowing it, unearthed at Ninive a portion of the
famous library of Assurbanipal (688-26 b. c).
From the time Chat cuneiform inscriptions and
tablets began to be brought from the East, European
scholars had applied themselves to the extremely
difficult task of deciphering and translating them, but*
without success until George Grotefend (1775-1853).
professor at the lyceum of Hanover, found a key ana
partially deciphered a few inscriptions. The chief
credit, however, for the great achievement which at
last gave access to the vast treasures of the cuneiform
writings belongs to Sir Henry Rawlinson. Between
the years 1835 and 1839 he succeeded in copying the
g%at inscription of Darius at Behistun in Persia.
This inscription was chiselled in three columns on the
face of a mountain cliff more than three himdred feet
above the ground, and it was copied only after stren-
uous labour and with serious risk of Ufe. Rawlinson
assumed as a working hypothesis that the first column
was old Persian written m cuneiform characters, and
the assumption was justified when, the decipherment
of this column was published in 1846. This furnished
a key to the third column, which proved to be Baby-
lonian (the most important for students of Assyriol-
ogy), and the contents of this column, after much
painstaking labour, were published in 1851. ^ The
second column, called the Median or Susian text, was
not deciphered intil 1890. Over and above this splen-
did achievement, Rawlinson rendered invaluable ser-
vice to the science of Assyriology by editing the Cunei-
form Inscriptions of Western Asia published by the
British Museum. Between 1855 and 1872 little was
done by way of excavation, but in the latter year
George Smith, a young employee in the British Mu-
seum, discovered some tablets containing fragments
of a Flood legend strikingly similar in some respects
to the Biblical narrative. The interest aroused by the
publication of these fragments determined a new
era of excavation. Between 1872 and 1875 Smith was
three times sent to Assyria in the hope of finding more
fragments bearing on BibUcal accounts. In this he
.was unsuccessful and, unfortunately Cor the cause of
Assyriology, he died prematurely while on his third
expedition in 1876.
The exploration work for the British Museum was
oontinuea by Hormuzd Rassam, who, besides other
valuable treasures found in various parts of Babylonia,
unearthed in the eiroedition of 1887-82 the great
bronze doors with the inscriptions of Shalmaneser
II (859-26 B. c). About the same time M. de Sarzec,
French consul at Bassorah in Southern Babylonia,
excavated the very ancient Telloh statues which
were acquired by the French Government for the
Museum of the Louvre. The work of de Sarzec was
continued until his death in 1903, and resulted in the
discovery of an enormous quantity of clay tablets,
bronze and silver figures, vas^, etc. The French ex-
pedition to Susa, under the direction of M. J. de Mor-
gan (1897-1902), was one of the most important in the
istory of Assyriology, for it resulted m .the finding
of the Hammurabi Code of Laws. This great code,
which illustrates in many respects the Pentateuchal
Law, was first translated by Father Scheil, the eminent
Dominican scholar who was the Assyriologist of the
expedition C'Textes Elamitiques-S^mitiques'', Paris,
1902), and later into German by Dr. Hu^o Winckler
of Berlin, into English by Dr. Johns and into Italian
by Rev. Dr. Francesco Mari. (See articles by Dr.
i
)
ORIENTAL 304 ORIENTAL
Gabriel Oussani in the "New York Review", ''The simultaneously in France by J. Francois Champollion
Code of Hammurabi". Aue.-Sept., 1905; ''The Code (1791-1832), and in England by Thomas Youns (1773-
of Hammurabi and the Mosaic Legislation", Dec., 1827)-. Thus the Rosetta inscription (embodying a
1905-Jan., 1906.) In 1884 the first American expedi- part of a decree of Ptolemy V Epiphanes, 205-181
tion was sent to Babylonia under the auspices of the b. c.) stands in the same relation to the (uscoveries
ArchsBological Institute of America, and under the bearing on the literature and civilisation of ancient
direction of W. H. Ward. In 1888 the Babylonian Egypt as does the Behistun inscription with regard to
Exploration Fund, organised in Philadelphia, was the antique treasures discovered in Assyria and Baby-
sent out under the direction of Dr. John Peters in the Ionia. Champollion's discovery aroused a great in-
interests of the University of Pennsylvania. The site t^rest in Egyptian inscriptions and in 1828 the French
chosen was Nippur, and the work of excavation was scholar was sent to Egypt together with Roselhni at
continued at intervals mainly on this site until 1900. the head of a Franco-Italian expedition which proved
These expeditions resulted in the recovery of more most fruitful in scientific results. A German expedi-
than 40,000 inscriptions, clay tablets, stone monu- tion under the direction of Lepdus was sent out in
ments etc. The vast amount of material brought to 1840 to study Eg;^tian monuments in relation to
light by the excavations in Aasyna and Babylonia Biblehistorsr, and m addition to explorations made in
powerfully stimulated the ardour of students of Epypt and Ethiopia a visit was made to the Sinar
As^riology both in Europe and America. The limits itic peninsula. In 1850 Auguste Mariette, a French
of the present article will allow but the mention of a savant, made the remarkable discovery of the tombs
few distinguished names. of the sacred Apis bulls at Memphis together with
In Germany, — EberHard Scrader (1836) has been thousands of memorial inscriptions. In 1857 he wad
called the father of German Assyriology. Succeo- appointed director of the museum of antiquities newly
sively professor at Zurich, Gieasen, Jena, and Berlin established in Cairo, and at the same time he received
(1875), he has written many works on the subject, from the khedive the exclusive right of excavating
among which: "Die Assyrisch-Babylonisch Keilin- in Eprptian territory for scientific purposes — a right
schrif ten ' ' (1872, tr. ' ' The Cuneiform Inscriptions and which he exercised until his death in 1880. The results
the Old Testament". 1885-9); "Keilinschriften und of his explorations were enormous and the science of
Geschichtsforschung" (1878); "Zur Frage nach dem Egyptology probably owes more to Mariette than to
Ursprungder AlU>abvlonischerKultur" (1884). Other an^r other scholar. He was succeeded by another
German scholars of note are Hugo Winckler (Alt- eminent French scholar, G. Maspero, and the explora-
testamentUche Untersuchen, Leii>sig, 1892, etc.); tions still remaining in the hands of the French were
Friederich Delitsch (Grammar, Lexicon etc.), J. Jere- carried on systematically and with steady success; but
mias, B. G. Niebuhr, F. Hommel, F. Kaulen (Assy- under the new administration permission was given to
rien und Babylonien nach dem neuesten Entdeckun- representatives of other nations to conduct excava-
gm, Freiburg^ 1899, etc.), C. P. Tiele, MQrdter, tions and, with certain restrictions, to export the re-
runnow, Peiser etc. In France, — F. Lenormant suits of their findings. The Egyptian Exploration
(Etudes cun^iformes, 5 parts, Paris, 1878-^); J. fund was organized in England in 1883, and after ex-
Menant (Ninive et Babylon, Paris, 1887); Hal^yy cavations in the Delta on the site of the Biblical city
(Documoits reUgieux de I'Assyrie et de la Baby- of Pithom and of the Greek city of Naukratis, the
»lonie, Paris, 188^); V. ScheiLO. P. (Textes Elam- work of the society was transferred in 1896 to Upper
ites, 3 vols., Paris, 1901-04); ttev. F. Martin (Tex- Egypt. At that time also the excavations were placed
tes religieux Ass^rriens et Babyloniens, Paris, 1900); under the direction of W. Flinders Petrie who haa
F.Thureau-Dangin(RecherchessurrOrigineder^ri- -achieved astonishing results, especially in reCon^
ture cun^iforme, Paris, 1893), oppert, Loisy, Fossey structing in accordance with the testimony of the
etc. In England, — Sir H. Rawlinson (Cuneiform monuments the account of ancient Egyptian history^
Inscriptions of Western Asia, 5 vols.. 1861-1884, etc.); which he has carried back to a periodantedating the
A. H. Sayce (Higher Criticism and the Monuments, reign of the formerlynnipposed mythical king Menes^
London. 1894, etc.) : L. W. King (Letters and Inscrip- founder of the first Egyptian dynasty. Independent
tions or Hammurabi . . . and other Kings of the expeditions were also fitted out by Swiss, Germans.
First Dynasty of Babylon, London, 1898-1900); C. and Americans, and the Orient Gesellschaft organized
W. Johns, T. G. Pinches, J. A. Oaig etc. In America, in 1899 has conducted systematic explorations at
— Besides the scholars already rSerred to may be various points in the Orient. Among the almost
mentioned R. W. Rogers (History of Babylonia and incredible number of objects brou^t to light by the
Assyria, I, New York, 1900): H. V. Hilprecht (Ex- Egyptian explorers, and which besides filling the
plorations in Bible Lands during the Nineteenth new and enliurged museum of Cairo built in 1902, ^
Century^ New York, 1903); Paul Haupt (numerous to make up numerous and important collections m
publications) ; R. F. Harper, M. Jastrow, C. Johnston, Europe and America, may be mentioned the many
J. D. Lyon, J. D. Prince etc. - papyrus documents ie, g. the Logia of Jesus, various
Egyptian Research. — Modem Oriental research in apocalvpfl^s, heretical gospels, etc.), which throw light
the Valley of the Nile began in 1798 with the E^yp- on early Chnstiui histoiy and on the period imm^-
tian campaign of Napoleon, who with characteristic ately preceding it. The abundance and historic im-
foresight invited M. Gaspard Mon^e (1746-1818) portance of the treasures found in the land of the
with a corps of savants and artists to join the expedi- Pharaohs caused a great number of European scholars
tion. The results of their observations were published to devote their attention to the study of Egyptology,
at the expense of the French Government (1809-13) In addition to the names already referred to the fol-
in several folio volumes under the title: '' Description lowing are taken at random from a list of scholars far
de TEgypte", but the numerous specimens collected too numerous to be even mentioned in the present ar-
by these scientists fell into the hands of the English tide. G. Perrot and C. (ISiippiez (History of Art in
after the naval battle of Aboukir and formed later the Ancient Egypt. 2 vols., London, 1883) ; P. Renouf
nucleus of the Egyptian department of the British (Translation ot the Book of the Dead, parts i-iv.
Museum. The mysterious hieroglyphic characters London, 1893-95, completed by E. Naville, 1907); E.
which they exhibited were soon made the object of A. W. nudge (The Mummy: Chapters on E^^ptian
intense study both in England and France and the Funeral Archeology, Cambridge, 1873; The Book
famous Rosetta Stone wmch bears a trilingual in- of the I>ead, 3 vols., London, 1898); W. Max MtiUer
scription (in Greek, in the Egyptian demotic script, (Asien und Europa nach alt&g}/ptischen DenkmSr
and in the hieroglyphic writing) furnished a key to the lem^ Leipzig. 1893) ; J. de Morgan (Recherches sur les
meaning of the latter, which was discovered almost origmes de 1 Egypte, Paris, 1895-96); J. M. Broderick
ORIENTATION
305
ORIEMTIUS
Stnd A. Morton (Concise Dictiona^ of Egyptiaii Ar-
cheology, London, 1901); J. P. Niahaffy (The Eom
pire ofthe Ptolemies^ London, 1895): n. Wallia^ J..
Capart, H. Schneider, J. H. Breasted, A. Wiedemann,
M. C. Strack, P. Pierret, K. Piehl, A. Ermauk etc*
Connected with Egyptology is the stud^ of Cqatlc^ the
language of the descendants of the ancient Em;)tians.
The extant Coptic literature is almost e^u|dveiy
Christian, and except for liturgical purposes, it feU ,
into disuse after the Moslem supremacy in Egypt in
the seventh century. Among the scholars who nave
made a specialty of this branch of Oriental studies
may be mentioned E. Renaudet (eighteenth century),
£. M. Quatrem^ (Recherches critiques et histo-
riques sur la langue et la litt^rature de I'Eg^te, Paris,
1808); A. J. Butler (Ancient Coptic Churches of
E^gypt, Oxford, 1884), B. T. Evetts^ E. Am^lineau,
E. C. Butler, W. E. Crum, and H. Hyvemat, profes-
sor of Oriental languages and archseology at the Cath-
olic University in Washington, who has published in
monumental form the text and translation of the
"Acts of the Martyrs of the Coptic Church''.
ExplorcUions in Syria and Palestine. — Explorations
in the Bible lands proper wi^retaken up later Uian those
in Assyria and Eg3rpt and thus far they have been less
fruitful in archseologicai results. The first work,
chiefly topographical, was undertaken by Dr. Ed-
ward Robinson of New York in 1838 and again in
1852. The results of his investigations appeared in
"Biblical Researches", 3 vols., Berlin and Boston,
1841 (3rd edition, 1867), but he is better known
through the publication of his popular work entitled
"The Land and the Book''. In 1847 the American
Government commissioned Lieutenant Lynch of the
U. S. Navy to explore the Valley of the Jordan and the
Dead Sea. In 1865 the Palestine Exploration Fund
was organized in England, and among other impor-
tant results of its activities has been an accurate survey
and mining out of the territory west of the Jordan.
From 1867 to 1870 the Fund conducted excavations
at Jerusalem under the direction of Sir Charles
Warren. They proved valuable in connexion with
the identification of the ancient Temple and other
sites, but little was found in the line of archeologicid
remains. In 1887 a* German Palestine Exploration
Fund was organized, and beginning in 1884 it carried
out under the direction of Dr. Schumacher a careful
survey of the territory east of the Jordan. The most
important archsological discoveries in Palestine are
the inscription of M^a, King of Moab (ninth century
B. c.) found at Dibon by the German missionary
Klein in 1868, the Hebrew inscription, probably of the
time of Ezechias, found in the Siloam tunnel beneaUi
the hill of Ophel, and the Greek inscription discovered
by Clermont-Ganneau. In this connexion mention
should be made of the still more important finding by
natives in Egypt (1887) of the famous Tel el-Amama
tablets (q. v.), or letters written in cuneiform charac-
ters and proving that about 1400 b^ c. prior to the
Hebrew conquest, Palestine was already permeated
by the Assyro-Babylonian civilization and culture.
Further excavations in Palestine have been conducted
at various points by W. Flinders Petrie, the Egyptian
explorer, (1889) and by the American savant F. J.
Bhss (1890-1900). Of still greater importance for
Oriental studies bearing on ue Bible has been the
establishment (1893) by the Dominican Fathers at
Jerusalem of a school of Biblical studies under the
direction of F. M. Lagrange, O. P. This institute,
which has for its object a theoretical and practical
training in Oriental subjects pertaining to Holy
Scripture, numbers among its staff of instructors such,
scholars as Father Scheil and Father Vincent who
with their oo-workers publish the scholarly "Revue
bibliaue Internationale . Similar schools were later
founded at Jerusalem by the Americans (1900) and by
the Germans (1903).
XL— 20 A
Bendes th^ Wdrki already mentionedr see Cbinni]» jr, Ja6ffiM«*
el la BibU in Did. apoloqtt. de la foi cathol. (Paris^ 1900); Hii/-
FEKCHT, BxpUraiione in Bible Lande during the Nineteenth Century
(Philadelphia, 1003) ; PsraMin the En^wdopedia. Ammeana, b. v.
Oriental Reaeareh; Jabtrow, Religion ^ Aeeyria and BfAuUmia
(Boeton, 1808) ; Oussani. The BibU and the Ancient Saet In the
New York Review (Nov.-Dec., 1006>; Idbm, The Code of Ham-
tnurabi (loo. cii.. Aug.-Sept.. 1005): EKmcAN, The Exploration of
Egypt and the Old Testament (New York. 1008) ; Ebmoni. La bible
et VarchiMogie eyryfnne (Paria, 1004) ; Ii>KM, La bible et Vtgyptologie
(Parifl, 1005) ; Rooebs, Hietory of Babylonia and Aeeyria (New
York. 1000): Mabpbbo. Dawn of Civilization (1804): Idvm. Thef
Struggle ofthe Natione (New York. 1807) ; Paton. Early Hietory of.
Syria and Palestine (New York, 1001) ; Pincbes. The Old Teetor-
ment in the Light ofthe Hietory of Aeeyria and Babylonia (London,.
1002).
Jamsb F. Driscoll..
Oriantfttion of- Churches. — According to Ter^-
tullian the Christians of his time were, by some who*
concerned themselves with their form of worship, be-
lieved to be votaries of the sun. This supposition, he-
adds, doubtless arose from the Christian practice;
of turning to the east when praying (Apol., c. xvi).
Speakins of churches the same writer tells us that the
homes '^f our dove", as he terms them^ are always
in "high and open places, facing the hght" (Adv.
Val., c. iii), and the Apostolic Constitutions (third to
fifth centuiy) prescribe that church edifices should be
erected with tneir ** heads" towards the East (Const.
Apost., II, 7).
The practice of praying while turned towards the
rising sun is older than CSinstianity, but the Christians
in adopting it were influenced by reasons peculiar to
themselves. The principal of these reasons, accord-
ing; to St. Gregory of Nyssa, was that the Orient con-
tained man's original home, the earthly paradise.
St. Thomas Aquinas, speaking for the Middle Ages,
adds to this reason several others, as for example,
that Our Lord lived His earthly life in the East, ana
that from the East He shall come to judge mankind
(II-II, Q. bcodv, a. 3). Thus from the earliest period
the custom of locating the apse and altar in the eastern
extremitv of the church was the rule. Yet the great
Roman Basilicas of the Lateran, St. Peter's, St. Paul's
(originally), St. Lorenzo's, as well as the Basilica of «
the Rraurrection in Jerusalem and the basilicas of
Tyre and Antioch, reversed this rule by placing the
apse in the western extremity. The reasons for this
mode of orientation can only be conjectured. Some
writers explain it by the fact that in the fourth cen-
tury the celebrant at Mass faced the people, and, there^
fore in a church with a western apse, looked towards
the East when officiating at the altar. Others con-
jecture that the peculiar orientation of the basilicas
mentioned, erected by Constantino the Great or under
his influence, may niave been a reminiscence of the
former predilection of this emperor for sun-worship.
In the Orient the eastern apse was the rule, and thence
it made its way to the West through the reconstructed
Basilica of St. Paul's, the Basilica of S. Pietro in
VincoU, and the celebrated basilica of Ravenna.
From the eighth century the propriety of the eastern
apse was universally admitted, though, of course
strict adherence to this architectural canon, owing to
the direction of city streets, was not always possible.
Kaato. Geeeh. d. ehriet. Kunet, I (Freiburs. 1S95) ; Realeneu'
Hopddie d. ehriet. AltertUmer, a. v. Orientirung (Freiburg, 1880);
LowBiB, MonumenU of the Early Church (New York, 1001); Evh
UittT, Manud d'arehiologie franfaiee, I (Paris, 1002).
Maurice M. Habsett.
•
Orientius, Christian Latin poet of the fifth cen-
tury. He wrote an elegiac poem (Commonitorium) of
1036 verses (divided into two books) describing the
way to heaven, with warnings against its hindrances.
He was a Gaul (II, 184), who had been converted after
a life of sin (I, 405 sq.)» was evidently an experienced
pastor, and jvrote at a time when his country was be-
m^ devastated by the invasion of savages. All this
points to his identification with Orientius, Bishop of
Augusta Ausoiorum (Auch), who as a very old man.
OUFLAMMK
306
OEIGEN
was sent by Theodorio I, King of the Goths, as am-
bassador to the Roman generals i£tius and Litorius
in 439 ("Vita S. Orientii'^in "Acta SS.", I May. 61).
The Commonitorium cjuotes classical poets — Virgil,
Ovid, Catullus — and is perhaps influenced by Pru-
dentius. It exists in only one MS. (Cod. Asnbum-
ham. ssec. X), and is followed by some shorter anony-
mous poems not by Orientius, and by two prayers m
verse attribu^ to him. The first complete edition
was published by Marttoe, "Veterum Scriptorum
Monumenta'', I (Rouen, 1700); then by Gallandi,
"Bibliotheca veterum Patrum", X (Venice, 1774),
185-96, reprinted in "P. L.", LXI, 977-1006. The
best modem edition is by Ellis in the "Corpus Scrip-
torum Eccl. Latinorum''! XVI (Vienna, 1888): "Poe-
ts Christiani minores", 1, 191-261. .
Manitiub, Oueh. d, LiU. d. MiUdaUef im Ahendkmde, I (Leip-
mg, 1889), 410-4: Fbsslbr-Junqmakn. JrutUvtione* Patrologia,
II« ii (Innabruek. 1896), 374-6.
Adrian Fortescue.
Oriflanmie. — ^In verses 309^5 of the "Chanson
de Roland'' (eleventh century) the oriflamme b
mentioned as a royal banner, called at first "Ro-
maine" afterwards "Montjoie". According to the
legend it was given to Charlemag^ae by the poi)e. but
no historical text affords us any information with re-
gard to this oriflamme, which is perhaps fabulous.
As Eudes, who became king in 888, was Abbot of St.
Martin, the banner of the church of St. Martin of
Tours was the earliest military standard of the Frank-
ish monarchy. It was a plain blue, a colour then as-
signed in the liturgy to saints who were, like St. Mar-
tin, confessors and pontiffs. The azure ground
strewn with gold fleur-<ie-lis remained the 83rmbol of
royalty until the fourteenth century, when the white
standard of Jeanne d'Aro wrought marvels, and by
degrees the custom was introduced of depicting the
fleur-de-lis on white ground. But from the time of
Louis VI (1108-37) the banner of St. Martin was re-
placed as ensign of war by the oriflamme of the Abbe^
4>f St. Denis, which floated about the tomb of St. Denis
and was said to have been eiven to the abbey by
Dagobcrt. It is supposed without any certainty that
this was a piece of fiery red silk or aendtU the field of
which was covered with flames and stars of gold.
The standard-bearer carried it either at the end of a
staff or^^suspended from his neck. Until the twelfth
century the standard-bearer was the Comte de Vexin,
who, as "vowed" to St. Denis, was the temporal de-
fender of the abbey. Louis VI the Fat, having ac-
quired Vexin, became standard-bearer; as soon as war
began, Louis VI received Communion at St. Denis and
took the standard from the tomb of the saint to carry
it to the combat. " Montioie Saint Denis ", cried the
men-at-arms, even as in En^and t^iey cried " Mont-
joie Notre Dame" or " Montjoie Saint George". The
word Montjoie (from Motis gavdii or Mons Jovia) des-
ignates the heaps of stones along the roadside which
served as mile-stones or as sisn-posts, and which some-
times became the meeting-places for warriors; it was
applied to the oriflamme the sight of which was to
gmde the soldiers in the mHie, The descriptions of
the oriflamme which have reached us in Guillaume le
Breton (thirteenth cent.), in the "Chronicle of Flan-
ders" (fourteenth cent.) , in the " Registra Delphinalia "
(1456), and in the inventory of the treasury of St.
Denis (1536), show that to the primitive oriflamme
there succeeded in the course of centuries newer ori-
flammes which little resembled one another. At the
battles of Poitiers (1356) and Agincourt (1415) the
oriflamme fell into the hands of the English; it would
seem that after the Hundred Years' War it was no
longer borne on the battle-field.
Cj^iLiND, DeM anciennes enteignM H Mendarda de France (Paris,
1782); DupRi. Revue dee eoeiiUa eavantet, I (1875). 153-5: Bau-
DoiN. MorUjitie St. Denia in Revue dee FyrhUea, XIV (1902).
Georges Gotau.
Orig«n «nd Origenism.— I. Life and Work of Ori-
C. — ^A. Biography. — Origen, most modest of writers,
dly Wer alludes to himself in his own works; but
Eusebius has devoted to him almost the entire sixth
book of '* Ecclesiastical History '\ Eusd^ius was
thoroughly acquainted with the life of his hero; he had
collected a hundred of his letters; in collaboration with
the martyr Pamphilus he had composed the "Apol-
ogy for Origen'*; he dwelt at Csesarea where Origen's
library was preserved, and where his memory still
lingeied; if at times he may be thought somewhat par-
tial, he is undoubtedly well informed. We find some
details also in the "Farewell Address" of St. Gregory
Thaumaturgus to his master, in the controversies of
St. Jerome and Rufinus, in St. Epiphanius (Hseres.,
LXIV). and in Photius (Biblioth. Kd. 118).
(1) Origen at Alexandria {186-£3e).— Bom in 185,
Origen was barely seventeen when a bloody persecu-
tion of the Church of Alexandria broke out. His
father Leonides, who admired his precocious genius
and was charmed with his virtuous hfc, had given him
an excellent literary education. When Leonides was
cast into prison, Origen would fain have shared his
lot, but being unable to carry out his resolution, as his
mother had hidden his clothes, he wrote an ardent,
enthusiastic letter to his father exhortine him to per-
severe courageouslv. When Leonides had won the
martyr's crown and his fortune had been confiscated
by the imperial authorities, the heroic child laboured
to support himself, his mother, and his six youneer
brothers. This he successfully accomplished by be-
coming a teacher, sellinjg his manuscripts, and by the
generous aid of a certain rich lady, who admired his
talents. He assumed, of his own accord, the direction
of the catechetical school, on the withdrawal of Clem-
ent, and in the following year was confirmed in his
office by the patriarch Demetrius (Eusebius, "Hist,
eccl.", Vl, ii; St. Jerome, "De viris illust.", liv).
Origen's school, which was frequented by pagans,
soon became a nursery of neophytes, confessors, and
martyrs. Among the latter were Plutarch, Serenus
Heraclides, Heron, another Serenus, and a female
catechumen, Herais (Eusebius, "Hist, eccl.", VI, iy).
He accompanied them to the scene of their victories
encouraging them by his exhortations. There is noth-
ing more touching than the picture Eusebius has
drawn of Origen's youth, so studious, disinterested,
austere and pure, ardent and zealous even to indiscre-
tion (VI, iii and vi). Thrust thus at so early an age
into the teacher's chair, he recognized the necessity of
completing his education. Frequenting the philo-
sophic schools, especially that of Ammonius Saccas, he
devoted himself to a study of the philosophers, partic-
ularly Plato and the Stoics. In this he was but follow-
ing the example of his predecessors Pantenus and
Clement, and of Heracles, who was to succeed him.
Afterwards when the latter shared his labours in the
catechetical school, he learned Hebrew, and commu-
nicated frequently with certain Jews who helped him
to solve his difficulties.
The course of his work at Alexandria was inter-
rupted by five journeys. About 213. under Pope
Zephyrinus and the emperor Caracalla, ne desired "to
see the very ancient Church of Rome", but he did not
remain there long (Eusebius, "Hist, eccl.", VI, xiv).
Shortly afterwards he was invited to Arabia by the
governor who was desirous of meeting him (VI, xix\.
It was probably in 215 or 216 when the persecution of
Caracalla was raging in Egypt that he visited Pales-
tine, where Theoctistus of Csesarea and Alexander of
Jerusalem, invited him to preach though he was still a
layman. Towwds 218, it would appear, the empress
Mammsea, mother of Alexander Severus, brought him
to Antioch (VI, xxi). Finally, at a much later period,
under Pontian of Rome and Zebinus of Antioch
(Eusebius, VI, xxiii), he journeyed into Greece, pass-
ing through Cffisarea where Theoctistus, Bishop of
OBIGBN
307
OBIOBN
v»
that city, aadsted by Alexander, Biahop of Jerusalem,
raiaed him to the priesthood. Demetrius, although he
had given letters of recommendation to Origen, was
very much offended by this ordination, wmch had
taken place without his Knowledge and, as he thought,
in derogation of his rights. If Eusebius (VI, viii) is to
be believed, he was envious of the increasing influence
of his catecnist. So, on his return to Alexandria, Ori-
?;en soon perceived that his bishop was rather un-
riendly towards him. He yielded to the storm and
quitted Egypt (231). The details of this affair were
recorded by Eusebius in the lost second book of the
''Apology tor Origen'' ; according to Photius, who had
read the work, two councils were held at Alexandria,
one of which pronounced a decree of banishment
a^dnst Oriffen while the other deposed him from the
priesthood (Biblioth. cod. 118). St. Jerome declares
expr^sly that he was not condemned on a point of
doctrine.
(2) Origen at Ccuarea (£5;?).— Expelled from Alex-
andna, Origen fixed his abode at Cssarea in Palestine
(23J2). with his protector and friend Theoctistus,
founded a new school there, and resumed his ''Com-
mentary on St. John" at the point where it had been
interrupted. He was soon surroimded by pupils. The
most (ustinguished of these, without doubt, was St.
Gregory Thaumaturgus who, with his brother Apollo-
dorus, attended Origen's lectures for five years and de-
liverea on leaving him a celebrated "Farewell Ad-
dress''. During the pex^ution of Maximinus (235-
37) Origen visited his friend, St. Firmilian, Bishop of
CsBsarea in Cappadocia, who made him remain for a
long period. On this occasion he was hospitably en-
tertained by a Christian lady of Ceesarea, named Juli-
ana, who had inherited the writings of Symmachus,
the translator of the Old Testament (Palladius, "Hist.
Laus.", 147). The years following were devoted
almost uninterruptedly to the composition of the
" Commentaries ' ' . M^ition is made only of a few ex-
curnons to the Holy Places, a journey to Athens (Eu-
'Sebius, VI, xxxii), and two voyages to Arabia, one of
which was undertaken for the conversion of Beiyllus,
a Patripassian (Eusebius, VI, xxxiii; St. Jerome, "De
viris ill.", Ix), the other to refute certain heretics who
denied the Resurrection (Eusebius, "Hist, eccl.", VI,
xxxvii). Age did not diminish his activities. He was
over sixty when he wrote his "Contra Celsum" and
his ' ' Commentary on St. Matthew ' ' . The persecution
of Decius (250) prevented him from continuing these
works. Origen was imprisoned and barbarously tor-
tured, but his courage was unshaken and from his
prison he wrote letters breathing the spirit of the mar-
tyrs (Eusebius, "Hist, eccl.", VI. xxxix). He was
still alive on the death of Decius (251), but only lin-
gering on, and he died, probably, from the results of the
sufferings endured dunng the persecution (253 or 254),
at the age of sixty-nine (Eusebius, " Hist, eccl.", VII, i).
His last days were spent at Tyr, though his reason for
retiring thither is unknown. He was buried with
honour as a confessor of the Faith. For a long time
his sepulchro^ behind the high-altar ef the cathedral of
Tyr, was visited by pilgrims. To-day, as nothing re-
mains of this cathedral except a mass of ruins, the ex-
act location of his tomb is unknown.
B. Works. — Very few authors were as fertile as Ori-
gen. St. Epiphamus estimates at six thousand the
number of his writings, counting separately, without
doubt, the different books of a single work, nis homi-
lies^ letters, and his smallest treatises (Hsres., LXIV.
Ixiii). This figure, repeated by many ecclesiastical
writers, seems greatly exaggerated. St. Jerome as-
sures us that the list of Ori^en's writings drawn up by
St. Pamphilus did not contam even two thousand titles
(Contra Rufin., II, xxii; III, xxiii): but this list was
evidently incomplete. Eusebius ("Hist, eccl.", VI,
xxxii) had inserted it in his biography of St. Pamphi-
lus and St. Jerome inserted it in a letter to Paula, the
interesting part of which, discovered in the last cen-
tury, was published by Klostermann among others
(Sitzungsber. der . . . Akad. der Wiss. zu Berlin,
1897, pp. 855-70).
v(l) ExegeHcal Writings . — Ori^n had devoted three
kinds of works to the explanation of the Holy Scrip-
tures: commentaries, homilies, and scholia (St. Jerome,
"Prologus interpret, homiliar. Orig. in Ezecfalel").
The oommentanes (r6fMi librif voiumina) were a con-
tinuous and well-developed interpretation of the in-
spired text. An idea of their magnitude may be
formed from the fact that the woids of St. John: "In
the beginning was the Word ", furnished material for a
whole roll. There remain in Greek only ei^t books c»f
the "Commentary on St. Matthew", and nine books
of the "Commentary on St. John"; in Latin an anony-
mous translation of the "Commentary on St. Mat-
thew" beginning with chapter xvi, three books and a
half of the "Commentary on the Canticle of Canti-
cles" translated by Rufinus,'and an abridgment of
the "Commentary on the Epistles to the Romans"
by the same translator. The homilies {6/ju\lai, honk'
ilia, tractattu) were famiUar discourses on. texts of
Scripture, often extemporary and recorded as well as
possible by stenographers. The list is long and un-
doubtedly must have been longer if it be true that
Origen, as St. Pamphilus declares in his "Apology",
preached almost every day. Thero remain m Greek
twenty-one (twenty on Jeremias and the celebrated
homily on the witch of Endor) ' in Latin, one hundred
and eighteen translated by Rufinus. seventy-eight
translated by St. Jerome and some others of more or
less doubtful authenticity, preserved in a collection of
homilies. The twenty ' ' Tractatus Origenis * * recently
discovered are not the work of Origen, though use
has been made of his writings. Ongen has been
called the father of the homily; it was he who con-
tributed most to popularize this species of literaturo
in which, are to be found so many instructive details
on the customs of the primitive Church, its institu-
tions, discipline, liturgy, and sacraments. The
scholia (0'x^^y excerpta, cammaticum irUerpretandi
genus), wero exegetical, ^ philological, or historical
notes, on words or passages of the Bible, like the an-
notations of the Alexandria grammarians on the pro-
fane writers. Except some few short fragments
all of these have perished.
(2) Other Writings. — We now possess only two of
Origen's letters: one addressed to St. Gregory Thau-
matur^ on the reading of Holy Scripture, the other
to Julius Afrioanus on the Greek aidditions to the
Book of Danid. Two opusctda have been preserved
entire in the original form; an excellent treatise "On
Praver" and an "Exhortation to Martyrdom", sent
by Dri^^n to his friend Ambrose, then a prisoner for
the Faith. Finally two large works have escaped the
ravages of time: the "Contra Olsum" in the original
text, and the " De principiis" in a Latin translation by
Rufiinus and in the citations of the "Philocalia" which
might equal in contents one-sixth of the whole work.
In the ei^t books of the "Contra Celsum" Origen
follows his adversary point by point, refuting in de-
tail each of his false imputations. It is a model of
reasoning, erudition, and honest polemic. The "De
principiis", composed at Alexandria, and which, it
seems, ^t into the hands of the public before its
completion, treated successively in its four books, al-
lowing for numerous digressions, of: (a) God and the
Trinity, (b) the world and its relation to God, (c) man
and his free will, (d) Scripture, its inspiration and in-^
terpretation. Many other works of Origen have been
entirely lost: for instance, the treatise in two books
"On the Resurrection", a treatise "On Free Will", and
ten books of "Miscellaneous Writings" (Zrpw/iar eit).
For Origen's critical work see Hbxapla. For his
writiiigs see Westcott in "Diet, of Christ. Biog.".
8. v. ; nreuschen in Hamack, " Die Ueberlieferung una
6Kta£ir
308
ORIGIN
fiestand der altchriBtl. Litteratur" (Leipzig. 1893),
333-90; Bardenhewer, ''Geschichte der altkirchl.
Literatur." (Freiburg), II, 68-149; Prat in Vigouroux,
''Diet, de la Bible" 8. V.
C. Posthumous Influence of Origen. — During
his lifetime Origen by his writinm, teaching, and in-
tercourse exercised very great influence. St. Firmil-
ian of Csesarea in Cappadocia, who regarded himself
as his disciple, made him remain with him for a long
period to profit by his learning (Eusebius, ''Hist,
eccl.", VI, xxvi; PaUadiuSj "Hist. Laus.", 147). St.
Alexander of Jerusalem his fellow-pupil at the cat^
chetical school was his intimate faitnful friend (Euse-
bius, VI, xiv), as was Theoctistus of Cesarea in Pales-
tine, who ordained him (Photius, cod. 118). Beryllus
of Bostra, whom he had won back from heresy, was
deeply attached to him (Eusebius, VI, xxxiii; St.
Jerome, " De viris ill.", Ix). St. Anatolus of Laodicea
sang hispraises in his "Carmen Paschale" (P. G., X,
210). Tne learned Julius Africanus consulted him,
Origen's ifeply being extant (P. G., XI, 41-85). St.
Hippolytus hiehly appreciated his talents (St. Jerome,
"De vuis ill.", ud). St. Dionysius, his pupil and
successor in the catechetical school, when Patriarch
of Alexandria, dedicated to him bis treatise "On the
Persecution" (Eusebius. VI, xlvi). and on learning of
his death wrote a letter nlled with nis praises (Photms,
cod. 232). St. Gregory Thaumaturgus, who had b^n
his pupil for five ^ears at Cssarea, before leaving
addressed to him his celebrated "Farewell Address"
(P. G., X, 104&-1104), an enthusiastic panegyric.
There is no proof that Heracles, his disciple, collea^e,
and successor in the catechetical school, before bemg
raised to the Patriarchate of Alexandria, wavered in
his sworn friendship. Origen's name was so highly
esteemed that when there was question of putting
an end to a schism or rooting oiit a heresy, appeal was
made to it.
After his death his reputation continued to spread.
St. Pamphilus, martyred in 307, composed with Euse-
bius an "Apology for Origen" in six books, the first
alone of which has been preserved in a Latin tranda-
tipn by Rufinus (P. G., XVII. 541-616). Origen had
at that time many other aifologists whose names are
unknown to us (Photius, cod. 117 and 118). The
directors of the catechetical school continued to wsdk
in his footsteps. Theognostus, in his " Hypotyposes ",
followed him even too closely, according to Photius
(cod. 106), though his action was approved bv St.
Athanaffius. Pierius was called by St. Jerome Ori-
fenes junior" (De viris ill., Ixxvi). Didymus the
^lind composed a work to explain and justify the
teaching of the "De principiis" (St. Jerome, "Adv.
Rufin.", I, vi). St. Athanasius does not hesitate to
cite him with praise (Epist. IV ad Serapion., 9 andlO)
and points out that he must be interpreted generously
(De decretis Nic, 27).
Nor was the admiration for the great Alexandrian
less outside of Egypt. St. Gregory of Nazianxus gave
significant expression to his oi>imon (Suidas, "Lexi-
con", ed. Bemhardy, II, 1274: *Qpiy4tnfs ii wdrrtap iifuar
^X^^)' In collaboration with St. Basil, he had
published, under the title "Philocalia", a volume of
selections from the master. In his "Pane^ric on
St. Gregory Thaumaturgus". St. Gregory of Nyssa
called Chigen the prince of Christian learning in the
third century (P. G., XLVI, 905). At Cosarea in
Palestine the admiration of the learned for Origen be-
came a passion. St. Pamphilus wrote his "Apology ",
Euzoius had his writing transcribed on parchment
(St. Jerome, "De viris ill.", xciii). Eusebius cata-
logued them carefully and drew upon them largely.
Nor were the Latins less enthusiastic than the Greeks.
According to St. Jerome, the principal Latin imitators
of Origen are St. Eusebius of Veroeil, St. EUlary of
Poitiers, and St. Ambrose of Milan; St. Victorinus of
Pettau had set them the example (St. Jerome, "Adv.
Rufin.", I, ii; "Ad Augustin. Epist.", cxii, 20). Ori-
gen's writings were so much drawn upon tnat the soli-
tary of Bethlehem caUed it plagiarism, furta Latin-
rum. However, excepting Rimnus, who is practically
only a translator, St. Jerome is perhaps the Latin
writer who is most indebted to Origen. Before the
Origemst controversies he willingly admitted this, and
even afterwards, he did not entirely repudiate it; cf.
the prologues to his translations of Origen (Homilies
on St. Luke, Jeremias, and Ezechiel, the Canticle
of Canticles), and also the prefaces to his own "Com-
mentaries" (on Micheas, the Epistles to the Galatians,,
and to the Ephesians etc.).
Amidst these expressions of admiration and praise,
a few discordant voices were heard. St. Methodius,
bishop and martyr (311), had written several works
against Origen, amongst others a treatise "On the
Resurrection", of which St. Epiphanius cites a long
extract (Haeres., LXVI, xii-lxii). St. Eustathius of
Antioch, who died in exile about 337, criticized lus alle-
gorism (P. G., XVIII, 613-673). St. Alexander of
Alexandria, martyred in 311, also attacked him, if we
are to credit Leontius of Bvzantium and the emperor
Justinian. But his chief adversaries were the heretics,
Sabellians, Arians, Pelagians, Nestorians, ApoUinarists.
On this subject see Prat, "Orig^ne", 199-200.
II. Orioenism. — By this term is understood not so
much Origen's theology and the bod^ of his teachings,
as a certain number of doctrines, nghtly or wrongly
attributed to him, and which by their novelty or their
danger called forth at an early period a iWutation
from orthodox writers. They are chiefly: A. — ^Alle-
gorism in the interpretation of Scripture; B. — Sub-
ordination of the Divine Persons; C. — ^The theory of
successive trials and a final restoration. Before ex-
amining how far Origen is responsible for these the-
ories, a word must be said of the directive principle
of his theology. ^
The Churai and the Rule of Faith. — In the preface
to the "De principiis" Origen laid down a rule thus
formulated m the translation of Rufinus: "Ilia sola
credenda est Veritas quse in nuUo ab ecclesiastics et
apostolica discordat traditione". The same norm
is expressed almost in equivalent terms in many other
passages, e. g., "non debemus credere nisi auemad-
modum per successionem Ecclesise Dei traoiderunt
nobis" (In Matt., ser. 46, Migne. XIII, 1667). In ac-
cordance with those principles Origen constantly ap-
peals to ecclesiastical preaching, ecclesiastical teachings
and the ecclesiastical rule of faith (icatft&p) . He accepts
only four canonical Gospels because tradition does not
receive more; he admits the necessity of the baptism of
infants because it is in accordance with the practice of
the Church founded on Apostolic tradition; he warns
the interpreter of the Holy Scriptures, not to rely on his
own judgment, but "on the rule of the Church insti- '
tuted by Christ". For, he adds, we have only two
lights to guide us here below, Christ and the Church;
the Church reflects faithfully the light received from
Christ, as the moon reflects the rays of the sun. The
distinctive mark of the Catholic is to belong to the
Church, to depend on the Church outside of which
there is no salvation; on the contrary, he who leaves
the Church walks in darkness, he is a heretic. It is
through the principle of authority that Origen is wont
to unmask and combat doctrinal errors. It is the
principle of authority, too. that he invokes when he
enumerates the dogmas oi faith. A man animated
with such sentiments may have made mistakes, be-
cause he is human, but his disposition of mind is
essentially Catholic and he does not deserve to be
ranked among the promoters of heresy.
A.Scriptural AUegoriam. — The principal passages on
the inspiration, meaning, and interpretation of the
Scriptures are preserved in Greek in the first fifteen
chapters of the "Philocalia". According to Origen,
Scripture is inspired because it is the wora and wort
OBIOBN
309
OBIOXN
of God. But, far from being an inert instrument, the
inspired author has full possession of his faculties, he is
oonsdous of what he is writing: he is physically free to
deliver his message or not; he is not seized by a pass-
ing delirium like the pagan oracles, for bodily disorder,
disturbance of the senses, momentary loss of reason
are but so many proofs of the action of the evil spirit.
Since Scripture is from God, it ou(^t to have the dis-
tinctive characteristics of the Divine works: truth,
unity, and fullness. The word of God cannot possi-
a be imtrue; hence no errors or contradictions can be
oitted in Scripture (In Joan., X. iii). The author
of the Scriptures being one, the Bible is less a collec-
tion of books than one and the same book (Philoc,
V, iv-vii), a perfect harmonious instrument (Philoc.,
VI, i-ii). But the most Divine note of Scripture is
its fullness : ' ' There is not in the Holy Books the small-
est passage (xcpa(a) but reflects the wisdom of God"
(Philoc, I, xxviii, cf. X, i). True there are imper-
fections in the Bible: antilogies, repetitions, want of
continuity; but these impenections become |)erfeo-
tions by leading us to the allegory and the spiritual
meaning (Philoc., X, i~ii).
At one time Oris^en, starting from the Platonic
trichotomy, distinguishes the body, the soul, ami the
spirit of Holy Scripture; at another, following a more
rational terminology, he distinguisnes only between
the letter and the spirit. In r^ity, the soul, or the
psychic signification, or moral meaning (that is the
moral parts of Scripture, and the moral applicationa
of the other parts) plays only a very seconaary rAle,
and we can confine ourselves to the antithesis: 2e/^ (or
body) and spirit. Unfortunately this antithesis is not
free from equivocation. Origen does not understand
by letter (or body) what we mean to-day by the hteral
sense, but the grammatical sense, the proper as op-
posea to the figurative meaning. Just so he does not
attach to the words spiritual meaning the same signi-
fication as we do: for him they mean the spiritual
sense properly so called (the meaning added to the
literal sense by the express wish of God attaching a
special signification to the fact related or the manner
of relating them), or the figurative as contrasted with
the proper sense, or the accommodative sense, often
an arbitrary invention of the interpreter, or even the
literal sense when it is treating of things spiritual.
If this terminology is kept in mind there is nothing
absurd in the principle he repeats so often: ''Such a
passage of the Scripture has no corporal meaning."
As examples Origen cit^ the anthropomorphisms,
metaphors, and symbols which ought indeed to be
understood figuratively.
Though he warns us that these passages are the
exceptions, it must be confessed that he allows too
many cases in which the Scripture is not to be under-
stood according to the letter; but, remembering his
terminology, his principle b unimpeachable. The
two great rules of interpretation laid down b^r the
Alexandria catechist, taken by themselves and inde-
pendently of erroneous applications, are proof against
criticism. They may be formulated thus: (1) Scrip-
ture must be interpreted in a manner worthy of God,
the author of Scnpture. (2) The corporal sense or
the letter of Scripture must not be adopted, when
It would entail anything impossible, absurd, or un-
worthv of God. The abuse arises from the applica-
tion of these rules. Origen has recourse too easily to
all^orism to explain purely apparent antilo^es or
antinomies. He considers that certain narratives or
ordinances of the Bible would be unworthy of God if
they had to be taken according to the letter, or if they
were to be taken solely according to the letter. He
justifies the allegorism oy the fact that otherwise cer-
tain accounts or certain precepts now abrogated
would be useless and profitless for the reader: a fact
which appears to him contrary to theprovidencft of
the Divine inspirer and the dignity of Holy Writ. It
will thus be seen that though the criticisms directed
against his allegorical method by St. Epiphanius
and St. Methodius were not groundless, yet many of
the complaints arise from a misunderstapding. Cf.
Zollig, ''Die Inspirationslehre de& Origenes" (Frei-
burg, 1902).
B. Subordination of the Divine Persons. — ^The three
Persons of the Trinity are distinguished from all crea-
tures by the three following characteristics: absolute
immateriality, omniscience, and substantial sanctity.
As is well known many ancient ecclesiastical-writm
attributed to created spirits an aerial or ethereal en-
velope without which they could not act. Though he
does not venture to decide categorically, Origen m-
dines to this view, but, as soon as there is question
of the Divine Persons, he is perfectly sure that they
have no body and are not in a body; and this charac-
teristic belongs to the Trinity alone (De princip., IV,
27; I, vi, 4; II, ii, 2; II, iv, 3 etc.). Again the knowl-
edge of every creature, being essentially limited, is
always imperfect and capable of being increased.
But it would be repugnant for the Divine Persons to
pass from the state of ignorance to knowle^Re. How
could ihe Son, who is the Wisdom of the Father, be
ignorant of anything ("In Joan.", 1, 27; "Contra
Gels.", YI, xvii). Nor can we admit ignorance in the
Spirit who "searcheth the deep thinss of God" (De
Srincip., I, iii, 4; iv, 35). Finally, holiness is acci-
ental in every creature, whereas it is essential, and
therefore immutable, in the Trinity. Origen in-
cessantly recalls this principle which separates the
Trinity from all created spirits by an impassable abyss
("De princip.", I, v, 4; I, vi, 2; I, vii, 3; "In Num.
hom.", XI, 8 etc.). As substantial holiness is the
exclusive privilege of the Trinity so also is it the only
source of all created holiness. Sin is forgiven only by
the simultaneous concurrence of the Father, the Son,
and the Holy Ghost; no one is sanctified at baptism
save through their common action; the soul in which
the Holy Ghost indwells possesses likewise the Son
and the Father. In a word the three Persons of the
Trinity are indivisible in their being, their presence,
and their operation.
Along with these perfectly orthodox texts there are
some which must be interpreted with diligence, re-
membering as we ousht that the language of theology
was not yet fixed anof that Origen was often the first
to face these difficult problems. It will then appear
that the subordination of the Divine Persons^ so much
urged against Origen, generally consists in difference
of appropriation (the Father creator, the Son re-
deemer, tne Spirit sanctifier) which seem to attribute
to the Persons tin unequal sphere of action, or in the
litui^cal practice of praying the Father through the
Son m the Holy Ghost, or in the theory so widespread
in the Greek Church of the first five centuries, that the
Fatner has a pre-eminence of rank (rd(tt) over the
two other Persons, inasmuch as in mentioning them
He ordinarily has the first place, and of dignity
(d((w/ia), because He represents the whole Divinity,
of which He is the principle (^x'6)i the origm
(afnot), and the source (inrr^). That is why St.
Athanasius defends Origen's orthodoxy concerning
the Trinity and why St. Basil and St. Gregory of
Naziansus replied to the heretics who claimed the
support of his authority that they misunderstood him.
cf. The Origin and Destiny of Rational Beings, —
Here we encounter an unfortunate amalgam of phi-
losophy and theology. The system that results is not
coherent, for Origen, frankly recognizing the contra-
diction of the incompatible elements that he is trying
to unify, recoils from the conseauences, protests
against the logical conclusions, and oftentimes cor-
rects by orthodox professions of faith the heterodoxy
of his speculations. It must be said that almost all
the texts about to be treated of, are contained in the
"De prindpiis", where the author treads on most
i
OBIGBN , 310 OEIOUr
dangerous ground. The ssrstem may be reduced to a angry when accused of teaching the eternal salvation
few hypotheses, the error and danger of which were of the devil. But the h3rpothe8e8 which he lays down
not recognized by Origen. hece and there are none the less worthy of censure.
(1) Eternity of the Creation — Whatever exists out- What can be said in his defence, if it be not with St.
side of God was created by Him: the Alexandrian .Athanasius (De decretis Nic, 27), that we must not
catechist always defended this thesis most energeti- seek to find his real opinioof in the works in which he
cally against the pagan philosophers who admitted an discusses the arguments for and against doctrine as an
uncreated matter (' De princip.'^ II, i, 5 ; " In Genes.", intellectual exercise or amusement ; or, with St. Jerome
I, 12, in Migne, XII, 49-49). But he believes that (Ad Pammach. Epist., XLVIII, 12), that it is one
God created from eternity, for "it is absurd '\ he says, thin|; to do^atize and another to enunciate hypo-
''to imagine the nature of God inactive, or His good- thetical opimons which will be cleared up by disous-
ness inefficacious, or His dominion without subjects" sion?
(De princip., Ill, v, 3). Consequently he is forced to III. Oriqenist Ck>NTBOVER8iE8. — ^The discussions
admit a double infinite series of worlds before and concerning Origen and his teaching are of a verv sin-
after the pr^nt world. (2) Original Equality of the gular and very complex character. They br^Jc out
Created Spirits.— In the b^mning all intellectual na- unexpectedly, at long intervals, and assume an im-
tures were created equal and |dike, as God had no mo- mense importance quite unforeseen in their humble
tive for creating them otherwise" (De princip., II, ix, beginnings. They are complicated by so many per-
6). Their present differences arise solely from their sonal disputes and so many questions foreien to the
different use of the gift of free will. The spirits ere- fundamental subject in controversy that a orief and
ated |ood and happv grew tired of their happiness rapid exposd of the polemics is difficult and w611-nigh
(op. cit., I, iii, 8), and, through carelessness, fell, some impossible. Finally they abate so suddenly that one
more some less (1, vi, 2). Hence the hierarchy of the is forced to conclude that the controversy was super-
angeb; hence also the four categories of created intel- ficial and that Origen's orthodoxy was not the sole
lects: angels, stars (supposing, as is probable, that poin]^ in dispute.
they are animated, "De princip.", I, vii, 3), men. and A. — First Origenist Crisis, — It broke out in the
demons. But their r61es may be one day changed; for deserts of Egypt, raged in Palestine, and ended at
what free will has done, free will can undo, and the Constantinople with the condenmation of St. Chrys-
Trinity alone is essentiaily immutable in good. ostom (392--404). During the second half of the
(3) Essence and raison d'etre of Matter, — Matter ex- fourth century the monks of Nitria professed an ex-
ists only for the spiritual j if the spiritual did not need aggerated enthusiasm for Origen, whilst the neighbour-
it, matter would not exist, for its finality is not in ing brethren of Sceta, as a result of an unwarranted
itself. But it seems to Ongen — though he does not reaction and an excessive fear of allegorism^ feU into
venture to declare so expressly — ^that created spirits Anthropomorphism. These doctrinal discussions
even the most perfect cannot do without an extremely gradually invaded the monajsteries of Pcdestine, which
diluted and subtle matter which serves them as a were under the care of St. Epiphanius. Bishop of BiHan
v^cle and means of action (De princip., II, ii, 1 ; I, mis, who, convinced of the dangers of Ori^enism, had
vi, 4 etc.). Matter was, therefore, created simulta- combatted it in his works and was determmed topre-
neously with the spiritual, although the spiritual is log- vent its spread and to extirpate it completely. Hav-
ically prior; and matter will never cease to be because ing gone to Jerusalem in 394, he preached vehemently
the spiritual, however perfect, will always need it. against Origen's errors, in presence of the bishop of
But matter which is susceptible of indefinite transfer- that city, John, who was deemed an Origenist. John
mations is adapted to the varying condition of the in turn spoke against Anthropomorphism, directing
spirits. ''When intended for the more imperfect his discourse so clearly against Epiphanius that no
spirits, it becomes solidified, thickens, and forms the one could be mistaken. Another incident soon helped
bodies of this visible world. If it is serving higher in- to embitter the dispute. Epiphanius had raised Paul-
telligences, it shines with the brightness <n the celes- inian, brother of st. Jerome, to the priesthood in a
tial bodies and serves as a garb for the angels of God, place subject to the See of Jerusalem. John com-
and the children of the R^iorrection" (op. cit., II, ii, plained bitterly of this'violation of his rights, and the
2). reply of Epiphanius was not of a nature to appease
(4) Universality of the Redemption and the Final Res- him.
/orQ/ton.--Certain Scriptural texts, e. g., I Cor., xv. Two new combatants now enter the lists. From thje
25-28, seem to extend to all rational beings the benefit time when Jerome and Rufinus settled, one at Bethle-
of the Redemption, and Origen allows himself to be led hem and the other on Mt. Olivet, the]^ had lived in
also by the philosophical principle which he enunci- brotherly friendship. Both admired, imitated, and
ates several times, without ever proving it, that the translated Origen, and were on most amicable terms
end is alwavs like the beginning: ''We think that the with their bi^op, when in 392 Aterbius, a monk of
goodness of God, through the mediation of Christ. Sceta, came to Jerusalem and accused them both of
will bring all creatures to one and the same end Origenism. St. Jerome, very sensitive on the question
(Dc princip., I, vi, 1-3). The universal restoration of orthodoxy, was much hurt by the insinuation of
{droKardcToffu) follows necessarily from these prin- Aterbius and two years later sided with St. Epipha-
ciples. nius, whose reply to John of Jerusalem he translated
On the least reflection, it will be ^een that these into Latin. Rufinus learnt, it is not known how, of
hypotheses, starting from contrary points of view, are this translation, which was not intended for the pub-
irreconcilable: for 9ie theory of a final restoration is lie, and Jerome suspected him of having obtained it by
diametrically opposed to the theory of successive in- fraud. A reconcihation was effected sometime later,
definite trials. It would be easy to find in the writ- but it was not lastmg. In 397 Rufinus, then at Rome,
heaven does not fail ; in their case "the freedom of the drian catechist he remembered. The solitary of Beth-
will will be bound so that sin will be impossible" (In lehem, grievously hurt at this action, wrote to his
Roman., V, 10). So, too, the reprobate will always be friends to refute the perfidious implications of Ru-
fixed in evil, less from inability to free themselves from finus, denounced Ongen's errors to Pope Anastasius,
it. than because they wish to be evU (De princip., I, tried to win the Patriarch of Alexandria over to the
viii. 4), for malice has become natural to them, it is as a anti-Ongenist cause, and bejjan a disciwsion with
oecond nature in tbero (In jQann.,xx, 19). Origengr^w Rufinus, marked with great bitterocas on both sides.
OBIGBN
311
OBIOEN
Until 400 Theophiliis of Alexandria was an acknowl-
edged Origenist. HLs confident was Isidore, a former
monk of Nitria, and his friends, 'HheTall Brothers'*,
the accredited leaders of the Origenist nartv. He had
supported John of Jerusalem against St. Epiphanius,
whose Anthropomorphism he denounced to Pope Siri-
dus. Suddenly he changed his views, exactly why
was never known. It is said that the monks of Sceta,
displeased with his paschal letter of 399, forcibly in-
vaaed his episcopal residence and threatened him with
death if he did not chant the palinody. What is cer-
tain is that he had quarrelled with St. Isidore over
money matters and with "the Tall Brothers *', who
blamed his avarice and his worldUness. As Isidore
and "the Tall Brothers" had retired to Ck>nstanti-
nople, where Chrvsostom extei^ded his hospitatity to
them and interceded for them, without, however, ad-
mitting them to communion till the censures pro-
nounced against, them had been raised, the irascible
Patriarch of Alexandria determined on this plan: to
suppress Origenism everywhere, and under this pre-
text ruin Chrysostom, whom he hated and envied.
For four years he was mercilessly active: he con-
demned Origen's books at the Council of Alexandria
(400), with an armed band he expelled the monks from
Nitria, he wrote to the bishops of Cyprus and Pales-
tine to win them over to his anti-Ongenist crusade,
issued paschal letters in 401, 402, and 404 against Ori-
gen's doctrine, and sent a missive to Pope Anastasius
asking for the condenmation of Origenism. He was
successful beyond his hopes; the bishops of Cyprus ac-
cepted his invitation. Those of Palestine, assembled
at Jerusalem, condemned the errors pointed out to
them, adding that thev were not taught amongst
them. Anastasius, while declaring that Origen was
entirely unknown to him, condemned the propositions
extracted from his books. St. Jerome undertook to
translate into Latin the various elucubrations of the
patriarch, even his virulent diatribe against Chrysos-
tom. St. Epiphanius, preceding Theophilus to Con-
stantinople, treated St. Chrysostom as temerarious,
and almost heretical, uiitil the day the truth began to
dawn on him, and suspecting that he might have been
deceived, he suddenly left Constantinople and died at
sea before arriving at Salamis.
It is well known how Theophilus, having been called
by the emperor to explain his conduct towards Isi-
dore and "the TaU Brothers", cleverly succeeded by
his machinations in changing the r61es. Instead of
being the accused, he became the accuser, and sum-
moned Chrysostom to appear before the conciliabule
of the Oak (ad Quercum), at which Chrysostom was
condemned. As soon as the vengeance of Theophilus
was satiated nothing more was heard of Origenism.
The Patriarch of Alexandria began to read Origen,
pretending that he could cull the roses from among
the thorns. He became reconciled with "the TaU
Brothers" without asking them to retract. Hardly
had the personal quarrels abated when the spectre
of Origenism vanished (cf. Dale, "Origenistic Contro-
versies" in "Diet, of Christ. Biog.", iV, 146-151).
B . Second Origenistic Crisis. — ^This new phrase, ouite
as intricate and confusing as the former, has been
partially elucidated by Prof. Dickamp, upon whose
learned study. "Die origenistischen Streitigkeiten
in sechsten Janrhundert" (Mllnster, 1899), we draw.
In 514 certain heterodox doctrines of a very singular
character had already spread among the monks of
Jerusalem and its environs. Possibly the seeds of the
dispute may Rave been sown by Stephen Bar-Sudaili,
a troublesome monk expelled from Edessa, who joined
to an Origenism of his own brand certain clearly
pantheistic views. Plotting and intriguing continued
for about thirty years, the monks suspected of Origen-
ism being in turn expelled from their monasteries,
then readmitted, only to be driven out anew. Their
leaders and protectors were Nonnus, who till to
death in 547 kept the party together, Theodore Aski-
das and Domitian who had won the favour of the
emperor and were named bishops, one to the See of
Anc3rra in Galatia, the other to that of Csesarea in
Cappadocia, though they continued to reside at court*
(537). In these circumstances a report against Ori-
genism was addressed to Justinian, by whom and on
what occasion it is not known, for the two accounts that
have come down to us are at variance* (Cyrillus of
Scythopolis, "Vita Saba"; and Liberatus, "Breviar-
ium", xxiii). At all events, the emperor then wrote
his "Liber adversus Origenem", containing in addi-
tion to an expose of the reasons for condemning it
twenty-four censurable texts taken from the "De
principiis", and lastly ten propositions to be anathe-
ihatized. Justinian ordered the patriarch Mennas to
call together all the bishops present in Constantinople
and niiike them subscribe to these anathemas. Tnis
was the local synod ((r^podot Mif/ju>wa) of 543. A copy
of the imperial edict had been addressed to the otner
patriarchs, including Pope VigiUus, and all gave their
adhesion to it. In the case of Vidlius especially we
have the testimony of Liberatus (Breviar., xxiii) and
Cassiodorus (Institutiones, 1).
It had been expected that Domitian and Theodore
Askidas, by their refusal to condemn Origenism, would
fall into disfavour at Court; but they signed whatever
they were asked to sign and remained more powerful
than ever. Askidas even took revenge by persuading
Uie emperor to have Theodore of Mopsuestia, who was
deemed the sworn enemy of Origen, condemned (Lib-
eratus, "Breviar.", xxiv; Facundas of Hermianus,
"Defensio trium capitul.", I, ii; Evagrius, "Hist.",
IV, xxxviii). Justiman's new edict, which is not ex-
tant, resulted in the assembling of the fifth oecumenical
council, in which Theodore of Mopsuestia, Ibas, and
Theodoretus were condenmed (553) .
Were Origen and Origenism anathematised? Many
learned writers believe so; an equal number deny that
they were condenmed; most modem authorities are
either undecided or reply with reservations. Rel3ring
on the most recent stucfies on the question it may be
held that: (1) It is certain that the fifth general coun-
cil was convoked exclusively to deal with the affair of
the Three Chapters (q. v.), apd that neith^ Origen
nor Origenism were the cause of it. (2) It is certain
that the council opened on 5 May, 553, in spite of the
protestations of Pope VigiUus, who thou^ at Con-
stantinople refused to attend it, and that m the eight
conciliary sessions (from 5 May to 2 June), the Acts of
which we possess, only the question of the Three
^Chapters is treated.
(3) Finally it is certain that only the Acts concern-
ing the affau- of the Three Chapters were submitted
to the pope for his approval, which was given on 8
Decemoer, 553, and 23 February, 554. (4) It is a fact
that Popes Vigilius, Pclaraus I (556-61), Pelagius
II (579-90), Gregory the Great (590-604), in treat-
ing of the fifth council deal only with the Three Chap-
ters, make no mention of Origenism, and speak as if
they did not know of its condemnation. (5) It must
be admitted that before the opening of the council,
which had been delayed by the resistance of the pope,
the bishops already assembled at Constantinople had
to consider, by order of the emperor, a form of Origen-
ism that had practically nothing in common with Ori-
gen, but which was held, we Know, by one of the
Origenist parties in Palestine. The arguments in cor-
roboration of this hypothesis may be found in Dick-
amp (op. cit., 66-141). (6) The bishops certainly
subscribed to the fifteen anathemas proposed Inr the
emperor (ibid., 90-96) ; an admitted Origenist, Theo-
dore of Scjrthopolis, was forced to retract (ibid., 125-
129) ; but there is no proof that the approbation of the
pope, who was at that time protesting against the
convocation of the council, was asked. (7) It is easy
to \md^r9t»od bow this extra-conoiliary sentence was
\
OBIOINAL
312
OBIOINAL
migtl^en at a later period for a deeree of the actual
oecumenical council.
Beades the works eited in the body of the artiole, the following
mAy be oonaulted: on the life, works, and theolosy of Origen:
Huvr, Origeniana in P. G.. XVII; RcDBPSNifiNa, Ongenes (Bonn,
1841-6).
On the recent works oonceming Origen, see Ehrbard. Dis
alteohriatliehe Litteratur und ihre Br/ortchung wm 1884-1900 (Frei-
burg. 1000). 320-51.
Cm Origen's doctrine: Bioa, Th« ChritUan PkUoniHt of Alex-
andria (Oxford, 1886) ; Faihwbathbb, Origen and Greek Patrieiie
Theology (Edinburgh, 1901); Frbppbl, Origkne (Paris, 1868);
Dbnib, La philoeofhie d'Onghu (Paris, 1884); CAPrTAiNS. De
OrigeniM ethiea (MAnster, 1898); Prat, Orighu, U thSologien et
Vextgete (Paris, 1907).
The best edition of Origen's works is the one in course of publi-
cation by the Academy of Sciences of Berlin; the followin|( works
have appeared: De mar^yriot Contra CeUum,' De orahone by
KOrecHAU (2 vols., Leipaig, 1899) ; Twenty Hotniliea on Jeremiae,
Homily on the Witch o/Endor, and Fragmenta by KLOflTBRMAmr
<Leipiig. 1901); Commentary on St. John (nine books and frag-
ments) by Prruscrrn (Leipsig, 1903). For the still unedited
texts of the Philoealia there is the excellent edition of Robinson
(Cambridge, 1893). There is an English translation of the De
principiis and the Contra CeUum by Crombib in Ante-Nicene
Christum Library, Edinburgh, X (1869) and XXIII (1872); a
translation of the Commenlariee on St. Matthew and on St. John by
Mbhbxss in the supplementary vol. (1897) of the same collection.
F. Prat.
Original Sin. — I. Meaning; II. Principal Adver-
saries; III. Original Sin in Scripture; IV. Original
Sin in Tradition; V. Original Sin in face of the Ob-
jections of Human Reason; VI. Nature of Original
Sin; VII. How Voluntary.
I. Meaning. — Original sin may be taken to mean:
(1) the sin that Adam committed; (2) a consequence
of this first sin^ the hereditary stain with which we are
bom on account of our origin or descent from Adam.
From the earliest times the latter sense of the word
was more common, as may be seen by St. Augustine's
statement: "the deliberate sin of the First man is the
cause of original sin" (De nupt. et concup., II, xxvi,
43). It is the hereditary stain that is dealt with here.
As to the sin of Adam we have not to examine the
circumstances in which it was committed nor to make
the exegesis of the third chapter of Genesis.
II. I^NCiPAL Advbrsarieb. — ^Thcodorus of Mop-
suestia opened this controversy by den3ring that the sm
of Adam was the ori^n of death. (See the '* Excerpta
Theodori", by Marius Mercator; cf. Smith, "A Dic-
tionary of Chnstian Biography *\ IV, 942.) Olestius,
a friend of Pelagius, was the first in the West to hold
these propositions, borrowed from Theodorus: ''Adam
was to die in every hypothesis, whether he sinned or
did not sin. His sm injured himself only and not the
human race" (Mercator, ''Liber Subnotationum",
preface) . This, the first position held by the Pela^ans,
was also the firat point condenmed at Carthage (Den-
zinger, "Enchiridion", no 101 — old no. 65). Againsl
this fundamental error Catholics cited especially
Rom., V, 12, where Adam is shown as transmitting
death with sin. After some time the Pela^ans ad-
mitted the transmission of death — this being more
easily understood as we see that parents transmit
to their children hereditary diseases — but they still
violently attacked the transmission of sin (St. Au-
gustine, "Contra duas epist. Pelag.", IV, iv, 6).
And when St. Paul speaks of the transmission of sin
they understood by this the transmission of death.
This was their second position, condemned by the
Council of Orange [Denz., n. 175 (145)], and again later
on with the first by the Council of Trent [Sess. V, can.
ii; Denz., n. 789 (671)]. To take the word sin to mean
death was an evident falsification of the text, so the
Pela^ans soon abandoned the interpretation and
admitted that Adam caused sin in us. They did not,
however, understand by sin the hereditary stain con-
tracted at our birth, but the sin that adults commit in
imitation of Adam. This was their third position, to
which is opposed the definition of Trent that sin is
transmitted to all by generation (yropagaiiont)^ not by
imitation [Denz., n. 790 (672)]. Moreover, in the fol-
lowing canon are cited the words of the Council of
Carthage, in which there is question of a sin oontmctied
by generation and effaced by regeneration [Denz., n. 102
(66)}. The leaders of the Reformation admitted the
dogma of ori^nal sin, but at present there are many
Protestants mibued with Socinian doctrines whose
theory is a revival of Pelagianism.
III. Origii^al Sin in Scripture. — ^The classical
text is Rom., v, 12 sqq. In the preoedinf^ part the
Apostle treats of justincation by Jesus C^inst. and to
Eut in evidence the fact of His being live one oaviour,
e contrasts with this Divine Head ^ mankind the
human head who caused its ruinv Hie question of
original sin, therefore, comes in only incidentally. St.
Paul supposes the idea that the futhful have of it
from his oral instructions, and he^^eaks of it to make
them understand the work *6i Redemption. This
explains the brevity of the development and the ob-
scurity of some verses* We dhall now show what, in
the text, is opposed to the three Pelagian positions:
(1) The sm of Adam has injured the numan race
ait least in the sense that it has introduced death — <
"Wherefore as by one man sin entered into this world
and by sin death; and so death passed upon all men ".
Here there is question of physical deatn. First, the
Uteral meaning of the word ought to be presumed
unless there be some reason to the contrary. Second,
there is^an allusion in this verse to a passage in the
Book of Wisdom in which, as may be seen from the
context, there is question of physical death. Wis.,
ii, 24: " But by the envy of the devil death came into
the worid". Cf. Gen., ii, 17; iii, 3, 19; and another
parallel passage in St. Paul himself, I Cor.. xvr21:
'For by a man came death and by a man tne resur-
rection of the dead ' ' . Here there can be question only
of physical death, since it is opposed to corporal resur^
rection, which is the subject of the whole chapter.
(2) Adam by his fault transmitted to us not only
death but also sin — "for as by the disobedience of one
man many [i. e., all men] were made sinners" (Rom.,
V, 19). How then could the Pelagians, and at a later
period Zwingli, say that St. Paul speaks only of the
transmission of physical death? If according to them
we must read deam where the Apostle wrote nn, we
should also read that the disobedience of Adam has
made us mortal where the Apostle writes that it has
made us nnners. But the word sinner has never
meant mortal^ nor has sin ever meant d&iih. Also
in verse 12, which corresponds to verse 19, we see
that by one man two things have been brought on all
men, sin and death, the one being the consequence of
the other and therefore not identical with it.
(3) Since Adam transmits death to his children
by way of generation when he begets them mortal, it
is by generation also that he transmits to them sin, for
the Apostle presents these two effects as produced at
the same time and by the same causaUty. The ex-
planation of the Pelagians differs from that of St. Paul.
According to them Uie child who receives mortaUty
at his birth receives sin from Adam only at a later
period when he knows the sin of the first man and is
inclined to imitate it. The causality of Adam as re-
gards mortality would, therefore, be completely differ-
ent from his causality as regards sin. Moreover, this
supposed influence of the bad example of Adam is
almost chimerical; even the faithful when they sin
do not sin on account of Adam's bad example, a
fortiori infidels who are completely ignorant of the
history of the first man. And yet all men are, by the
influence of Adam, sinners and condemned (Rom.,
V, 18, 19). The influence of Adam caifnot, therefore,
be the influence of his bad example which we imitate
(Augustine, "Contra Julian.", VI, xxiv, 75).
On this account, several recent Protestants have
thus modified the Pelagian explanation: "Even with-
out being aware of it all men imitate Adam inasmuch
as they merit death as the punishment of their own
sins |ust ai^ Adam merited it as the punishiqent fpr hi0
OBIGINAL
313
OaiOINAL
an." Thb is going farther and farther from the text
of St. Paul. Adam would be no more than the term
of a comparison, he would no longer have any influence
or causality as regards original sin or death. More-
over, iJie Apostle did not affirm that all men^ in imi-
tation of Aoam, are mortal on account of theu* actual
ons; since children who die before coming to the use
of reason have never conmiitted such sms; bul he
eiroressly affirms the contrary in the fourteenth verse:
"But death reigned", not onlv over those who imi-
tated Adam, but "even over them also who have not
sinned after the similitude of the transgression of
Adam/' Adam's sin, therefore, is the sole cause of
death for the entire human race. Moreover, we can
discern no natural connexion between any sin and
death. In order that a determined sin entail death
there is need of a positive law, but before the Law
of Moses there was no positive law of God appointing
death as a punishment except the law given to Adani
(Gen., ii. 17). It is, therefore, his disobedience only
that could have merited and brought it into the world
(Rom., V, 13, 14). These Protestant writers lay
much stress on the last words of the twelfth verse.
We know that several of the Latin Fathers understood
the words, "in whom all have sinned'', to mean, all
have sinned in Adam. This interpretation would be
an extra proof of the thesis of original sin, but it is not
necessary. Modem exegesis, as well as the (jrreek
Fathers, prefers to tran^ate "and so death passed
upon all men because all have sinned ' ' . We accept this
second translation which shows us death as an effect
of sin. But of what sin? "The personal sins of each
one", answer our adversaries, this is the natural
sense of the words 'all have sinned.' " It would be
the natural sense if the context was not iJbsolutely
opposed to it. The words "all have sinned" of the
twelfth verse, which are obsciire on account of their
brevity, are thus developed in the nineteenth verse:
"for as by the disobedience of one man many were
made sinners". There is no question here of per-
sonal sins, differing in species and number, conunitted
by each one during his life, but of one first sin which
was enough to transmit equally to all men a state of
sin and the title of sinners. Similarly in the twelfth
verse the words "All have sinned" must mean, "all
have participated in the sin of Adam"^ "all have
contracted its stain". This interpretation too re-
moves the seeming contradiction between the twelfth
verse, "all have smned", and the fourteenth, "who
have not sinned", for in the former there is question
of original sin, in Ihe latter of personal sin. Those
who'say that in both cases there is question of personal
sin are unable to reconcile these two verses.
IV. dRiGiNAL Sin in Tradition.— On account of a
superficial resemblance between the doctrine of origi-
nal sin and the Manichxean theory of our nature being
evil, the Pelagians accused the Catholics and St.
Augustine of Manichseism. For the accusation and its
answer see "Contra duas epist. Pelag.", I, II, 4; V, 10;
III, IX, 25; IV, III. In our own times this charge
has been reiterated by several critics and historians of
dogma who have been influenced by the fact that be-
fore his conversion St. Augustine was a Manichsan.
They do not identify Manichseism with the doctrine
of original sin, but they say that St. Augustine, with
the remains of his former Manicluean prejudices,
created the doctrine of ori^al sin unknown before his
time. It is not true that the doctrine of original sin
does not appear in the works of the pre-Augustinian
Fathers. On the contrary, their testimony is found
in special works on the subject. Nor can it be said.
as Hamack maintains, that St. Augustine himself
acknowledses the absence of this doctrine in the writ-
ings of the Fathers. St. Augustine invokes the testi-
mony of eleven Fathers, Greek as well as Latin (Contra
Jul., IL X, 33). Baseless also is the assertion that
before St. Augustine this doctrine was unknown to the
Jews and to the Christians; as we have already shown,
it was taught by St. Paul. It is found in the fourth
Book of Esidras, a work written by a Jew in the first
century after Christ and widely read bv the Chris-
tians. This book represents Adam as the author of
the fall of the human race (vii, 48), as having trans-
milted to all his posterity the permanent infirmity,
the malignity, the bad seed of sm (iii, 21, 22; iv, 30).
Protestants themselves admit the doctrine of original
sin in this book and others of the same period (see
Sanday, "The. International Critical Commentanr:
Romans", 134, 137 j Hastings, "A Dictionary of the
Bible ", 1, 841) . It is therefore impossible to make St.
Augustine, who is of a much later date, the inventor
of original sin.
That this doctrine existed in Christian tradition be-
fore St. Augustine's time is shown by the practice- of
the Church m the baptism of children. The Pelagians
held that baptis^ was given to children, not to remit
their sin, but to make them better, to give them super-
natural life, to make them adoptive sons of God, and
heirs to the Kingdom of Heaven (see St. Augustine,
"De peccat. meritis", I, xviii). The Catholics an-
swered by citing the Nicene Creed, "Confiteor unum
baptisma in remissionem peccatorum". They re-
proached the Pelagians with introdudne two bap-
tisms, one for adults to remit sins, the other for chil-
dren with no such purpose. Catholics argued, too,
from the ceremonies of baptism, which suppose the
child to be under the power of evil, i. e., exorcisms,
abjuration of Satan made by the sponsor in the name of
the child [Aug., loc. cit., xxxiv, 63; Denz., n. 140 (96)].
V. Original Sin in Face of the Objectionb of
Reason. — We do not pretend to prove the existence
of original sin by arguments from reason only. St.
Thomas makes use of a philosophical proof which
proves the existence rather of some kind of decadence
than of sin, and he considers his proof as probable onl^,
satis probcunliter probari potest (Contra Gent., IV, Hi).
Many Protestaiits and Jansenists and some Catholics
hold the doctrine of original sin to be necessary in
I)hilosophy, and the only means of solving the prob-
em of the existence of evil. This is exaggerated and
impossible to prove. It suffices to show that human
reason has no serious objection against this doctrine
which is founded on Revelation. The objections of
Rationalists usually spring from a false concept of our
dogma. They attack either the transmission of a
sin or the idea of an injury inflicted on his race by the
first man, of a decadence of the human race. Here we
shall answer only the second category of objections,
the others will be considered under a later head (VII).
(1) The law of progress is opposed to the hypothesis
of a decadence. Yes, if the progress was necessarily
continuous, but history proves the contrary. The
line representing progress has its ups and downs, there
are periods of decadence and of Retrogression, and such
was the period. Revelation tells us, that followed the
first sin. The human race^ however, began to rise
a^ain little by little, for neither intelligence nor free
will had been destroyed bv original sin and, conse-
quently, there still remained the possibility of material
progress, whilst in the spiritual order God did not
abandon man, to whom He had promised redemption.
This theory of decadence has no connexion with our
Revelation. The Bible, on the contrary, shows us
even spiritual progress in the people it treats of; the
vocation of Abraham, the law of Moses, the mission of
the Prophets, the coming of the Messias, a revelation
which becomes clearer and clearer, ending in the
Gospel, its diffusion amongst all nations, its fruits of
holiness, and the progress of the Church.
(2) It is unjust, says another objection, that from
the sin of one man should result the decaaence of the
whole human race. This would have weight if we took
this decadence in the same sense that Luther took it,
i. e. human reason incapable of understanding even
ORICtmAL 814 OBIGINAL
moral truths, free will destroyed, the veiy substance (3) The absence of sanctifying grace in the new-born
of man changed into evil. But according to Catholic child is also an effect of the first sin, for Adam, having
theology man has not lost his natural faculties: by the received holiness and justice from God, lost it not only
sin of Adam h^ has been deprived only of the Divine for himself but also for us (loc. cit., can. ii). If he has
giftfto which his nature had no strict right, the com- lost it for us we were to have received it from him at
plete mastery of his passions, exemption from death, our birth with the other prerogatives of our race,
sanctifying grace, the vision of God in the next life. Therefore the absence of sanctifymg grace in a child is
The Creator, whose gifts were not due to the human a real privation, it is the want of something that should
rac«, had the right to bestow them on such conditions have been in him according to the Divine plan. If this
as He wished and to make their conservation depend favour is not merely something physical out is some-
on the fidelity of the head of the family. A prince can thing in the moral order, if it is houness, its privation
confer a hereditary dignity on condition that the re- mav be called a sin. But sanctifving grace is holiness
cipient^ remains loyal, and that, in case of his rebel- and is so called by the Council of Trent, because holi-
ling, this dignity shall be taken from him and, in con- ness consists in union with God, and grace unites us
sequence, from his descendants. It is not, however, intimately with God. Moral goodness consists in this
intelligible that the prince, on account of a fault com- that our action is according to the moral law, but grace
mitted by a father, should order the hands and feet of is a deification, as the Fathers say, a perfect conform-
all the descendants of the guilty man to be cut off im- ity with God who is the first rule of all moralitv. (See
mediately after their birth. This comparison repre- Grace.) Sanctifying grace therefore enters ihto the
sents the doctrine of Luther which we in no wa^ moral order, not as an act that passes but as a perma-
def end . The doctrine of the Church supposes no sensi- nent tendency which exists even when the subject who
ble or afflictive punishment in the next world for chil- possesses it does not act; it is a turning towards God.
dren who die with nothing but original sin on their canveraio ad Deum. Consequently the privation of
souls, but only the privation of the sight of God this grace, even without any other act, would be a
[Denz., n. 1526 (1389)]. stain, a moral deformity, a turning awav from God,
VI. Nature of Original Sin. — This is a difficult aversio a Deo, and this character is not found in any
point and many systems have been invented to explain other effect of the fault of Adam. Tlus privation,
it : it will suffice to give the theolo^cal explanation now therefore^ is the hereditary stain,
commonly received. Original sm is the privation of VII. How Voluntary. — ''There can be no sin that
sanctifying grace in consequence of the sm of Adam, b not voluntary, the learned and the ignorant admit
This solution, which is that of St. Thomas, goes back this evident truth", writes St. Augustine (De vera reU^.,
to St. Anselm and even to the traditions of the early xiv, 27). The Church has condenmed the opposite
Church, as we see by the declaration of the Second solution given by Baius (prop, xlvi, xlvii, in Denz., n.
Council of Orange (a. d. 529) : one man has transmit^ 1046 (926)]. Original sin is not an act but, as already
ted to the whole human race not only the death of the explained, a state, a permanent privation, and this can
bodv, which is the punishment of sin, but even sin be voluntary indirectly — just as a drunken man is de-
itself , which is the death of the s<ml [Denz., n. 175 (145)]. prived of his reason and incapable of using his liberty,
As death is the privation of the principle of life, the vet it is by his free fault that he is in this state and hence
death of the soul is the privation of sanctif^dng grace his drunkenness, 'his privation of reason is voluntai^
which according to all tneologians is the principle of and can be imputed to him. But how can original sin
supernatural life. Therefore, if original sin is "the be even indirectlv voluntary for a child that has never
deathof thesoul",itistheprivationofsanctifyinggrace. used its personal free will? Certain Protestants hold
The Council of Trent, although it did not make that the child on coming to the use of reason will con-
this solution obligatory by a definition, regarded it sent to its original sin; but in reality no one ever
with favour and authorized its use (cf . Pallavicini, thought of giving this consent. Besides, even before
"Istoria del Concilio di Trento". vii-ix). Original sin the use of reason, sin is already in the soulj according
is described not only as the deatn of the soul (Sess. V, to the data of Tradition resarcung the baptism of Chil-
ean, ii), but as a "privation of justice that each child dren and the sin contracted by generation. Some the-
contracts at its conception'' (Sess. VI, cap. iii). But osophists and spiritists admit the pre-existence of souls
the council calls "justice'' what we call sanctifjring that have sinned in a former life which they now for-
grace (Sess. VI), and as each child should have had per- get; but apart from the absurdity tof this metemps^-
sonally his own justice so now after the fall he suffers chosis, it contradicts the doctrine of original sin, it
his own privation of justice. We may add an argu- substitutes a number of particular sins for the one sin
ment based on the pnnciple of St. Augustine alrei^y of a common father transmitting sin and death to all
citedj "the deliberate sin of the first man is the cause (cf. Rom., v, 12 sqq.). The whole Christian religion,
of original sin". This principle is developed b}^ St. says St. Augustine, may be summed up in the inter-
Anselm: "the sin of Adam was one thing but the sin of vention of two men^ the one to ruin us, the other to
children at their birth is quite another, the former was save us (De pecc. ong., xxiv). The right solution is to
the cause, the latter is the effect " (De oonceptu virgi- be sousht in the free will of Adam in nis sin, and this
nali, xxvi). In a child original sin is distinct from the free will was ours: "we were all in Adam", says St.
fault of Adam^ it is one of its effects. But which of Ambrose, cited by St. Augustine (Opus imperf ., IV,
these effects is it? We shall examine the several effects civ) . St. Basil attributes to us the act of the first man :
of Adam's fault and reject those which cannot be ori- "Because toe did not fast (when Adam ate the forbid-
ginal sin: — den fruit) we have been turned out of the garden of
(1) Death and Suffering. — ^These are purely physi- Paradise" (Hom. i de jejun., iv). Earlier still is the
cal evils and cannot be caUed sin. Moreover St. Paul, testimony of St. Ireiueus; 'Un the person of the first
and after him the councils, regarded death and origi- Adam we offend God, disobeying His precept"
nal sin as two distinct thin^ transmitted by Adam. (Hseres.. V, xvi, 3).
(2) Concupiscence. — ^This rebellion of the lower ap- St. Thomas thus explains this moral unitv of our
petite transmitted to us by Adam is an occasion of sin will with the will of Adam. "An individual can ba
and in that sense comes nearer to moral evil. How- considered either as an individual or as part of a whole,
ever, the occasion of a fault is not necessarily a fault, a member of a society. . . . Considered in the second
and whilst original sin is effaced by baptism concupis- way an act can be his although he has not done it him-
cence still remains in the person oaptized; therefore self, nor has it been done by his free will but by the
original sin and concupiscence cannot be one and the rest of the society or by its head, the nation beinp; con-
same thing, as was held by the early Protestants sidered as doing what the prince does. For a society is
(see CouncU of Trent, Sess. V, can. v). considered as a single man of whom the individuals are
ORIHUBLA
315
ORIHUXLA
the different members (St. Paul, I Cor., xii). * Thus
the multitude of men who receive their human nature
from Adam is to be considered as a single conununity
or rather as a single body. ... If the man, whose
privation of original justice is due to Adam, is consid-
ered as a private person, this privation is not hi^
'fault', for a fault is essentially voluntary. If , how-
ever, we«consider him as a member of the family of
Adam, as if all men were only one man, then his priva-
tion partakes of the nature of sin on account of its vol-
untary origin, which is the actual sin of Adam" (De
Malo, iv, 1). It is this law of solidarity, admitted by
common sentiment, which attributes to children a part
of the shame resulting from the father's crime. It is
not a personal crime, objected the Pelagians. "No",
answered St. Augustine, "but it is paternal crime
(Op. imperf., I, cxlviii). Being a distmct person I am
not strictly responsible for the crime of another, the
act is not mine. Yet, as a member of the human fam-
ily, I am supposed to have acted with its head who
represented it with regard to the conservation or the
loss of grace. I am, therefore, responsible for my pri-
vation of grace, taxing responsibility in the largest
sense of the word. This, however, is enough to make
the state of privation of grace in a certain degree vol-
untary, and, therefore, "without absurdity it may be
said to be voluntary" (St. Augustine, "Ketract.", I,
xiii).
Thus the principal difficulties of non-believers
against the transmission of sin are answered. "Free
will is essentially incommunicable." Physically, yes;
morally, no; the will of the father being considered as
that of nis children. " It is unjust to make us respon-
sible for an act committed before our birth." Stnctly
responsible, yes^ responsible in a wide sense of the
word, no; the crime of a father brands his yet unborn
children with shame, and entails upon them a shiu*e
of his own responsibility. " Your dogma makes us
strictly responsible for the fault of Adam." That is a
misconception of our doctrine. Our dogma does not
attribute to the children of Adam aiiy properly so-
called responsibility for the act of their father, nor do
we say that original sin is voluntary in the strict sense
of the word . It is true that, considered as " a moral de-
formity", "a separation from God", as "the death of
the soul , original sin is a real sin which deprives the
soul of sanctifying grace. It has the same claim to be a
sin as has habitual sin, which is the state in which an
adult is placed by a grave and personal fault, the
"stain " which St. Thomas defines as "the privation of
grace" (I-II, O. cix. a. 7; III, Q. Ixxxvii, a. 2, ad 3«m),
and it is from this point of view that baptism, puttins
an end to the privation of ^ce, "takes away all
that is really and properly sin", for concupiscence
which remains "is not really and proper^ sin",
althou^ its transmission was equally voluntary
(Council of Trent, Sess. V, can. v.). Considered
precisely as voluntary, original sin is only the shadow
of sin properly so-called. According to St. Thomas
(In II Sent., dist. xxv, Q. i, a. 2, ad 2«m). it is not
caDed "sin" in the same sense, but only in an
analogous sense.
Several theologians of the seventeenth and eigh-
teenth centuries, neglecting the importance of the pri-
vation of grace in the explanation of original sin, and
explaining it only by the participation we are sup-
pG«ed to have in the act of Adam, exaggerate this par-
ticipation. They exaggerate the idea of voluntary in
original sin, thinking that it is the only way to escplain
how it is a sin properly so called. Their opinion,
differing from that of St. Thomas, gave rise to un-
called-for and insoluble difficulties. At present it is
altogether abandoned.
Fob the Scriptural proof: MacEvillt, An Bxpoaition ofth4
EpisUes of St. Paul, I (4th ed.. New York, 1891), 45; Cobnblt,
Commtentariu* in eviH. ad Romano* (Paris, 1890), 269; Corlut,
Svicilegium doomatieo4nhlicum, I (QheDt, 1884). 228; Prat, La
ThMogit d» 8. Paul, I (ParU, 1908). 392.— For tbr doctrins or
St. Auavsrms: Auoubtine. Anti-Pelaoian Work* (London.
1880) ; ScBWANB, Dogmenqachiehte, II (2nd ed., Freiburg im Br.,
1894) ; PortauA in Did. ae thiid. oath., s. v. Aucuatin. — -For thx
THBOLOotCAL EXPLANATION: St. Tboma0. II-IT, QO. clxiil, olziv;
Db Rubbib, De peceato orimnaH (WQnburg, 1857); Schbbbbn,
Doffmatik, II (Freiburg im Br., 1880), olzzzvi; MOhlbr, Svn^
bolvsm (London, 1894); Lb BacbBlbt, LepMU origind (^taiB,
1900); Lahoubbb, De Deo Creante (Bruges, 1904); Pbsch,
PrcBleetionea de Deo Creante (3rd ed., Freiburg im Breisgau, 1906).
—For thb rationaubtic view: Tbnkant, The Soureeeo/the
doetrinea of the Fatt and Original Sin (Cambridge, 1903).
S. Harbnt.
Orihuela, Diocese of (Oriolensis, Oriolana),
comprises all the civil Province of Alicante except the
two townships {'pueblot) of Caudete (Albacete) and
Ayora (Valencia). The city of Orihuela, with its sub-
urbsj has a population of 24,364. . The episcopal see
was m ancient times at Bigastro or the place known as
Cehegln. Jaime the Conc]|ueror recovered Orihuela
from the Moors in 1265, ^vmg it to his son4n-law Al-
fonso X, the Wise, of Castile, and restoring the church,
which came under the jurisdiction of the See of Carta-
gena. When Orihuela was lost to the Castilian crown,
m 1304. Martin of Aragon petitioned the pope to give
it a bishop of its own. The first concession was made
bv the antipope Benedict XIII (Luna), who made the
church of £l Salvador a coU^ate church. On the
petition of Alfonso V, Martin V instituted a vicariate-
general, independent of Murcia and Cartagena, for the
portion of the diocese lying within the Kingdom of
Aragon. No bishop was appointed until 1437, when it
was given as its first, a scion of the House of Corella.
who never took possession. Eugenius IV suppressea
the new diocese; Julius II accorded to the church of
Orihuela the razik of cathedral (1510), but subject to
the Bishop of Cartagena. Peace was secured only
when Phihp II, in the Cortes of Monz6n (1563), de-
cided to separate the church of Orihuela from Carta-
gena, and obtained from Pius IV, in 1564, the creation
of a new bishopric.
The first bishop was a native of Burgos, Gregorio
Gallo y Andrada, confessor to Queen Isabel of Valois.
Among his successors, Jos^ Esteban added to the ca-
thedra! the chapter of St. Stephen, where he is buried.
Juan Elias GkSmez de Terin built at his own expense
(1743) the conciliar seminary of La Purfsima Concep-
ci6n, the Seminary of St. Miguel, and the House of
Mercy. He also caused to be erected the Chapel of
the Holy Communion, the chapter house, and the
archivium. This bishop lies buried in the church of
La Miserioordia at Alicante. Jos6 de Rada y Aguirre
was confessor to Ferdinand VI. Jos6 Tormo enlarged
the seminary, rebuilt much of the episcopal palace,
erected episcopal residences at Cox andElcne, and the
Chapel of the Holy Communion in the great church of
the latter city. Several works of public utility are due
to him, such as the aqueduct of Elche, the bridge of
Rojales, and a wall protecting the cultivated lands of
Orihuela against inundation. Another occupant of
this see was Cardinal Despuig (1791). Francisco An-
tonio Cebri^ y Valda (1797T ruled the diocese eigh-
teen years, afterwards becoming Patriarch of the In-
dies. The episcopate of Felix Herrero Valverde was
long and fruitful; ne improved the cathedral and other
churches/ laboured to repair the damage done by the
earthquake of 1829, and suffered a long exile in Italy
after tne deatli of Ferdinand VII.
Conspicuous among the buildings of Orihuela is the
Seminary of St. Miguel, situated upon a rocky emi-
nence. Founded in 1743, it possesses a good library, a
hall of exercises (saldn de actos) built by Bishop Pedro
Maria Cubero (1859), and the general archivium of the
diocese. It is divided into two colleges: that of the
Apostolic Missionaries, founded by Bidiop Terdn, and
the episcopal college. The most notable of the
churches is the Cathedral of the Transfiguration (El
Salvador) : its style is a simple ogival of the fourteenth
century. The principal door — the "Door of the
Chains" — is Gotnic; that of the Annunciation is Plat-
ORtOL 316 0RKNCT8
eresque. The great chapel, of beautiful o^^yal woric, benefice in the church of Nuestra Seflora del Pino, in
was aemolishedin 1827 to enlarge the enclosure. The Barcelona. His priestly life was remarkable for a
grille of the choir and the high altar have been oonsid- spirit of penance, profound humility, and prudence
ered the finest in the kingdom (Viciana) : they are Re- in directing souls. Impelled by a desire of martyr-
naissance of the sixteenth century. The yast episcopal dom. he went to Rome m April. 16d8, to offer himself
palace, separated from the cathedral b^ a street, was for the foreign missions, but, falling sick at Marseilles,
built in 1733 by Bishop Jos^ Flores Osirio, on the left he returned to Barcelona. God beetowed upon him
bank of the River Se^iira. It contains a magnificent prophetic and miraculous power. The dying, the
staircase. The princjpal churches are Sta Justa y blind, the deaf and dumb, the lame; and the paralytic,
Rufina and the Ap^stm Santiago (St. James the Apos- were instantly cured by him. He was beatified by
tie), both restored Gothic. The former is said to have Pius VII, 5 September, 1806, and canonixed by Pius
been a parish church in the time of the Goths, but it X, 20 May, 1909. His feast occurs on 23 Mc^tih. '
was reconstructed between 1319 and 1348. That of ^g^^fT^- 'fH^*" -%!». ?*^*?P* Ortoi (Rome. 1909); Masdbu,
Santiago is a fine Gothic structure, and bears the de- iTedt'liSl^SSSj/'^.S^
vice of the Catholic Sovereigns: Tanto Monta; and rsaroelona, 1909); Eulabia Anxisu. Vida de St. Joseph OrM
the arms of Charled V. The great chapel was built be- ("» Catalan. Barcelona, 1909; Spaniah tr., Barcelona. 1910).
tween 1554 and 1609, and the tabernacle, of rare mar^ Charles J. Mttllaly.
bl^b eighteenth-century work. Orirtano, Diocese of (Arborbnsib), in Sardinia.
Orihuela had manv monasteries and convents — ^^^•^'^'^'^^i ^^^^'^'o^^' y^^^^^^^^^^ajy ,^t^\Axuxu,
Augustinian, Franciiean, CaxmeUte, Mercedarian, Onstmowasthe^italof the^t«ft«ih^
Dominican, Trimtarian, XlcaStwine, Capuchin, and "S* ^^^ "K Arborea^given to the Hoiwe of ftwdi,
of the Hospitallers of St. John of G^. thoee «k the f^^" ??P^?LliP!i.^^!f^!SlT^tS'*i^
Franciscan^ and the CapucUni. are still extant, as also i^„^Vi Jror^Srl^nJ^h^tifit „!^«lftlv H^t^
sas. out tne pnncipal eaince of Unhuela is tnat or its xt^ i;_^4. ♦i^^ •- ♦ui^ i«*i.««- ^t r««w^«., \7tt an.^
university, otherwise called the Patriarchal College of J^l^^Vii^^nSn n i^^^^^ fhl^^S^JS". pS,
Preachere, founded by the prelate Fernando de La- ^^^ p^^w?^ 9wLv^^^^
ces, a native of Orihuehi, who spent 80,000 ducats 2.^1?^v^^n f hf^v^^ o^f^J?« rL^J^Ta^
steL^ti^tiSs'wK!^^^^ g^rswas^^icra^^^^
SS =r frmeX«^^h2 '^^^^^^^
wards obtained faculties for the conferring of scien- "f^^^^L^I^^^^^
tific degrees, with privileges equal to those of the most ffil/??S^J^?7^'^!3'L^^ ^J^S w
celebrated liiiverslties, ind^e titles of Dlustrious, ^l^^l9^^J,Jf ^V^^^^
Royal, and Pontifical (1640). It was suppressed ii ^'^^^P^^^^I'^^^^^^
^.^^^^^\^\SJl^A^^ are venerated. Bishops of Santa Giusta are known
T^. K?nWil frtfhH^ «S^^^ i~ f«>m the year 1119. The diocese is a suffragan of
wl?^l^?ffiJ^.Sn!^^«Hn^ Cagliari; it has 74 parishes, with 97,000 inhabitants, 3
?^^'.i^^r!±^^^«S? WiL^n,&«i5^S^ rellious houses of Sen, ani 7 of women, 3 schools for
from thesuppi^sed convents. Thesarcophapisof the bom and 2 for girls.
founder is m the chancel of the magnificent church. d^^xxwn. L« <7Ate« d^/ioZu.. V.
A statue of St. Thomas stands above the pnncipal XJ. Bbniqni.
door, and above it a colossal Minerva.
By the Concordat of 1851, the See of Orihuela is to Orkneyi, a group of islands situated between 58^
be transferred to Alicante, a city with two excellent 41' and 59^ 24' N. lat. and 2^ 22^ and 3° 25' W. long.,
churches: that of S. NicoUs and the older church of and l3ring to the north of Scotland, from which they
Sta. Maria, formerly a mosque. It was destroyed by are separated by Pentland Firth. Tney include Holme
fire and entirely rebuilt in the ogival style. The col- and Klippen, the most important, nowever, being
legiate church founded by Alfonso X, the Wise, was Pomona or Mainland. The total area is over three
made a collegiate church by Clement VIII (1600), and, hundred and seventy-five square miles and the po^u-
by the terms of the Concordat, is destinea to be the lation (of Norse descent), almost exclusively Calvin-
cathedral of Alicante. Also celebrated is the sanctu- ist and English speaking, numbers 30,000. These
ary of the Holy Face at Alicante, originally occumed islands, for 9ie most part level (the greatest altitude
by Hieronymites, but now by the Poor Clares. The being 1541 feet, on Hoy), rocky, barren, treeless, part-
Unen cloth bearing the imprint of the Holy Face was ly covered by swampland, produce only barley, oats,
brought from Rome by Moss^n Mena of Alicante and potatoes, ana beets. Stock raising is an important
is an object of great veneration in that part of the industry, the yearly production bSng 30,000 cattle,
country. Elcha. famous for its palm-trees, has a note- ^,000 sheep, 5000 pigs, and 6000 horses of a small but
worthy church aedicated to the Assumption, on which sturdy breed. The himting of birds, seal, and whales,
feast it still holds a dramatic representation of medie- and the deep-sea fisheries (herring, cod, and lobsters)
yal character. Orihuela has a hospital, a Casa de Mis- furnish the inhabitants with further means of suste-
ericordia for the poor and orphans (1734), and a found- nance. Excellent trout are to be caught in the nu-
ling asylum founded by Charles III in 1764. * merous fiords and small lakes. Minine for iron, tin,
RuFiNO Gea, Pdgiruu de la Hittaria de Orihuela: Bl pieito del and silver is also carried On successfully. The ex-
ebiepadodel383-l6e4(Orihue\B,, 1900);MoiAJi, Crinica del elne- j^rtnttnn nf Hnwn AnA wnvpn Rtiiflfq Tshawls etc ^
Vado de Onhuela (Alicante, 1900); Llorbhtb. JPtpafta. eue mmw POrtatlon 01 aown ana WOVen Siuns, VSnawis, eic.;
wuntaa y artes: Valencia, II (Barcelona, 1889); db la Fuentb. formS a lucrative SOUrcC of mcome. I'olltlCally, the
Hittoria de las Univeraidadea de BepaAa {Madrid, 1885); lOKU, Orkneys form, with the Shetlands, a COUnty, the
HieU>naecleeidetieadeE,pa1UiiBarce]o^ 1855) j^ l^j KirkwaU (a tOWn of 5000 inhabi-
KAM6N Kuia AMADO. ^^^j^ important as a trading centre, with a good
harbour. ,
Oriel, Joseph, Saint, priest, "Thaumaturgus of Hibtort. — Among the ancients the Op«cddei i^oc.
Barcelona'', b. at Barcelona, 23 November, 1650; d. also called Orcades insuUSf are the Orkneys, mentioned
there, 23 March, 1702. He studied in the University by Pliny, Mela, and Tacitus. Julius Agricola, as com-
of Barcelona, receiving the degree of Doctor of The- inander of the troops garrisoned in Britain, in a. d. 69,
ology, 1 August, 1674. Ordained priest, 30 May, had the coast of England explored by his ships of war,
1676, he visited Rome in 1686 and was granted a and took back more trustworthy information concern-
ORLANDINI 317 OBLANDTO
tug these mythical territories, which he brought of the Middle Ages have survived. Only the ruinfl
under the soeptre of Rome for the time bdlng. Noth- of the episoopal residence at Kirkwall, -where King
ing is known of the inhabitants at that time, but they Hakon IV died (15 December, 1263), are to be seen,
were probably Celts. About 872 the rulers of the The first Christian temple at Birgsay has completely
separate islands were forced to submit to the rule of disappeared. Of two churches at Deer Ness and
Harold Haarfager, King of Norway, who also sub- Broch of Birsay on Mainland (remarkable for their
iu(|ated the Hebrides, Isle of Man, ana Ireland. Later double towers between nave and choir) only sketches
Enc Blodsee sought refuge on the Orknevs from his are extant. It is over fv hundred years since the first
victorious adversaries. Frota these islands also Olaf disappeared, but considerable ruins of the second are
TVygvesson undertook the conauest of his ancestral still to be seen. There are also traces of the church of
kingdom (995), and Harold Hararada set forth on his St. Magnus at Egilsay and of the round apsidal church
last campaign against England (1066). Thence also on Orphir. The great monumental, architectural
Olaf Kyrre returned to his native land (1067) and work of the whole archipelago, howev^, is the cathe-
Hakon IV began his military expedition against Scot- dral of St. Magnus at Kirkwall (KirkeiKuig), which is
land (1263). In 1271 Magnus IV of Norway ceded surpassed but slightly by the celebrated cathedral of
to King Alexander III of Scotland aU Scottish islands Trondhjem. It was begun in 1137 by St. Ragnvald
"with the exception of the Cheneys''', in return for a (canonized 1192), prince (jarl) and crusader, and rep-
veariy tribute, a condition which was renewed in resents the artistic ideas of generations. Laid out
later documents. Instead of being under the direct originallv according to Norman-Roman style, it seems
government of the monarchs of Norway, the Orknevs to nave been strongly influenced by the Oothic, and
were, now ruled by jarls. appointed by tnem from the shows a harmonious combination of the two elements,
houses of Stratheam ana Smclair. After the marriage The central nave is supported by twenty-eight col-
of James III of Scotland to the daughter of Christian umns of surpassing beauty. Above the intersection
I, King of the united countries, the latter mortgaged of the nave and transept rises an imposing square
the Orkneys to Scotland as security for his daughter's tower, the dome of which was unfortunately ruined
dowry (6 Sept., 1468), which he had not paid, and by fire in the seventeenth century and was replaced
later attempts at redemption proved fruitless. Thus by another which is too low. Doors made of stones
it was that Scottish ways and the Engli^ language of many colours fitted together open into the interior
gradually found access into the Orkneys and then be- of the temple. Since the introduction of Calvinism
came predominant. But many Norse customs and altars, statues of the saints, and sacred vessels have
many Scandinavian forms of expression still persist, disappeared; even the relics of the founder were seat-
as though the nation preserved a certain attachment tered to the winds. The burial sites of the jar^ have
for the mother-country, with which tradition says it likewise been forgotten.
will be one day reunited. M»la., De aUu orbU, III, vi; Puny. Hitt. nai., IV, XXX ; Taci-
RBU010U8 HisTOBY.-Although the monks from SSklSS^'A^^^^^oSTnS'&r^
lona were active m the Orkneys at a very early period, etc (London. 1883) ; Wallace, Deaeriviion of the hUs of Orkney
the exact date when the Gospel was first preached and $fe?v^°S- 1884); F«a, Present SUUe oftkeOrkney /»(on<i« (London.
iKo naf;/\noi;fv rxf kVko, fivof •^:a«:^n««:^<. «-« ..^u..^»« 1885); Storm, Hx^, top. ekrxfter om Norgeog narske LandadaU
the nationality of the hrst missionanes are unknown, rchriiitiania. 1895); DiIbtrichbon, Vorefcider, f>erk (Chratiania.
1 he eariV Christian communities probably succumbed Copenha«en, 1906) ; Walsr, HiU, of ike Cath, Church in Scotland
during the disturbances of the migratory movements. <9*WrT' 1874); Lyon, Hitt, of St. Andrews (2 vols., E<iyiburghj
nnA fVio lot^v M/MsiA oAf^l^iv ««TA»A VvA^A./c. r^uj:^:^.^ 1843); Ketsbr, Den norske kxrkes htstone under Katoltcismen (2
Mid the later JNorse TOttlers were pagans. Chnstian- vole. Chrwtiania. 1866-58) Gams, Series epise. (Ratbbon, 1873);
ity first attamed predominance, however, under Olaf Eubbl, Hierarchia eathdiea medii mi (2 vols.. Ratiabon. 1898-
Trygvessdn. About the middle of the eleventh century l^i>- __ _
Kirkwall (Kirkevaag) was made the seat of a diocese P^^ Wittmann.
n«.v^iHnX M««r^TT«*^. .? Nov., 1572; became rector of the Jesuit college at
^t«h ^xir^i\an) l7Z^^^JiTih^tJ^}^Ii.^i Nolaj was master of novices at Naples for five fears;
Scotch extraction) were suffragans of the Archbishop ^^^ ^ally appointed secretary of the general Acqua^
prelates (at first
^Lund?;^ ikter^^d^ T;^emB and finally, splinted se^toxy of the genend Acq,
after 1472 under St. Andrews. k»ctica%nothing IT'^i ^^? SJ^ ^^^'^ ^\^ ^ ^*^ the hurtory of
is knnnm on fy» tfcoi, ti.n.^ ««j tu^ A^Z. „/»{._!■ t^^ Jesuit Order. This work comprises only the gen-
Pn!»ZXf a!?H fhf W^rJSl^.,^K^ *^*^ eralate of St. Ignatius. It was edit^ by Sacchinj, and
SS^^i-^rln^iL H^?S„™^^'''"r •"" appeared undSthe title " Historian SocieUtis Jesu
portant oiscrepancies. oome bishops received aca- ^Cuv»« ^o«." /-d^^^.^ tat a iaik iaoi. a^4^«*»,.*. lAon.
demic honours" which would indicate that they weits FSS^^*^fi90wt' ia^t^'X.'t^n?lS
not ignorant men for their time8._ This is esMcially E?i**l?t'J??^2Cii*.1JT*^? IL**!-^**™."! '^??i?:
true -••■•" -
dral of St. Slagnus, w^ich had b^b^ by hta ?"! exoeedmgly careful, accurate, and wary", the
predecessors, flis successor, Adam BXrelli died ^^^'^ ^'% <^^^"'»<^M S^" ' ?«»>'?'«' ^0^'^-
(23 Aug., 1593) an apostate At this timethe 1^ f"^!,?"*^'^?r?'uJ''!S'^'* '^°*^,'4?^P^l'***''"?«
^^'l.^L?tSS"or^efni»L1t?"^*' n ^'^A=t',±'^^U^7e^^ann??KS^
hSb^'r'^e^^I^S^rSwSela^ te%K'''^^^).= "tr**.^??^"" ^^^T'
cmplovinglott craft and for^ to draw theLSab^ ffi' ,t^f ^Tl^ln .^LnM P^TZh^^m
tants from the faith of their fathere. {^^'°^^'^'.^'^,}^ exemplo Petn Fabn (Ehl-
HiOTOBT OF Airr.-Burial chambors and stone ^''«*°' ^-^^^U and "Tractatus seu Commentaru n
circles (at Stenness on Mainland) testify to the prim- !!?'S™*"y5'S?"*^*'\"*'TB7%**Si'^f p'yS'p"^! «
itive artistic sense of the original Celtfc inhabitente. ed.Soero(Roehampton, 1876). Hw'^ita Petn Fabn '»
The earUest traces of the l^rse occupation l«re to t.^,;^?r!:!J::!'*^T*° ^^"'^ (Bordeaux, 1617) and
ina^au)^\^ and great stonewalls as ramparts about 1894), 1934-3.5; Sacchihi in introduction to Hiloria SteiHati*
the bouses of warriors. The settlements were copies, •'*"' P"""* j*""*- mentioned above.
on a more modest scale, of the native places of the Michabi, Ott.
founders, Osko, Nidaros etc. No secular buikUnga OrUndus d« Laisus. See Lassqq.
ORLEANS
318
ORLEANS
Orleans, Councils of. — Six national councila
were held at Orl^ns in the Merovingian period. I. —
At the first, convoked bv Clovis (July, 511), thirty-
three bishops assisted and passed thirty-one decrees on
the duties and obligations of individuals, the right of
sanctuary, and ecclesiastical discipline. These de-
crees; equally applicable to Franks and Romans, first
established equality between conquerors and con-
(juered. The council claimed the nght of sanctuary
in favour of churohes and episcopal residences; it stip
ulated that ecclesiastics need not produce the culprit,
if the pursuer would not swear on the Gospels to
do him no injury. It settled the conditions of free-
dom for a slave upon whom Holy orders had been con-
ferred; ruled that freemen should not be ordained
without the king's consent, or authorization of the
judge: determined the immunities of ecclesiastics and
churcn property and committed to the bishops the
welfare of tne sick and the poor; settled the reuitions
of monks with their abbots and of abbots with the
bishops. The practice of divination was forbidden.
Clovis approved the decrees of the council, which
thus appears as the first treaty between the fVankish
State and the Church. II. — The second national
council held under Childebert (June, 533), attended by
twenty-five bishops, decreed that, conformably to the
^ earnest desire of Pope Hormisdas, annual provincial
councils should be held; further, that mamage could
not be dissolved by will of the contracting ps^ies for
infirmities consequent on the contract; forbade the
marriage of Christians and Jews; and excommunicated
those who partook of flesh offered in sacrifice to idols.
III.-^The third national council (May, 538), attended
by thirteen bishops, determined impediments of mar-
riage; pronounced excommunication a{;ainst ecclesi-
astics m the higher orders who lived mcontinently;
decreed that the archbishops should be elected by the
bishops of the province, with the consent of the
clergy and the citizens; the bishops by the archbishop,
the cler©r. and the people of the city.
IV.— -Tne fourth national council (541) assembled
thirty-eight bishops and maintained the date fixed
by Pope V ictor for Easter, contrary to Justinian's or-
diuances, and ordered those who had or wished to have
a parish church on their lands to take the necessary
measures for the dignity of Divine worship. Finally
it perfected the measures taken by the Council of 511
relative to the emancipation of slaves: slaves emanci-
pated by bishops were to retain their freedom after
the death of their emancipators, even though other
acts of their administration were recalleo; it au-
thorized the official ransom of Christians who had
fallen into the power of the Jews but had invoked
the right of sanctuary to recover their freedom; it de-
clared that Jews who exhorted Christian slaves to
become Jews in order to be set free should be forbid-
den to own such slaves. V. — The fifth national coun-
cil (October, 549) assembled nine archbishops and
foity-one bishops. After defending Mark, Bishop
of ()rl6ans, from attacks made on him, it pronounced
an anathema against the errors of Nestorius and Euty-
ches, it prohibited simony, prescribed that elections of
bishops take place in all freedom, with consent of the
clergy, the people, and the king, and that no bishop be
consecrated until he had been one year in the clergy.
It censured all who attempted to subject to any servi-
tude whatsoever slaves emancipated within the
Church, and those who dared take, retain, or dispose
of church property. It threatened with excommuni-
cation all who embezzled or appropriated funds given
by King Childebert for the foundation of the hospital
01 Lyons, and it placed lepers under the special char^
of each bishop. VI. — The sixth national council,
held under Clovis II about 638 or 639 at the reauest
of Sts. Eloi and Ouen, condemned and expelled irom
the kingdom a Greek partisan of Monotnelitism, at
the request of Salvius, Bishop of Valence. VII. — ^The
seventh national council, held in 1022 under Bishop
OdolriCy proceeded against the Manichseans and th«r
few adherents in the city. In September, 1478, Louis
XI held at Orleans a fruitless assembly of the clergy
and the nobility to discuss the Crusade, the necessity
for a general council, and the re-estabUshment of the
"pragmatic sanction".
DucHATBAU. Hiat. du dioekn d*OrUan» (Orl^ana, 1892):
Hetblb, Mitt, dm Coneile»t new French tr. Lbclebcq (Paris, 1907
■qq.).
Georges Goyau.
Orl6aiifl, Diocese of (Aurblxanum), comprises
the Department of Loiret, suffragan of Paris since
1622, previously of Sens. After the Revolution it
was re-established by the Concordat of 1802, when it
included the Departments of Loiret and Loir et Cher,
but in 1822 Loir et Cher was included in the new Dio-
cese of Blois. The present Diocese of Orleans differs
considerably from tnat of the old regime; it has lost
the arrondissement of Romorantin which has passed
to the Diocese of Blois and the canton of Janville, now
in the Diocese of Chaftres. It includes the arrondisse-
ment of Montai«s, formerljr subject to Sens, the ai>
rondissement of Gien, once in the Diocese of Auxerre,
and the canton de Chatillon sur Loire, once belonging
t» Bourges. To Gerbert, Abbot of St. Pierre le Vif at
Sens (1046-;79), is due a detailed narrative according
to which Saints Savinianus and Potentianus were sent
to Sens by St. Peter with St. Altinus; the latter, it was
said, came to Orleans as its first bishop. Before the
ninth century there is no historical trace in the Dio-
cese of Sens of this Apostolic mission of St. Altinus,
nor in the Diocese of Orleans before the end of the fif-
teenth. Diclopitus is the first authentic bishop; he
figures among the bishops of Gaul who (about 344)
ratified the absolution of St. Athanasius. Other bish-
ops of the early period are: St. Euvertius, about 355 to
385, according to M. Cuissard; St. Aisnan (Anianus)
(385-453), who invoked the aid of the "patrician"
^tius against the invasion of Attila, and forced the
Huns to raise the siege of Orleans; St. Prosper (453-
63); St. Monitor (about 472); St. Flou (Flosculus), d.
in 490; St. Eucherius (717-43), native of OrMans ai^d a
monk of Jumi^ges, who protested against the depreda-
tions of Waifre, a companion of Charles Martel, and
was exiled to Cologne oy this prince, then to Li^e,
and died at the monastery of St. Trond.
Of the eighth-century bishops, Theodulfus was no-
table. It is not known when he began to govern, but
it is certain that he was already bishop in 798, when
Chariemagne sent him into Narbonne and Provence
as missus dominicus. Under Louis le D^bonnaire he
was accused of aiding the rebellious King of Italy, was
d^>osed and imprisoned four years in a monastery at
Angers, but was released when Louis came to Angers
in 821. The "Capitularies" which Theodulfus ad-v
dressed to the clergy of Orleans are considered a most
important monument of Catholic tradition on the du-
ties of priests and the faithful. His Ritual, his Peni-
tential, his treatise on baptism, confirmation, and the
Eucharist, his edition of the Bible, a work of fine pen-
manship preserved in the Puy cathedral, reveal him as
one of the foremost men of his time (see P. L., (TV,
187). His fame rests chiefly on his devotion to the
spread of learning. The Abbey of Ferri^res was then
becoming under Alcuin a centre of learning. Theodul-
fus opened the Abbey of Fleury to the young noble-
men sent thither by Charlemagne, invited the clergy
to establish free schools in the country districts, and
quoted for them, "These that are learned shall shine
as the brightness of the firmament: and they that in-
struct many to justice, as stars to all eternity" (Dan.,
xii, 3) . One monument of his time still survives in the
diocese, the apse of the church of Germigny modelled
after the imperial chapel, and yet retaining its unique
mosaic decoration. Other noteworthy bishops are:
Jonas (821-43), who wrote a treatise against the Icono
oriJams 3]
oclaate, also a treatise on the Christian life and a book
on the duties of kings (for these texta see P. L., CVI,
117); St. Thierry II (1016-21); Blessed Phihp Berni-
yer (1234-«); Slewed Roger le Fort (1321-8); Cardi-
nal J«an de Longueville (1521-33), who received Queen
Eleanor, uster of Charles V, in the cathedral of Or-
leans, and King Francis I in the church of St. Aignan
of Orl&uis; Cardinal Antoine Sanguin (1534-62), who
received Charles V at Orleans in 1539; Bemier (1802-
6) ; Fayer (18^-9), member of the Constituent Asaem-
Wyof 1848; Dupanloup (1849-78). For the Abbeys of
FTeury and FerriSrea see Fijsort and FERRjfcEBs.
After his victory over the Alamonni, Clovis was bent
on the sack, of Verdun.-but the archprieet there ob-
tained mercy for his fellow-cituens. To St. Euspicius
and his nephew St. Mesmin (Moxiininus), Clovis also
gave the domain of Micy, near Orleans at the conflu-
ence of the Loire and the Loiret. for a monastery (508) .
When Euspicius died, St. Mouniinus became abbot,
and during bis rule the rcliKious life flouriahed there
. notably, and the monaateiy counted many saints.
From Micy monastic life spread. St. Liphardus and
St. Urbicius founded the Abbey of Meung-eur-Loire;
St. Lyi (Lstus) died a recluse in the forest of Orleans;
St. Viatre (Viator) in Sologne; St. Doulchard in the
forestof Amblynear Bourgcs. St. Leonard introduced
the monastic hfeinto the territory of Limoges; St. Al-
mir, St. UlphaciuB, and St. Bomer in the vicinity of
Montmiroil ; St. Avitus (d, about 527) in the district of
Chartres; St. Calais (d. before 536) and St. Leonard of
VendcEUvre (d. about 570) in the valley of the Sarthe;
St. Fraimbault and St. -Constantino in the Javron for-
eat, and the aforesaid St. Bomer (d. about 560] in the
Passais near Laval; St. Leonard of Dunois: St. Alva
and St. Emier in Perche; St. Laumer (d. about 590)
became Abbot of Corbion. St. Lubin (I.«obinua),
687), a protector of Micy, was also a saint. The monks
of Micy contributed much to the civiUzation of the
Orleans region ; they cleared and drained the lands and
taught the semi-barbarous inhabitants the worth and
dignity of agricultural work. Early in the eighth cen-
tury, Theodulfus restored the Abbey of Micy and at
his request St. Benedict of Anione sent fourteen monks
and visited the abbey himself. The laat ^bot of
Micy, Chapt de Rastignac, was one of the victims of
the "S^tember Massacree", at Paris, 1792, in the
prison of L'Abbaye,
The schools of Orltens early acquired great prestige;
in the sixth century Gontran, King of Burgundy, had
his son Gondebaud educated there. After Theodolfus
had developed and improved the schools, Charle-
magne, and later Hugh C^iet, sent thither their eldest
SODS as pupils. These institutions were at the height of
their fame from the eleventh century te the middle of
the thirteenth. Their influence spread as far as Italy
and England whence students came to them. Among
the medieval rhetorical treatises which have come down
to us under the ti tie of " Ars " or " Summa Dictaminis"
(our, at least, were written or re-edited by Orleans pro-
fessors. In 1230, when for a time the docters of the
University of Paris were scattered, a number of the
teachers and disciples t«ok refuge in Orliians; when
Boniface VIII, in 1298, promulgated the sixth book of
the Deoetals, he appointed the doctors of Bologna
and the docUne of Orleans to comment upon it. St.
Yves (1253-1303) studied civU law at Origans, and
Clement V also studied there law and letters; by a Bull
gublished at Lyons, 27 January, 1306, he endowed the
rl6anB institutes with the title and privil^es of a
University. Twelve of his successors granted the new
university many privileges. In the fourteenth century
it had 08 many as five thousand students from France,
Germany, Lorraine, BuiEimdy, Champagne, Picardy,
Normandy, Touraine, Guyan, Scotland. Among
tboM who studied or lectured thJere are quoted : in tho
9 (»aiAH8
fourteenth century. Cardinal Pierre Bertrandi; In the
fifteenth, John Reuchlin; in the sixteenth, Calvin and
Tbiiodore de B^se, the Protestant Anne Dubouig, the
Pubbcist Prangois Hotmoim, the jurisconsult E^erre de
Etoile ; in the seventeenth^ MoUire (perhaps in 1640),
and the savant Du Cange ; in tiie eighteenth, the juris-
consult Pothier.
Among the notable saints of the diocese are: St.
Baudilus, a Ntmes martyr (third or fourth century);
the deacon St. Lucanus, martyr, patron of Loigny'
(fifth century); the anchorite St. Donatus (fifth cen-
tuiy); St. May, abbot of Val Benott (fifth century);
St, Mesme, virgin add (perhaps) martyr, sister of St.
Mesmin (sixth century); St. Fehcule, patroness o!
„ ', who, by oMer of the Merovingian, Clodomir,
and despite the entreaties of St. Avitus, was thrown
(524) into a well with his wife and children; St. Gon-
tran, King of Orlfens and Burgundy (561-93). a con-
fessor; St, Loup (Lupus), Archbishop of Sens, bom
near Orleans, and his mother St. Agia (first half of the
seventh century) ; St. Gregory, former Bishop of Nico-
polis, in Bulgaria, who died a recluse at Pithiviera
(1001 or 1007); St, Rose, Abbess of Ervauville (d.
1130); Blessed Odo of Orldans, Bi^op of Cambrai
Louis VII; St. Guillaume (d. 1209), Abbot of Fon-
tain^ean and subsequently Archbidiop of Bourgee;
the Dominicans, Blessed Reginald, dean of the coll^-
ate church of St. Aignan, Orleans <d. 1220) ; the Eng-
lishman St. Richard, who studied theology at Orleans
in 1236, Bishop of Chichester in 1244, a friend of St.
Edmund of Canterbury; St, Maurus, called to France
by St. Innocent, Bishop of Mans, and sent thither by
St. Benedict, resided at Orleans with four companions
in 542 ; St, Rad^fonde, on her way from Noyon to Poi-
tiers in 544, and St, Columbanus. exiled from Luxeuil
at the close of the sixth century, both visited Orleans. '
Charlemagne hod the church of St. Aignan rebuilt and
reconstructed the monastery of St. Pierre le Puellier.
In the caOiedral of Origans on 31 December, 987, Hugh
1
Capet had his son Robert (b. at Orleans) crowned
krog. Innocent II and St. Bemard vimted Fleury and
Orleans in 1130.
The people of Origans were bo imprcsaed by the
Eneoching of Bleesed Robert of Arbrissel in 1113 that
e WBH invited to found the monasteiy of La Made-
leine, which he re-visited in 1117 with St. B^vard of
Thiron. The charitable deeds ot St. Louis at Puiee-
aux, Ch&teauneuf-flur-Loire, and Orleans, where he
woe present at the translation of the reUce of St. Aig-
nan (26 October, 1259), and where he frequently went
U> care for the poor of the H6tel Dieu, are well known,
Kene de Beaufort, Archdeacon of Sully and canon of
Ori&na, as Gregory XI (1371-«), was the last pope
ceee. The Miramion fumilv. to which Marie Bonneau
is celebrated in thr- nnn in'sof nharily under the name of
Mme de Miramion (1620-96), belonged by maniage,
were from Orleans. St, Jane de Chan^ was superior vt
the Orleans convent of the Visitation in 1627. Mme
Guyon, celebrated in the annals of Quietism (q. v.), was
bom at Montar^s in 164S, France w > > -
a saved fro
English domination through the deliverance of Orleans
byJoanofAra(8May 1429), On21July, 1456,herre-
habilitation was publicl/ proclaimed at Orleans ii
D
SoiFTB 8u>a.
that France gave to the Church: he created Cardinal
Jean de la Tour d'Auvergne, Aboot of St. Benottrsur-
Loire, Blessed Jeanne de Valois was Duchess of Or-
leans and after her separation from Louis Xll (1498)
she established, early in the Bixt«cnth century, the
monastery of L'Aimonciade at Ch&teauncuf-sur-
Love. Etieuae Dolet (1509-46), a printer, philolo-
gian, and pamphleteer, executed at Paris and looked
upon by some as a " mulyr of the Renaissance", was a
native of Orl^os, Cardinal Odet de ColiKny, who
joined the Reformation about 1560, was Abbot of 8t.
BuvertiuB, of Fontainejean, Ferri^res, and St. Benott.
Admiral Coligny (1519-72) (see Saint Bartholo-
mew's Day) was bom at CbJitillon-sur-Loing in the
S resent diocese. At the beginning of the religious wan
irl^ans was disputed between the Guises and the fol-
lowers of tiie Protfistant Cond^. In the vicinity of Oi^
tians Duke FtanoiB of Guise was aasasainated 3 Feb-
ruwT, 1562.
The Calvinist, Jacques Bonsan, councillorof Henry
IV, who collected ana edited the chronicles of the Cru-
sades in his "GestaDeiper Francos", was bom at Or-
KanB in 1554, The Jesuit, Denis I'etav (Petavius), a
renownedscholar and theologian, was born at Orl^aiis
in 1583. St, Francis of Sales came to Orleans in 1618
' and 1619, Venerable Mother Fraugoise de la Croi:(
(1591-1657), a pupil of St. Vincent de Paul, who
founded the conniption erf' Auguetiniao Sisters of
Charity of Notre Pftme, w» bom at Petay in the djij-
solemn procession, and before her death in November,
14.^, Isabel Romee, the mother of Joan of Arc, saw a
monument erected in honour of her daughter, at Toui^
nclles, near the Orleans bridge. The monument, de-
stroyed by the Huguenots in 16G7, was set up again in
1569 when the Catholics were once more masters of the
city. Until 1792, and again from 1803 to 1830. finally
from 1842 ta the present day, a great religious feast,
celebrated 8 May of every year at Orleans in honour of
Joan of Arc, attracted multitudes (see Joan of Akc).
The Church of Orleans was the last in France to tak«
up again the Roman liturgy (1874). The Sainte Croix
cathedral, perhaps built and consecrated by St. Euver-
tlusin the fourth century, was destroyed by fire in 099
and rebuilt from 1278 to 1 329; the Protestants pillaged
and destroyed it from 1562 to 1667; the Bourbon kings
restored it in the seventeenth century.
The principal pilgrimages of the diocese are: Our
Lady of Bethlehem, at FerriSres (q. v.); Our Lady of
Miracles at Orl^ans^'datjug back to the seventh cen-
tury (Joan of Arc visited its sanctuary 8 May, 1429);
Our Lady of Cl^ry, dating from the thirteenth century,
visited by Philip the Fair, Philip VI, and especially 1^
Louis XI, who wore in his hat a leaden ima^ of Notre
Dame de Cl^ry and who wished to have his tomb in
this sanctuary where Dunois, one of the heroes of the
Hundred Years' war was also interred. Prior to the
Associations Law of 1901 the Diocese of Orl^ns
counted Franciscans, Benedictines, Missionary Prieets
of the Society of Mary, LaxariEts, Missionaries of the
Sacred Heart, and several mders of teaching Brothers.
Among the congregations of women which originated
in this diocese must be mentioned: the Calvary Bene-
dictines, a teaching and nursing order founded in 1617
bv PrincesoAntoinette d'Ori^ana-Longueville, and the
Capuchin Leclerc du Tremblay known as P6re Joseph;
the Sisters of St. Aignan, a teaching order founded in
1853 by Bishop Dupanloup, with mother-house in Or-
leans. At the beginning of the twentieth century the
religious congregations of this diocese conducted: 1
cr£che ; 77 infant schools ; 2 institutions for the deaf and
dumb: 10 orphanages; 2 houses for penitent women,
12 religious houses for the care of the sick in their own
homes; 2 houses of retreat; 27 hospitals or asylums; 1
poor house. In 1905 (last year of the Conconlat) the
diocese had 371,019 inhabitants; 41 pastorates; 293
succursal parities; 23 vicariates subventioned by the
State,
OaUia CI-riMata. VIII (1T44). 140S-1513: IittntmmU. 470-
546: DucHuNi. Fruta Spucamui, 4S3-ea; Cniwui, Um prt-
_.__ ^._... .««.„... (6r|4„„, issT): Ddchate.d, HiM. ilm
.. 188W; BiBBiKiT. /
MJiH d'OrUuH. la tit tint m
rUtiMt,
n»iK B un_uH, « n. _ •» Bur_ tibid., 1892); Stjomxt. Lit
religwi it St. AifmHi, pS^ut iTOrUaiu (ibid, IMS): CnuuBB;
idtla allMnU ^OrUant (ibid.. 1900);
(i^iri^~l^) : Biioaim, mH?dt rwiJta-nM dVrUamt (OrMua.
lS63):FanunBa. Lei doftite (( prtttUau do Vniiriiilt/nintMi—,
I (Puia, 1B90jTJ*»>»«t, Hitt. .Tun >nmHuUr> orUonau, Uicg
St. MumiH, tim injtu*n« rtUgieuti t> toaaU (Orlteoi, 1901).
GeomoES Gotau,
Orle7, Barent Van (Bernaiui), painter, b, at
Brussels, about 1491; d. there 6 January, 1542. He
studiedunderRaphaelinl509. He returned to Brussels
and was commissioned in 1515 to paint an altar-piece
for the Confraternity of the Holy Cross at Fumes. In
1518 he was appc»nted official painter to MuKVet of
321
O'BOREZ
Austria, Regent of the Netherlands, and two years
afterwards entertained Dtirer in his hou^ for some
time, during which Dlirer painted Orley's portrait,
now in the Dresden Museum. In 1530, Margaret of
Austria having died, Orley received the official ap-
pointment from her successor, Mary of Himgary. Or-
ley was a Catholic, but assisted at various Lutheran
meetings held in his father's house. He and his brother
were arrested, with several other painters, and sen-
tenced to pay fines, and to do public penance in the
church of St. Gudule (Brussels) . The artist had seven
children by his first wife, Agnes Segheres, and two by
his second wife, Catherine Hellincx.
He painted in oil and in tempera, and made a great
manv designs for glass windows. Some of the finest
windows in St. Gudule's are from his drawings. He
was an engraver and an able craftsman. With Mich-
ael Cocxie he superintended the manufacture of the
tapestries for the Vatican designed from Raphael's
cartoons for Leo X. Three pieces of tapestry from his
own drawings are at Hampton Court, tne Louvre, and
the Caserta Palace at Naples. Many of his pictures
derive their extreme brilliance from being painted on a
groimd of gold-leaf. A tradition that he visited Eng-
land lacks definite proof. The eight portraits of the
first Regent of the Netherlands, and four of the sec-
ond, he is said to have painted, have not yet been
found. His works occasionally bear the family motto
" Elx sijne ti jt " (Every man his day) .
Fetib. Mu»te Royal de Belgique (Bnusels, 1865) ; and see the
writings of van Mandbr, Michixlb, Sirbt, and Ophcmkbt.
Georqb Charles Williamson.
Onne, Philibbrt de l', architect, b. about 1512;
d. 1570. His style, classical and of the more severe
Italian type, later developed characteristics show-
ing greater personal independence. He has also
importance as an author on subjects in his par-
ticular line, and is our chief source of information
on his own works and the events of his life, sdthou^
his writings are not devoid of exaggerations. While
still a youth he went to Rome; he would probably have
remained there in the service of Paul III, had not
Cardinal du Bellay and others ursed him to go to
France. Soon after his return to his native city of
Lyons (1536) he gave evidence of his originality as an
artist in the invention of the trompe vaulting, so
popular with the French, i. e. arches with double
curves supporting weight imposed on them from the
side and in the artistic stone carving, which gives
them their chann. He was obliged to leave the
portal of St. Nizier at Lvons incomplete in order to
build the chAteau of St. Maur-les-Fos86s at Paris for
Bellay, which he later had to enlar^. According to
his own statements, he introduced m this important
innovations, e. g. in the construction of columns. In
1538 he prevented the occupation of Brest by the
English. Francis I now deputed him to make a semi-
annual inspection of the fortifications on the coast of
Brittany, and review and provide for the vessels
stationed there, and appointed him commandant
of fortifications. In 1547 Orme began work on the
king's tomb. Under Henry II he was promoted until
he finally became supervisor of all royal buildings. In
this capacitv he directed the work on the ch&teaux
of Fontainebleau, St-Germain-en-Laye, Madrid etc.,
and had at the same time to investigate the character
of the service which had been rendered Francis I in
connexion with these undertakings.
While in his fifties he built the chateau of Anet
and Meudon. The former, in which he was allowed
complete liberty, is of special importance for the
study of his style ; the disposition of tne columns shows
the pure classic st^le. An unfortunate arrangement
of some water-piping in the second building, in itself
a very important piece of work, brought on him the
mockery of his jealous rivals. Althou^ he was a lay-
XI.--21
man, the king and queen granted him various abbe3rs,
the revenues from which made him a wealthy man.
He experienced for a time the disfavour of the court,
and in 1559 was superseded by Primaticcid as super-
visor of royal buildings. In 1564 he was commissioned
bv the regent to build the Tuileries. According to his
plan, of which he himself gives a detailed description
and appre9iation, the whole was to be in the form of a
quadi^angle, with four comer pavilions, enclosing a
lai]ge central court and four smaller courts, an entrance,
being provided on each of the two longer sides of the
rect^gle. Only the garden facade was completed.
The central pavilion with the cupola is especially
beautiful. In .this the master took liberties which,
despite his admiration for the classic, he proclaimed
as theoretical. He wrote that he had never found
columns or ornamentation exhibiting like proportions
or even similar arrangement of columns, and that the
limitations of the architect came less from the pre-
scribed measurements than from the stipulations
made with regard to the building. This accounts for
the "French column", among other things in the
Tuileries, with its Ionic capital, but consisting of
many fluted drums, separated by ornamental bands.
Above all, Orme*s works are not devoid of curious
attempts at originality. In the last jears he wished
to work out his compositions accordmg to "Biblical
laws and sacred numbers".
As an author, Orme would have taken his place be-
side Vitruvius and Alberti had he completed nis work
on "Architecture**. In two of the mne books of the
first volume he deals in a masterly manner with stone-
carving and the construction of the vault. A new
edition of his work was issued by C. Nizet in 1894.
Another work he entitled "Nouvelles inventions pour
bien bAtir et k petits frais". as he describes in this his
device for constructing rools of great span by bolting
together planks (instead of using single heavy beams).
Thos was republished at Rouen in 1648. with his
"Architecture". Of interest in itself, and also as
illustrating his acti vi ty , is a memoir in which he defends
himself against the attacks of his adversaries. This
was incorporated by Berty in the "Grands a|*chitectes
fran9ais cle la Renaissance" (Paris, 1860).
Palubtrb, La Renaiatanee en France (Paris, 1879); ton Qst-
ictyLLSB, Die Baukunat der Renaietanee in Frankreicn (Stuttgart,
1896 and 1901); Dsbtaxllbub, NUicee eur quelquee artitUe Jrarif
gaia (Paris, 1863).
G. GlETMANN.
Onniud and Ahriman. See Ahriman.
Oroomiah. See Urumiah, Diocese of.
OropuBy titular see, suffragan of Anazarbus in
Cilicia Secunda. It never really depended on Anazar-
bus but on Seleucia in Isauria^ as is evident from the
Greek text of the "Notitise Episcopatuum " of Antioch
in the sixth and tenth centuries ("Echos d'Orient",
1907, X, 95, 145), where the city figures as Oropa or
Oroba, and from the Latin translation where it is
called Oropus ("Itinera Hierosolymitana", Geneva,
1880. I, 334). Oropus is no other than Olba, suffra-
gan of Seleucia, annexed with the Province of Isauria
to the Patriarchate of Constantinople in the eighth
century, and is mentioned in the "Notitiffi" of Leo
the Wise and of Constantine Porphyrogenitus. (See
Olba.)
S. Vailh£.
O'Rorke, Patrick Henry, soldier, b. in County
Cavan, Ireland, 25 March, 1837: killed at the battle
of Gettysburg, Penn., U. S. A., July, 1863. He was
a year old when his parents emigrated to the United
States. They settled in Rochester, N. Y., where he
attended the public schools, and in 1853 went to work
as a marble-cutter. Shortly after he was M)pointed a
cadet in the U. S. Military Academy at West Point,
graduating with highest honours in June, 1861.
Commissioned as a lieutenant in the regular army, he
i
OBOSIUS
322
ORPHANS
distinguiflhed himself in the Civil War as a staff-officer
in the engineer corps, was made colonel of the 140th
regiment of New York Volunteers, with which com-
mand he participated in the battles of Fredericksburg
and Chancellorsville. At Gettysburg while leading
his men in defence of Little Round Top, in the verv
crisis of the battle he caught up the colours, and.
mounting a rock to urge on his men, was struck ana
fell dead. The Comte de Paris in his ''Histoire de la
guerre civile en Am^rique" (VI, iv, 379) says this was
one of the most striking and dramatic episodes of the
battle. His widow became a Religious of the Sacred
Heart and one of the successful educators in their
New York convents.
CuLLUM, Biog. Regi^er of Officers and GnutwUet of the U. S.
Military Academy (Boston, 1891); O'Hanlon, Iriah American
History of the U. S., II (New York, 1906), 600; FirzasRALD, Ire-
land and Her People, II (Chicago, 1910); Nai. Cydopedia Am,
BiOQ.t B. V.
Thomas F. Meehan.
OrosiuB, Paulus, historian and Christian apologist;
b. probably at Bracara, now Braga, in Portugal, be-
tween 380 and 390, the dates of birth and death not
being precisely known. His first name has been known
only since the ei^th century. Having early conse-
crated himself to the service of God, he was ordained,
and went to Africa in 413 or 414. The reason for his
leaving his native country is not known; he tells us
only that he left his fatherland ''sine voluntate,
sine necessitate, sine consensu" (Commonitorium, i).
He repaired to St. Augustine, at Hippo, to question
him as to certain points of doctrine, concerning the
soul and its origin, attacked by the Priscillianists.
In 414 he prepared for St. Augustine a "Commoni-
torium de errore Priscillianistarum et Origenistarum"
(P. L., XXXI, 1211-16: also, ed. Schepss, in "Priscil-
hani quae supersunt", m "Corpus script, eccl. lat.",
Vienna, 1889, XVIII. 149 sgq.) to which St. Augustine
replied with his "Aa Orosium contra Priscillianistas
et Origenistas". In order to become better ac-
ciuainted with these questions concerning the soul and
its origin, Orosius, with a hearty recommendation
from St. Augustine (Epist. clxvi), went to Palestine,
to St. Jerome. Pelagius was then tnring to spread his
false doctrines in Palestine, and Orosius aided St.
Jerome smd others in their struggle against this heresy.
In 415 Bishop John of Jerusalem, who was inclined to
the teachins of Origen and influenced by Pelagius,
summoned the presbyters of his church to a council at
Jerusalem. At this council Orosius -sharply attacked
the teachings of Pelagius. But, as Pelagius declared
that he believed it impossible for man to become per-
fect and avoid sin without God's assistance, John did
not condemn him, but decided that his opponents
should state their arguments before Pope uinocent.
In consequence of his opposition to Pelagius, Orosius
was drawn into dissensions with Bishop John, who
accused him of having maintained that it is not pos-
sible for man to avoid sin, even with God's grace. In
answer to this charge, Orosius wrote his "Liber apolo-
geticus contra Pelagium de Arbitrii hbertate" (P. L.,
XXXI, 1173-1212, and ed. Zaneemeister, "Orosii
opera" in ' 'Corpus script, eccl. lat. , V, Vienna, 1882),
in which he gives a detailed account of the Councilor
415 at Jerusalem, and a clear, correct treatment of the
two principal questions against Pelagius: the capa-
bility of man's free will, and Christian perfection in
doing God's will here on earth.
In the spring of 416 Orosius left Palestine, to return
to Augustine in Africa, and thence home. He
brought a letter from St. Jerome (Epist. cxxxiv) to
St. Augustine, as well as writings of the two Gallic
bishops. Hero and Lazarus, who were in Palestine
struggUng against Peladanism (cf. St. Aueustine,
Epist. clxxv). He also Drought from Jerusalem the
then recently discovered relics of the Protomartyr
Stephen and a Latin letter from Lucian, who
had discovered them (Gennadius, "DeViris lUustr.",
xxxi, xlvi, xlvii, ed. Cz^la, Mtlnster, 1898, 87-
89, 104). After a short stay with Augustine
at Hippo, Orosius began his journey home, but.
on reaching Minorca, and hearmg of the wars and
devastations of the Vandals in Spain, he returned
to Africa. The relics of St. Stephen, which he
left in Minorca, became the object of a great
veneration, whicn spread into Gaul and Spain. On
the conversion of Jews through these relics, cf. Sev-
erus, "De virtutibus ad conversionem Judseorum in
Minoricensi Insula factis", P. L., XLI, 821-32.
Orosius went back to Africa and at St. Augustine's
suggestion wrote the first Christian Universal His-
tory: "Historiarum adversus paganos libri septem"
(P. L., XXXI. 663-1174: ed. Zangemeister,-in "Coi>
pus script, eccl. lat.", V. Vienna, 1882), thouf^ht to be
a supplement to the '-Civitas Dei", especially the
third Dook, in which St. Augustine proves that the
Roman Empire suffered as many calamities before
as after Christianitv was received, combating the
p^an argument, tnat the abandonment of their
deities hi^ led to calamity. St. Augustine wished
to have this proof developed in a special work through
the whole period of human history, and this Orosius
did, reviewing the history of all the known peoples
of antiquity, with the fundamental idea that God
determines tne destinies of nations. According to his
view, two chief empires had governed the world:
Babylon in the East, and Rome in the West. Rome
received the heritajge of Babylon through the inter-
mediate Macedonian and Carthaginian Empires.
Thus he holds that there were four great empires in
history — a view widely accepted in the Middle Ages.
The m^t book briefly describes the globe, and traces
its history from the Deluge to the founding of Rome:
the second gives the history of Rome to the sack ot
the city by the Gauls, that of Persia to Cyrus, and of
Greece to the Battle of Cunaxa; the third deals chiefly
with the Macedonian Empire under Alexander and
his successors, as well as the contemporary Roman
history; the fourth brings the historv of Rome to the
destruction of Carthage; the last three books treat
Roman history alone, from the destruction of Car-
thage to the author's own time. The work, completed
in 418, shows signs of haste. Besides Holy Scnpture
and the chronicle of Eusebius revised by St. Jerome,
Livy, Eutropius, Csesar, Suetonius, Florus, and Justin
are used as sources. In pursuance of the apologetic
aim, al{ the calamities suffered by the various peoples
are described. Though superficial and fragmentary,
the work is valuable; it contains contemporary in-
formation on the period after a. d. 378. It was used
largely during the Middle Ages as a compendium, and
nes^ly 200 manuscript copies are still extant. Alfred
the Great translated it into Anglo-Saxon (ed. H. Sweet,
London, 1843).
DE MoBBNEB, De Orosii vita eiuague histcriarum libri* 7 adv.
paganos (Berlin, 1844); MijXAN, Paid Orose et son apotooitique
conlre les palens (Strasburg. 1882); Ebebt, AUg. Qeschichte der
Literatur des MittelaUers im Abendland, I (Leipii^, 1889), 387-44;
Babdenhbwbb, Patrology, tr. Shahan (St. Louia, 1908); Pott-
bast, BiU. historica medii on, II (Berlin. 1896). ^82-3.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Orpliftzis and Orphanages. — ^The death of one or
both parents makes the cldld of the very poor a ward
of the community. The obligation of support is im-
posed upon parents or grandparents by nearly every
system of lawsj but there is no such obligation upon
any other relative. NatursJ sympathy, however, and
willingness to bear a distributed burden for the com-
mon good, rather than to enforce an individual one,
contribute to the acceptance of the care of orphans as
a public duty. In Biblical times the fatherless, the
stranger, and the widow shared the excess fruits of
the harvest (Deut.. xxiv, 21). The people were
told God "is the father of orphans" (Ps. Ixvii, 6) and
ORPHANS
323
ORPHANS
Ms bounty was to be shared with them. Luxury and
paganism introduced more selfish considerations.
N^ect of the destitute orphan is only to be expected
in a world where the unwelcome inf ^t is exposed to
any fate. The Romans apparently did not provide
for widows and orphans. The Athenians viewed the
duty as economic and patriotic, and ordained that
children of citizens killed in war were to be educated
up to eighteen years of age by the State. Plato (Laws,
927) says: — " Orphans should be placednmder the care
of public guardians. Men should have a fear of the
loneliness of orphans and of the souls of their departed
parents. A man should love the unfortunate orphan
of whom he is guardian as if he were his own child.
He should be as careful a^d as diligent in the manage-
ment of the orphan's property as of his own or even
more careful still."
When Christianity began to affect Roman life, the
best fruit of the new order was charity, and special
solicitude was manifested towards the orphan. An-
toninus Pius had established relief agencies for children.
The Christians founded hospitals, and children's asy-
lums were established in the East. St. Ephraem, St.
Basil, and St. John Chrysostom built a great number
of hospitals. Those for the sick were known as
nosocomial those for poor children were known as
euphotrophiaj and those for orphans, orphanoirophia.
Justinian released from other civic duties those who
undertook the care of orphans. In the Apostohc
Constitutions, "Orphans as well as widows are always
commended to Christian love. The bishop is to have
them brought up at the expense of the Church and to
take care that the girls be given, when of marriageable
age, to Christian husbands, and that the boys should
learn some art or handicraft and then be provided with
tools and placed in a condition to earn their own living,
so that they may be no longer than necessary a burden
to the Church (Apost. Const., IV, ii, tr. Uhlhom,
p. 185). St. Augustine says : "The bishop protects the
orphans'that they may not be oppressed by strangers
after the death of the parents. Also epistles 252-
255:"^* Your piety knows what care the Church and
the bishops should take for the protection of all men
but especially of orphan children." The rise of mo-
nastic institutions following upon this period was accel-
erated by the fruit of charitable work for the poor,
chief amongst which was the care of children. During
the Middle Ages the monasteries preserved to modem
times the notion of the duty of the Church to care for
its orphans. They were the shelters where the orphans
were taught learning and trade avocations. The
laity also were exhorted to perform their share of this
charge.
No one figure stands out so prominently in the his-
tory of the care of orphans as that of St. Vincent de
Paul (1576-1660). To this work he attracted the
gentlemen of the court, noble ladies, and simple peas-
ants. In his distracted coimtry he found the orphan
the most appealing victim, and he met the situation
with the skill of a general. No distinction was ob-
served between foundlings and orphans in the be^n-
ning of his work with the Association of Chanty;
nor was there any distinction as to the condition of the
children that were aided, other than that they were
orphans, or abandoned, or the children of the poor.
Seventeen years or more after that he established
amongst noble women the '' Ladies of Charity".
When the war between France and Austria had made
orphans the most acute sufferers, St. Vincent de Paul
secured as many as possible from the provinces, and
had them cared for in Paris by Mile le Gras and the
Sisters of Charity then fully established. Three towns
alone furnished no less than 1000 orphans under the
age of seven years. • The Sisters of Charity spread over
the world, and ever since have been looked to for the
protection of the orphan, or have been the inspiration
for other orders seeking to perform the same work.
When the Revolution broke out in Franca there were
426 houses of benevolence conducted in that country
by the Sisters of Charity, and of these a large major-
ity cared for orphans. They were suppressed, but
many were reopened by Napoleon.
In more modem times a similar enlistment of women
to serve the orphan has been observed all over Europe.
In England, Ireland, and Scotland fifty-one houses
of Sisters of Charity had been established between 1855
and 1898; and in all, except in a few hospitals, the work
of an orphanage is conducted to a greater or less ex-
tent. On the American Continent, however, the first
orphan asylum antedated St. Vincent de Paul's in-
fluence by a century, and was due not to French but to
Spanish inspiration. This was an orphanage for girls,
wtiich was established in 1548 in Mexico by a Spanish
order and was called La Caridad (Steelman, ''Chari-
ties for Children in Mexico"). The first orphanage
in the territory now comprised in the United States
was that of the Ursulines, founded in New Orleans in
1727 under the auspices of Louis XV.
Whenever in Europe, following the religious changes
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, the care of
orphans was not committed to ecclesiastical oversight,
it was considered to be a public duty. Under the
English poor law it was the duty of the parish to sup-
port the indigent so that none should die. It is prob-
able that destitute orphans were cared for under this
principle, but apprenticing and indenturing were the
only solutions ot the difficulties arising from the pres-
ence of orphans or dependent children. In later
years, if children were too youne or too numerous for
this they were kept in the workhouse, one of the pro-
visions being as follows: "Children under seven are
placed in such of the wards appropriated to female
paupers as may be deemed exp>eaient . ' ' The so-called
orphanage movement began in England in 1758 by
the establishment of the Orphan Working Home. In
the next century the exposures, principal^ by Charles
Dickens, of the evils bred by the workhouse and the
indenturing system led to many reforms. Numerous
private asylums were founded in the reign of Queen
Victoria under royal patronage, and with considerable
official oversight and solicitude. In Colonial America
the influence of the English poor law was felt, with the
same absence of distinction as to child and adult, and
as to care of the child. All paupers were the charges
of the towns or counties. Almshouses were estab-
lished, and later, in most States of the Union, orphan
children were cared for in these. Indenturing was
practised as often as possible. In New York State
children were removed from almshouses following the
passage of a law directing this in 1875. It provided
that all children over three years of age, not defective
in mind or body, be removed from poorhouses and
be placed in families or orphan asylums. It has since
been amended by reducing the age to two years and
not excepting the defectives. The first orphan asy-
lum in New York City, a Protestant institution, now
located at Hastings-on-Hudson, N. Y., was estab-
lished in 1806 largely through the efforts of Mrs.
Alexander Hamilton. The first Catholic orphan asy-
lum in New York City was founded in 1817 by the
Sisters of Charity in Prince Street^ and is now main-
tained in two large buildings at Kingsbridge, N. Y.
Of the seventy-seven charities for children, mostly
orphanages, established in America before the middle
of the nineteenth century as listed by Folks, twenty-
one were Catholic and all of these were orphanages.
One of the most interesting of the others is Gimrd
College, founded by the merchant prince of Phila-
delphia, Stephen Girard, with an endowment of 16,-
000,000 which has since increased nearly fivefold. By
the terms of Girard's will no minister of the Gospel is
permitted to cross the threshold. Neither the educa-
tional results nor the philanthropy to orphan boys
seem to be adequate to the fortune involved. An
ORPHANS
324
ORPHANS
Interestiiig asylum in New York City is the Leake and
Watts Asylum founded in 1831 to provide ''a free
home for well-behaved full orphans of respectable
parentage in destitute circumstances, physically and
mentally sound, between the ages of ^ree and twelve
years, who are entrusted to the care of the trustees
imtil fifteen years of age. Disorderly and ungovern-
able children are not admitted . ' * The Hebrew orphan
asylums of New York City are large and well managed,
caring for about 3000 children. In the Catholic in-
stitutions of the Archdiocese of New York the orphans
and half -orphans number about 8000. In the Diocese
of Brooklyn they number close to 3600. In all the
large cities of America, Catholic orphanages are found.
It is probable that they would number close to 300 and
the orphan inmates close to 50,000.
The upkeep and management of these large institu-
tions call for the solution of many complex problems of
varying components. They must provide plenty with-
out wastefulness, clothe adequately without cheapness
or painful uniformity, educate in letters and handi-
crw t without overwork, and provide amusement with-
out laxity, as well as discipline without repression.
Buildings must be safe and have adequate samtary de-
tails conducive to health. A thorough medical over-
sight of inmates, individually and collectively, com-
S fetes a programme of requirements which bear verv
eavily ana continuously on the management. Al-
ways and everywhere it has been considered an honour
to take part in such works and in the oversight of
them. Naturally the feature about orphan asylums
most often remarked by visitors not accustomed to the
situation is the radical difference from domestic hfe in
the surroundings of the children. This has led some
to propose changes in the institutional scheme, by
which building of reduced size but adequate number
shall be substituted for one or two large ones; that a
matron or house-mother be employed to supervise
each^ and that each also shall have its own outfit and
details for domestic management. Some would recom-
mend that such charges be put in the joint care of a
man and his wife, that the home-like protection of
the children may be provided for. These and similar
features comprise what is known as the "Cottage
System". It fails in many points to present the
hoped-for advantases. The fixed charges and salary
list are so extensively increased that the Durden would
be in most cases unbearable. Some few institutions
have made efforts in this direction, resulting in sudden
and heavy increases in expenditures. Adopted on a
modest scale, the "Cottage System" offers some ad-
vantages to Catholic religious communities operating
orphanages, and its success would seem to be a ques-
tion of wisely planned management and skillful archi-
tecture, controlled by conservative authority over the
proposed, new, and regularly recurrent expenditures,
rerhaps the real difficulty is that it does not improve
the situation of the child in the matter of accustoming
it to the natural Ufe of the outside world.
Over against this institutional method of caring
for destitute children, resulting in what is called the
orphanage, but not necessarily opposed to it, are those
methods which seek to put the cmld earlier under the
influences of family life. This is done by boarding-out
and by placing-out. The former is a system in which
the overseer of the poor or similar officer confides the
child to some family, as a boarder, and pays regularly
for its care up to the age of self-support. Success and
prevention of wrong in this system can only be ob-
tained at great expense and by rigorous watcnfulness.
It originated in the English poor law and was designed
to provide a means by which children could be removed
from the poorhouse; it is much in vogue still through-
out the United States. The weakness seems to he
in the danger of profit-seeking amongst people who
offer to care for children for money. More permanent
good for the child is obtained by the second method —
placing-out in free homes. ^ This is sometimes called
indenturing in the cases of older children and some-
times adoption. The former has almost disappeared
in the United. States, except as a form observed by
some overseers of the poor and some child-caring
agencies. Real apprenticing or "binding-out" has
gassed away. Adoption is not a legal act unless con-
rmed by the proper procedure in a court of record.
Advantage in placmg-out appears to he in the full ab-
sorption of the child into a vacancy in a household,
where affection can be expected to develop, and where
the conditions surrounding the child during all of its ma-
turing years will be those entirely normal to any simi-
lar family group in the community. Nearly all the
States wnich have laws bearing upon this practice
have recognized reUgious rights, and have provided
that where practicable such children must be placed
in homes of their own rehgious faith. Placing-out can
only be practised where an ample number of excellent
homes can be obtained. By specializing in the work
it becomes possible to place even large numbers of
orphans and to surroimd them with a strong and en-
lightened protection. The good results most often are
mutual, the foster-parents gaining as mudi by their
charity as the chiM.
When the New York Catholic Protectory was taken
over in 1863 from the St. Vincent de Paul Society
which had organized it, Archbishop Hughes impressed
upon the managers how placing-out snould be con-
ducted: "Let one or two gentlemen be employed, the
one to keep office during the absence of the other, but
one or the other to go abroad through the interior of
the country, with good letters to make the acquaint-
ance of the bishop of a diocese and the priest of a par-
ish as well as such Catholic mechanics and farmers
as might be disposed to receive one or other of the
children who will come under your charge, and in this
way let the children be in their house of protection just
as short aspossible. Their lot is, and is to be in one
sense, a sufficiently hard one under any circumstances,
but the sooner they know what it is to be, the better
they will be prepared for encountering its trials and
difficulties" (Letter to B. Silliman Ives, 19 Jime,
1863) . The St. Vincent de Paul Society of N«w York
City had for years assisted in performing such a work
as this, and in 1898 established a special agency for it,
known as the Catholic Home Bureau. It acts with the
co-operation between the committing authorities and
the institutions housing orphans and other destitute
children. About two hundred and fifty children are
§ laced by it each year in good Cathohc families,
ubsequent visitation of the children is practised with
great care. In 1909 a similar bureau was started in
Washington and another in Baltimore. In many
cities of the Union, Catholic agents are employed by
the local children's aid societies to perform this work
for the protection of Catholic chiloren.
Placing-out was the practice in early Christian
days. The widows and deaconesses of the early
church took orphans into their homes as Fabiola did
in Rome. Some believe that the terzns widow and
orphan are so often found joined in ancient Christian
literature because of this custom. It was the general
practice at the time of the first persecutions. Uhl-
nom (Christian Charity in the Ancient Church, p.
185) says: " It would also often happen that individual
members of the Church would receive orphans, es-
.pecially those whose parents had perished m a perse-
cution." Thus was Origen adopted, after Leonidas,
his father, had suffered martyrdom, by a pious woman
in Alexandria (Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.", Vl, ii). Again
the child of the female martyr, Felicitas, found a
mother; and Eusebius tells us of Severus, a Palestinian
composer, who especially interested himself in the
orphans and widows of those who had fallen^ In the
Apostohc Constitutions members of the Church are
urgently exhorted to such acts. "If any Christian,
0B8I
325
OBSINI
whether boy or girl, be left an orphan, it is well i! one
of the brethren, who has no child, receives and keeps
him in a child's place. They who ao so perform a eood
work by beconung fathers to the orphans and will be
rewarded by God for this service''. The taking of an
orphan to rear, and giving it a place in a new family
circle has always been an honoured custom amongst
good people in all times. In simple communities it is
^e sole solution of a distressing problem. When in
modem times a war or an extraordinary disaster
created an embarrassment by reason of the number
to be cared for, the organized asvlum has been a
blessing. The same must be said of the asylums
caring for the army of orphans found in the large
cities, particularly since they serve as shelters during
the period of observation, and in the case of handi-
capped children during a longer period.
Uhlhorn, Ckrutian Charity in the Ancient Church (Edinburgh,
1883); Baart, Orphant and Orphan Agylums (Buffalo, 1885);
L'Alxjsiiand, Hist, de* en/ants (tbandonnis (Paris, 1885); Bou-
OAUD, Historp of St. Vincent de Paid (London, 1809); Folks. The
Care of DettttuU, Neffleeted and Delinquent Children (New York*
1907) ; Balcffi, The Charity of the Church a Proof of her Divinity
(Dublin, 1885); Deyab, Studies of Family Life (London, 1886);
BTBSLMAN, Charitie* for Children in Mexico (Chicago, 1907).
Charles F. McKenna.
Oni, Giuseppe Aoostino, cardinal, theologian,
and ecclesiastical historian, b. at Florence, 9 May,
1692, of an aristocratic Florentine family; d. at Rome,
12 June, 1761. He studied grammar and rhetoric
under the Jesuits, and entered the Dominican Order at
Fiesole, 21 February, 1708. At his profession he re-
ceived the name of Giuseppe Agostino, having been
called in secular hfe Agostino Francesco. His
studies included hot only theology, in which he gave
Particular attention to the Fathers and the sreat
cholastics, but also the classical and Italian uter-
atures. Having been master of studies for some time
at the convent of San Marco at Florence, he was called
to Rome in 1732 as professor of theology at the collie
of St. Thomas, where he was also made prior. He
held this position two years, when he became the theo-
logian of Cardinal Neri Corsini, nephew of Pope
Clement XII. In 1738 he was appomted secretary
of the Congr^ation of the Index. In 1749 Benedict
XIV made hmi ''Ma^ister Sacri Palatii'', or papal
theolodan, and on 24 September, 1759, Clement XIII
created him cardinal of the Title of San Sisto. In
this position Orsi was an active member of several
Congregations until his death. He was buried in his
church of San Sisto.
Orsi's literary activity covered especially dogmatics,
apologetics, and church history. His most important
works are the following: ''Dissertatio histonca qua
ostenditur cathohcam ecclesiam tribus prioribus saeculis
capitalium criminum reis pacem et absolutionem neuti-
quam negasse" (Milan, 1730); ''Dissertatio apolo-
getica pro SS. Perpetus, Felicitatis et sociorum
martyrumorthodoxiaadversusBasnagium'' (Florence,
1728); ''Dell^ origine del dominio e della sovranit^
temporale de' Romani Pontefici'' (Rome, 1742); and
"Storia ecclesiastica'' — this, his chief work (20 vols.,
Rome, 1747-61), brought the narrative only to the
close of the sixth century; the twenty-first volume,
which Orsi had begun, was finished by his former pu-
pil Gio. Bottari (Rome, 1762). The work was after-
wards brought up to the year 1587. by the Dominican
Fil. Becchetti (new ed. m 42 vols., Venice, 1822; in
50 vols., Rome, 1838). It has been translated into
foreign languages. Other writings of Orsi are: ''Dis-
sertazione dommatica e morale contra I'uso materiale
della parola'' (Rome, 1727); ^'Dimostrazione teolo-
gica'' (Milan, 1729), in defence of the preoeeding work
on truthfulness (the question of reslrictio mentalis)'^
** Dissertatio theologica de invocatione Spiritus Sancti
in liturgiis Grsecorum et OrientaUum'' (Milan, 1731);
'^Dissertationes dus de baptismo in nomine Jesu
Christ et de chnsmate confinnationis" (Milan, 1733)
— ^this was defended by Orsi, in the ''Vindids dis-
sertationis de baptismo in nomine Jesu Christi"
(Florence, 1735), against the attacks of the doctors
of Paris; ''De concordia gratis et liberi arbitrii"
(Rome, 1734): ''De irreformabiU Romani Pontificis in
definiendis fiaei controversiis judicio" (Rome, 1739);
"De Romani Pontificis in Synodos cecumenicos
eorumque canones potestate'' (Rome, 1740). The
last two are directed against Gallicanism.
Bottari, Vita dd card. Orei, in vol. XXI of the Storia ecduiat'
tica; Fabroni, Vita Itahrum iUuetriumt XI, 1-37; Hxtbtsx,
Nomendator (3d ed.). IV, 1606 sqq. J. p. KiBSCH.
Oraini, one of the most ancient and distinguished
families of the Roman nobility, whose members often
played an important r61e in the history of Italy, par-
ticularly in tnat of Rome and of the Papal States.
The Roman or principal line of the family^ from which
branched off a series of collateral lines as time went on,
may be traced back into the early Middle Ages, and a
legendary ancestry goes back even as far as early
Roman times. The Roman line, as well as its branches,
had large possessions in Italy and were the rulers of
numerous and important dominions, fortified towns,
and strongholds. In Rome, the Orsini were the hered-
itary enemies of the equally distinguished Colonna (q.
V.) : in the great medieval conflict between papacy and
empire, the latter were for the most part on the side
of the emperor and the leaders of the (jrhibelline party,
while the Orsini were ordinarily champions of the
papacy and leaders of the Guelph party. The Orsini
fave three popes to the Church — Celestine III (d. v.),
richolas III (q. v.), and Benedict XIII (q. v.; — as
well as many cardinals and numerous bimops and
prelates. Other members of the family distinguished
themselves in political history as warriors or states-
men, and others again won renown in the fields of art
and science. ' The wars between the Orsini and Co-
lonna form an important part of the medieval history
of Rome and of (central Italy. Forming as they did
a part of the conflicts waged by the emperors in Italy,
they influenced in a very prominent manner the gen-
eral historical development of that time.
Among the cardinals of the Orsini family who were
distineuLBhed in the history of the Church, as well as
in eccTesiastico-political history, the following ar^ es-
pecially worthy of mention: —
(1) Matteo Rosso Orsini^ nephew of Cardinal
Gaetano Orsini (later Pope Nicholas III), created a
cardinal by Urban IV in December, 1262; d. 4 Sept.,
1305 (according to some authorities, 1306). As l^ate
for the provinces of the Patrimony of Peter and ofthe
Marches, he fought against Peter de Vico, who, in
the name of Manfred, invaded the papal territory with
German mercenaries. Soon after the elevation of his
uncle, Nicholas III, to the papal throne (1277), he was
named by this pope archpriest of the Vatican Basil-
ica, rector of the great Hospital of the Holy Ghost in
Vatican territory, and cardinal protector of the Fran-
ciscan Order. After the death of Nicholas III (1280).
the cardinals assembled in Viterbo for the election of
his successor, but, owing to party dissensions, many
months passed before a decision was reached. The
Earty which inclined towards the French, and which
ad the support of Charles of Anjou, King of Naples,
himself present in Viterbo, wished to elect an exponent
of the policy of France, and chose as their candidate
the French Cardinal Simon. However, the two cardi-
nals Orsini, Matteo Rosso and Giordano, the latter a
brother of the deceased pope, Nicholas III, energeti-
cally opposed this choice. As neither party could
command the necessary majority, no election resulted.
In February, 1281, the French party resolved to have
recourse to a bold stroke. At the instigation of the
marshal of the conclave, Annibaldi, who was at
variance with the Orsini, citizens from Viterbo sud-
denly attacked the anti-Frenoh cardinals, and took
i
OBsnn
326
OBSINI
prisoners the two Orsini, carrying them slw&v from the
Conclave and holding them m custody. The candi-
date of the French party was now elected pope under
the name of Martin IV (22 February, 1281), where-
upon Giordano was released, and afterwards Matteo
IiU>sso. The jinstigator of the attack was excommuni-
cated and the city of Viterbo placed under an interdict.
When the news of the capture of the two Cardinals
Orsini was received in Rome, great confusion ensued.
Their relatives were driven irom the city by the ad-
herents of the Annibaldi, but were later recalled by
Martin IV, with whom the Cardinals Orsini had
become reconciled. During the conflict between
Boniface VIII and Philip the Fair of France, it was
Cardinal Matteo who, ha vingremained faithful to the
persecuted pontiff, brought boniface back to Rome
after the attack oi Anagni (1303). Cardinal Matteo
attended the numerous conclaves held between 1254
and 1305, there being no less than thirteen. He died
in Perugia in 1306 or 1306. His body was later trans-
ferred to Rome, where it hes in the Orsini Chapel in St.
Peter's.
(2) Napoleone Orsini, son of Rinaldo, a brother of
Pope Nicholas III, b. 1263; d. at Ayignon, 24 March.
1342. . In his youth he embraced the ecclesiastical
state, was appointed papal .chaplain by Honorius IV
(1285-7), was created Cardinal Deacon of S. Adriano
by Nicholas IV in May, 1288, and later, under Clem-
ent V was named archjpriest of St. Peter's. Commis-
sioned by Pope Boniface VIII, he broucht Orvieto
back to its submission to the Holy See, shortly after
which the pope named him legate for Umbria, Spoleto,
and the March of Ancona. I^ this capacity he left the
Curia on 27 May, 1300, returning, however, on 28
May, 1301. Dunng this time he had to combat va-
rious enemies of the Roman Church, and recovered the
city of Gubbio for the pope. He was entrusted with
his second papal legation by Clement V. Leaving
Avignon, which was at that time the residence of the
Cuna, he set out on 8 March, 1306, for the Papal
States with the commission to make peace between the
Earties which were everywhere at variance^ and to
ring back the various states of the Roman Church to
their allegiance to the pope. This mission occupied
more than three years, terminating on 12 June, 1309.
Cardinal Napoleone played an important part during
the political disturbances of the time. At first an op-
ponent of the Colonna and their ambitions, he later
became a promoter of French policy and entered into
close relations with the Frencn rulers. At the elec-
tions of Clement V and John XXII he exercised a
decisive influence, but subsequently became an enemy
of the latter. He upheld the Franciscan Spirituals,
and espoused the cause of King Louis of- Bavaria
against the pope. A cardinal for fifty-four years, he
took part in the election of seven popes (Celestine V
to Clement VI), on at least three of whom he placed
the tiara. He is also known as an author, having
written a biography of St. Clare of Montefalco.
(3) GiAN Gaetano Orsini, prothonotary Apostolic,
^*aised to the cardinalate by rope John XXII in De-
cember, 1316; d. 1339 (or, according to some sources,
27 August, 1335). In 1326 he was sent to Italy as
§apal legate for certain lands belonging to the Papal
tates, and remained there until 1334. He endeav-
oured^ though with little success, to bring back several
rebellious states and vassals to their allegiance to the
Apostolic See, excommunicated the obstinate Cas-
truccio of Lucca and Bishop Guido Tarlato of Arezzo,
as both supported the Visconti of Milan in their con-
flict against the pope, and, after the coronation of
King Louis the Bavarian in Rome in 1327, placed that
city under an interdict. After the departure of the
excommunicated emperor, the le^te entered Rome
with the army of King Robert of Naples, whereupon
the people once more agreed to recognize the suze-
rainty of the pope. John XXII, however, refused to
sanction the war undertaken by the cardinal legate
against the Colonna, and ordered him to return to
Tuscany. In November, 1328, he opened a campaign
against the cities of Cometo ana Viterbo, which
submitted to the pope in the following year. The
years between 1334 and his death he passed in
Avignon.
(4) Matteo Orsini, d. probably on 18 August. 1340.
He entered the Dominican Order, completed tne full
course of theoloey, obtained the Degree of Master,
and taught theology at Paris^ Florence, and Rome.
He won great distinction by his zeal for the spread of
the order^ and was appointed provincial of the Roman
Province m 1322. In this capacity he became a mem-
er of the embassy deputed oy the Romans to invite
John XXII to transfer his residence to the Eternal
City. On 20 October, 1326, the pope named him
Bishop of Girgenti (Sicily), but shortly after (16 June.
1327) trsinsferred him to the archiepiscopal See ot
Liponto (Manfredonia, Southern Italy), made him
Cardinal-Priest of S. Giovanni e Paolo on 18 De-
cember, 1327, and Cardinal-Bishop of Sabina on 18
December, 1338. He continued in various ways to
promote the welfare of the Dominican Order, nchly
endowing the Convent of St. Dominic in Bologna.
(5) GiACOMO Orsini, created cardinal-deacon by
Gregory XI on 30 May, 1371, d. at Vicovaro or at
Tagliacozzo, 1379. He was distinguished for his
knowledge of the law. Appointed papal legate in
Siena in 1376, he was a strong supporter of Gregory
XI. In the Conclave of 1378, he espoused the cause
of Urban VI, but later attached himself to the anti-
pope Clement VII
(6) PoNCELLO Orsini, Bishop of Aversa (Southern
Italy) from 19 June. 1370, d. 2 February, 1395. He
was created cardinal-priest with the title of St. Clem-
ent at the great consistory convoked by Urban VI on
28 September, 1378. He became papal legate, and
at first workea zealously for the interests of Urban VI
after the outbreak of the schism. Later, however,
repelled by the impetuous procedure of the pope, he
secretly left the Curia and took up his abode upon his
own possessions. At the Conclave of 1389, he wa£ a
candidate for the papacy. The new pope, Boniface
IX, appointed him to important ecclesiastical oflSces.
and he exercised great influence upon the Curia until
his death.
(7) ToMMASO, of the line of the Counts of Manupello,
raised to the cardinalate (1381) by Urban VI; d. 10
July, 1390. He was sent by the pope as legate to the
Patrimony and the Marches, wnere Prince Rinaldo
Orsini of Aquila and TagUacozzo had seized the cities
of Urbino and Spoleto in addition to other territory.
The legate declared war against hiin and won back for
the pope the cities of Nami, Ameli, Terni« and later
also Viterbo. His conduct tdwards the Papal Vicar
of Viterbo, brought upon himself the disfavour of the
Eope, who imprisoned him in the fortress of Amelia,
ut later granted him his Uberty. On the occasion
of the conspiracy of several of the cardinals against
Urban. Cardinal Orsini remained loyal to the pope.
His relations were intimate with Urban's successor,
Boniface IX, during whose pontificate he died.
(8) Giordano Orsini, a very distinguished person-
ality in the College of Cardinals in the first tnree de-
cades of the fifteenth century, d. at Petricoli, 29 July,
1438. After a thorough and comprehensive training,
he became Auditor of the Rota, and in February,
1400, was raised by Boniface IX to the Archiepiscopal
See of Naples. On 12 June, 1405, Innocent VII made
him a member of the College of Cardinals, at first with
the title of St. Martino of Monti, and later with
that of S. Lorenzo in Damaso. In 1412 he was
appointed Cardinal-Bishop of Albano, and in 1431
Cardinal-Bishop of Sabina. He participated in the
election of Gregory XII (1406). but later, with several
other cardinals, renounced allegiance to the pop^
0B8INI 327 OBsmx
against whom he published a tract. He assisted at Peter's, and was elevated to the cardinalate by Sixtus
the Council of Pisa, and took part in the election IV in 1483. Innocent VIII conferred upon him in
of the Pisan I^ope, Alexander V (1409), and of his 1491 the Archiepiscopal See of Taranto, which he
successor John XXlII (Balthasar Cossa). The latter governed by proxy, and, as papal legate for Romagna,
sent him as envoy to Spain, later appointing him the Marches, and Bologna, ne was entrusted with the
pai)al legate to the Marches, in which position he was administration of these provinces of the Ecclesiastical
equally distinguished for his abihty and prudence. States. In the Conclave of 1492, the election of
He assisted zealously at the Council of Constance, Alexander VI was almost entirely due to him. How-
and took part in the election of Martin V (1417) . He everX^ardinal Giambattista, together with the head of
was sent by this pope as legate to England and France, the House of Orsini, the Duke of Bracciano, having
in company with Cardinal Filastre, to make peace / espoused the cause of the Florentines and the French
between the two countries. He was also selected for in the Italian wars, was taken prisoner in the Vatican
the difficult embassv to Bohemia and the neighbouring at the conunand of the pope and thrown into the
countries (1426), where he was to combat the Hussite dungeon of the Castel Sanr Angelo, where he di^.
heresy. On this occasion he took with him s^ his The report was current that he had been poisoned
secretary the future cardinal, Nicholas of Cusa. Upon by Alexander VI.
his return, the pope entrusted to him another difficult Otl^er cardinals of the family of Orsini who are
task, namely the visitation and reform of the churches worthy of mention because of the active part taken
and ecclesiastical institutions of Rome. In the Con- by them either as administrators of the papal states
dave of 1431 Eugene IV was elected pope. A close or as legates in other lands are the following:
friendship existed between him and Giordano, and the (11) Flavio Orsini, flourished in the sixteenth cen-
latter supported him loyally and energetically during tury, d.- 16 May, 1581. He was created a cardinal
all the trying conditions of the time. With two other in 1565, having been a bishop since 1560, first of the
cardinals, Giordano was commissioned to proceed See of Muro and later that of Spoleto. In 1572 he
against the usurpers of ecclesiastical possessions in was sent by Gregory XIII as legate to Charles IX of
Italy, after which he was delegated by the pope to France, pnncipally to support this monarch in his
attend the Council of Basle (q. v.), where he exerted conflict with tne Huguenot.
every effort to uphold the rights of the pope against (12) Alesbandro Orsini, belonging to the ducal
the schismatic element in the council. Wc are in- family of Bracciano, b. 1592; d. 22 August, 1626. He
deb ted to him for a diary of this council. Later, as was brought up at tne court of the Grand Duke Ferdi-
papal legate, he journeyed with Cardinal Conti to Siena nand I of Tuscany, and in 1615 created a cardinal bv
to meet Emperor Sigismund on his way to Rome to Paul V. As Legate to Ravenna under Gregory Xv,
receive the imperial crown. A man of wide culture, he distinguished himself in 1621 by his ^eat cnarity
Giordano took an active part in the literary life of his on the occasion of the outbreak of a mahgnant pesti-
time. Numerous and valuable manuscripts were the lence. Upon his return to Rome, he devoted himself
result of his joumeyings as legate, and these he willed to religion and to the practice of an austere asceticism,
to St. Peter s in Home (cf. the catalogue of manu- He even begged permission of the pope to resi^ the
scripts in Cancellieri, ''De secretariis basilic® Vati- cardinalate and to enter the Jesuit Oraer, but this was
canffi^', II, Rome, 1786, pp. 906-14). An Augustinian refused. Nevertheless, the pious cardinal always re-
monastery was founded Whim in Bracciano. He died mained closely united to the Jesuits. He was a patron
dean of the College of Cardinals, and was buried in of Galileo.
St. Peter's in a chapel founded and richly endowed (13) Virginio Orsini, likewise of the ducal family
by him. of Bracciano, b. 1615; d. 21 August, 1676. He r^
(9) Latino Orsini, likewise of the Roman branch nounced his birthright in his youth, entered the mill-
of the family and the owner of rich possessions, b. tarjrorderof the Knights of Malta, and more than once
1411; d. 11 August, 1477. He entered the ranks distinguished himself in the war against the Turks by
of the Roman clergy as a youth, became subdeacon, his reckless bravery. In December, 1641, Urban
and as early as 10 March, 1438, was raised to the VIII raised him to the dignity of cardinal, and ap-
Episcopal See of Conza in Southern Italv. Trans- pointed him Protector of tne Polish as well as of tne
ferred from this see to that of Trani (Southern Italy) Portugese Orient. He was commissioned to direct
on 8 June, 1439, he remained archbishop of the latter the building of the* new fortifications with which Ur-
after his elevation to the cardinalate by Nicholas V ban VIII enclosed the Leonine City and a quarter of
on 20 December, 1448. On 4 December, 1454, the Trastevere, and which are still in existence. In 1675
Archbishopric of Bari was conferred upon him, which he became Cardinal Bishop of Frascati, but died the
made it possible for him to take up his residence in next year, leaving behind him a reputation of a pious,
Rome, the See of Trani being nven to his brother. John gentle, and benevolent prince of the Church.
Orsini, Abbot of Farfa. Paul II appointed him legate In addition to the members of the Orsini family
for the Marches. Sixtus IV, for whose election in who were prominent as cardinals in the history of the
1471 Cardinal Latino had worked energetically, named Roman Church, others have gained a place in political
him eamerlengo of the College of Ciudinals, granted histor^r as statesmen, warriors, or patrons of the arts
him in 1472 the Archdiocese of Taranto. which he and sciences.
governed by proxy, and, in addition, placea him at the (1) Orso di Bobone, nephew of Pope Celestine III
ead of the government of the Papal States. He was (1191-8) and the first Orsini to hold a conspicuous
also appointed commander-in-chief of the papal fleet place in Rome. Under the protection of his uncle,
in the war against the Turks, and, acting for the pope, the pope, he was destined to have the principal part
crowned Ferdinand King of Naples. He founded in in la3ang the foundation of the dominion, power, and
Rome the monastery of S. Salvatore in Lauro, which prestige of the Roman Orsini. His grandchila, (2)
he richly endowed and in which he established the Matteo Rosso Orsini, was made senator of Rome
canons regular, donating to it also numerous manu- by Pope Gregory IX in 1241. In this capacity he
scripts. In the last years of his life he became deeply took a decided stand against the ventures of Emperor
religious, though he had been worldly in his youth, Frederick II in Italy. He was a patron of religious
leaving a natural son named Paul, whom, with the undertakings, a personal friend of St. Francis of Assisi,
consent of the pope, he made the heir of his vast and a member of that saint's Third Order. While one
possessions. of the sons of Matteo Rosso, Gian Gaetano, ascended
(10) Giambattista Orsini. nephew of Latino, d. the papal throne as Nicholas III, another, (3) Rinaldo.
22 Feb., 1503. He entered tne service of the Curia continued the activities of his father in the pohticai
at an early age, became cameral cleric, canon of St. field, exerting himself to the utmost to prevent the
ottstsios
328
OBTELIUS
alliance of Rome with the Hohenstaufen Konradin.
A son of this Rinaldo, (4) Matteo Obsini, was twice
senator in Rome. His wise and energetic uncle,
Nicholas III (q.* v.)y to show that papal rme was once
more dominant in Rome, deprived King Charles of
Anjou of the senatorial dignity, and in 1278 published
the decree that thenceforth no foreign emperor or king
could become senator, a Roman being alone eligible
for the dignity, and then only with the consent of the
pope and for one year. The power of the Orani was in
general much strengthened oy this capable pope of
their race.
In the course of the fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
turies, the following were particularly famous as mih-
tary leaders in the numberless internal wars of Itahr;
(5) Paolo Orsini, who in the beginning of the m-
teenth century fought as condoUiere in the service of
several pofxes, was taken prisoner by Ladislas of
Naples, again set at liberty, and fell in oattle against
Braccio da Montone before Perugia on 5 July, 1416.
(6) VmaiNio Orsini, Lord of Bracciano, was leader of
the forces of Sixtus IV (1471-84) in the war against
Ferrara, and victor at the battle of Campo Morto
against the Neapolitans (1482). Later, however, he
entered the service of Naples to oppose King Charles
VIII of France (1483-98); in 1494, however, he took
the side of the latter, and was imprisoned on this ac-
count. He died on 18 January, 1497, in prison at
Naples. (7) Niccolo Orsini, Count of Petif^liano,
was. at this time, in the service of the Anjous, military
leaaer in the war against Naples, Sixtus IV, Siena,
Florence, and Venice. Later, however, he went over
with his army to the Venetian standard^ and became
general-in-chief of the Venetian Repubhc in the war
against the League of Cambrai. He captured Padua,
but was defeateid in 1509, and died in the following
year. Of the members of the Orsini family who flour-
ished during the sixteenth century (8) Paolo Gior-
dano Orsini is also worthy of mention. Bom in
1541, he was created a duke, with the title of Brac-
ciano, by Pope Pius IV (1560). Under Paul IV, he
was general of the papal troops in the war against the
Turks (1566). His nrst wife, Isabella Medici, being
murdered, he took as his second wife Vittoria Accoram-
boni, widow of the murdered Francesco Peretti, a
nephew of Sixtus V. Accused of murdering the latter.
Paolo Giordano was obliged to leave Rome. He died
at SiUo in 1585. (9) Fulvio Orsini was distinguished ,
as a humanist, historian, and archaeologist, b. on 11
December, 1529; d. in Rome. 18 May, 1600. He was
the natural son probably oi Maerbale Orsini of the
line of Mugnano. Cast off by his father at the age of
nine, he found a refuge among the choir boys of St.
John Lateran, and a protector in Cajion Grentile
Delfini. He applied hiinself energetically to the study
of the ancient languages, published a new edition of
Aniobius (Rome, 1583) and of the Septuagint (Rome,
1587), and wrote works dealing witn the history of
Rome — ''Familiffi Romans ex antiquis numismati-
bus" (Rome, 1577), "Fragmentahistoricorum" (Ant-
werp, 1595), etc. tie brought together a large collec-
tion of antiquities, and built up a costly liDrary of
manuscripts and books, which later became part of the
Vatican ubrary (cf. de Nolhac, '^La biblioth^ue de
Fulvio Orsini 'S Paris, 1887).
A woman of the Orsini family likewise played an
important poUtical r61e in the seventeenth century:
Marie Anne, nie de la Tr^moille, b. 1642. Her firet
husband was Talleyrand, Prince de Chalais, after
whose death she married Flavio Orsini, Duke of
Bracciano, who remained loyal to Popje Innocent XI
in his difficulties with Louis XIV of France. Marie
Anne used her influence with the Curia in the inter-
ests of France and of Louis XIV, and in 1701, after
the death of her husband, went to Madrid as mistress
of the robes to Queen Marie-Louise, who, together
with her husband Philip V of Spain, was completely
under her influence. She did much to strengthen
the throne of these rulers, but, nevertheless, in 1714
when Philip married Elizabeth Famese, i^e was dis-
missed with ingratitude and returned to Rome, where
she died on 5 December, 1722 (see Hill, ''The Princess
Orsini", London, 1899).
The ancient family of the Roman Orsini is extinct.
The present princes of the family in Rome descend
from the Neapolitan line, which may be traced back
to Francesco Orsini, Count of Trani and Conversano.
In 1463 they became Dukes of Gravina, later (1724)
princes of the Empire and Roman princes. The head
of the family always enjoys the oignity of assistant
at the papal throne. The present head is flfippo
Orsini-Gravina-Sarzina, b. 10 December, 1842. Sev-
eral hoble families outside of Italy trace back their
descent to the ancient Italian Orsini, as for example the
Juvenels des Ursins in France and the Rosenbergs in
Austria and Germany.
Sansovino, HiMt. di ctua Ornni e degli uomini iUuttri deUa
medenma (Venice, 1605) ; Inchoff, GenealoffUB familia Vrnna
CAmaterdam, 1710); Ciaconiub, Vita ef re* aetta Summorum
Pontif. Roman, et S. R. B. Cardinalium (4 vols., Rome, 1677),
continued by Guajrnacci (2 vols., Rome, 1751); Hutbkenb,
Kardinal NapoUo Ornni (part 1, Marbura, 1902); Idem, Dom
KapUd wm St. Peter unter aem Binftu»» der Oreini 0^0-lS4tl) in
Histor. Jahrb., XXVII (1906), 266-90; Sternfeld, Der Kardinal
Johann Oaetan Orsini (Berlin, 1905) ; Finke, Aue den Taqen Boni-
fax VIII (MQnster. 1902), 96 aqq. (resarding Cardinal Matteo
Rosso Orsini) ; Souchon, Die PapkwahUn ton Boni/az VIII bia
Urban VI (Brunswick, 1888); Gbeoobovius, Oench. der Stadt
Rom im Mittelalter (5th ed., Stutt«art, 1908): Reumont, Geech.
der Stadt Rom (3 vols., Berlin, 1867-70); Pastor, Ge»eh. der
Pdpete (4th ed., Freiburg, 1901 — ) ; MOroni, Dizionario di erudi^
Mione etorico-ecdesiaetica, s. v. Oraini,
J. P. KiRSCH.
OraifliuB {*kp9l<riot^ Oresiesis-Heru-sa Ast), an
Egyptian monk of the fourth century, was a disciple
of I^achomius on the island Tabenna in the Nile.
When Pachomius died (348), Orsisius was chosen as his
successor; but he resigned in favour of Theodore. It
was not till Theodore's death (c. 380) that Orsisius,
advised by St. Athanasius. accepted the office of
hegumen. Theodore and Orsisius are said to have
helped Pachomius in the composition of his rule;
Gennadius (De. vir. ill., IX) mentions another work:
''Oresiesis the monk, a colleague of Pachomius and
Theodore and a man perfectly learned in the Scrip-
tures, composed a Divmely savoured book containing
instruction for all monastic discipline, in which nearly
the whole Old and New Testaments are explained in
short dissertations in as far as they affect monks; and
shortly before his death he save this book to his breth-
ren as his testament." This is supposed to be the
work: ''Doctrina de institutione monachorum" trs^i^
lated by St. Jerome into Latin (P. L., CIII, 453 sq.,
and P. G., XL., 870-894). Mime prints after it
(P. G., XL., 895 sq.) another work attributed to the
same author: ''De sex cogitationibus sanctorum",
which, however, is probably oy a later Oresius.
Cave, SeriTpiorum eccL hiHorta literaria, I (Basle, 1741), 209;
Ceilusb, Hiatoire gSnirale dea auteura aacrUt IV (Paris, 1860),
235 sq.
Adrian Fortescue.
Orta. See CivitX Castellana, Orte and Gal-
LESE, Diocese of.
OrtaliUB (Oertel), Abraham, cartographer, geog-
rapher, and archsBologist, b. in Antwerp, 4 April, 1527;
d. there, 28 June, 1598. His family came from Augs-
burg, wherefore Ortelius frequently referred to him-
self as ' ' Belgo-Germanus ' ' . The death of his father in
1535, who had been a wealthy merchant, seems to
have placed the family in difficulties, for Ortelius be-
gan to trade or peddle geographical charts and maps
while still a mere youth. When twenty years of age ne
joined a guild as a oolourer of charts. By purchasing
as valuable maps as possible, moimting them on can-
vas, colouring, and re-selling them, he managed to as-
sist in supporting the family, as may be gleaned from a
contemporary letter. This trading in maps was prob-
OBTHODOZ X
ably one of the chief reasona for his uausoall^ extended
trips to Germany, EngJEUid, It&ly, and particularly for
hia annual visita to the Rreat fair at iJeipzig. Meaa-
^hile he did not confine rtimself entirely ta trafficking
in charts. Five yeara before Mercator published his
famous Carta Naoigataria (1569) appeared Ortelius'a
great eight-leaved map of the world. As the only ex-
tant copy of this great map is that in the library of the
University of Baale (cf. Bernoulli, "Ein Karteninkua-
great map of Asia, but in his chief work, which assures
nim for all time a place of honour in the history of car-
tography, we find not only his own map of Asia on a
smaller scale, but also a number of maps of other car~
tographera, who otherwise are completely unknown.
This work is the "Theatrum orbie terrarum", which
appeared in 1570; it was the first great modem atlas.
and contained seventy copper i
fifty-
ttree double-folio
pages. Orteliushas
combined in this
work in a syste-
matic manner all
recent mapa of the
world and separate
countries, of which
he had heard dur-
inghisfong activity
as trader and col-
lector. Where sev-
eral maps of one
country were avail-
able, he chose the
most modem and
most reliable copy.
When the name of
the author was
mentioned on the
map, OrteUus did
not chanjce a line or
a name then, but,
when the author's name was not given, he resolutely
made such changes as appeared to nim necessary, aa
conscientiously ^ave credit to tJie author of maps
which were published on a reduced scale by himself.
Considering geography as an eye of history (kUtana:
ocidus), he usually added the ancient histoncfj names
of countries and cities to the modem ones.
To the atlas he appended a geographical dictionary
which contained both the ancient and modern names.
More important for us than this dictionary is the ap-
Endcd catalogue of maps (Catalogua auctorum tabu-
•um geographicarum), in which appear the names and
works of ninety-nine cartographers who Uved before
1570. As concerning many of these cartoffraphera we
have no other knowTed^ than that contamed in this
catalogue, and as Ortehus utilised but forty-sii of the
maps mentioned by him, this httle list is tCMlay one of
the moat important sources for a history of cartog-
raphy. Later on this "Theatrum" was enlarged and
improved. In 1593 there were 137 in 1612 no leas
than 166 maps, wliile the list of authors reached 183
for the time up to 1 595 ; antiquated maps were replaced
by more modem ones, or changed accordmg to
the more accurate reports forwarded for the most
part by missionaries, and it soon appeared not only in
the Latin language, but also in Dutch, High German,
Italian, and Frencn translations. Very numerous were
the smaller editions and extracts in the various lan-
guages. As late as 1697 there appeared in Venice a
"Teatro del Mondo di Abramo Ortelio". As the
"Theatrum" had lieen dedicated to the Spanish king
Philip II by OrteUus, the latter was given the title of a
Royal Geographer (geographtta regiue). His contem-
porariQB bonoived him as the " Ptolemy of his century ".
Separate from his atlas Orteliue published in 1687
ORTHODOX
the "Thesaurus geographicus". which posteesea to
this day considerable value as a dictionai^ of old geog-
raphy. In the form of a letter to his fnend Geniani
Mercator, Orteliua published in 1575 his " Itinerarium
per nonnullas Gallic Belgics partes", which contains
much valuable information as to the old geography of
Belgium, but which is chiefly valuable on account of
its philologioo-arclueological importance. One of the
frmta of his restless activity as a collector of arclueo-
logical specimens was his pamphlet: "Deorum,
DearumqueCapitaeveteribusnumismatibus" (1575),
which contained a number of reproductions from his
widely admired archeeological collection. In his
"Aurei seculi imaifo sive Germanorum veterum inores,
ritue et religio delmeata et commentariis ex utriuequa'
linguie ecriptoribus descripta", he ^ves a short com-
mentary to the works of ancient wntere on Germany,
illustrated with ten engravings. Despite the great
honour freely accorded to Ortelius, he remained hum-
ble and modest. "Until his very end he was", as P.
Ratzel says, "a good Catholic and had particularly
many friends among the Jesuits". True to his motto,
"Contemno et orao [mundum], mente, manu", Orte-
Uus, unmarried and earnest, remained above the petty
squabbles which so often disturb scientific circles.
"Quietis cultor sine lite, uxore, prole" is written on
his tombstone in the Prsmonstratenaian abbey at
Antwerp. This epitaph was written by Justus Lip-
Ttofrum orbii Iflranim, egpecially Ibe introduclioD lo th« Bnt
posthuiMua edition; Ritiel id AOi,. dnUidu Bioer., XXIV. 42»-
Qrlflii (Gwaraphi AntvtfptTUii) H virarum rrwtUorum ad eundun
. . . (pultJf>(Cunfandn, tgST);TiBLE, ffefXoarUuHiHin Abrs-
ham OHMut in Biblrvr-.Adrrr-KiTia. Ill I'a Gnveohite. 1B76-7),
Kl,d,i.bav.Abad.d'm^^.''.u'!^899).i3^&.'
Joseph Fiscber.
Orthodox Church, the technical name for the
body of Christians who use the Byzantine Rite in
various languages and are in union with the Patriarch
of Constantinople but in schism with the Pope of
Rome. The epithet Orthodox (JpfliSofot), meaning
"right believer ,ifl^ naturally, claimed by people of
every religion. It is almost exactly a Greek form of
the officii title of the chief enenues of the Greeks,
i. e. the Moslems [mu'min, JidelU). The Monophy-
wte Armenians call themselves ughapar, meaning
exactly the same thing. How "Orthodox" became
the proper name of the Eastern Church it is difficult to
say. It was used at first, long before the schism of
Photiua, especially in the East, not with any idea of
opposition against the West, but rather as the antithe-
sis to the Eastern heretics — Nestorians and Monoph-
yaites. Gradually, altiouah of course both East
and West always claimed Doth names, "Catholic"
became the most common name for the original
Church in the West, "Orthodox" m'the East. It
would be ve^ difficult to find the right name for this
Church. "Eastern" is too vague, the Nestorians
and Monophyutes are Eastern Churches; "Schis-
matic" has the same disadvantage. "Greek" is
really the least expressive of ail. The Greek Chureh
is only one, and a very small one, of the sixteen
Churches that make up this vast communion. The
miUions of Russians, Bulgars, Rumanians, Arabs, and
BO on who belong to it arc Greek in no sense at all.
According to their common custom one may add the
word "Eastern" to the title and speak of the Ortho-
dox Eastern Church (^ SpB6Soiot dmroXurij ittXiiaU).
The Orthodox, then, are the Christiana in the East of
Europe, in Egypt and Asia, who accept the Councils
of Ephesus and Chalcedon (are therefore neither
Nestorians nor Monophs^ites), but who, as the result
of the schisms of Photius (ninth cent.) and Cerulariua
(eleventh cent.), are not in communion with the Cath-
olic Church. There is no common authority obeyed bj
iritv nf "Chriiit niu
T rather it is only the authority of "Chiiat
a by
ORTHODOXY
330
OBTHOSIA8
the seven (Ecumenical Synods" (from Nicaeal, in 326,
to Nicaea II, in 787). These sixteen Churches are:
(!) The four Eastern patriarchates— Constantinople,
Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem — and the Church of
Cyprus, independent since the Council of Ephesus.
(2) Since the great schism eleven new churches have
been added, all but one formed at the expense of the
once vast Patriarchate of Constantinople. They are
the six national' Churches of Russia, Greece, Servia,
Montenegro, Rumania, and Bulgaria, four independ-
ent Churches in the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy,
namely Carlovitz. Hermannstadt, Czemovitz, Bosnia-
Herzegovina, ana lastly the Church of Mount Sinai,
consisting of one monastery separated from Jerusalem.
One of these Churches^ that of Bulgaria, is in schism
with Constantinople since 1872. The total number
of Orthodox Christians in the world is estimated
variously as 95 to 100 millions. (See Eastern
Churches; Greek Church; Constantinople, Heresy
and Schism; Russia.)
Adrian Fortescue.
Orthodoiy, dpBoSo^la, signifies right belief or purity
of faith. Right beUef is not merely subjective, as
resting on personal knowledge and convictions, but
is in accordance with the teaching and direction of
an absolute extrinsic authority. This authority is
the Church founded by Christ, and guided by the
Holy Ghost. He, therefore, is orthodox, whose faith
coincides with the teachings of the Catholic Church.
As divine revelation forms the deposit of faith en-
trusted to the Church for man's salvation, it also,
with the truths clearly deduced from it, forms the ob-
ject and content of orthodoxy. Although the term
orthodox or orthodoxy does not occur in the Scriptures,
its meaning is repeatedly insisted on. Thus Christ
proclaims the necessity of faith unto salvation (Mark,
xvi,, 16). St. Paul, emphasizing the same injunction
in terms more specific, teaches "one Lord, one faith,
one baptism'' (Eph., iv, 5, 6). Again, when directing
Titus in his ministerial labours, he admonishes him
to speak in accord with **sound doctrine" (Tit., ii, 1).
And not only does St. Paul lay stress on the soundness
of the doctrine to be preached, but he also directs at-
tention to the form in which it must be delivered:
"Hold the form of sound words which thou hast heard
of me in faith" (II Tim., i, 13). Consistent with the
teachings and method of Christ and the Apostles, the
Fathers point out the necessity of preserving pure and
undefilea the deposit of revelation. "Neitner in the
confusion of paganism", says St. Augustine, "nor in
the defilement of heresy, nor in the lethargy of schism,
nor yet in the blindness of Judaism is religion to be
Bought; but among those alone who are called Catholic
Chnstians, or the orthodox^ that is, the custodians of
sound doctrine and followers of right teaching" (De
Vera Relig., cap. v). Fulgentius writes: "I rejoice
that with no taint of perfidy you are solicitous for the
true faith, without wmch no conversion is of any avail,
nor can at all exist" (De Vera Fide ad Petrum, Pro-
le^). The Church, likewise, in its zeal for purity of
faith and teaching, has rigorously adhered to the ex-
ample set by the Apostles and early Fathers. This is
manifest in its whole history, but especially in such
champions of the faith as Athanasius, m councils, con-
demnations of heresy, and its definitions of revealed
truth. That orthodox faith is requisite for salvation
is a defined doctrine of the Church. "Whosoever
wishes to be saved", declares the Athanasian Creed,
" must first of all hold integral and inviolate the Catholic
faith, without which he shall surely be eternally lost".
Numerous Councils and papal decisions have reiter-
ated this dogma (cf. Council of Florence, Denz., 714;
Prof, of Faith of Pius IV, Denz., 1000; condemnation
of Indifferentism and Latitudinarianism in the Syll.
of Pius IX, Denz., 1715, 1718; Council of the Vatican,
*'De Fide", can. vi, Denz., 1815; condemnation of the
Modernistic position regarding the nature and origin
of dogma, Encyc. "Pascendi Dominici Gregis", 1907,
Denz., 2079). While truth must be intolerant of er-
ror (II Cor., vi, 14, 15), the Church does not deny the
possibility of salvation of those earnest and sincere
persons outside her fold who live and die in invincible
Ignorance of the true faith (cf . Council of the Vatican.
Sess. Ill, cap. iii, Denz., 1794; S. Aug., Ep. xliii ad
Galerium) . (See Church ; Faith ; Faith, Protestant
CoNTEssioNs op; Heresy; Indifferentism.)
St. Thomas. Summa Theol., II-II, De fide, QQ. i-vii; Husao,
The True Reliffion and Ite Dogmas (Boston. 1886): Ricabdb,
Catholic ChrUtianity and Modem Unbelief (New York. 1884^.
Charles J. jCallan.
Orthodoxy, Feast (or Sunday) op, the first Sun-
day of the Great Forty days (Lent) in the Byzantine
Calendar (sixth Sunday before Easter), kept in mem-
ory of the final defeat of Iconoclasm and the restora-
tion of the holy icons to the churches on 19 February
(which was the first Sunday of Lent), 842 (see Icono-
clasm). a perpetual feast on the anniversary of that
day was ordained by the Synod of Constantinople, and
is one of the great feasts of the year among Orthodox
and Byzantine XJniats. The name ** Orthodoxy" has
gradually affected the character of the feast. Origin-
ally commemorating only the defeat of Iconoclasm.
the word was gradually understood in a more general
sense as opposition to all heterodoxy. In this way,
though its first occasion is not forgotten, the feast has
become one in honour of the true Faith in general.
This is shown by its special service. After the Orthros
and before the holy Liturgy a procession is made with
crosses and pictures to some destined spot (often
merely round the church). Meanwhile a Canon^ at-
tributed to St. Theodore of Studium, is sung. Amved
at the place, the Synodikon is read. This Synodikon
begins with the memory of certain saints, confessors,
and heroes of the faith, to each of whose names the
people cry out: "Eternal Memory!" (o/wWo i^ firfjfirf)
three times. Then follows a long list of heretics of all
kinds, to each of which the answer is: "Anathema"
once or thrice. The heretics comprise all the old of-
fenders of any reputation, Arians, Nestorians, Monoph-
ysites, Monothelites, Iconoclasts, and so on. Then
comes again "Eternal Memory" to certain pious em-
I>erors, from Constantine on. There is inevitably con-
siderable difference between the Orthodox and iJniat
lists. The Orthodox acclaim Photius, Cerularius, other
anti-Roman patriarchs and many schismatical em-
perors. They curse Honorius among the Monothelites,
the opponents of Hesy chasm. The Uniat Synodikon
is purged of these names. In Russia politics have
their place in the Synodikon; the emperor and his
family are acclaimed; all are cursed who deny the
divine right of the Russian monarchy and all who
"dare to stir up insurrection and rebellion against it".
The text of the Canon, Synodikon. etc., and the ru-
brics will be foimd in either Trioaion, Orthodox or
Uniat.
Allatiub. De dominicis et hebdomadis Craeorum, zv, appendix
to De ecclencB occid. et orient, perpetuo consensu (Cologne, 1648) ;
NiLLSS, KcUendarium manuals (2nd ed.. Innsbruck. 1897). 101-
18.
Adrian Fortescue.
Orthosias, a titular see of Phoenicia Prima, suffra-
gan of Tyre. The city is mentioned for the first time
m I Mach., xv, 37, as a Phoenician port 0. V.,
Orthosias); Pliny (Hist. Nat., V, xvii) places it be-
tween Tripoli, on the south, and the River Eleutherus,
on the north; Strabo (Geographia, XVI, ii, 12, 15),
near the Eleutherus; Peutinger's "Table", agreeing
w^ith Hierocles, George of Cyprus, and others, indicates
it between Tripoli and Antaradus. Le Quien (Oriens
Christ., II, 825) mentions four bishops, beginning
with Phosphorus in the fifth century. Two Latin
titulars of the fourteenth centurv appear in Eubel,
"Hierarchia cath. medii «vi", I, 396. In the *'Not.
ORTOLANO
331
obvuto
Episcop." of Antioch for the sixth century ("Echos
d'Orient", X, 145) Orthosias is tufTrr.gan of Tyre,
while in that of the tenth century (op. cit., X, 97) it is
confounded with Antaradus or Tortosa. 1 he discov-
ery on the banks of the Eleuthcrus of Orthosian coins,
dating from Antoninus Pius and bearing figures of
Astarte, led to the identification of the site of Orthosias
near the River El-Barid at a spot marked by ruiois,
called Bordj Hakmon el-Yehoudi.
Bet'rlibr in Vioouboux, Did. de la Bible, b. v.; Smit^, Diet,
of Greek and Roman Oeagraphy, II, 407.
S. VailhA.
Ortolano Ferrarese, painter of the Ferrara School,
b. in Ferrara, about 1490; d. about 1525. His real
name was Giovanni Battista Benvenuti» and he was
called L'Ortolano because his father, Francisco, was a
gardener. Of his career little is known, save that he
was a diligent student of the works of Ilaphael and
Bagnacavallo in 1512-13 at Bologna. His master-
piece, a picture of rich colour and fine draughtsman-
ship, representing Saint Sebastian, Saint Roch, and
Saint Demetrius, is in the National Gallery, London.
It was brought from the church of Bondeno near Fer-
rara in 1844, andpurchased by the gallery in 1861. In
the cathedral at Ferrara are other works attributed to
him, which later critics have given to Garofalo, but in
some of the smaller churches of Ferrara, those of San
Niccold, the Servi, and San Lorenzo, there are pictures
which may be readily accepted as his. His work so
resembles that of Garofalo that there is a never-ceas-
ing controversy between the critics who accept the re-
spective claims of each, and nearly as mucn dispute
has arisen over his works as over those of Giorgione.
There is a fine picture usually accepted as his, in the
possession of Lord Wimbome in England, and this
shows very strongly the influence upon the painter of
Lorenzo Oosta. Two of his paintings are in the gal-
lery at Ferrara, and others at Naples and Berlin, while
there are several similar works in private possession in
Ferrara.
Lanzi, Storia PiUoriea (Bassano, 1509); Laoerchi, Pittura Fer-
rarne (Ferrara, 1611); Idsm, Guida di Ferrara (Ferrara, 1525).
George Charles Williamson.
Ortona. See Lanciano and Ortona, Arch-
diocese OF.
Ortwin. See Gratius (van Grabs), Ortwin.
Ozral (Aurba Vallis, Gubldenthal), formerly a
Cistercian abbey in Belgian Luxemburg, Diocese of
Trier. It was founded in 1071 by Benedictines from
Calabria, who left in 1110 to be succeeded by Canons
Regular. These were replaced in 1132 by Cistercians
from the newly founded monastery of Tre Fontane.
Their first abbot Constantine had been a disciple of
St. Bernard of Clairvaux, dying in the repute of holi-
ness after fourteen years. Owing to the industry and
frugality of the monks, and the competent manage-
ment of the abbots, Orval became exceptionally rich.
In 1750 it owned no less than 300 towns, villages, and
manors, and had an annual income of 1,200,000 Uvres.
In proportion to its riches was its charity towards the
poor. Under the leadership of able and pious abbots
its discipline was always in a flourishing condition,
with the exception of a short period towards the ena
of the sixteenth and the beginning of the seventeenth
centurv, when the storms of the Reformation raged
in the Netherlands, ^bbot Bernard de Montgaillard
(1605-28). who was famous for piety and learning,
restored tne decaying discipline by (frawing up new
statutes for the monastery. After a short interrup-
tion during the Thirty Years' War, the reform which
Bernard had introduced was zealously carried out
by the succeeding abbots, especially by Carl von
Benzeradt (1668-1707), who also founded the abbey
of Dussclthal in 1707. The doctrines of Jansenius
were espoused by a few monks early in the eighteenth
century, but. happily, those that were imbued with
them had to leave the monastery in 1725. The abbey
and its church fell a prey to the ravages of the French
Revolution in 1793. In the literary field the monks of
Orval did not distinguish themselves in any special
manner. The only noteworthy writer was GiUes
d'Orval, who lived in the first half of the thirteenth
century. He wrote the continuation, to the year
1251. of the "Gesta Pontificum Leodiensium", which
had been written up to the year 1048 by Heriger of
Lobbes and Anselm of Lidge (Mon. Germ. Script.,
XXV, 1-129).
TiLutRE. Hist, de Vabhaye d'Oroal (2ncl ed.. Namur, 1007);
jEAi^niN, Chreniquee hiatcr. etar Vahbaye d'Orvcu (Nancy, 1850);
Marx, Gesch. dee Erzeti/tee Trier, II, i (Trier, 1860), 668-79;
ScHORN. Ei/lia eaera, II (Bonn, 1889), 297-308.
MiCHASL OtT.
Onrieto, Diocese of (Urbevetana), in Central
Italy. The city stands on a rugged mass of tufa, near
the rivers Paglia and Chiana, the swamps of which
were drained by Sixtus V. Some believe this town to
be the ancient Hebanum or Oropitum; others, e. g.
Muller and Gamurrini, hold that it was the primitive
port (therefore Urhs vetus^ or old city) of the Etruscan
city of Volsinii, destroyed by the Romans at an uncer-
tain date, and rebuilt on the site of the present Bolsena
which gives its name to the largest lake of the Italian
peninsula. In the countrv around Orvieto there are
many Etruscan tombs, 'f he name of Urbs Vetus ap-
pears for the first time in Procopius, corrupted into
Urbebentum; it is also found in the writings of St.
Gregory the Great.
During the Gothic War, Orvieto was defended by
the Gotl^ for a long time. Later, it fell into the hanos
of the Lombards (606). From the latter end of the
tenth century the city was governed by consuls, who,
however, took the oath of fealty to the bishop; but
from 1201 it governed itself through a podesth (m that
year, the Bishop Richard) and a captain of the people.
On account of its position, Orvieto was often chosen
by the popes as a place of refuge and Adrian IV forti-
fied it. A "Studium Generale" was granted to the
city by Gregory XI in 1337. In the middle of the
thirteenth century, bitter feuds arose between the
FiUpeschi and the Monaldeschi families, and were
not quelled until the city came under the rule of
Ermanno Monaldeschi, whom Cardinal Albomoz re-
duced to obedience to the Holy See. One of the first
convents of the Dominican Order was built at Or-
vieto (1220); and in 1288 there was founded in the
town a monastery of Armenian monks. In 1199 the
martyrdom of St. Pietro Parenzo took place at Or-
vieto; he was a Roman whom Innocent III had sent to*
govern that city with a view to suppressing the
Patarian movement that Ermanno of Parma and
Gottardo of Marsi had roused in the town.
The cathedral of Orvieto is one of the most beautiful
chiu-ches in Italy; it was begun in 1285, and is of the
Gothic style, with three naves; its tripartite fagade
was a conception of Lorenzo Maitani, and is embel-
lished in its lower portion with scenes from the Old
and New Testaments, and in its upper part with mo-
saics and statues of the Blessed Virgin, the Prophets,
and the Apostles. The walls in the interior of the
edifice are built of layers of Travertine marble and of
basalt; the choir is adorned with frescoes, illustrating
the life of the Blessed Virpn; they are by Uffolino di
Prete Ilario, Peter di Puccio, and Anthony of Viterbo:
the stalls of the choir are of inlaid work. The chapel
on the right, called Our Lady of San Brizio. was
painted by the Blessed Angelico of Fiesole ("Uhrist
Glorified'', "Last Judgment", and "The Prophets",
done in 1447) and by Luca Signorelli ("Fall of Anti-
christ", "Resurrection of the Dead", "Damned and
Blessed", etc.); Michelangelo took inspiration from
these paintings for his "Last Judgment" of the Sis-
tine Cnapel; there is, also by Signorelli, the "Burial of
i
obthto
332
Jeaos", and there are several eculpturea by Scalza over it; while, in 1377, tiie ton-n waa sacked by the
(1672), among them the group of the I^eti, chieelied adveoturer Uawlcwooa (Acuto). On the Island of
from a mngle Block of marble. The chapel on the op- Martana, in the lake near b>', Amalasunta, daughter
porite aide, called "of the Corporal", contuns the of Theodoricuaand wife ofTheodalUB, waa atraDgled.
large reliquary in which ia prcBervea the corporal To thia island, in the sixth century, was transferred
of the miracle of Bolsena (see below). Thiarecepta- the body of St. Christina, a virgin and martyr of
__ _ IB made by order
of Bishop Bertrand
del Monaldeachi, by
theSieneseUgolinoai
Mffistro Vieri (1337) :
it ia of ailver, adorned
with enamellinp that
represent the Passion
of JeauB and the mir-
acle; the frescoes of
the walls, by Ugolino
(1357-64), also repre-
sent the miracle. In
the palace of the
popes, built by Boni-
face VIII, is the civic
tains Etruscan antiq-
uities and woriu of
art that are, for the
greater part, from the
cathedral. Among
the other notable
churches of Orvieto
are San Giovenale,
which (»ntains rem- „. ...
nanta of anient freeeoM, and San Andrea, which for in the first place Urban IV makea no mention
has a dodecagon tower; in 1220 Rerre d'Artois was of it in the Bull by which he established the feast
conaecratedKingof Jeniealemby Honoriua 111 in this of Corpus Christi, although the miracle is said to
church. have taken place in hia day and to have determined
The first known Bishop of Orvieto was John (about him in hia purposeof eBtablishing that feast; likewise,
590), and in 591 ^>pears a Bishop Candidus; among the two biographers of Pope Urban impugn the truth
its other prelates were Con- ^ ^ oftnistradilionbytheirsilenee,
stantino Medici, 0. P., sent by ' "' ■ ■■■
Alexander IV in 1255 to
Greece, where he died; Fran-
cesco Monaldeschi (I2S0), who
did much for the construction
of the cathedral. In 1528
Clement VII sought refuge at
Orvieto, and while there or-
dered the construction of the
"Poisodi San Patriiio" (the
well of St. Patrick), by San-
galjo. Bishop Scbaatiano Vans!
(1S62) distinguished himself
at the Council of Trent and
built the seminary, which was
enlarged afterwards by Car-
dinal Fausto Polo (1645) and
by Giacomo Silvestri, the lat-
ter of whom gave to it the col-
lege and other property of the
Jesuits (1773); Cardinal Paolo
Antamori (1780) caused the
hiatory of the cathedral of Or-
vieto to be written by Gug-
lielmo della VaUe; and lastly
G. B. Lambruschini (1807).
With the See of Orvieto has
been united from time imme-
morial that of Bolsena (the
ancient Volanii), of the ruins
of which there are atill the ;
pie of Nortia, of the "Thormie' ,
Wejanua, of the mausoleum of L. CanueliL_, .
cording to Pliny, 2000 statues were taken to Rome
from Volainii, when the latter was destroyed in 254
B. C. In the Middle Ages, Bolsena had much to suffer
from the neighbouring lords (Vico, Bisenzo, Cerbara,
Bolsena (297?), but
it waa later returned
to the citj; ; the church
of this saint contains
a reclining statue of
her by Luca della
llobbia; annexed to
the church is an an-
cient Christian ceme-
tery, and ancient
Christian inscriptiona
are numerous at Bol-
sena. Three bishope
of Volanii are known: .
Gaudentius (49S),
Candidus (601), who,
it appears, is not the
Biahop of Orvieto of
that name, and Ag-
nellus (680).
The Miracle of
Bolisena is not sup-
ported by strong his-
torical evidence, and
its tradition is not
altogether consistent;
, "Renim Itali-
im scriptores". III, pt. I,
aa.; and especially Thicr-
is Vallicotons, who, in his
DAOpied by Lor
ints of the te
r hot baths,
of the ponlJfT during the latter's
'stay at Orvieto, referring else-
where also to the devotion of
Urban in celebrating the Mass,
and to the inKtittttion of the
Feast of Corpus Christi, with-
out at any time making aliu-
non to the miracle at Bolsena.
The latter is related in the in-
scription on a slab of red mar-
ble m the church of St. Chris-
tina, and is of later date than
the canonization of >St. Ihomas
Aquinas (I32S). The oldest
historical record of the miracle
iacontainedin the enamel "his-
tories" that adorn the front
ofthe reliquary (1337-39). it
ia to be noted that in the nai^
rativea of the miracle cited by
Fumi (II Santuario, 73) the re-
liquary only is called "tabei^
naculum D.N.J.C", or "tab
... pro D.N.J.C." or, agiun,
"tabernaeolo del Corpo di Xpo."
In 1344 Clement VI, refernng to this matter in a
Brief, uses only the words "proplPr miraculum ali-
3uod" (Pennazzi, 367); Gregory XI, in a Brief of 26
une, 1337, gives a short account of the miracle; and
abundant reference to it is found later on (1435), in
of the Dominican preacher LeonWo
(lZTS-1330)
etc.), and from the Orvietana, who claimed dominion Mattel of Udine ("In festo Corp. Christi", xiv, ed.
ORT 3;
Venice, 1652, 69) and by St. Antoninus of Florence
("Chronica' , III, 19, xiii, 1), tie latter, however, does
not say (aa the local legend recitea) that the prieit
doubled the Real Presence of Christ in the Iloly
Eucharist, but, merely that a few drops from the
chalice tell upon the corporal. For the rest, a amilar
legend of the "blood-stained corpora!" is quite fre-
?iuent in the iegendariea of even earlier date than the
ourteenth century, and emncidea with the great
Eucharistic jpoleniics of the ninth to the twelfth
centuries. The reddish spots on the corporal of
Bolaena, upon close observation, show the profile of a
face of the type by which the Saviour ia traditionally
represented.
FtJHi. Codici diplnm. dcUs ciUi dt OrnrlD (FiDTfncs, 1884);
OrrteM, «aU .Imehr (Citti di CmwIIo, IBflll ; 11 duomo di OrnVIo
(Rome, l»fll)-.llSaaliMriadeiSS. Corparalt nil dxiome di Onitto
{Rome. 189fi) ; Cai-pej-letti, t< CA™»(C/(aJio. V: Adaki. SI*rio
di VtiUmv (3 vob., ml): Pihnuii, Sltria dili' OUia e del Cor-
poraU, tte^ (MoDt«Ga*coae, 1731).
U, Bbnioni.
Oiy, Matthieu, inquisitor and theologian, b. at
La Caune, 1492; d. at Paris, 1557. Entoring the
Doniinican Order at the a^e of eighteen, he studied
;3 OMKA
65: in tba aJpliKbeUul indei to thi« work Oiy i* oaUad OrtU
Set laNiTiDi LoTOLk „ . „
D. J. KimnDT.
Oucfl Indians. See Siooz.
Oaftkk, Diocese or (OsACHENBts), Osaka {Oy.
great river; saka, cliff), one of the three municipal
prefectures (ken) of Japan, is situated on both banks
of tie Yodo River and along the eastern shore of Ooaka
Bay. The second city in Japan in population, it far.
outstrips all other cities of the empire m wealth, com'
merce, and industries. The name Osaka apparently
dates only from about 1492; previously the town wu
called ^oniu.'Q ("dashingwaves", still used in poetry).
According to our earUest information concerning the
town, not undoubtedly genuine, it received its original
name from Jinmu, first Emperor of Japan, who landed
there about 660 s. c. In a. □. 313 Emperor Nintoku
made it bis capital. Various subsequent emperorv
(L g. Kotoku in 645 and Shomu in 724) also resided
there, but it was only after it had become in the six-
teenth century a great Buddhist religious centre that
the wealth and importance of the city beEan rapidly
to increase. Fortified in 1534, it was the chief strong-
Cabtli. Ouit. Japan
in Uie convent of St-Jacques, Paris, and at the Sor-
bonne, obtaining the licentiate in theology, 6 Feb-
ruary, 1527, His reputation for learning and elo-
quence led to his appointment as grand inquisitor
tor France (1534), an office which he held until his
death. Compelled to pronounce upon false accusa-
tions made against Saint Ignatius Loyola and "The
Spiritual Exercises", he detected the fraud of the
calumniators. Instead of condemning the saint, he
praised and assisted him, and kept tor liimself a copy
of the Exeroises. He was indefatigable in preaching
the Word of God, held several offices in his order, and
combated false , doctrines and evil-doing. Some
writers erroneously call Ory a Spaniard and write
his name Ortiz. The only fully authenticated printed
work of Cry is his "Alexiphannacum" (Paris, 1544;
Venice, 1551-58). In the second part he usea against
the heretics five words of St. Paul, viz. grace, justifi-
cation, sin, liberty, law (no exclusive reference to I
Cor., xiv, 19). Other works attributed to him are;
"OpUBCUlum de imaginibiifl", and "Septem aoholss
contra hsereticce", but Ek;hard does not assign the
places or dates of their publication.
Qn*Tir*HDEcHiKD..SmpioriiOrrf./'nnl,.II (P»ri«, 1721). 182;
BlITCS StNKNBlB. Bibliolhtca SaTicIa (Vimice. ISfifi; Lygm, 159:1; ■
"~ T Smttaiu Jetu pan prima. n'K Iffnatiu
(Rome. 1 SIB):
11 Igjta!iu4 LovoU (LoDdOD, ISID),
hold of the Buddhists during the bloodv peraecutJon
to which they were subjected under NeLuna^. AIL
efforts to dislodge them failed until, in obedience to
the order of the emperor, they yielaed up possession
of the tewn in 1580, The true founder of^the modem
prosperity and importance of Osaka was undoubtedly
Hideyoshi (see Japan). Recognizing that the strate-
gic position of the town would enable him to dominate
the daimyoa of the south and west, he determined to
make Osaka his ca|iital, and built on the site of the
great Buddhist monastery the Castle of Osaka — an
admirable e.xamplc of old Japanese architecture. The
palace whicti he built within this castle has been
placed by some authorities among the most gloriouB
the world has ever seen; it was deliberately oumed
by the Tokugawa party in 1868, before they retreated
to Yedo (now Tokio). Hideyoshi devoted himself
sedulously to the improvement of the town, laying
out new streets and causing the wealthy merchants
of Fushumi and Sakai te immigrate thither. Situated
in the middle of the richest agricultural district of
Japan, the growth of Osaka has been unceasing during
the last three centuries, although ite commercial supre-
macy was for a time imperilled when the seat of govern-
ment was transferred from Kiote to Yedo (1868).
In 1871 a mint was established in Osaka, its manage-
O SALXTTARIS 334 OSBALD
ment being entrusted to European officials. The port five years annihilated the Church in Japan, consult
was opened to foreign trade m 1868, but, as the har- Deplace, "La Catholicisme au Japon", II (Mechlin,
hour was poor and unsuitable for large vessels, Kob6 1909). The first church in Osaka after the reopen-
(20 miles west) attracted most of the foreign commerce ing of Japan to foreigners was erected by Father
especially after the establishment of railway con- Cousin (now Bishop of Nagasaki) in 1869. The ag-
nexion between the cities in 1873. At present, how- nosticism of the Japanese and the general laxity of
ever, an extensive scheme of improvement to render morals constitute formidable obstacles to the growth
the harbour capable of accomodating the largest ves- of Christianity. The mission is entrusted to the
sels is being executed, and, on its completion, Osaka Paris Society of Foreign Missions. It was erected
will take first place in foreign, as in internal commerce, into a diocese on 16 March, 1888, the present bishop
Jud^ng from the rapid growth of its population (821,- being Mgr Jules Chatron (elected 23 July, 1896).
235 m 1898; 1,226,590 m 1908), Osaka should be in the According to the latest statistics the diocese counts:
near future the real metropolis of Japan. Intersected 27 missionaries (3 native), 4 Marianite Brothers, 37
by a myriad of canals, the city is often called the catechists, 16 sisters, 34 stations, 32 churches, 24
** Vemce of the East", while its numerous industries, oratories, 4 schools with 419 pupils, 1 high-school with
among which cotton-spinning occupies a leading posi- 100 pupils, 5 orphanages with 228 inmates, 32 hospi-
tion, has won it the title of the "Manchester of tals, 3711 Christians.
Japan". For bibliography, see Japan and Nagasaki.
The diocese embraces the territory stretching from Thomas Kennedy.
Lake Biwa and the confines of the imperial provinces
of Jetcnidzen, Mino, and Owari to the western shores
of the island of Nippon, together with the adjacent
islands (except Shikoku) belonging to this territory. — ^ r- ~ — ; r j — -— » ^m--
While it was St. Francis Xavier^ intention to proceed nas for the Hour of Lauds in the Ofl&c'e of the Feast
directly to Miako (the modem Kioto), then the reli- of Corpus Christi. This stanza and the final stanza,
gious and political capital of Jcpan, it was not until ov doxology {Uni trinoque domino), have been selected
1559 that Christianity was first preached in the terri- to form a separate hymn for Benediction of the Most
tory by Father Caspar Vilela, S.J., founder of the Blessed Sacrament. Usually, and most appropriately,
Church in Miako. After converting about one hun- it is begun either when the door of the tabernacle is
dred natives and fifteen bonzes, a plot against his liife opened or when the monstrance is being placed on the
necessitated his temporary withdrawal, and the oivil throne of exposition. In England the singing of the
war, which for some years devastated the capital, af- "O Salutaris" is enjoined in the "Ritus servandus",
forded little opportunity for cultivating fUrther the the code of procedure approved by a former synod of
seeds of Christianity. Peace being restored, Christian- the Province of Westminster (see Benediction of the
ity began again to make headway, and in September, Blessed Sacrament). But the use of the hymn, not
1564, we find five churches erected in the neighbour- being prescribed in the rubrics, is not of universal
hood of the capital. By 1574 the number of faithful obligation. It is, however, very generally used, al-
included many in the shogun's palace and even one of though any other appropriate text is permissible, such
his brbthers-in-law. Between 1577 and 1679 the con- as the "Adoro Te devote", the "Pange, lingua", the
verts in the Miako region were estimated at between antiphon "O sacrum convivium" etc. While it is
9000 and 10,000. In 1582 the central provinces con- not forbidden to sing vernacular hymns at Benediction
tained 25.0()0 faithful, ministered to by five fathers the "O Salutaris", being a liturgical text, cannot be
and nine brothers of the Jesuit Order. When Hide- sung in the vernacular (S.R.C., 27 Feb., 1882, Leav-
yoshi determined to transfer the seat of government enworth. Cf. "Am. Eccl., Rev.", April, 1895, 341).
from Kioto to' Osaka, Father Organtino, S.J.. in ac- The hymn is often chosen as a motet for solemn Mass,
cordance with the advice of Justus Ukonaono, a and may thus be used after the proper Ofifertory for the
Christian noble, petitioned the Taiko for a site for day has been sung or recited. An indefensible, but.
a church. His request was grafted and the first fortunately, very rare, custom, perhaps inauguratea
church in Osaka was opened at Christmas, 1583. by Pierre de la Kue, the profound contrapuntal com-
By 1585 the number of nobles baptized at Osaka was poser of the fifteenth century, was that of replacing
sixty-five. On the issue of the T^o's edict banish- the "Benedictus" at Mass by the **0 Salutaris".
ing the missionaries and closing the churches (see Gounod imitated his example in his first ''Mass of
Japan), there were in the ei^teen leagues between the Orph^onistes", but in his second mass of that
Miako and Sakai twenty churches and 35,000 faith- name gives both the "Benedictus" and the "O Salu-
ful. Though no European met with martyrdom dur- taris", as Rossini in his posthumous "Messe Solen-
ing the first persecution, the sufferings of the Chris- nelle" and Prince Poniatowski in his ''Mass in F".
tians were terrible; fifty churches and eight residences The plain-song melody in the eighth mode is beauti-
of the Jesuits in the central provinces were burned, al- f ul, and forms the theme of de la Rue's musical tour
tiiough the churches in Osaka, Miako, and Sakai were deforce in the Mass of that title. The modem settings
spared. Henceforth until the Taiko's death the min- have been very numerous, although not always ser-
istry had to be carried on secretly. In 1593 the Fran- viceable, inasmuch as many are too theatrical for
ciscan embassy from the Phihppines arrived, and church use; others are entirely for solo use, and
erected the Church of Our Lady of Portiuncula and a still others probably violate the prescription of the
hospital for lepers in Miaho. In the n6xt year Francis- Motu Propno of 22 November, 1903, requiring that
cans established the Convent of Bethlehem in Osaka, in hymns the traditional form be preserved. There
(Concerning the persecution following the San FeUpe are about twenty-five poetical versions of the hymn in
incident see Japan; Nagasaki, Diocese of.) From EngUsh.
Hideyoshi's death (1598) to 1613, the Church in Japan H. T. Hbnby.
enjoyed comparative peace. At the court of Hide-
yori, the successor of Hideyoshi, were numerous Chris- Osbald, King of Northumbria, d. 799. Symeon of
tians, several of whom commanded his troops during Durham (Historia Regum) tells us that when Ecfwald,
the bombardment of Osaka (1615). A list of the a pious and iiist king, took up the reins of government
Christians in Miaho, Fushumi, Osaka, and Sakai in Northumbria on the expulsion of EtheLred, Osbald
having been drawn up in 1613, a decree was published with another eorlderman named Athelheard collected
at Mi^o on 1 1 Feb., 1614, ordering all to depart with- a force early in 780 at Seletime (probably Silton in the
in five days. For details of the persecution^ for which North Riding of Yorkshire), and set fire to the house
this decree was the signal and which withm twenty- of Beam, whom Huntingdon and Wendover caU the
0SBALBI8T0N
335
OSCOTT
king's justiciary. In 793 the deacon Alcuin* addressed
an affectionate but forcible letter to King Ethelred,
Osbald, and Osberct, whom he calls most dear friends
and children, urging them to flee from vices which lead
to destruction and practise virtues by which we ascend
to heaven. He points out the terrible lesson to be
learnt from the iniquities and consequent destruction
of former rulers. When Kin^ Ethelbert, who had
been Uberated from exile and reined seven years, was
murdered on 19 April. 796, at Corbe or (Jorebrygge
(Corbridge), Osbald tne "patrician" was chosen by
some of the nobles of his nation as king, but, after a
reign of only twenty-seven days, deserted by all the
royal following and the nobles, he fled and took refuge
with a few others on the island of Lindisfarne. Ear-
dulf was then recalled from exile and crowned in May
at St. Peter's. York, and reined for the next ten
years. Probably, wnen at Lmdisfame, Osbald re-
ceived the letter sent to him in 796 by Alcuin. In
this the latter states that for more than two years he
had endeavoured to persuade Osbald to assume the
monastic habit and fulfil the vow he had taken; but
now he had gained a still worse reputation and more
unhappy events had befallen him. He suspects him
further of the murder oL Ethelred, besides shedding
the blood of nobles and people aUke. He urges him
not to add sin to sin by attempting his restoration to
power. It would be more to his shame to lose his soul
than to desert his impious comrades. Rather he
should endeavour to the utmost to gain the reward not
only of his own conversion, but that of others who
are in exile with him. Finally he begs him frecjuently
to have his letter read to him. Alcuin's advice bore
fruit and Osbald with some brethren sailed from Lind-
isfarne to the land and king of the Picts. He became
an abbot and, on his deaths was buried in the church
at York.
Symeon of Durham** Historia Regum, Surtees Soc., LI (1868).
pp. 25, 37, 211, 210 (alsoin the Rolls Series); Alcuin'* LeUer$ in
r, L.f C-CI, nn. xi and Ixi and notes; Monumenta Alcuin^ ed.
jA#Fi (Berlin, 1864). 184-195. 305.
S. Anselm Parker.
Osbaldeston, Edward, Venerable, English maiv
tyr, b. about 15460; hanged, drawn, and quartered at
York, 16 November, 1594. Son of Thomas Osbaldes-
ton, and nephew of Edward Osbaldeston, of Osbaldes-
ton HalL Blackburn, Lancashire, he went to the
English College of Douai, then at Reims, where he was
ordained deacon in December, 1583, and priest 21 Sep-
tember, 1585. He was sent on the mission 27 Apnl,
1589, and was apprehended at night through the in-
strumentality of an smostate priest named Thomas
Clark at an inn at Tollerton, Yorkshire, upon St.
Jerome's day, 30 September, 1594. He had said his
first Mass on the feast day of St. Jerome, and in con-
sequence had a great devotion to the saint. The
day following his arrest he was taken to York, where
he was tried at the next assizes and attainted of
hi^ treason for being a priest. Bishop Challoner
prints the greater part of a letter addressed by the
martyr to his fellow-prisoners in York Castle, the full
text of which is still e3ctant, and which reveals the
great humiUty and serene trust in God with which he
anticipated his death.
Challoksk, Memoirt of Miasionary PrietU, I. no. 106; Knox,
First and Second Douav Diariet (London, 1878); Catholic Record
Society* 9 Publications, IV (London, 1907) ; Bibl. Diet. Eng. Cath.,y,
John B. Wainewright.
Osbem, hagiographer. s<)metimes confused with
Osbert de Clare aiias Osoein de Westminister, b. at
Canterbury and brought up by Godric, who was dean
from 1058-80. He became a monk, and later, prior
of Christ Church, and was ordained by Archbishop
Lanfranc. He died probably between 1088 and 1093.
He was very skilful in music and is said to have written
two treatises "De re musica" and "De vocum con-
sonantiis" (F6tis, "Biog. Music", Paris, 1870, VI,
383). But he is known best as a translator of saints'
lives from the Anglo-Saxon and as an original writer.
William of Malmesbury (Gesta Regum, II, 166)
praises the elegance of his style. Works: 1. "Vita
S. Alphegi et de translatione S. Alphegi", written at
Lanfran(rs command, about 1080 when there arose
some dispute concerning Alphege's sanctity; it is
printed in "Acta SS.", April, II, 631; in Mabillon,
^' Acta SS. O.S.B.", saec. vi. 104 ; in P. L., CXLIX, 375;
in Wharton, "Anglia Sacra", II, 122; see "Gesta Pon-
tificum", in Rolls Series, 1870, p. 33. 2. "Vita S.
Dunstani" and "Liber Miracuiorum Sancti Dun-
stani", written in 1070; printed in Mabillon op. oit.,
saec. V, 644-84; in "Acta SS.", May, IV, 359; in P. L.,
CXXXVII, 407; and m Stubbs, "Memorials of St.
Dunstan". The life given in Mabillon, op. cit. (p.
684), is probably the work of Eadmer. 3. "Vita S.
Odonis archiepiscopi Cantuariensis ' ' . From William
of Malmesbury's "Gesta Pontif.", in Rolls Series
1870, p. 24. we learn that Osbem wrote Odo's Ufe,
but the work has perished ; the life in P. L., CXXXIII,
831 and Mabillon, op. cit., saec. v, 287 is not his.
Wharton, in his "Anglia Sacra" (London^ 1691),
75-87 published a Ufe of St. Bregwin which waa
wrongly attributed to Osbem.
Stubbs. MemoriaU of S. Dunstan in RoUs Series: introduc-
tion and life; Habdy, Descrip. Catal. of British History (1865);
Wrioht, Biog. Brit. Lit. Anglo-Norman (London. 1846), 26;
KiNOfiFORD in Diet. NcU. Biog. (London, 1909), s. v.; Ceillieb,
Auteurs sacris (Paris, 1858), s. v.
S. Anselm Parker.
Oscott (St. Mart's College). — In 1793, a num-
ber of the Catholic nobility and gentry of England
formed a committee for the establishment of a school
for the education of their sons and the clergy in an
English atmosphere. The buildings at Oscott, in-
tended for the bishop's residence, were accepted for
the projected institution by agreement with Bishop
Thomas Talbot, Vicar Apostolic of the Midland Dis-
trict. Oscott (anciently Auscot) is a hamlet in the
Perry Barr township, m the parish of Handsworth,
about four miles nortn of Birmingham, and at the ex-
treme south of Staffordshire. A mission had been
founded there at the close of the seventeenth century
by Andrew Bromwich, a confessor of the faith.
Dr. John Bew, sometime president of St. Gregory's
College, Paris, was nominated president in February,
1794. The first three boys entered in May, and the
establishment was formally opened in November as
a college for boys and ecclesiastics under the joint
management of a committee of laymen and the bishop
of the district. Structural additions were made, and
the total number of boys rose to thirty-five. The out-
look was gloomy, and when in 1808, the college with
its Uabilities was offered to Bishop Milner, he accepted
it not without reluctance. Thus ended the "Old Gov-
ernment ' ' . The ' ' New Government ' ', under Milner's
strenuous guidance, with Thomas Potts as i)resident
(1808-15) and Thomas Walsh (afterwards bishop of
the district) as spiritual director, speedily changed the
aspect of affairs. Milner invigorated the discipline,
and improved the studies and liturgical observances.
Important additions were made to the building, and the
chapel of the Sacred Heart, the first on English soil,
was opened in 1820. Francis Quick, a convert, held
the office of president from 1816 to 1818. On the
death of Bishop Milner in 1826, the president. Thomas
Walsh (1818-1826) became Vicar Apostohc of the
Midland District, and Henry Weedall became presi-
dent (1825-40). Under the direction of the pious and
courteous Weedall, the man who more than any other
created the spirit of Oscott, the institution progressed
till the buildings were no longer able to accommodate
the number of pupils. Plans of a new college, on the
lines of Wadham College, Oxford, were prepared by
Joseph Potter^ the cathedral architect of Lichfield. A
rich and providential bequest, together with the gifts
OSCOTT
336
OSCOTT
of I the clergy and faithful, supplied the means; and in
less than three years a stately Gothic pile arose on an
eminence two miles from the old college. The new
edifice is situated at the extreme north of Warwick-
shire, some six miles from the centre of Birmingham,
and was built on a piece of ground overgrown with
heather and gorse at the edge of the Sutton Coldfield
common. The name of Oscott has been transferred to
the new site, previously associated with the name of
Jordan's Grave. Bishop Wiseman succeeded Weedall
in 1S40. His reputation as a scholar and his knowl-
edge of me^ and affairs made his appointment in the
early days of the Oxford Movement most opportune.
Durinp; the forties and onwards, Oscott afforded the
inconune clergymen from the Establishment a wel-
come, a Home, and a place of study. In those years we
meet with the names of Le Page Renouf. St. Georpe
Mivart, John. Brande Morris, H. M. Walker, T. Wil-
kinson, D. H. Haigh, C. Cholmondely, E. Estcourt, B.
Smith etc. Augustus Welbv Pugin, himself a con-
vert^ taught and worked at Oscott. The saintly Pas-
siomst Father Dominic was received there when he
came over from Italy to convert England in Novem-
ber, 1840. Father Ignatius Spencer resided and exer-
cised a fruitful apostolate in the college from 1839 to
1846. Cardinal Newman referred gratefully to the
fact that just after he had been received into the
Church by Father Dominic at Littlemore, he "at once
found himself welcomed and housed at Oscott." In
February, 1846, Newman and his community re-
moved to Old Oscott at the suggestion of Bishop
Wiseman. Newman called the old college "Mary-
vale", a name which it still bears. There they re-
mained till 1849.
Henry F. C. Logan was president from 1847 to 1848,
John Moore from 1848 to 1853, and Mgr Weedall from
1853 to 1859. The first Provincial Synod of the re-
stored hierarchy of Westminster took place at Oscott
in the summer of 1852, on which occasion Dr. New-
man preached the sermon entitled "The Second
Spring". The second and third Provincial Synods
were fikewise held there in 1855 and 1859. After the
presidency of George Morgan (1859-60) a distin-
guished period in the life of the college opened in the
autumn of 1860, with the appointment of James Spen-
cer Northcote. A scholar, a gentleman, an ideal edu-
cator, brought up amid the culture of O^dford, and
since his conversion in 1846 saturated with the spirit
of ancient Christian Rome, he was eminently the man
for the time. He developed the scholastic work of the
collep^e, and brought it into line with the non-Catholic
Subhc schools. In 1863 Cardinal Wiseman and Mp.
lanning took part in the celebration of the silver ju-
bilee of the new college. After Northcote's retirement
in 1877 on account of ill health, John Hawksford
(1877-80), Edward Acton (1880-4). and Mer. J.
H. Souter (1885-9) carried on ana expanded the
tradition they had inherited. But a new fashion, the
memory doubtless of the Fitzgerald v. Northcote trial,
and of the two outbreaks of sickness in the sixties, ana
the opening of the Oratory School at Edgbaston (May,
1859) under the direction of Dr. Newman, told against
them. The roll of students declined steadily, and not-
withstanding the enthusiastic celebration of the golden
jubilee of the new college in 1888, the venerable insti-
tution was closed in July, 1889, to be opened in the
September following as the ecclesiastical seminary for
the Diocese of Birmingham.
The high prestige which St. Mary's College enjoyed
for so long a time is due to the number of distinguished
families of England, Ireland, and other countries,
whose sons were educated within its walls, and to the
solid piety and fine courteous tone by which Oscotians
were recognised. Oscott counts among its alumni one
cardinal and twenty bishops, many members of Par-
Uamentj and others distinguished in the diplomatic
and mihtary services.
In accord with the movement promote by the early
provincial synods of Westminster, Bishop Ullathome
established in 1873 the Birmingham diocesan semi-
nary at Olton, a few miles south of Birmingham. He
placed the Rev. Edward Ilsley (now bishop of the dio-
cese) over it as rector, while he himself personally di-
rected its spirit. The institution flourished, though
the number of students averaged but twenty. Mean-
while Oscott maintained its own school of philoso-
phers and theolo^ans. Oscott, like Olton, suffered
from financial strain. With a bold stroke Bishop Ils-
ley closed Oscott as a mixed college, sold the seminary
buildings and estate, and gathered all his seminarists
and teaching staff into the one greater seminary of St.
Mary's, Oscott. The new institution began with
thirty-six students in September, 1889, under the rec-
torship of the bishop. Subjects from other dioceses
arrived, and in a year or two a maximum of eighty-
six was reached. This success, combined with the ad-
vantages of a centra] position, a splendid site, commo-
dious buildings, a beautiful chapel, and a ricn library,
led in 1897 to the conversion of Oscott, on the urgent
initiative of Cardinal Vaughan, into a central seminary
for seven of the midland and southern dioceses of Eng-
land, with Mgr. H. Parkinson as rector. The institution
did its work well and progressively until the death of
Cardinal Vaughan, when a new poucy of concentration
of diocesan resources commend^ itself to the ecclesias-
tical authorities^ and the dissolution of the central sem-
inary followed m 1909. From that date Oscott has
continued its earlier work as the diocesan seminary,
though admitting, as had been its custom, subjects
from other dioceses. In the Birmingham seminary
the lectures in theology and philosophy have invan-
ably been given in Latin, and the usual scholastic dis-
cussions have supplemented the lectures. The course
has been gradually improved by the extension of phi-
losophy to three years, by the addition of two years of
physical science in connexion with philosophy. Ascet-
ical theology has been taught regularly since 1873.
Hebrew, Greek, Elocution, the history of philosophy
and of reUgion, and also social science take their proper
places in the curriculum. "Recreative" lectures by
outsiders are frequently given, and the ''Exchange
lectures, delivered alternately at Stonyhurst and at
Oscott by the professors of each institution, have pro-
vided fruitful opportunities of intercourse.
The interior aspect of the college is like a glimpse of
the old Catholic world. The windows of the cloisters
and refectonr are blazoned with the armorial bearings
of ancient Catholic families. The walls are adom^
with 260 oil paintings of religious subjects, mainly the
gift of John, sixteenth Earl of Shrewsbury. Its libra-
ries of 30,000 volumes include the "Harvington" li-
brary, datins back to the middle of the ei^teenth cen-
tury, the " Marini" library, purchased in Rome for the
college in 1839 at the cost of £4,000, a valuable collec-
tion of early printed books, early books on the English
Martyrs, the "Kirk" collection, MSS. and pamphlets,
and the "Forbes" collection of Oriental and other
memoirs, consisting in all of sixty large folio volumes.
Among the numerous treasures of ecclesiastical art
may be mentioned the collection of embroidery of the
fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries, the
sUver-gilt monstrance by an Antwerp artist of 1547,
valued at £2,000, and the massive bronze lectern
(early sixteenth century) from St. Peter's Lou vain,
which is an artistic achievement of the highest excel-
lence.
ThbOscotian, 1825-28, new series, 1881-88, third series, 1900;
HuBXNBETH, The History of Sedgley Park School (Loodon. 1856);
loBM, Life of Mgr. Weedall (London, 1860); Idem, Life of Milncr
Shiblin. 1862); Grcanet. The Buildings, Museum etc., of St.
ary's College, Oecott (Birmingham, 1899); Idem. A Catalogue
of the Works of Art and ArUiquitj/ of St. Mary's College (Birmins*
ham, 1880) ; Parkinson, St. Mary's College, OscoU in The CathoRe
University Bulletin (March and April, 1909) ; Ward. The Lift
and Times of Cardinal Wiseman (London, 1897).
Henby Pabkjnaon...
OSB
337
OSEI
Otea. — Name and Country : Osee (Hfished* — Sal-
vation), son of Beeri, was one of the Minor Prophets,
and a subject of the Ephraimite Kingdom which he
calls "the land", whose king is for him "our king",
and the localities of which are familiar to him, while he
speaks of Juda but seldom and does not even make
mention of Jerusalem.
Time of his Ministry: — According to the title of
the book^ Osee prophesied during the reign of Jero-
boam II m Israel, and in the time of Ozias. Joatham,
Achaz, and Ezechias, kings of Juda, hence irom about
750 to 725 B. c. The title, however, is not quite satis-
factory and does not seem to be the original one, or, at
least, to have been preserved in its primitive form.
'None of the histoiicat allusions with which the proph-
ecy is filled appears to be connected with any event
later than the reign of Manahem (circa 745-735);
there is nothing concerning the Syro-Ephraimite war
against Juda, nor the terrible intervention of Tiglath-
Pileser III (734-733). The era of the Prophet, there-
fore, if it is to be judged from his writings, ought to be
placed about 750-735; he was perhaps contempora-
neous with the closing vears of Amos and cert&inly with
the first appearance of Isaias. 1 he reign of Jeroboam
II was marked iy great and glorious external prosper-
ity; but this prosperity contributed to make the polit-
ical and religious decadence more rapid. Political
dissolution was approaching. Zachary, son of Jero-
boam, was assassinated after a reign of six months.
His murderer, Sellum, retained the sceptre but one
month, and was put to death by Manahem, who occu-
pied the throne for ten years, 745-735. Israel was
nastening to its ruin, which was to be completed by
the taking of Samaria by Sargon (722).
The Book of Osee: — It always occupies the first
place among the twelve minor prophets, most prob-
ably on account of its length. In point of time Amos
preceded it. The book is di video into two distinct
Sarts: cc. i-iii, and cc. iv-xiv. (a) In the first part,
►see relates how^ by order of Jahve, he wedded Gomer,
a "wife of f ormcations ". daughter of Debelaim, in
order to have of her "children of fornications " : — sym-
bols, on the one hand, of Israel, the unfaithful spouse
who gave to Baal the nomage due to Jahve alone; and,
on the other, figures of the children of Israel, who in
the eyes of Jahve. are but adulterous children. The
outraged husband incites the children against their
guilty mother, whom he prepares to punidi: while for
the children themselves is reserved a fate in keeping
with their origin. The first is named Jezrahel — the
reigning dynasty is about to expiate the blood shed by
its ancestor Jehu in the valley of Jezrahel. The second
is a daughter, L6-Ruhamah, "disgraced '' Jahve will be
p'acious no more to his people. The third is called L6-
Ammt, " not my people" — Jahve will no longer recog-
nize the children of Israel as his people. However,
mercy will have the last word. Osee is commanded to
receive Gomer again and to prepare her, by a tempo-
rary retirement, to renew conjugal intercourse — Israel
was to prepare herself in captivity to resume with
Jahve the relationship of husband and wife.
Is the marriage of Osee historical or purely allegori-
cal? The hypothesis most in favour at present says
that the marnage is historical, and the grounds for it
are, (I) the obvious sense of the narrative; (2) the ab-
sence of any symbolical sense in the words Gomer and
Debelaim; (3) that the second child is a daughter. It
appears to us, however, with Davidson (Hastings,
"Diet, of the Bible "^ II, 421 sqq.) and Van Hoonacker,
that the first reason is not convincing. A careful read-
ing of cc. i-iii discloses the fact that the action is ex-
tremely rapid, that the events are related merely in
order to express a doctrine, and, moreover, they appear
to take place within the single time requisite to one or
two speeches. And yet, u these events are real, a
large part of the Prophet's hfe must have been spent
in these unsavoury circumstances. And again, the
XI.— 23
names of the children appear to have been bestowed
just at the time that their meaning was explained to
the people. This is especially the case with regard
to the last child: "Call his name. Not my ()eople:
for you are not my people. . . ." Another rea-
son for doubting this hypothesis is that it is
difficult to suppose that God ordered His Prophet to
take an unfaithful wife merely with a view to her being
unfaithful and bearing him adulterous children. And
how are we to explain the fact that the prophet re-
tained her notwithstanding her adultery till after the
birth of the third child, and again received her after
she had been in the possession of another? That the
second child was a daughter may be explained b^
dramatic instinct, or by some other sufficiently plausi-
ble motive. There remain the names Gomer and De-
belaim. Van Hoonacker proposes as possible trans-
lations: consummation (immment ruin), doomed to
terrible scourges; or, top (of perversity), addicted to
the cakes of figs (oblations offered to Baal) . Nestle also
translates Bath Debelaim by daughter of the cakes of
figs, but in the sense of a woman to be obtained at a
small price (Zeitsch. fur alttest. Wissenschaft, XXIX,
233 seq.). These are but conjectures; the obscurity
may be due to our ignorance. Certain it is at least
that the allegorical meaning, adopted b^ St. Jerome,
satisfies critical exigencies and is more m conformity
with the moral sense. The doctrinal meaning is iden-
tical in either case and that is the only consideration of
real importance.
(b) The second part of the book is thepractical and
detailed application of the first. Van Hoonacker di-
vides it into three sections, each of which terminated
with a promise of salvation (iv-vii, la . . . vii, lb . . .
xi . . . xii-xiv). We may accept thiis division if we also
admit his ingenious interpretation of vi, 11 — viii, la: —
And yet Juda, I shall graft on thee a branch (of Eph-
raim) when I shall re-establish my people; when I shall
heal Israel. In the first section he speaks almost
exclusively of rehgious and moral corruption. The
princes and especially the priests are chiefly respon-
sible for this and it is on them that the punish-
ment will principally fall; and as he speaks simply
of the "house of the king" it would appear that
the dynasty of Jehu still occupied the tnrone. It
is different in the following chapters. In vii, la-
viii, the political and social disorders are espe-
cially emphasized. At home there are conspiracies,
regicides, anarchy, while abroad alliances with foreign
powers are sought. No doubt Menahem was already
reigning. And yet the reUgious disorders remained
the principal object of the prophet's reprobation. And
in spite of all. mercy ever retains its prerogatives.
Jahve will gatner together again some day His scat-
tered children. In the last section it is felt that the
final catastrophe is close at hand ; and, nevertheless,
once again, love remains victorious. The book ends
with a touching exhortation to the people to turn to
God who on His part promises the most tempting
blessings. An epiphonema reminds at last every one
that the good and the wicked shall receive the retribu-
tion each has merited.
Style and Text. — St. Jerome has described in a
few words the style of our Prophet: "Osee commati-
cus est, et quasi per sententias loquens.'' (P. L.,
XXVIII, 1015.) An intense emotion overpowers the
Prophet at the sight of his dying country. He mani-
fests this grief in short broken phrases with little logi-
cal sequence, but in which is revealed a tender and
afflicted heart. Unfortunately the notorious obscu-
rity of the Prophet hides many details from our view;
this obscurity is due also to many allusions which we
cailnot grasp, and to the imperfect condition of the text.
The question has been raised as to whether we possess
it at least in its substantial integrity. Some critics
claim to have discovered two main series of interpola-
tions; tiie first, of small extent, consists of texts rela-
1
OSIMO
338
OSIMO
live to Juda; the second, which is of far greater im-
portance, consists of the Messianic passages which, it
IS said, lie outside the range of the prophet's vision. It
is possible to detect several probable glosses in the
first series: the second assertion is purely arbitrary.
The Messianic texts have all the characteristics of
Osee's style; they are closely connected with the con-
text and are entirely in accordance with his general
doctrines.
Teaching. — It is fundamentally the same as that
of Amos: — the same strict Monotheism, the same ethi-
cal conception which paves the way for the Beali pau-
per es anci the worship which must be in spirit and in
truth. Only Osee lays much more stress on the idolatry
which perhaps had been increased in the interval ana
was in any case better known to the Ephraimite
Prophet than to his Judean predecessor. And Amos
had in return a much more extended historical and
feographical horizon. Osee sees but the dying Israel,
lis characteristic point of view is the bond between
Jahve and Israel. Jahve is the spouse of Israel, the
bride of Jahve, — a profoundly philosophical and mys-
tical image w^hich appears here for the first time and
which we find again in Jeremias, Ezechiel, Canticle of
Canticles, Apocalypse, etc.
(a) The Ancient Alliance. — Jahve has taken to Him-
self His spouse by redeeming her out of the bondage of
E^3T3t. He has united Himself to her on Sinai. The
bnde owed fidelity and exclusive love, tnist, and obedi-
ence to the spouse; but alas! how has she observed the
conjugal compact? Fidelity. — She has prostituted
herseU to the baals and Astartes, degrading herself to
the level of the infamous practices of the Canaanite
high places. She has worsnipped the calf of Samaria
and has given herself up to every superstition. No
doubt she has also paid homage to Jahve, but a hom-
age wholly external and carnal instead of the adora-
tion which must be above all things internal and
which He Himself exacts: "With their flocks, and with
their herds they shall go to seek the Lord, and shall
not find him . . ."(v, 6). " For I desired mercy and
not sacrifice: and the knowledge of God more than
holocausts" (vi, 6). Trust has failed in like manner.
Costly alliances were sought with other nations as
though the protection of the spouse were not sufficient:
— ' * Ephraim hath given gif te to his lovers ( viii , 9) . He
hath made a covenant with the Assyrians, and carried
oil into Egypt " ( Vulg. , xii, 1 ) . The very favours which
she has received from Jahve in her mgratitude'she
ascribes to false gods. She said: "I will go after mv
lovers, that gave me my bread, and my water, my wool,
and my flax (Vulg., ii, 5) . Obedience : — All the laws
which govern the pact of union have been violated:
"Shall I write to nim [Ephraim] my manifold laws,
which have been accounted as foreign" (viii, 12). It
is a question here at least primarily of the Mosaic le^-
lation. Osee and Amos m spite of contrary opimon
knew at least in substance the contents of the Penta-
teuch. Anarchy is therefore rife in politics and religion :
"They have reigned but not by me: they have been
princes, and I knew not: of their silver, and their gold
they have made idols to themselves" (viii, 4).
The root of all these evils is the absence of "knowl-
edge of God " (iv-v) for which the priest especially and
the princes are to blame, an absence of theoretical
knowledge no doubt, but primarily of the practical
knowledge which has love for its object. It is the ab-
sence of this practical knowledge chiefly that Osee
laments. The Prophet employs yet another symbol
for the bond of union. He sets forth in some exquisite
lines the symbol of the chosen son. Jahve has given
birth to Israel by redeeming it out of the bondage of
^Sypt- He has borne it in his ^*ms, has guided its
first feeble steps and sustained it with bonds of love; he
has reared and nourished it (xi, 1 sq.) and the only re-
turn made by Ephraim is apostasy. Such is the his-
tory of the covenant. The day of retribution is at
hand; it has even dawned in anarchy, civil war, and
every kind of scourge. The consummation is immi-
nent. It would seem that repentance itself would be
upable to ward it off. As later Jeremias, so now Osee
announces to his people with indescribable emotion the
final ruin: Jezrahel "Disgraced", "Not my people."
The children of Israel are about to go into exue, there
they "shall sit many days without king, and without
prince, and without sacrifice, and without aJtar, and
without ephod and without teraphim" (iii, 4). Na-
.tional authority shall come to an end and public na-
tional religion will be no more.
(b) The New Covenant. — Yet the love of Jahve will
change even this evil into a remedy. The unworldly
princes, now separated from the people, will no longer'
draw them into sin. The disappearance of the exter-
nal national religion will cause the idolatrous sacri-
fices, symbols, and oracles to disappear at the same
time. And the road will be open to salvation: it will
come "at the end of days". Jahve cannot aoandon
forever His chosen son. At the very thought of it He
is filled with compassion and his heart is stirred within
him. Accordingly after having been the lion which
roars against his suilty people He will roar against
their enemies, and His children will come at the sound
of His voice from all the lands of their exile (xi, 10 sq.).
It will be, as it were, a new exodus from Egypt.
Juda will be reinstated and a remnant of the tribe of
Ephraim shall be joined with him (vi, 11 — vii, la).
"The children of Israel shall return and shall sedc
the Lord their God, and David their kin^;" (iii, 5).
The new alliance shall never be broken: it shall be
contracted in justice and in righteousness, in kindness
and in love, in fidelity and knowledge of God.
There shall be reconciliation with nature and peace
among men and with God. Prosperity and un-
Umited extension of the people of God shall come to
pass, and the children of tms new kingdom shall be
called the sons of the living God. Great shall be the
day of Jezrahel (the day when "God will sow' ') ; (ch.
ii), ch. i, 1-3 (Vulg., i, 10 — ^ii, 1) ought likely to be set at
the end of ch. ii. Cf . Condamin in "Revue biblique",
1902, 386 sqq. This is an admirable sketch of the
Church which Christ is to found seven and a half
centuries later. The doctrine of Osee, like that of
Amos, manifests a transcendence which his historical
and religious surroundings cannot explain. Digitus
Dei est hie.
Among Catholic coramentariea cf. especially Van Hoonackbr,
Les dome petita pr ophites (Paria, 1908). Among Protestant workjB
Harper, A Criiieal and Exegeiical Commentary on Amot and
Hoaea (Edinburgh, 1005), a oommentuy of Liberal tendencies.
Jean CalIjs.
Osixno, Diocese of (Auximana), in the Province
of Ascoli Piceno, Italy. Osimo was contained in the
territory of the Donation of Pepin. In the conflicts
between the popes and the Swabian emperors, it was
Ghibelline; but remained faithful when in 1375, at the
instigation of the Florentines, nearly all the cities of
the Pontifical States rebelled against the Holy See.
Among other rulers it had Pandolfo Malatesta (1416);
Francesco Sforza (1435); and finally, Buccolino, who
surrendered the city to the Holy See in 1494. Kem-
nants of the Roman walls and baths' still exist: the
cathedra] is of the eighth century, restored ana en-
larged by Bishop Gentilis (1205) ; the baptistery of the
church of St. John the Baptist is notable; the com-
munal palace possesses a collection of inscriptions; the
Collegio Campana had among it43 students Leo XII
and Pius VIII. Saints Florentius, Sisinnius, and
Diocletius were martyrs of Osimo; the city venerates
as its first bishop St. Leopard us^ of unknown era; the
first bishop of certain date is Fortunatus (649).
Among its prelates were Vitalianus (743), and Gen-
tilis (1177). Gregory IX transferred the see to
Ricanati in 1240 to punish Osimo for its felony, but
Bishop Rinaldo persuaded Urban IV to restore the
i
.s again suppresaed, the bishops residing at
Cingoli; Urban VI reatored the diocese, and among
its subsequent bishops were Antanino tlgohno Sini-
baldi (1498); Cardinal Antonio M. GaUi (1591): and
the DominioaD Cardinal Galamioi (1620). Under
Albedense" mentions Felmirus, Bishop of Osraa, in
the time of Alfonso III (821).
The succession was then lost until Femin Gonsales,
Count of Castile, conquered Osma, placing ii
(XIII Cektdr
Bishop Agostino Pipia, Benedict XIII re-established
the Dioceae of Ciugali, uniting it to that of Onmo.
Cingoli, an ancient city of Piceno, is frequently
named in connexion with the war between Cteaar and
Pompey; its cathedral of Santa Maria is of the seven-
teenth century ; the Gothic church of Sant' Eeuperaniio
Is a notable temple. The first known bishop of this see
was Theodosius (495) succeeded by JuUanus, who ac-
companied Pope Vigiliua to Constantinople in 544;
between the dat«s of Theodosius and Julianus is
known. The Dioccse.of Osinio is subject directly to
the Holy See: it has 34 parishes, with 49,200 inhabi-
tants, 2 religious houses of men, and 4 of women, 2
Ollus. See Hosius of Cordova.
Oaina, Diocese of (Oxomekbis), borders Burgos
and LogroQo on the north, Soria and Saragossa on the
east. Soria and Guadalajara on the south, and Segovia
on tne west; and includes the civil provinces of Soria
and Burgos, with a small portion of Segovia. It is
the ancient Uxaoia and baa 1250 inhabit^ts. Burgo
de Osma, the episcopal see, has 3000. The origin of
the dioce«e is obscure: some refer it to St, James the
Apostle, others to the reign of Constantine the Great.
Fl6reE alleges it only as probable" that it existed in
the first centuries, when bishops, to escape persecu-
tion, used to estabUah their sees in obscure places;
hence it might have been selected rather than Clunia,
the capital of a judicial district, John, Bishop of
Osma, signed the acts of the Svnod of Toledo, in 597:
Gregory signed at the synod of 610; Gila signed
the acts of the fourth and mth Councils of Toledo, and
sent as his delegate to the eighth, Godescaichus, who
afterwards succeeded him, and signed the eleventh;
Severian signed at the twelfth, and Sonna at the
thirteenth and sixteenth. After the Arab invasion
the bishops of Osma continued, as titulars, in Asturias:
a letter against Adoptionism, addressed to Elipandus,
Archbishop of Toledo, is signed by Eterius, Bishop
of Osma, and Beatus, a priest. The "Cnronicon
French monk. Bisnop of Osma. Then began pro-
tracted boundary disputes with the Bishops of Oca
and of Bupgos, compromised at the Council of Husil-
los, in Palencia, in 10S8; others followed with the
Bishops of SigUenia and of Taraiona, to whose juris-
diction Alfonso the Fighter assigned the territon'
taken from Castile, finally settled in the time of Al-
fonso VII, at a council at Burgoa, where Cardinal
Guido was present as papal legate. After Vituris, the
sec was occupied by Pedro, formerly arcHdeacon of
Toledo, canonized ss St. Peter of Osma. Finding the
old church in ruins he chose as the site for a new one
El Espinar, His successor, the Frenchman, Raymond
Salviti, continued the boundary controversy and the
building of the church, and, having been transferred
to the See of Toledo, was succeeded by Beltrdn (1128).
To provide for the building of his church. Bishop
BeitrSn obtained a commutation of the Vow of San-
tiago for a visit and alms to Osma: he also founded the
Confraternity of the True Cross, the brethren of which
bound themselves to leave l^acies for the building
of the cathedral.
Bishop Diego de Acebes accompanied St, Domi-
nic agamst the Albigenses, In 1232 Bishop Juan
Domin^cc, finding the cathedral again too amall,
rebuilt it, with the exception of some cloister chapels,
still to be seen, spared out of respect for the memory
of 8t, Peter of Osma. It is in the transition style from
Romaneaque to ogival, with later improvements and
additions. Pedro Gonialez, Cardinal de Mendoza,
Bishop of Osma in 1478, built the marble pulfiit.
Bishop Pedro Acoeta, who hod previously occupied
the See of Oporto, brought with him tne Italian
Giovanni di Juni, who (1540) embellished the re-table
of the high altar with figures of St. Peter of Osma and
St. Dominic, and also dem^ed the university. Bishop
Acosta founded (1557), in Arandb de Duero, the
"Sancti Spiritus" convent of the Dominicans, and
the chapel of the Santo Ctisto del Milagro, originally
designed as a chapel of St, Dominic de Guimin. The
organ on the right is the gift of Bishop Martin Carrillo
in 1641, that on the left, of the chapter in 1765. The
cbapel of the Chsto del Milagro contains an altar and
re-table, with an inscription giving the traditional
legend, built by Bishop Andn^ de Soto. With the
assistance of Bishop Garcia de Lo^sa, Mclendez de
Gumiel, Dean of Osma, built the chapel of St, Peter,
now the chief patron of the diocese. The chapel of
Out Lady of the Thom-buah, planned by Bishop
Pedro Arastegui, corre^onds to the Santo Christo,
In 1506, Bi^op Alonso Enriquez, rebuilt the cloisters.
Between 1736 and 1744 Pedro Agustin de la Cuadra
built the new tower adjoining the west wall in the
Barocque style. Joaquin de Electa, confessor to
Charles III, built a chapel for Juan de Palafox, Bishop
of Osma, completed in 1781. The frescoes are by
Mariano Maella.
The bishops of Osma were formerly lords of the
city. At the petition of Bishop John II, Alfonso VIII
issued a warrant confirming the lordship to the cathe-
dral chapter, and left instructions that the lordship
of 0«na, with its castle, should be ^ven to Bishop
Mendo (1210-25) in recompense for his services at the
battle of Las Navss de Tolosa (1212), King John
I granted the castle of Osma to Bishop Pedro Gonzalez
de Frias, Bishop Pedro de Montoya surrounded Burgo
with a wall, in 1456. Bishop Pedro Alvarez de
Acoeta founded the univeisity at his own expense, and
in 1578, adjacent to the cathedral, the coosiatorial
081CUND
340
OSMUND
buildings, prison, and public granary. Bishop Se-
bastian Perez (1582-83) transferred the seminary
from the college of the university to the Casas del
Cortijo (FarmBuildinm), and Fernando de Acebedo
(161(V-15) began the Seminary of S. Domingo de
Guzmdn, which Bishop Joaquin Eleta reconstructed
in 1783 after plans made by the engineer Sebastini.
Sebastian de Ar^valo rebuilt the Hospital of S. Agus-
tfn, founded in 1468 by Pedro de Montoya.
Soria, the capital, disputes with Osma the right to
the episcopal see. There is the church of S. Pedro, re-
stored by Alfonso I of Araron, in 1108, and made col-
legiate in 1 152 by John II, Bishop of Osma. Over the
altar of the retro-choir is an '' Entombment of Christ '',
by Titian. It was rebuilt by Bishop Acosta. Near
Soria are the Romanesque ruins of the monastery of
S. Juan de Duero and tne hermitage of St. Saturius,
gatron of 'the city. The convent of La Merced at
oria once had for its superior the dramatist Gabriel
Tellez (Tirso de Molina), to whom are due the build-
ing and painting of the sacristy of Nuestra Seftora de
la Merced.
CorvalIn, DeKripddn hiat&riea dd 0b%9vodo de Otma (Madrid,
1788); DE Ouib6b, Vida de S. Pedro de Otma; Fl6res. EapaAa
BOffradat VII (Madrid, 1789); Rabal, Bapafia, tut fiumumentoe
. . . Soria (Baroel(ma, 1889); Db la Fuxntb, Hietoria de ku
Univertidadee de J?«pa#ki, II (Madrid, 1885); Biofn^/ia edetide-
Uca (Madrid. 1848-68).
, Ram6n Ruiz Am ado.
Osmund, Saint, Bishop of Salisbury, d. 1099; his
feast is kept on 4 Dec. Osmund held an exalted posi-
tion in Normandy, his native land, and according to a
late fifteenth-centurv document was the son of Henry,
Count of S^es, and Isabella, daughter of Robert, Duke
of Normandy, w6o was the father of William the Con-
queror (Sarum Charters, 373). With his uncle, the
king, he came over to England, proved a trusty coun-
sellor, and was made chancellor of the re^m. The
same document calls him Earl of Dorset. He was
employed in many civil transactions and was engaged
as one of the chief commissioners for drawing up the
Domesday Book. He became Bishop of Sarum, vir-
tually WilliEim's choice, by authority of Gregory VII
and was consecrated by Lanfranc in 1078. This dio-
cese comprised the Counties of Dorsetshire^ Wiltshire,
and Berkshire, for in 1058 the old Bishoprics of Sher-
borne and Ramsbury had been united under Bishop
Hermann and the see transferred to Old Sarum. This
is described as a fortress rather than a city, placed on a
high hill, surrounded by a massive wall ('^Gest.
Pontif '\ 183) and Peter le Blois refers to the Castle
and Church as "the ark of God shut up in the temple
of Baal ". In 1086 Osmund was present at the Great
Gem6t held at Old Sarum when the Domesday Book
was accepted and the great landowners swore fealty to
the sovereign (see Freeman, "Norman Conquest*')-
He died in the night of 3 Dec., 1099, and was succeeded,
after the see had been vacant for eight years, by Roger,
a crafty and time-serving statesman. His remains
were buried at Old Sarum, translated to New Salis-
bury on 23 July, 1457, and deposited in the Lady
Chapel where his sumptuous shrine was destroyed un-
der Henry VIII. A nat slab with the simple inscrip-
tion MXCIX has lain in various parts of the cathedral.
In 1644 it was in the middle of the Lady Chapel. It
is now under the eastern-most arch on the south side.
Osmund's work was threefold: — (1) The building
of the cathedral at Old Sarum, which was consecrated
on 5 Apr.. 1092. Five days afterwards a thunderstorm
entirely destroyed the roof and greatly damaged the
whole fabric. (2) The constitution of a cathedral
body. This was framed on the usual Norman model,
with dean, precentor, chancellor, and treasurer, whose
duties were exactly defined, some thirty-two canons,
a subdean, and succentor. All save the last two were
bound to residence. These canons were "secular'',
each living in his own house. Their duties were to be
special companions and advisers of the bishop, to carry
out with fitting solemnity the full round of liturgical
services and to do missionary work in the surround-
ing districts. There was formed a school for clersy of
which the chancellor was the head. The cathedralwas
thoroughly constituted "the Mother Church" of the
diocese, "a city set on a hill". Osmund's canons were
renowned for their musical talent and their zeal for
learning, and had great influence on the foundation of
other cathedral bodies. (3) The formation of the
"Sarum Use ". In St. Osmund's day there were many
other "Uses" (those of York, Hereford, Bangor, and
Lincoln remained) and other customs peculiar to local
churches, and the number was increased by the influx
of Normans under William. Osmund invented or
introduced little himself, though the Sarum rite had
some peculiarities distinct from that of other churches.
He made selections of the practices he saw round him
and arranged the ofiices and services. Intended pri-
marily for his own diocese, the Ordinal of Osmund,
regulating ^'he Divine Ofiice, Mass, and Calendar^as
used, within a hundred year^, almost throughout Eng-
land. Wales, and Ireland, and was introduced into
Scotland about 1250. The unifying influence of the
Norman Conquest made its spread more easy. It
held general approval until in Mary's reign so many
clergy obtainea particular licences from Cardinal Pole
to say the Roman Breviary that this became univer-
sally received. The "Register of St. Osmund" is a
collection of documents without any chronological
arrangement, gathered together after his time, di-
vided roughly into two pait^: the "Consuetudinary"
(Rolls Series, 1-185, and in Rock. vol. Ill, 1-110),
styled "De Officiis Ecclesiasticis'', and a series of
documents and charters, all more or less bearing on
the construction of the cathedral at Old Sarum, the
foundation of the cathedral body, the treasures be-
longing to it, and the history of dependent churches.
The existing "CJonsuetudinary ' was taken from an
older copy, re-arranged with additions and modifica-
tions and ready probably when Richard Poore conse-
crated the cathedral at New Salisbury in 1225. A
copy, almost verbatim the same as this, was taken
from the older book for the use of St. Patrick's, Dublin,
which was erected into a cathedral and modelled on
the church at Sarum by Henry de Loundres who was
bishop from 1213-28. This is given by Todd in the
British Magazine (vols, xxx and xxxi).
William of Malmesbury in summing up Osmund's
character says he was "so eminent for cnastity that
common fame would itself blush to speak otherwise
than truthfully concerning his virtue. Stern he might
appear to penitents, but not more severe to them than
to himself. Free from ambition, he neither impru-
dently wasted his own substance, nor sought the
wealth of others" (Gest. Pontif., 184). He gathered
together a good library for his canons and even as a
bishop did not disdain to transcribe and bind books him-
self. At one time Osmund thought Archbishop Anselm
too unyielding and needlessly scrupulous in the dis-
pute concerning investitures and in 1095 at the (Coun-
cil of Rockingham favoured the king. But after the
Lateran Council in 1099, he boldly sided with the
archbishop and the beautiful anecdote is related,
showing his simple sincerity, how when Anselm was
on his way to Wmdsor, Osmund knelt before him and
received his forgiveness. He had a great reverence
for St. Aldhelm who 300 years before as Bishop of
Sherborne had been Osmund's predecessor. He offici-
ated at the saint's translation to a more fitting shrine
at Midmesbury and helped Lanfranc to obtain his
canonization. Abbot Warin gave him a bone of the
left arm of St. Aldhelm which he kept at Sarum where
miracles were wrought. In 1228 the Bishop of Sarum
and the canons applied to Gregory IX for Osmund's
canonization but not until some 200 years afterwards
on 1 Jan., 1457, was the Bull issued by Callistus III.
In 1472 a special indulgence was granted by Sixtus IV
O8NABB0CK
341
osnabbOck
for a visit to his cathedral on his festival and a convo-
cation held in S. Paul's in 1481 fixed 4 Dec. as the day
to commemorate him.
Acta SS., Jan., I; Rock, Church of Our Father* (London, 1853);
JoNBB, RtoitUr of St. Osmurui (Rolls Series. 1883 and 1884), with
long and good introductions to each vol.; Sarum Chariert and
Documents (Rolls Series, London, 1891); Malmksburt, (7e«to
PorUif. (Rolls Series). 95, 183-4, 424-429; Idkic, Oesta Regum:
BcTLER, lAvea, s. v. (London, 1833); Eadmkr, Hi^. Novorunit I
and II, in P. L., CLIX; Cbilusr, Auteurt $aeritt s. v. (Paris,
1863). For the saint's canonisation see Wilkins, Coneilia (Lon-
don. 1737), I, 561; III, 432, 613; Bbktnton, Correspondence, I,
117 (RoUs Series).
S. Anselm Barker.
Osnaljiiiick, Diocese of (Osnabrugensis), di-
rectly subject to the Holy See, comprises, in the
Prussian Province of Hanover, the civil districts of
Osnabriick and Aurich (excepting Wilhelmshaven)
and that part of Hanover situated on the west of the
Weser. In 1910 it numbered 12 deaneries, 108
parishes, 153 pastoral stations^ 271 secular and 12
re^lar priests, 204,500 Catholics. As Apostolic ad-
mmistrator, the bishop is Vicar Apostolic of the
Northern Missions of Germany and Prefect-Apostolic
of Schleawig-Holstein (see Germany, Vicariate
Apostolic of Northern). According to the Bull
*'Impensa Romanorum" (26 March, 1824), he is
elected by the chapter of the cathedral, composed of
a dean, six canons, and four vicars, elected in turn by-
the bishop and by the chapter. Among the higher
educational institutions of the diocese is the Gym-
nasium Carolinum, founded by Charlemagne; similar
schools are at Meppen, Papenburg, and OsnaJ:>rtick.
The only religious communities of men are the Capu-
chin convent at Klemenswerth and the Apostolic
School of the Marists at Meppen. The religious
orders of women include Benedictines, Borromeans,
Franciscans, Ursulines, and others.
The Romanesque cathedral of Sts. Crispin and
Crispinian was built at the beginning of the twelfth
century, and replaced the wooden church erected by
Charlemagne. Later it took on Gothic embellish-
ments, and in time became a treasury of precious
objects of medieval art. Other fine churches are
St. John's, Osnabrtick, with three naves. Transition
style (1256-1592), the Sacred Heart church (1897-
1901), and the churches in Ibui^, Lingen, Meppen.
Kloster-Oesede, Bissendorf, Norden, Salzbergen, ana
others.
History. — The foundation of the diocese is veiled
in obscurity, for lack of authentic documents. Osna-
briick is certainly the oldest see founded by Charle-
magne in Saxony. The first bishop was St. Wiho
(785-804) ; the second bishop, Meginhard, or Meingoz
(804-33), was the real organizer of the see. The tem-
poral possessions of the see, originally quite limited,
grew in time, and its bishops exercised an extensive
civil jurisdiction within the territory covered by
their rights of immunity (q. v.). The temporal pro-
tectorate (Advocatia, Vogtei) exercised over so manv
medieval dioceses b^ laymen becfune after the twelfth
century hereditary m the Amelung family, from whom
it passed to Henry the Lion. After Henry's over-
throw it fell to Count Simon of Tecklenburg and to
his descendants, though the source of many conflicts
with the bishops. In 1236 the Count of Tecklenburg
was forced to renounce all jurisdiction over the town
of OsnabrUck, and the lands of the see, the chapter,
and the parish churches. On the other hand, the
bishop and chapter, from the thirteenth century on,
spread their jurisdiction over many convents,
churches, and hamlets. Scarcely anjr other German
see freed itself so thorou^ly from civil jurisdiction
within its territory. The royal prerogatives were
transferred little by little to the bishop, e. g., the hold-
ing of fairs and markets, rights of toll and coinage,
forest and hunting rights, mining royalties, fortresses,
etc., 80 that the bishop by the early part of the thir-
teenth century was the real governor of the dvil
territory of Osnabriick.
Among the prominent medieval bishops are Drogo
(952-^); Conrad of Veltberg (1002); the learned
Thietmar or Detmar (1003*22); Benno II (1067-88);
Johann I (1001-10), who built the actual cathedral in
place of the wooden one destroyed by fire in the time
of his predecessor; Diethard I (111^7) was the first
bishop elected by the free choice of the cathedral
clergy; Philip II (1141-73) ended the conflicts be-
tween his see and the Abbeys of Corvey and Hersfeld;
Arnold (1137-1191) died a crusader before Akkon.
In the time of Engelbert of Isenburg (1239-50), Bruno
of Isenburg, and Conrad II of Rietberg (1269-97) the
new orders of Franciscans, Dominicans, and Augustin-
ians were received with favour. In the fourteenth
and fifteenth centuries the power of the bishops
waned before the increasing influence of the chapter,
of the military servants (or knights) of the diocese,
and of the town of Osnabriick. The latter sought to
free itself from the bishop's sovereignty, but never
became a free city of the empire. The see was almost
continually engaged in warlike troubles and diffi-
culties and had also to defend itself against the
Bishops of Minden and Miinster. From the four-
teenth century on we meet many auxiliary bishops
of OsnabrUck, made necessarv by the civil duties
that absorbed the. attention of the ordinary.
The successor of Bishop Conrad IV of Rietberg
(1488-1508) was Eric of Brunswick (1508-32), simul-
taneously Bishop of Miinster and Paderbom. He
opposed the Reformers strongly and successfully.
Franz of Waldeck (1533-53), also Bishop of Minden,
acted, on the contrary, a very doubtful part. He
offered little resistance to Lutheranism in Miinster,
though he vigorously opposed the Anabaptists; after
1543 he allowed in Osnabriick an evangelical service.
But the chapter and the Dominicans opposed a Ger-
man service that dispensed with all the characteristics
of the Mass. In 1548 Bishop Franz promised to
suppress the Reformation in Osnabriick, and to exe-
cute the Augsburg " Interim", but fulfiUed his promise
very indifferently; on his death-bed he received
Lutheran communions. His successor, John IV of
Hoya (1553-74), was more Catholic, but was succeeded
by three bishops of a Protestant temper: Henry III
of Saxony (1674-85), Bemhard of Waldeck (1585-91),
and Philip Sigismund (1591-1623). Under them the
Reformation overran nearly the whole diocese.
In 1624 Cardinal Eitel Frederick of Hohenzollem
became Bishop of Osnabriick, and called in the
Jesuits. But he had scarcely begun his work when
he died, and left to his successor, Francis of Warten-
berg (1625-61), the task of executing the Counter-
Reformation (q. v.). The city-council was purified
of anti-Cathohc elements, and tne former Augustinian
convent was turned over to the Jesuits. The Edict
of Restitution was executed successfully by him, and
in 1631 he founded a university at Osnabriick. But
in 1633 Osnabriick was captured by the Swedes, the
university was discontinued, Catholic religious exer-
cises suppressed, and the see (1633-51) administered
by the conquerors. By the Peace of WestphaUa, the
bishop succeeded in preventing the secularisation of
the see, as contemplated by the Swedes. Never-
theless, it was stipulated that henceforth a Catholic
and a Protestant bishop (of the Au^burg Confession)
would alternately hold the see. During the rule of
the Protestant bishop, always chosen from the House
of Brunswick-Liineburg, the spiritual government of
the Catholics was committed to' the Archbishop of
Cologne. Wartenberg was made cardinal in 1660,
and was succeeded by the Protestant married "bish-
op". Ernest Augustus (1661-98), who transferred the
residence to Hanover. He was succeeded by the
Catholic bishop. Prince Charles Joseph of Lorraine,
Bishop of Olmtitz, later Archbishop of Trier (1698-
1
O SOLA 342 0880BY
1715). The Protestant Bishop Ernest Augustus to Henry III. Driven from Rome by the rupture of
(1715-21) was succeeded by Clemens August of diplomatic relations after the murder of Cardinal de
Bavaria, Elector of Cologne (1721-61). The last Guise (1588), he returned after the death of Henry III
bishop. Prince Frederick of England (1761-1803), (1589) as the private agent of his widow, Louise de
later Duke of York, was, until his majority (1783), Vaudemont. He used his position to support the
under the guardianship of his father, George III of cause of Henry IV, whose conversion he prepared the
England. pope to accept. As agent for that prince, co-operat*
In 1803 the see, the chapter, the convents, and the mg with du Perron, ho negotiated the reconcihation
Catholic charitable institutions were finally secular- with the pope, which took place 10 Sept., 1505. This
ized. The territory of the see passed to rrussia in was the greatest act of d Ossat's diplomatic career,
1806, to the Kingdom of Westphalia in 1807, to assuring as it did the definitive triumph of Henry IV
France in 1810, and again to Hanover in 1814. over the League^ and the restoration of peace and
Klemens von Gruben, titular Bishop of Paros, was prosperity to France after more than thirty years of
made vicar ApostoUc, and as such cared for the civil war. D'Ossat was appointed Bishop of Rennes
spiritual interests of the Catholic population. Under (1596), cardinal (1589), and finally Bishop of Bayexix.
Leo XII the Bull "Impensa Romanorum Pontificum" Remaining at Rome without any well-defined office,
(26 March, 1824) re-established the See of Osnabriick he was charged with occasional missions to Venice
as an exempt see, i. e.. immediately subject to Rome, and Florence (1598), or managed the French embassy
This Bull, recognized oy the civil authority, promised in the absence of the ambassador, and was always the
that, for the present, the Bishop of Hildesneim would enlightened and devoted representative of French in-
be also Bishop of Osnabriick, but had to be repre- terests. All the ambassadors of Henry IV had orders
sented at Osnabruck by a vicar-general and an to make known to him the business with which they
auxiliary bishop, and this lasted for thirty years.' were charged and to be guided by his advice. ViUeroy,
Klemens von Gruben was succeeded bv the aujoUary the minister for foreign affairs, himself consulted him
bishop Karl Anton von LUpke, also administrator of on all matters in anyway connected with Rome. Ossat,
the North German Missions. After his death new through his influence and talents, secured for Henry
negotiations led to the endowment of an independent IV the pope's aid and, when necessary, induced the
see. Pius IX, with the- consent .of King George V Holy See to accept, at least, without pubUc protest,
of Hanover, appointed Paulus Melchers of MUnster, such measures as the expulsion of the Jesuits, tne non-
bishop, 3 August, 1857. In 1866 the territory of the publication of the Council of Trent, the Edict of
diocese pass^, with Hanover, to Prussia; Melchers Nantes, the Franco-Turkish and Franco-English al-
became Archbishop of Cologne, and was succeeded in hances, the annulment of Henry IV's marriage with
1866 by Johannes Heinrich Beckmann (1866-78), Margaret of Valois, and the conclusion of that be-
who was succeeded by Bernard Hoting (1882-98) tween the Due de Bar and Catherine de Bourbon,
after a vacancy of four years owing to the Kultur- Henry's sister and a stubborn Calvinist. At the
kampf (q. v.). The present bishop (1911), Hubert same time d'Ossat used his influence at Rome for
Voss, was appointed 12 April, 1899. the benefit of the historian de Thou, the philosopher
msber, o$n<u>nuikiacKe Geachicfue (OBnabrQck, 1768), also in Montaigne, and the savant Peiresc. Clement VIII
MdsER's collected worka, vols.VI-VIII (Berlin, 1843) ; Sandhoff, -U^wf^H his #»«t4»PTn of OftAAt hv pommftnHincr fliitt tliA
Aniistitum OsnabrugenHs eecUHce regesta (2 parta. MQnrter, 1786) ; SnOWCQ niS es^m OI yBa&l DV COmmanOing mat tne
F. E. StOve, Betchreibung und Qeschichte des Hochstifu und dea Cardinal's family should attend his obsemues With all
FUT^eniuTM o«nafrrflc* (Osnabrack. 1789) : C. Srpvi!, (7«tcfc. dw the assistants at the pontifical throne. D'Ossat was
£?S^'pt/i5i^S5^, griSi^T-^Sfet'^bi*^?: }^; buned in the church of St. Louis of the French, where
M6LUBR, GmcA. der lfeiAW«cW« wm 0*nai>rfldk (Lin«en, 1887); hlS tomb IS Still to be seen. BentlVOgho, m his
Omabriuker Urkundenbuch, ed. by Philupb and bxr (4 vols., '*M6moires*\ says of him that never was a man more
^'i^t^i^L^^J.\i^.:riir%^::'^.:;^ worthy of the hat becau«, of his. religious zeal, the
aueUen (OsnabrOck, 1891—) ; Sopp, Die Entuncklunader Lande*- mtegnty of his morals, and the eminence of his leam-
herrliehkext im FUraterUum OanabrUck (Idatein, 1902) ; HormsTER. iQg.
Geach. der Stadt und dea Regierungabetirka OanabrOek (OanabrQck, *t xi^ cniirsp of his riinlomatio rarf»f»r d'0«RAf wmf »
1904); Jabobr, Die Schola Carolina Oanabrugenaia (OsnabrOck, ^° tne COUTSe 01 niS QipiODaatlC career a yssat WTOie
1904); numerous papers in Zeitachri/t far vateridndiache Oeach. many letters and memoranda, uanuer de Mauleon
und AUertumakunde (MQnater 1838 — ); and in MiUeilungen dea edited SOme of them in 1614, when they were printed
VereinafUr Oeachichte und Landeakunde von OanabrOek (33 vols., /•_-. xu n ± firnp* BPVPrAl pHifinnn lunrAlv Mitrman*^**^
Osnabriick, to 1909) ; Elenchua deri dueceaeoa Oanal>ruoenaia pro *^f *'"® ^^^ "™®' several editions, laijgejy augmented,
1910 (Osnabriick, 1910) ; worm, Fuhrer wm Oanabrnek (2nd cd., afterwards appeared, the best bemg that of Amelot de
1906). Joseph Lins. la Haussaie, m 1708, which contains nearly 400 letters.
Since, then twenty-one letters have been published by
O sola magnarum urbium. See Quicumqi^b Xamizey de Larroque, and eleven by the writer of this
Christum QUiERrris. article. These letters formerly served as models for
Osrhoene. See Abgar; Edbssa. diplomats, owing not only to the importance of the
questions which they treat, but especially to the talent
Ossat, Arnaud d', French cardmal, diplomat, and for exposition which d'Ossat displays in them. The
writer, b. at Larroque-Magnoac (Gascony), 20 July, French Academy inscribed Ossat among the "dead
1537; d. at Rome, 13 March, 1604, was the son of a authors who have written our French language most
blacksmith. He wassent to the College of Auchas tutor purely". Wiquefort in his " M^moires sur les ambas-
to the sons of a nobleman, then to Paris, where he be- sadeurs" finds in them *'the clearest and most en-
came the pupil and friend of the famous Ramus, whom lightened judgment ever displayed by any minister ",
he defended in two pamphlets against Charpentier, and Lord Chesterfield wrote to his son that the "sim-
rector of the university. He next studied law at pUcity and clearness of Cardinal d'Ossat's letters show
Bourges under Cujas and became an advocate before how business letters • should be written". Besides
the Parhament of Paris, while acting as tutor to Jean these letters his published works are: " Amaldi Ossati
de la Barridre, the future reformer of the Feuillants. in disputationem Jacobi Carpentarii de methodo" (4©,
In 1572 he joined the household of Paul de Foix. Paris, 1564) and "Amaldi Ossati additio ad exposi-
Archbishop-elect of Toulouse, whom he accompamed tionem de methodo" (Paris, 1564).
on various embassies and finally to Rome. De Foix D'Arconvillx, Vie du cardincU d'Oaaat (Paris, 1771); Dbgbbt,
dying in 1584, d'Ossat remained at Rome, supervising ^ ^^^i'^fOaaat, Mque de Rennea et de Baveux06S7-i604)
the French embassy for a year, and then becoming ^^*™' ^^^^' Antoine Deqert.
secretary successively to Louis d'Este and Joyeuse,
two cardinal protectors of the interests of France. In Ossory, Diocese of (Ossoribnsis), in the Prov-
1588 he refurod the post of minister of foreign affairs ince of Leinster, Ireland, is bounded on the south by
k
0880BT
343
OSSOBT
the Suir, on the eaat by the Barrow, on the west by b^I (IllS) the linite of the diocese were permanently
l^pperary &nd King's County, and on the north by fixed Hubstantially as they have since remaioed. At
Queen's County. It has an area of 600,000 acres, thesame time the sec was transferrfsi from Seir-Kieran
and corresponds geographically with the ancient King- to Aghaboe (see Canice, Saint), but at the end of the
dom of Ossory, whose first king, Aeneus Osrithe, twelfth century it was transferred to Kilkenny, where
flourished in the second century of the Christian era. it has since remained. It is probabie that St. Canice
founded a monastery at
Kilkenny, and not unhkely
that the begiimings of a
town soon appeared there,
to become more important
when the bishops chaaged
from Aghaboe. Kilkenny
also became the residence
of Marshall, Earl of Pem-
broke, Strongbow's heir
and descendant, by whom
Kilkenny Castle was built.
Before the fourteenth
century Marshall's in-
heritance passed to the
Butlers, and under them
Kilkenny became great. It
was made up of on Irish
and an English town, each
with a charter, and each,
until 1800, retuminR two
members to the Irish Par-
liament. The united towns
were incorporated by a
charter from Elizabeth,
and by a further charter
from James I, as a free city,
The city still returns a member to the
■ "•■-■' ■• ■ Earls
their boundaries to in-
clude part of Tipperary.
In the fifth century the
neighbouring tribe of the
Deisi, aided by the Corca-
Lughde, conquered South
Ossory, and for over a
century the Corca-Laigh-
de chiefs ruled in place of
the dispossessed Ossory
chiefs. Early in the sev-
enth century the ancient
chiefs recovered much of
their lost possessions, the
foreigners were overcomes
and the descendants of
Aengus ruled once more.
One of the greatest was
Carroll, prominent in the
ninth century and distin-
guished in the Danish
Ossory had been Chria-
tianiicd long before this.
St. Kieran, its apostle, now
the patron of the diocese, *■■ "'
was bom about the fourth century at a place now
known as St. Kieran's Strand, near Cape Clear, and
was probably converted to the Faith by foreign trad-
ers. According to the tradition, he went to Rome and
was there ordained priest and bishop. Having met
St. Patrick, St. Kieran received from him a bell with
the charge to return
to Ireland and found
a monastery on the
spot where the bell
^ould first sound.
Catbbiikai^ Kqxenmt
with a mayor. _ .
Imperial Parliament, The Butlers, ennobled ... .
and Dukes of Ormonde, have always interested them-
selves in its welfare. These powerful nobles were
changed with the government of Ireland ;
infrequently Kilkenny v
When (he si
t bad
passed beyond Os-
sory, and was de-
scending the western
slopes of Slieve
Bloom, the bell at
length sounded; and
hereSt. Kieran estab-
lished the monastery
of Seir*Kieran the
centre from which
Oesory was n angel
ised. St. Patnck
also visited Ossory
and preached and
founded churches
there. There s some
(Ufficutty in accept
inf^ the story of oi
Kieran having
Preached before bt
atrick, ■'■-
I the residence of the
viceroy and saw a
Parliament sittiqe
within its walls, and
tlicre the Statute of
Kilkenny was passed
(1^67). The Or-
favourable to Anglo-
Norman develop-
ment at Kilkenny,
and after the b^pn-
ning of the thirteenth
century no Irishman
was appointed to the
See of Ossory. In
the rcigii of Bishop
Hugh De Rous (1202
-15) the cathedral of
St. Canice was built.
bishops, De Mapil-
toQ (1221-60) and
Thomas Barry
(1427-60), filled the
office of treasurer
of Ireland, while
another, Richard De
the King's ambassa-
» of Owory, Co, Ki[keiiiiy, Irelind
former is said to have flourished in the sixth century. Northalis (1387-95), acted __ _ . „
It is, however, ccrtwn that St. Kieran laboured in dor abroad. At the Rrformation, though the BarlB
OsBorv, In the centuries followin^f the newly-con- of Ormonde were among the first to conform, Ossory
vertea kingdom was ruled from Scir-Kieran by the clungto the Faith;and when John Bale wasappointed
abbots. They had other monasteries subject to them, bishop by Edward VI, and endeavoured to Protestant-
and probably other bishops, and perhaps were not ize the people, he was roughly handled and driven
always bishops themselves, though at Seir-Kieran, as from Kilkenny, leaving Ossory in peace. The peace
atlona, there was always a bishop. Their jurisdiction ended with the death of Mary, and in Elizabeth's
was tribal rather than territorial, and hence the dio- reign the see was vacant for seventeen years. Prom
ceee waa enlarged or contracted as the fortunes of the 16ui to 161S Ossory was agitin without a bishop, and
Ossory chiefs rose or fell. At the ^ynod of Rathbrea- when Dr. Rothe was appointed (1620) there was not a
0BTKN8OBIUM 3
Catholio bishop in Ireland. In the rebellion of 1641
Kilkenny waa the centre of D&tion&I' resiflt&nce and
the heaaqoartera of the Catholic Confederation. The
part played by Dr. Rothe' waa prominent and patri-
otic; Dut his beat efforts were unavaihng, for Ormonde
was able to foment divisions, the Anglo-Irish and the
old Irish would not blend for the common good, and
the want of vigour in Catholic counsels prepared the
way for Ormonde's treachery and Cromwell's victo-
ries. While the CramwcUiana held K-lkenny, Rothe
died there (1650), and for twenty years followiM
Ossoiywaa governed by vicars. During the few periods
of t«Ieration in the reign of Charles II a feeble revival
of religion took place. In 1678 the bishop reported
to Rome, that in many cases
one priest was in charge of five
or six parishes; that the (ew re-
maioing Franciscans, Domini-
cans, Jesuits, and Capuchins
ministered by stealth and in
ruined churches; and that the
Carmelites, Cistercians, and
Canons Regular of St. Augus-
tine had completely disap-
In the penal times Ossory
suffered much, but its faith
survived, and when toleration
came it was ruled by an excep-
tional man De Burgo (1759-
86). Kgually capable was his
successor, Troy (1777-86),
subsequently Archbishop of
Dublin. To understand hie
pnuse of George III, his friend-
ship vrith the viceroy and with
Luttrell, son of the infamous
Lord Carhompton, we must
m<^e allowance for the timee
in which he lived. He acted
from no personal motive, but
for the good of the Church, for
he was zealous in propagating
the Faith and enforcing Sscip-
line. He was among tbe first
of the Irish bishops to take ad-
vantage of the relaxation of
the penal laws and set up ~
'A OSTKHSORIDM
are the relics of old churches aasodated with the lives
and acts of the early Irish saints, such as those of Sar-
Kieran and Aghaboe. There are round towers, Nor-
man castles, and holy wells, raths and mounds, an-
cient forts, cromlechs, and pillar stones. In the parish
of Danesfort ia Bumchurch castle, in Diirrow the cas-
tle of Cullahil!. There are the ruins of Kells Priory
and of Inistioge, the Dominican priory of Rosebercon,
and the Cistercian abbey of Jcrpomt. Kilkenny Caatle
is an interestingrelic of history, and near by are the
remains of the Franciscan abbey, the Black Abbey.
and St. John's priory. The number of dislinguished
connected with the diocese is lar^e. Clyn and
Grace, the annslista,
Dr.
Cuholr^ Tratisuie, N
Dunne (1787-89) and Dr.
Lanigan (1789-1812). Under
the latter the college at Bui^
rell's Hall was transferred to
more suitable premises and Us
curriculum extended. It was
not until the episcopate of Dr.
Kinsella that a diocesan college worthy of Ossory was
founded. In 1836 the foundation stone of St. Kieron's
College, Kilkenny, was laid and two years later the col-
lege was opened for students, Dr, Kinsella also aided
his priests to build several parochial churches. He laid
the foundation stone of the Cathedral of St. Mary in
1S43, though the exterior was not finished until 1857,
nor solemnly consecrated until 1899. Dr. Walsh
(1846-72) succeeded Dr. Kinsella, and was succeeded
by Dr. Moran, now (1911) Cardinal Archbishop of
Sydney, Dr. Moran was succeeded, in 1884, by Dr.
Brownrigg, a native of'Carlow. Educated at May-
nooth, Dr Brownrigg displayed unusual ability, was
ordained priest in 1861, and wassubHequectly profes-
sor at St. Peter'sCollcge, Wexford, and superior of the
House of Missions at Enniscorth}'.
No diocese in Ireland is more mteresting than Os-
90IT for historical and antiquorifui remains. There
bath of Kilkenny. Rothe
not only a public man, but
an author of eminence. De
Burgo's work on the Irish Domi-
nicans is still an essential book
for Irish historians. Other
famous men arer James But-
ler, Archbishop of Cashel,
author of "Butler's Cate-
Archhishop of St. Paul's; Dr.
O'Reilly, Archbishop of .Ade-
laide; Dr. John O'Donovan;
Dr. Kelly, for many yeais pro-
fessor of ecclesiastical history
at Maynooth; Dr. O'Hanlon,
theological professor in the
same college; Dr. MacDontdd,
his successor; and Dr. Car-
rigan, whose "History of Os-
sory is the moat complete
historyof any Irish diocese. In
1910 the diocese contained: 41
parishes; 36 parish priests; S
administrators: 58 curates; 11
regulars (a total of 119 priests);
96churehes;l college; 4 houses
of regulars; 15 convents; 4
houses of Christian Brothers.
In 1901 the Catholic popular
tion was 83,519; the non-Cath-
olic 6029.
IDubJiD. 1874-84); CiHuaiN, Hit-
tory and A MiguUifa of the Diotxat of
O'lory (DubliB. 190SK LaHioin, Ee-
dfiatlicat Hilloni "i htland (Dublin,
1S22); Healt, Life and Wnling4 af
SI. Patrick (DutjliD. 1905); Moiuh,
Analeda at Datid Reiht (Dublin.
ISM): GlLBEHT. HittOTy B/ ItitK
ABair, iOib •
tin'.* 1860):
tf Kilkrnng (Dublin, 1S8V): Ideh,
Irith HinsTchi, in tht SnmlttMh
CtKlarji (Dublin. 1872); BiM-ccim,
BmbaAty VI Irtland, tr. Huttoh
(Dublin. 1873);Gii*cEM«nn;i (Dub-
(Tinhlin 1S49I; Habbib, tfarr (Dub-
uke of Ormonde: I' —
1, 1842); Clih, - - ,
1,176*): CitTT. Life of Jr...—.
alvtt of Kilkmnv (Duh\ir,. 1S43); Stoseh, Liw of the SiUfUt
om IA* Book b/ Liimcri (Onford. 1890): Bradt, EjiiKBpal
icceMeion (Rome, 1887); McBPar. CVomiwJI in Irtland (Dub-
1, 18711: ^ENDiaoABT. Cr«ittMUian5a(i«m«ii(DubtiD. 1876);
UholiolHriiMniforlfflO. _ „
E.' A. D' Alton.
Oitetuorium (from ostendere, "to show") means,
I accordance with its etymology, a vessel designed
for the more convenient exhibition of some object of
~ ■■ ' - and the kmdred
piety. Both the
word monslrance {monstrancia, from m<mstrare) ^cit
originally applied to ai! kinds of vessels of goldsmith's
or silversmith's work in which glass, crystal, etc. weTe
BO employed as to allow the contents to be readily dis-
tinguished, whether the object thus honoured were the
Sacred Hoat itself or only the relic of some saint.
Modem usage, at any rate so for as the English Ian-
I
osTiNsoaniu si
euage ia concerned, has limited both tetma to veeseb
intended for the eiqioBition of the Blessed Sacrament,
and it is in this sense only that we use oslemorium
It is plun that the introduction of ostensoria must
in procession nrst became familiar in the Church.
This (as may be seen from the articles Bekediction
OF THE Blessed Sacrament, Corpus Chsibti, and
ExpoaiTiorf OP THE BLEasED Sacrament) cannot be
assigned to an earlier date than the thirteenth century.
At the same time, Lanfranc'a coostitutions for the
monks of Christ Church, Canterbury (c. 1070), direct
that in the Palm Sunday procession two prieata veated
in albs should carry a portable shrine (feretrum) "in
which also the Body of the Lord ought to be depoB-
ited". Although there is here no HUggestion that the
Host should be exposed to view, but rather the con-
trary, still we find that this Enstish custom led, in at
leBflt one instance, to the construction of an elabo-
rately decorated shrine for thecarryingof the Blessed
Sacrament on this Bpecial occasion. Sunon, Abbot of
St. Albans (1166-83], presented to the abbey a costly
ark-shaped vessel adorned with enamels representing
scenes of the Passion, which was to be used on Palm
Sunday "that the faithful might see with wl^t honour
the most holy Body of Christ should be treated which
at this season offered itself to be scourged, crucified
and buried" ("Geata Abbatum", Rolls Series, I, 191-
92). That this, however, was in any proper aense an
oatensoriura in which the Hoat was eicpoaed to view is
not stated and cannot be assumed. At the same time
it is highly probable that such ostensoria in the strict
sense began to be coRstructed
in the thirteenth century, and
there* are some vessels still in
ejdstence — tor example, an
octa^nal monstrance at Bari,,
bearmsthe words "Hie Cor-
pus Domini " — which may
very well belong to that date.
A large number of medieval
ostensoria have been figured
by Cahier and Martin (M£-
Isnxea Arch^logiquea, I and
VII) and by other authorities,
and though it ia often difficult
to diatinguish between simple
reliquaries and vessels in-
tended for the exposition of
the Blessed Sacrament, a cer-
tain line of development may
be traced in the evolution of
these latter. Father Cahier
suggests with some probabil-
ity (Melanges, Vll, 271) that
while at fiist theciborium it-
self was employed for carry-
ing the Blessed Sacrament in
processions, etc., the aides of
the cup of the ciborium were
at first prolonged by a cylinder
of crystal -or gliisa, and the or-
dinary cover Buperimpoaed.
1 Such a vessel might have
served for either purpose, viz.,
either for giving Communion
or for carrying the Hoat
visibly in procession. Soon,
bowever, the practice of exposition became aufficiently
common to seem to reouire an ostensorium for
tbat express object, and lor this the upright cylin-
drical vessel of crystal was at first retained, often
with supports of an architectural character and with
tabernacle work, niches, and statues. In the central
oylinder a large Host was placed, being kept upright
5 OSTSNSOBIUK
by being held in a lunette (q. v.) construoted for tl
that the ostensorium could be better adapted to the
object of drawing all eyes to the Sacred Host itself by
making the transpar-
ent portion of the ves-
sel just of the size
required, and sur-
rounded, like the sun,
strances of this shape,
dating from the fif-
teenth century, are
also not uncommon,
and for several hun-
dred years past this
has been by far the
commonest form in
practical use.
Of course the adop-
tion of ostensoria for
proceaaions of the
Blessed Sacrament
was a gradual process,
and, if we may trust
the miniatures found
in the liturgical books
of the M iddie Ages, the
Sacred Host was often
carried on such occa-
sions in a closed cibo-
rium. An early ex-
ample of a special
vessel constructed for
thia purpose ia a gift
mode by Archbishop
Robert Courtney^ an
Englishman by birth,
who died in 1324, to
his cathedral church
of Reims. He be-
queathed with other
ornaments "a golden
Ith precious
Am brow, Milan
(XiV C«HTnB»
atones and having a crystal in the middle, in which is
placed the Body of Christ, and is carried in procession
upon the feast of the most holy Sacrament." In a
curious instance mentioned by Bcrgner (Handbuchd.
Kirch. Kunstaltert timer in Deutschland. 356) a casket
constructed in 1205 at Augsburg, to hold a miraculous
Hoat from which blood had trickled, had an aperture
bored in it more than a century later to allow the Host
to be seen. Very probably a similar plan was some-
times adojited with vessels which are more strictly
Eucharialic. Early medieval inventories often allow
us to form an idea of the rapid extension of the use of
monstrances. Intheinventoriesof the thirteenth cen-
tury they are seldom or never mentioned, but in the
fifteenth century they have become a feature in all
larger churches. Thus at St. Paul's, London, in 124P
and 1298 we find no mention of anything like an osten-
sorium, but in 1402 we have record of the "cross of
crystal to put the Body of Christ in and to carry it
upon the feast of Corpus Christi and at Easter". At
Durham we hew of a goodly shrine ordained to bo
carried on Corpus Chriati day m procession, and called
'Corpus Chriati Shrine', aU fipely gilded, a goodly
thing to behold, and on the height of the said shrine
was a four-square box all of crystal wherein was en-
closed the Holy Sacrament of the Altar, and it was
carried theaameday with iiij priests" (RitesofDur~
ham, c. Ivi). But in the greater English churches a
preference seems to have been shown, connected no
doubt with the ceremonial of the East^ sepulchre, for
a form of monstrance which reproduced tke figure of
Our Lord, the Sacred Hoat being inserted behind «
OSTIA
346
OSTIA
crystal door in the breast. This, at any rate, was the
case, i. e. in the Lincoln, Salisbury^ and other famous
cathedrals. These statues, however, for the exposi-
tion of the Blessed Eucharist seem to have been of
comparatively late date. On the continent, and more
particularly in Spain, a fashion seems to have been in-
troduced in the sixteenth century of constructing os-
tensoria of enormous size, standing six, seven, or even
ten, feet in height, and weighing many hundreds of
pounds. Of course it was necessary that in such cases
the shrine in which the Blessed Sacrament was more
immediately contained should be detachable, so that
it could be used for giving benediction. The great
monstrance of the cathedral of Toledo, which.is more
than twelve feet high, and the construction of which
occupied in all more than 100 yeara, is adorned with
260 statuettes, one of the largest of which is said to be
made of the gold brought by Columbus from the New
World.
In the lan^age of the older liturgical manuals, the
ostensorium is not infrequently called tabemacidum,
and it is under that name that a special.blessing is pro-
vided for it in the *'Pontificale Romanum". Several
other designations are also in use, of which the com-
monest is perhaps custodian though this is also spe-
cially applied to the sort of transparent P3rx in which the
Sacred Host is immediately secured. In Scotland,
before the Reformation, an ostensorium was com-
monly called a "eucharist", in England a "monstre"
or "monstral". The orb and rays of a monstrance
should at least be of silver or silver gilt, and it is rec-
ommended that it should be surmounted by a cross.
An excellent chapter in Corblkt, Hutoire du Sacrement de
VEuehaHsiie, II (Paris, 1882), gives a general account with a de^
•cription of many famous ostcnsoria. Schrod in Kirehenlexikon,
B. V. MonstranM; Raible, Der Tabcrnakel einst undjetzt (Freiburg,
1908); Thxjrston, Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament in The
Month (July, 1901); Otte, Handbuch der kirchlichen Kunst-ArchO^
oloffie, I (Leipzig, 1883), 208-10; Martin and Cahieb, MHangea
archiologxques, I, VII (Paris, 1847-75); Reusseks, Archtologie
ehritienne, II, 334 sqq.; Babbier de Montault, Lea oeteneoires
du XIV* eiecle en Limousin in the Congris Arcfiiolog. de Prance.
1879, 555-590. See also articles too numerous to specify in detail
in the Retnu de VAri Chretien and the Zeitichrift fUr christliche
Kunsl, where many excellent reproductions of medieval mon-
strances will be found. HERBERT ThURSTON.
Ostia and Velletri, Suburbicarian Diocese of
(OsTiENSis ET Veliternensis), near Rome, central
Italy. Ostia, now a small borough, was the ancient
port of Rome, the first Roman colony founded by
Ancus Marcius, chiefly to exploit the salt deposits.
Prior to Imperial times, it had no harbour, the mouth
of the Tiber affording the only shelter for shipping:
the Emperor^ Claudius, therefore, built an artificial
harbour at Ostia, and Trajan afterwards built a basin
there, and enlarged the canal by which the harbour
communicated with the Tiber. Here a new city
sprang up, called Portus Romanus, which was em-
bellished by Marcus Aurelius and other emperors, and
connected with Rome by a new way, the Via Portu-
ensis, along the right bank of the Tiber. With the
decay of the Empire, Ostia and Portus decayed, and
in the tenth century the basin of Portus had become a
marsh. Between 827 and 844 Gregory IV restored
the city, fortified it against the Saracens, and gave it
the name of Gregoriopohs.
Leo IV defeated the Saracen fleet at Ostia in 847,
and stretched a chain across the Tiber. Ostia was
afterwards fortified by Cardinal Ugohno (Gregory IX),
by Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere (Juhus II), and by
Paul III, while Paul V, in 1612, reopened the basin
north of the Tiber. Excavations at Ostia were begun
under Pius VII; they disclosed the forum, a theatre,
three temples, the sanctuaries of Mithra and of the
Magna Mater, the emporium, and a great many in-
scriptions.
Not counting St. Cyriacus, martyr, and Maximus
the bishop who, according to the Acts of St. Laurence,
consecrated Pope Dionysius in 269, the first Bishop
of Ostia was Maximus, a. d. 313. We know froip St.
Augustine that the Bishop of Ostia sometimes con-
secrated the pope. St. Monica (q. v.) died at Ostia,
and was buried m the church of St. Aurea, though her
body was transferred, later, to Rome. The great
hospital which St. GalUcanus built at Ostia was a
noted establishment. As early as 707^ the Bishop of
Ostia resided at Rome, holding the oflace of bibliothe^
carius sancUB ecdesuB, The popes later on employed
them in the administration of the Universal Cnurch,
especially in legations. They were among the bishops
who took turns in exercising the pontifical functions
during vacancies of the Holy See, and who became
known as episcopi cardiruUes^ or '^cardinal bishops".
Among the Bishops of Ostia were Georgius, who in 755
accompanied Stephen III to France; Donatus, who
was sent by Nicholas I to Constantinople in 866 to
deal with the case of Photius, but was stopped at the
Byzantine frontier. In 869 this Donatus was head of
the legation to the Council of Constantinople and to
Bulgaria. Others wefe: Blessed Gregory (1037); St.
Peter Damian (1058) ; Gerard of Ch&tUlon (1072) and
Otho of Ch&tillon (Urban II) (1077). who served as
legates on various occasions, and were both imprisoned
by Henry IV; Leo Marsicanus, also called Ostiensis
(1101), the chronicler; Lambert Faganini (1117)
(Honorius II)'; Alberic (1135), legate in the Holy
Land, where he presided over the Council of Jerusalem,
and also in England and France. Hugo (1150) was
the first to bear the double title of Ostia and Velletri.
Velletri (Vehtrffi) is an ancient city of the Volscians,
which, in 494 B. c, became a Latin colony, but re-
volted in 393, and was among the first of Rome's ene-
mies in the Latin War, for which reason, in 338, the
walls of the town were destroyed, while its inhabitants
were taken to Rome to people the Trastevere, their
lands being distributed among colonists. Velletri
was the home of the family of Augustus. In its later
history, the battle of Velletri (1744) is famous. The
cemetery near the Villa Borgia shows the great an-
tiquity of Christianity in this region. The first known
Bishop of Velletri was Adeodatus (about 464);
Joannes, in 592, was entrusted ^ Gregory the Great
with the care of the Diocese of Tres Tabemse (Three
Taverns), now Cistema (see Albano). From the
eighth century, Velletri again had bishops of its own;
of whom the last recorded was Joannes (868). An-
other see, imited with Velletri, is that of Norma
(Norba); its territory is a deserted, malarial country;
only one of its bishops, who lived in the tenth century,
is known. Other bishops of Velletri, before the union
of the sees, were Gaudiosus (Gaudericus), one of the
legates to the Council of Constantinople (869), and
Joannes, who, in 1058, usurped the pontifical Throne,
under the name of Benedict X.
Among the successors of Hugo in the united sees
were Ubaldo Allucingoli (Lucius III); Ugolino de'
Conti, 1206 (Gregory IX) ; Rinaldo de^ Conti (Alex-
ander IV); Petrus a Tarantasia, O.P., 1272 (Innocent
V); Latino Malabranca Orsini (1278), a great states-
man and diplomat; Nicol6 Boccasino, O.P. (Benedict
XI); Nicol6 da Prato, the pacifier of Tuscany (1304).
During the Avignon period, all the bishops of Ostia
were Frenchmen, residing at Avignon or serving as
legates; the most famous of them was Pierre d'Etain
(1373), who persuaded Urban V to go to Rome.
During the schism, each of the rival popes appointed
a Bishop of Ostia. Among the legitimate bishops
may be mentioned Wilham of Estouteville (1461),
who built the episcopal palace; Giuliano della Rovere
(Julius II); Aiessandro Famese. 1524 (Paul III);
Gian Pietro Carafa, 1534 (Paul IV) ; Aiessandro Far-
nese (1580), who restored the cathedral; Antonio M.
Sauli (1623), founder of a Basihan monastery; Do-
menico Ginnasio (1683), who restored the cathedral
and founded a hospital at Ostia; Bartholommeo Pacca
(q. v.); Louis Micara (1844).
I
0STIABZU8
347
OSTROOOT&S
The united dioceses have 16 parishes, with 34,000
inhabitants, 5 religious houses of men and 5 of nuns.
1 educational establishment for male students, and
3 for girls.
Cappelletti, L« Chiese d* Italia, I; Bobgia, latcria dtUa Chieta
t cittd di VeUeLri (Nooera. 1723).
U. Benigni.
Ostiariiu. See Porter.
OstienBis. See Henry of Sbgusio, Blessed.
Ostiensis, surname of Leo Marsicantjs, Benedic-
tine chronicler, b. about 1045; d. 22 May, 1115, 1116,
or 1117. He belonged to an old noble family, and at
the age of fourteen entered Monte Cassino, where his
talente soon won him the regard of Abbot Desiderius,
later Pope Victor III. Desiderius entrusted his edu-
cation to the future Cardinal Aldemar. On the com-
pletion of his studies, Ostiensis became librarian and
archivist of the monastery, and, as such, his main
task was to settle, in accordance with the existing doc-
uments, all disputes concerning landed property in
which the monastery became involved. Aobot Oderi-
sius, who succeeded Desiderius, urged Ostiensis to
write a history of the monastery, but, on account of
his numerous duties, he was unable to give himself en-
tirely to the work. Paschal II created him Cardinal
Bishop of Ostia. In the conflict between the pope and
Henry V, Ostiensis vigorously defended the papacy.
His unfinished chronicle, originally called ^'Legenda
sancti Benedicti lonsa", treats the period between 529
and 1075; Petrus Diaconus continued it to 1139.
Trustworthy and impartial, the chronicle is a valuable
mine of information for the history of Lower Italy, but
as the documents on which the narrative rests are still
extant, it has no special importance for our knowledge
of the time. It was first edited under the title,
"Chronica sacri monasterii Casinensis auctore Leone
cardinali episcopo Ostiensi", by Abbot Angelus de
Nuce (Paris, 1668); then by Wattenbach in "Monu-
menta Germaniae: Scriptores", VII, 574-727, and
Migne in "P. L.", CLXXIII, 479-763. Ostiensis has
left several lesser works: ''Narratio de consecratione
ecclesiarum a Desiderio et Oderisio in Monte Casino
adificatarum" (P. L., CLXXIII, 997-1002), and
"Vita sancti Mennatis eremitse et confessoris" (edited
In part, P. L., CLXXIII, 989-92).
Gattula. HUt. abbatia Casinetfit (Venioe, 1733), 879; Pott-
BA8T. BiU, kitt. medii cni, I (Bellin, 1806), 718; Wattknbach,
DeuUchlands GeschichUqudUn, II (Berlin. 1894). 236-8.
Patricius Schlager.
Ostracine, titular see and suffragan of Pelusium in
Augustamnica prima. Pliny (Hist, naturalis, V, xiv)
places the town sixty-five miles from Pelusium. Ptol-
emy (IV, V, 6) locates it in Cassiotis, between Mount
Cassius and Rhinocolura. We learn from Josephus
("Bellum Jud.", IV, xi, 5) that Vespasian stopped
there with hb army on the way from Egypt into Pales-
tine; the city then had no ramparts. It received its
water from the Delta by a canal. A Roman garrison
was stationed there. Hierocles, George of Cyprus,
and other geographers always mention it as in Au-
gustamnica. Le Quien (Oriens christianus, II, 545)
speaks of three bishops. Theoctistus, Serapion, and
Abraham, who lived in tne fourth and fifth centuries.
There is at present in this region, near the sea, a small
town called Straki, which prooably replaced Ostracine.
AMiuNBAU, La Qlooraphie de VEowU d Vipoque eopte (Paris.
1893). 288.
S. Vailh^.
Ottraka, Christian, inscriptions on clay, wood,
metal, and other hard materials. Like papyri/ihey are
valuaole especially as the literary sources for early
Christianity. They are found chiefly in Oriental coun-
tries, especially Egypt. The greatest number are
pieces of clay or scraps of pots inscribed with colours
or ink. The oldest Ctiristian ostraka, like the papyri,
are Greek and date from the fifth century. Next come
the Coptic and Arabian ostraka. Some of the texts
not yet deciphered include several Nubian ostraka in a
langUBjge spoken in the old Christian negro-king-
doms in the vicinity of Aloa on the Blue Nile. In
these inscriptions Greek letters are used, with some
other signs. As to contents, ostraka are either profane
or ecclesiastical. Potsherds were often used for cor-
respondence in place of the less durable papyrus; oc-
casionally the recipient wrote the answer on the back
of the potsherd. Ostraka were also used for mercan-
tile purposes, as bills, receipts, etc.* C. M. Kaufmann
and J. C. Ewald Falls, while excavating the town of
Menas in the Libyan desert, discovered ostraka of this
class — ^the oldest Christian potsherds in the Greek lan-
guage (fifth century) — and H. J. Bell and F. G. Ken-
yon of the British Museum deciphered them. They
refer to the vine-culture of the sanctuaries of Menas
and represent, for the most part, short vouchers for
money or provisions. The currency is based upon
gold solidi issued by Constantine; the date is reck-
oned by the year of indiction. Of historical interest is
the assistance g^ven to invalid workmen, the employ-
ment of the lower clergy, the manner of provisioning
the workmen, and especially the statements about the
harvest periods in the Libyan district. The series of
Coptic ostraka which deals ypih the clergy and the
monasteries in the Nile valley is particularly extensive.
We find references to all phases of administration and
popular life.
The ecclesiastical ostraka. in a narrow sense, con-
tain Biblical citations from tne New Testament; pray-
ers, extracts from the synaxaria (fives of the saints),
and are partly of a liturgic character. Greek, which
was then the language of the Church, is much used,
with the Coptic. Among the samples published by W.
£. Crum. the best judge of Coptic dialects, there is a
local confession of faith from the sixth century, besides
the Preface and Sanctus of the Mass, prayers from the
Liturgy of St. Basil and of St. Mark, a part of the didas-
cafia of SchenClte of Athribis, a Greek confession, and
an excommunication, also in Greek. Particularly re-
markable are those ostraka which contain hturgical
songs. They represent our present song-books for
which purpose rolls of papyrus were less suited than
the more durable potsnerds; in some cases wooden
books were used. Among the pieces translated by
Oum we find petitions for ordination in which the
petitioner promises to learn by heart one of the Gos-
pels, and a reference to an ancient abstinence move-
ment, against which is directed a decree that the con-
secration-wine should be pure or at least three-fourths
pure.
A complete collection of Qreek^ Coptic, and Arabic ostraka
from the beginnings of the Christian ei>och does not exist. The
most important may be found in Wilken, Griechische Ostraka
aua Aegypten und Nttbien (2 vols.. Leipzig, 1899) ; Cbxtm. Coptic
Ostraka from the CoUectione cf the Egypt Exploration Fund, the
Cairo Mueeum and othere (London, 1902).
Cabl Mabia Kaufmann.
OstroffothJi, one of the two chief tribes of the
Goths, a Germanic people. Their traditions relate
that the Goths originally lived on both sides of the
Baltic Sea, in Scandinavia and on the Continent.
Their oldest habitations recorded in history were sit-
uated on the right bank of the Vistula. They left
these, all or in part, about the middle of the second
century, and settled near the Black Sea. between the
Don and Danube. Thence they emergea frequently to
attack and pillage the cities of Greece and Asia Minor,
and fought continuously with the Romans and the
neighbouring Germanic tribes. The emperor Decius
fell in battle with them in 25L Crossing the Danube
into Thracia in 269 they were defeated dv Claudius;
Aurehan drove them back across the Danube and gave
them Dacia. We now find the Ostrogoths east ot the
River Dniester, and the Visigoths to the west. During
the reign of Constantine they again attempted to cross
i
OSTtmi 348 OSWALD
the Danube but were repulsed. During the years Ssmnott, an Irish Jesuit. ' He served in the Spanish
350-75 the Goths were united under the leadership army. In 1621 he published his "Catholic History
of Ehnanaric, the Ostrogoth. In 375 they were con- of Ireland'', a work not always reUable, but valuable
queredby the Huns. Some escaped into the Crimea, for the Irish wars of the author's own day. He also
where they retained their language up to the sixteenth wrote a '' Life of St. Patrick ", a confutation of Gerald
century; the mass of the people, however, remained Barry and a reply to Usher's attack on his "History".
in their own lands and paid tribute to the Huns: but ^ Magb», Irish WrUert of the SewnUerUhCerOwy {Dublin^
wpw* ntliArwiflA fairlv inHpnAnHpnt itnH AlAotj>H ih^r O Sdluvan. Catholic Hxatory of Ireland, ed. Kbllt (Dublin,
were OtnerWlTO lau-lV maepenaeni ana eiectea tneir ^^^^ . Q'Suluvan, Hinlory of Ireland, tr. Byrne (London, 1904).
own kings. When the empu^ of the Huns collapsed E, p^^ D' Alton.
after the death of Attila (453). the Ostrogoths re-
gained independence. Their old lands between Don Ofwald, Saint, Archbishop of York, d. on 29 Feb-
Mid Danube, however, th^ had to sun-ender to the 99^ Of Danish pkrentage, Oswald was
Huns, while they obtained Pannonia from the Ro- brought up by his uncle Odo, Archbishop of Canter-
mans. Theodonc, the Amding, who was theu- king ^ury, and instructed bv Fricfegqde. For some time
from 474 or 475, fought with the Byzantine emperor ^e was dean of the house of the secular canons at
Zeno at various tunes, ^though he obtamed peac^ Winchester, but led bv the desire of a stricter life he
relations during most of his reign. He endeavoured entered the Benedictine Monastery of Fleuiy, where
to secure permanent doimcUes for his people In 488 Qdo himself had received the monastic habit. He
he started for Italy, aided and abetted by Zeno. ^^ ordained there and in 959 returned to England
Theodonc defeated .Odowjer, who reigned as king m Retaking himself to his kinsman Oskytel, then Arch-
Italy, and founded in 493 the great Ostrogothic Em- bishop of York. He took an active part in ecclesias-
pire, which included It^ Sicily, I^almatia, Upper ^j^^ ^^j^ ^^ Yov\i until St. Dunstan procured his
Rhffitia, and later on Provence, with the capital appointment to the See of Worcester. Hewasconse-
Rayenna, and which stood under Byzantine suxer- ^^^^ ^ g^ Dunstan in 962. Oswald was an ar-
aanty. Iheodonc dreamed of an amalgamation of ^^^^ supporter of Dunstan in his. efforts to purify
u- u ^^^/^ . the Romans, of a Germamc gate, m ^^ Church from abuses, and aided by King Edgar
^^^^ • Ostrogoths were to dominate. He sue- he carried out his policy of replacing by communities
ceeded in establishing law and order m his lands; ^^ie canons who held monastic possessions. Edgar
r°°^?? «JJ «'?? K^!"*^?!!? ^^u lli ,1 *^*! tolerant ^^^ monasteries of St. Albans, Ely, and Benfleet
towards the Ca4iholic Church and did not interfere in ^ Oswald, who established monks at Westbury (983),
dogmatic matters. He remained as neuti^ as possi- pershore (984), at Winchelcumbe (985), and at Wor-
ble towards the ix)pe. though he exercised a prepon- ^^^^ ^^^ re-established Ripon. But his most fa-
derant influence in the affaire of the papacy. He ^^^ foundation was that of Ramsey in Huntingdon-
and his people were Anans and Theodonc considered gj^j^ ^j^^ chyxrch of which was dedicated in 974, and
himself as protector and chief representative of the ^^ ^^^^ ^ accident in 991. In 972 by the joint
s6ct. His successor did not possess the ne^ssapr action of St. Dunstan and Edgar, Oswald was made
vigour and abihty to continue this work. His daugh- Archbishop of York and ioumeved to Rome to re-
ter Amalasvmtha succeed^ hun m 526, firet as re- ^^j^g ^^i^ palUum from John XlII. He retained,
gent for her son Athalanc, and after the latter s however, with the sanction of the pope, jurisdiction
death, in 534, as queen. She was assassinated by over the Diocese of Worcester where he frequently re-
her cousin Theodahad, the nghtful heu- to the throne, gj^ed in order to foster his monastic reforms (Eadiner,
The Byzantme emperor Justmian now made him- 203). On Edgar's death in 975, his work, hitherto
self her avenger and declared war upon the Ostrp- ^ successful, received a severe check at the hands of
goths. His general Behsanus captured Napl^ in Elfhere, King of Mercia, who broke up many com-
636 In place of the incompetent Theodahad the ^unities. Ramsey, however, was spared, owing to
Goths chose Witich^ as king, but he also proved to be ^he powerful patronage of Ethelwin, Earl of East
p incapable general. Behsanus succeeded m enter- ^^ ^^rhilst ArchbiAop of York, Oswald col-
mg Ravenna m 539 aad m taking Witiches pnsoner. ^ected from the ruins of Ripon the relics of the saints.
After his recall m .640, the Goths reconquered Italy ^^^ ^f ^Yach were conveyed to Worcester. He died
under theu- new kmg Totila. In 544 Behsanus ap- -^ ^^e act of washing the feet of the poor, as was his
peared once more and the war was continued with ^^^y custom during Lent, and was buried in the
varying success. Li 551 Narses became commander- c^m-ch of St. Mary at Worcester. Oswald used
m-chief m^plaoe of Belisanus, and m the following ^ ^j^^ jj ^^an his colleague Ethelwold and
year he defeated Totda at Tagm® m the Apennines. ^^ refi^ned from violent measures. He greatly
Totila was kUled in the battle. The survivora of the ^^J^ ^^ promoted learning amongst the clergy and
Ostrogoths chose Teja as their king, but w^^^ induced many scholars to come from Fleury. He
cally annihilated m the battle near Mount Vesuvius ^^^^ ^wo tr^tises and some synodal decrees. His
in 553, after a d^perate struggle m which Teja was j^^ is celebrated on 28 Febniary.
KlUed. ineir last fortress fell m 655, after which the Hutorian* of York in Rolls Series, 3 vola.; see Introdudions by
Ostrogoths disappear. The few survivors mingled Raine. The anonymous and contemporary life of thfe monk of
wiU, other peop^ and nations; eome were lomanT^ STf/'pfi^^l^) a'S'thXT.u5:iriS"e.' ^^.t^W^by^8Jl
m Italy, and others wandered north where they dlS- ^us and two others in vol. II are of little value; Acta SS., Feb.,
appeared among the various Germanic tribes. Italy ill, 752; Acta o.s.B. (Venice. 1733). sec. v, 728; Wrioht, Bioq.
hpTJimP «. Rv7RntinP nrovinfiP ^*'-. I (London. 1846). 462; Tynemouth and Capqrave, ed.
Decame a IJyzwntine province. r^^ „^. . non^nLs, II (Oxford. 1901), 262; Hunt. Hist of the Bnalish
Bkadlky, The O^hs (Xondon, 1898); Dahn. Dte Kdnvge d«r church from 597-1066 (London, 1899); Idem in iWc<. ofNoLBiog.,
Offnafum. II-IV (WGriburg, 1861-66); Manbo, Oesehtchte des ^ Linoard, Anglo-Saxon Church (London. 1845).
ostgoltschen Retchs in Ilalien (BTeBlBM, IS2A) ; Hodgkin. /to/y ana ■ > -« ^ Aitfac^Tw PAnvvn
her invaders. III. IV (London, 1885) ; Habtmann, Das italienische ^' ANSBLM r akiu&k.
Kdnigreich (Gotha, 1897) ; Wutersbkiii. Qesehichte der V6lker-
u>anderuno, 1, II (Leip««, 1880. 81). Osii^ald, Saint, king and martyr; b., probably,
Klbmbnb LdFFLEB. ^QS; d. 5 Aug., 642; the second of seven brothers, sons
Ortuni. See Bb««>«x. Diocebe or. l^fiX o" Northu^^a r547 ' (Sw^ldWU.^
O'SulllTan Beare, Philip, b. in Ireland, c. 1590: was Acha, daughter of Ella or Alia, who, after Ida's
d. in Spain, 1660. son of Dermot O'Sullivan and death, had seized Deira and thus separated it from the
nephew of Donal O'Sullivan Beare. Lord of Dunboy. Northern Bernicia. The years of Oswald's youth were
He was sent to Spain in 1602, ana was educated at spent at home, as long as his father reigned, but when,
Ck)mpostella by Vendamma, a Spaniard, and Father in 617, Ethelfrid was slain in battle by Redwald, King
I
oswm 349 oswm
of the East Angles, Oswald with his brothers fled for Penda, readilv acknowledged Oswald, their allegianoe
protection from Edwin, their uncle, Acha's brother, to being strengthened, in 635, by the conversion ofKins
the land of the Scots and were cared for at Columba's Cynegils, of Wessex, at whose baptism Oswald stood
Monastery at Hii, or lona. There they remained un- sponsor, and whose daughter ne married. Both
til Edwin's death in the battle of Heathfield (633). sovereigns then established Bishop Birinus at Dor-
Eanfrid, his elder brother, then returned to accept Chester.
the Kingdom of I^eira. whilst Osric, cousin of Edwin, This vast supremacy, extending from north to
received Bemicia. The kingdom was thus again di- south^ and broken only by Penda's kingdom in Mid-
vided and both parts relaps<^ into paganism. In the Britam and that of the East Angles, leaf Adamnan of
following year Osric was slain in battle, and Eanfrid Hii to call Oswald ''The Emperor of the whole of
treacherously murdered bv the British king, Cadwalla. Britain". Christianity seemed to be forming a net-
Oswald thereupon came down from the North, and in work round the pagan Penda of Mercia. The king-
635 a small but resolute band gathered round him dom of the East Andes, which was still Christian, but
near the Roman Wall at a spot seven miles north of acknowledged Penda as overlord, was necessary to
Hexham, afterwards known as Hevenf elt, or Heaven's Oswald to maintain the connexion between his domin-
Field. Here, encouraged by a vision and promise of ions in the north and the south. War was therefore
victory from St. Columba. who shroudea with his inevitable. At the battle of Maserfeld, «aid to be
mantle all his camp, Oswald set up a cross of wood seven miles from Shrewsbury, "on the border of
as his standard — the first Christian symbol ever raised Wales, near Oflfa's dyke ", Oswald was slain on 6 Aug.,
in Bemicia — and gave battle to the Britons, who were 642, and thus perished ''the most powerful and most
led, probably, by Cadwalla. The Britons were com- Christian King" in the eighth year of his reign and in
pletel>r routed, and thenceforth could only act on the the flower of his age. His last words were for the
defensive. spiritual welfare of his soldiers, whence the proverb:
Oswald's victory reunited the Northumbrian King- '^God have mercy on their souls, as said Oswald when
dom not only because he delivered it from the humifi- he fell." His body was mutilated by Penda, and his
ating yoke of the Mercians and Britons, but also be- liml>s set up on stakes, where they remained a full
cause on his father's side he was a descendant of Ida year, until they were taken away by Oswy and given
of Bemicia and on his mother's of the royal house of to the monks at Bardney in Lindsey. In the tenth
Ella of Deira. Thus united^ Northumbna could not century some of the bones were earned off by Ethel-
fail to become the chief power in a confederation against red and Ethelfleda of Mercia to St. Peter's, Ulouces-
Penda of Mercia and the Britens of Wales. Oswald ter. His head was taken from the battlefield to the
was thoroughly grounded in the principles of the church of St. Peter in the royal fortress at Bambor-
Christian religion, and. though but twelve nobles ough, and was afterwards translated to Lindisfame,
with whom he retumea from exile were Christians, where, for fear of the Danes, it was placed in 876 in
far from abandoning his faith, his first care was the cofRn of St. Cuthbert which found its resting-
to spread it among the Bemicians, thus confirming place at Durham in 998. It was in the coffin at the
the political union effected by Edwin with a religious translation of St. Cuthbert in 1104, and was thought
union unknown before. Edwin, it is tme, had him- to be there when the tomb was opened in 1828. His
self received the Faith in 627, through the influence of arm and hand (or hands) were taken to Bamborough
his wife Ethelburga, sister of the Kentish King, who and perhai)s afterwards removed to Peterborough,
had brought St, Paulinus to the North, but his exam- and were still incorrupt in the time of Sjrmeon of Dur-
ple was followed o^ly by the people of Deira. Oswald, ham, early in the twelfth century. Reginald gives an
Drought up in Columba's monastery at lona, naturally account of his personal appearance: arms of great
looked to the North for missionaries. The first length and power, eyes bright blue, hair yellow, face
preacher who set forth soon returned, having found long and beard thin, and his small lips wearmg a
the Northumbrian people too barbarous and stubborn, kindly smile.
Then Aidan was sent, "a man of singular meekness. Bbdb. History: Rsoxkalo. Life (printed by the Surteee Soc.,
piety and moderation", who established his episcopal and all portiona not contwning matter taken from Bede in ft. S.
see at Lindisfame, in 6^6 Oswald's zealous copper- ^°?f„.7Y^«°'H§;!"h^J??nW: Sd's^ &S*JfwI«^
ation with the monk-bishop soon hlled the land w^th ttom; Adamnan, Life of s. Cdumba, ed. and tr. by FowLEB (Ox-
churches and monasteries, and the church at York, ford. 1894) ; Alctun, Camun in HiBtonaneof York, in R.S.'; Wif^
Kotrnn hxr FHwin waji nnmnlpf^ M orPftv#»r hia wnn- "AM or Malmesbubt. OeOa PotUxf; Idem, QeUa Regum in
begun by il^awm, was COmpleiea. Moreover, ms won- ^ ^ MieceU. Biogr. in SurteM Soe. Publication*. For account
derful humility m the midst of success, his Charitv, of hi, relica oee also Rainb. St. CtUhbeH; Idem. Openirtg of 8,
and his piety soon had their effect in turning his sub- CtUhbert^e Tomb (Durham. 1828); WalL; Shrinee of BrUieh
jects .froin Wodjn to Christ. . We are told iJ^at the g»^; ^t^^, r^.f^S^l^f^r'tTl]^^: uS^ ij
king m his Court acted as the interpreter of the Insh England (London. 1897). vi: Bbuxsheim, Cath. Ch. of SeoOand,
missionaries who knew not the tongue of his thanes. tr. Huntbb-Blaib. I (EdinburBh. 1887) ; Montalbmbbbt.
It was Oswald's work to add .to the warUke glbry "A.^^^eyrk^'fFi^l} SSXS'cf.SJJr^
of his father Ethelfnd and the wise admimstration of i&r-ioee (Loadon, 1899).
his uncle Edwin the moral power of Christianity, and S. Anselm Parker.
to build up a great kingdom. Edwin had gathered
the whole EngUsh race into one political body and was Otwin, Saint, king, and martyr, murdered at
overlord of every English kingdom save that of Kent. Gilling, near Ricnmond, Yorkshire, England, on 20
The Venerable Bede (III, 6) says that Oswald had a August, 651, son of Osric, King of Deira in Britain,
greater dominion than any of his ancestors, and that On the murder of his father oy Cadwalla in 634,
he brought under his sway all the nations and prov- Oswin still quite young was carried away for safety
inces of Britain, which are (uvided into four languages, into Wessex, but returned on the death of his kins-
namely the Britons, the Picts^ the Scots, and the man St. Oswald, in 642, either because Oswy had
English". He had great power m the North-West, as bestowed upon him Deira, one portion of the King-
far south as Chester and Lancashire, and was probablv dom of Northumbria, hiniself ruhng Bemicia, or, as
owned as overlord by the Welsh Kingdom of Strath is more probable, because the people of Deira chose
Clyde, as well as by the Picts and the Scots of Dal- him for king in preference to Oswv. Under his sway
riada. In the East he was supreme in ^ndsey, and of seven years, peace, order, and happiness reigned
the worcls of Bede seem to imply that he was overlord throughout the Kingdom. But in the relations be-
of Mercia, which was still mled by Penda; but this tween Oswy and Oswin there was apparent peace only,
could have been scarcely more than nominal. The the former was employing every subtlety to brine
West Saxons in the South, influenced by the fear of about his rival's death. At length Oswy declared
i
OTFBIED
350
OTHLO
an open warfare, and Oswin, unable to meet the
superior forces of his adversary, disbanded his army,
either from worldly prudence (Bede) or heroic virtue
(monk of Tynemouth), and made his way for greater
security to Hunwald an eorldorman upon whom he
had lately conferred the fief of Gilling. Hunwald
promised to conceal him but treacherously betrayed
nim to Ethelwin, one of Oswy's officers, and he was
murdered. He was buried at Gilling and soon after-
wards transferred to Tynemouth, though another
account says he was buridd at Tynemouth. The
anonymous monk of St. Albans, who in the reign of
King Stephen was resident at Tynemouth, and there
wrote the saint's life, says that his memory was for-
gotten during the Danish troubles, but in 1065 his
burial-place was made known by an apparition to a
monk named Edmund, and his relics were translated
on 11 March, 1100, and again on 20 August, 1103.
At the dissolution of the monasteries under Henry
VIII there was still a shrine containing the body
and vestments of St. Oswin. A portion of his body
was preserved as a reUc at Durham (cf. Smith,
*' Bede", III, xiv) . Eanfleda, Oswy's queen, daughter
of St. Edwin, prevailed upon him to found in repara-
tion a monastery at Gilhng, some remains of which
still exist, though it was destroyed by the Danes.
Bede in his "History" (III, xiv) gives a description
of his character and features: ''most generous to all
men and above all things humble; tall of stature
and of graceful bearing, with pleasant manner and
en^agiuK address". There is now preserved in the
Bntish Museum ((Ik)tton MS. Galba A. 5.) a psalter
which until the fire of 1731 bore the inscription
"Liber Oswini Regis."
Ttnemouth and CAPORAyK, JVo«a Leqenda Anglia, ed. Horst-
MAK, II (Oxford, 1901), 268; Acta SS., Aug., IV, 63; Surteet Soc.
Publ.: MiaeeUanea Biographica, VIII, 1-59, and Introd. (London,
1834); Lives of Bnolith Sainta, ed. Nkwman (London. 1900);
Raink in Diet, of Christ. Biog.t s. v.; and Butubb, Litw of the
Sainte, III (Baltimore), 287-88.
S. Anselm Parker.
OtMed of Wei886nburg, the oldest German poet
known by name, author of the ^'Evangelienbuch", a
rh3rmed version of the Gospels, flourished in the ninth
century, but the exact dates of his fife are unknown.
He was probably bom at or near Weissenburg in Al-
sace, where he also seems to have received his earhest
education. Later on he studied at Fulda under the
famous Rabanus Maurus, who was abbot there after
822 and presided over the monastic school. Aiter com-
pleting his studies, Otfried returned to Weissenburg
and entered the well-known Benedictine abbey there,
becoming prefect of the abbey-school. He was notary
there in 851 . At Weissenburg he began his ^reat poem,
the " Liber evangeUorum theotisce conscnptus , the
completion of which occupied the greater part of his
life. It was dedicated to Kmg Louis the German and to
Bishop Salomo of 0>nstance, to both of whom rh3rmed
epistles are addressed in the Franconian dialect. The
poet also addressed an epistle in Latin prose to Bishop
Liutbert of Mainz to gain official approbation for his
work. Hence the poem must have been finished some
time between 863, when Liutbert became archbishop,
and 871, when Salomo died. In the letter to Liutberf,
Otfried tells us that he undertook to write the poem at
the request of some of the brethren and of a venerable
lady, whose name is not mentioned, for the express
purpose of supplanting the worldly poetry that found
such favour with the people. He furthermore wished
to make known the story of the Gospels to those who
did not Imow Latin. The poem itself is in strophic
form and contains some 15,000 lines. It is divided
into five books^ with reference to the five senses, which
are to be purified and sanctified by the reading of the
sacred story. The first book narrates the Nativity of
Christ; the second and third. His Teachings and Mira-
cles; the fourth, the Passion; the fifth, the Resurrec-
tion, Ascensicm, and Last Judgment. Between the
narrative portions chapters are inserted superscribed
"MoraUter", "Spin tali ter", "Mystice", m which the
events narrated are interpreted allegorically and sym-
bolically.
While Otfried bases his work chieflv on the Vulgate,
he also makes use of the writings of Rabanus, oede,
and Alcuin, as well as those of St. Jerome, St. Augus-
tine, and others. In fact he is more of a theologian
than a poet, thou^ some passages show undeniable
poetic talent. Still, the poem is far inferior to the
"Heliand" (q. v.), and never became really popular.
Particularly noteworthy is the opening chapter of the
first book, where the author e^lains his reasons for
writing in German, and not in Latin. This passage
glows with a noble patriotism; the Franks are prais^
with sincere enthusiasm and are favourably compared
with the Greeks and Romans. In form, Otfried's
goem marks an epoch in German literature: it is the
rst poem to employ rhyme instead of the old Ger-
manic alliteration, though the rhyme is still very im-
perfect, being often mere assonance, with frequent
traces of alliteration. Three ahnost complete manu-
scripts of the work are preserved, at Vienna, Heidel-
berg; and Munich; fragments of a fourth are found at
fierhn, Wolfenbtittel, and Bonn. The Vienna codex is
the best. Otfried was noticed as early as 1495 by the
Abbot of Tritheim, and passages from his poem ap-
peared in print as early as 1531, in the " Libri tres rerum
Germanicarum " of Beatus Rhenanus. An edition then
appeared at Basle, 157L with a preface by Mathias
Flacius. of Illyria. Graff, who published an edition at
Kdnigsoerg, 1831, called the poem ''Krist", but that
name is now obsolete. Modem editions are those of
Kelle (3 vols., Ratisbon, 1856-81), Piper (Paderbom,
1878, and Freiburg, 1882-84), and Erdmann in Zach-
er's "Germanistische Handbibhothek", V (Halle,
1882). Modem German versions have been made by
Rapp (Stuttgart, 1858) and Kelle (1870).
See introductions to the editions of Kells. Pipbb, and Erd-
mann. Also, Lachmann, Otfrid in Kleiner e SchHften, I (Berlin.
1876), 44»-60: ScHdNBACH, Olfridstudien in ZeiUchrift fikr deu-
Arthur F. J. Remt.
Othlo (Otloh), a Benedictine monk of St. Emmer-
an's, Ratisbon, b. 1013 in the Diocese of Freising; d.
1072. Having made his studies at Tegemsee and
Hersfeld, he was called to Wurzbur^ by Bishop Megin-
hard on account of his skill in wnting. He entered
the Benedictine Order, 1032, at St. Emmeran's in
Ratisbon, was appointed dean, 1055, and entrusted
with the care of the monastic school. To escape the
oppressions of Bishop Otto he fled to Fulda in 1062
where he remained until 1067, when, after a short stay
at Amorbach, he returned to Ratisbon and employed
his time in literary work. In his early days he had a
great relish for the Classics, especially for Lucan, but
later he thought them not suited for religious, and
tried to replace the heathen authors by writings of
his own wnich served for education and edification.
Othlo is praised as modest and pious; he was opposed
to dialectics, not out of lack of education but because
he wished to be untrammelled by set words and forms.
He is accused of having originated the legend of the
transfer of the relics of St. Denis the Areopagite to
Ratisbon, and also of having forced many letters of
exemption for his abbey (Lechner m "Neues Archiv",
XXV; 627, and "Zeitschr. fUr kath. Theol.", XXXI,
18) . Amon^ his writings are : ' ' Dialogus de suis tenta-
tionibus, vana fortima et scriptis", which inarked the
beginning of autobiography in the Middle Ages
(Mabillon, "Anal, nov.^ IV, 107) ; Life of St. Wolfgang
of Ratisbon ("Acta SS.", Nov., II, 1, 565); Life of St.
Boniface, compiled from the letters of the saint found
at Fulda; Life of St. Alto (partly in "Acta SS.". Feb.,
II, 359 and entire in " Mon. Ger. hist. : Scriptores , XV,
2,843); LifeofSt. Magnus ("Acta SS.", Sept., II, 701).
OTHMAR
351
OTRANTO
In Pez ("Thesaurus", III, 143-613) are found: "Dia-
logus do tribus qusBstionibus", treating of the symbol-
ism of the number three; " De promissionis bonorum et
malorum causis"; "De cursu spirituali"; "De trans-
latione s. Dionysii e Francia in Germaniam'', a frag-
ment; " De miraculo quod nuper accidit cuidam laico ;
" De admonitione clencorum et laicorum " ; " De spirit-
uali doctrina", in hexameters; "Liber Proverbio-
rum " ; " Sermo in natah apostolorum " ; " Liber visio-
num tum suarum tum aliorum ' ' . His collected works
are found in Migne (P. L., CXLVI, 27-434).
EssBR in Kirchenlex., 8. v.; AUg. d. Biographie; Wattekbach,
Oetchichtaquellen, II, 65; Michael, Oesch. det deuUch, Volket, III
(Freiburg, 1003), 19; Hauck, Kirchengeich. deuUchl., Ill, 968,
IV, 80, 94. Francis Mershman.
Othznar (Audomar), Saint, d. 16 Nov., 759, on
the island of Werd in the Rhine, near Eschnez, Swit-
zerland. He was of Alemannic descent, received his
education in Rhsetia, was ordained priest, and for a
time presided over a church of St. Florinus in Rhsetia.
This church was probably identical with the one of
St. Peter at Remtis. where St. Florinus had laboured
as a priest and was buried. In 720 Waltram of Thur-
gau appointed Othmar superior over the cell of St.
Grail. He united into a monastery the monks that
lived about the cell of St. Gall, according to the rule
of St. Columban, and became their first abbot. He
added a hospital and a school; during his abbacy the
Rule of St. Columban was replaced by that of St.
Benedict. When Karlmann renounced his throne in
747, he visited Othmar at St. Gall and gave him a let-
ter to his brother Pepin, recommending Othmar and
his monastery to the king's liberality. Othmar per-
sonally brought the letter to Pepin, and was kindly
received. V^en the Counts Warm and Ruodhart un-
justly tried to gain possession of some property be-
longing to St. Gall, Othmar fearlessly resisted their
demands. Hereupon they captured him while he was
on a journey to Constance, and held him prisoner,
first at the castle of Bodmann, then on the island of
Werd in the Rhine. At the latter place he died, after
an imprisonment of six months, and was buried. In
769 his body was transferred to the monastery of St.
Gall and in 867 he was solemnly entombed in the new
church of St. Othmar at St. Gall. His cult began to
spread soon after his death, and now he is, next to St.
Maurice and St. Gall, the most popular saint in Swit-
zerland. His feast is celebrated on 16 November. He
is represented in art as a Benedictine abbot, generally
holding a little barrel in his hand, an allusion to the
alleged miracle, that a barrel of St. Othmar never be-
came empty, no matter how much he took from it to
give to tne poor.
p. L., CXIV, 1029-42; Man, Germ. Hist.: Scripl., II, 41-47.
To thb life was added by Iso or St. Qall: De tniraetiUi S.
OthmariJiMduo, in P. L., CXXI, 779-96, and Mon. Germ. Hi»t.:
Scripi., II, 47-54; Buboenkb, Hdvetia Sancta^ II (Einsiedein
and New York. 1860). 147-51.
Michael Ott.
Otho, Marcus Salvius. Roman emperor, succes-
sor, after Galba, of Nero, d. in Rome, of an ancient
Etruscan family settled at Ferentinum, 28 April,
A. D. 32; d. at Brixellum on the Po, 15 April, 69. He
led a profligate life at the court of Nero. As husband
of the courtesan Poppa^a Sabina he was sent for ap-
pearance's sake to Lusitania as governor. When
Sulpicius Galba was proclaimed emperor, Otho re-
turned to Rome with him. In contrast to the miserly
Galba,. he sought to win the affection of the troops by
eenerosity. On 15 January, 69, five days after Ualba
had appointed Lucius Calpumius Piso co-emperor and
successor, twenty-three soldiers proclaimed Otho em-
peror upon the open street. As Galba hurried to take
measures against this procedure, he and his d^ort
encountered his opponents at the Forum; there was a
struggle, and Galba was murdered. Otho was now
sole ruler; the senate confirmed his authority. The
statues of Nero were again set up by Otho who also
set aside an nnmense sum of money for the completion
of Nero's Golden House {Aurea uomus). Meantime
Aulus ViteUius, legate under Galba to southern Ger-
many, was proclaimed emperor at Cologne. Alienus
Csecina, who had been punished by Galba for his out-
rageous extortion, persuaded the legions of northern
Germany to agree to this choice; their example was
followed by the troops in Britain. In a short time a
third of the standing army had renounced the emperor
at Rome. In the winter of 69 these troops advanced
into the plain of the River Po, stimulated by antici-
pation of the wealth of Italy and Rome, and stren^h-
ened by the presence of German and Belgian auxiha-
ries. On the march they learned that Galoa was dead
and Otho was his successor. At first Vitellius entered
into negotiations with the new ruler at Rome. Com-
promise failing, both made ready for the decisive
struggle. Otho vainly sought to force the citizens of
Rome to take energetic measures for security. To
expiate ^y wrong done he recalled the innocent per-
sons who had been banished by Nero's reign, and
caused Nero's evil adviser, Sophonius Tigellinus, to be
put to death. Finally he plac^ the republic m the
care of the Senate and startea for upper Italy on 14
March, with the main part of his guaixi, that had been
collected in Rome, and two legions of soldiers belong-
ing to the navy, while seven leeions were advancing
from Dalmatia, Pannonia, and Moesia. A fleet near
Narbonensis was to check the hostile troops from
Gaul, that would advance from the south. After some
favourable preliminary skirmishes near Placentia and
Cremona Otho gave the command for a pitched battle
before a junction had been effected with the legions
from Mcesia. While the emperor himself remained
far from the struggle at Brixellum on the right bank
of the Po, his soldiers were defeated in battle near
Cremona, and large numbers of them killed (14 April).
The next day the renmant of his army was obliged to
surrender. On receiving news of the defeat, Otho
killed himself. His body was burned, as he had di-
rected, on the spot where he had so ingloriously ended.
VitelUus was recognized as emperor by the Senate.
Schiller, Geachichte der rOmifschen Kaiserzett, I (Gotha, 1883);
VON DouASSEWSKi, Gtschichte der r&mxechen Kaiaer, II (Leipzig,
1909).
Karl Hoeber.
0'Toole» Lawrence. See Lawrence O'Toolb,
Saint.
Otranto, Archdiocese op (Hydruntina). —
Otranto is a cit}r of the Province of Lecce, Apulia,
Southern Italy, situated in a fertile region, and once
famous for its breed of horses. It was an ancient
Greek colony, which, in the wars of Pyrrhus and of
Hannibal, was against Rome. As it is the nearest port
to the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, it was more
important than Brindisi, under the Roman emperors.
In the eighth century, it was for some time in the pos-
session of Arichis, Duke of Benevento (758-87) . Hav-
ing come again under Byzantine rule, it was among the
last cities of Apulia to surrender to Robert Guiscard
(1068), and then became part of the Principahtv of
Taranto. In the Middle Ages the Jews had a school
there. In 1480 there occurred the sack of Otranto by
the Turks, in which 12,000 men are said to have
perished — among them, Bishop Stephen Pendinelli.
who was sawn to death; the "valley of the martyrs'
still recalls that dreadful event. On other occa-
sions, as in 1537, the Turks landed at Otranto, but
they were repulsed. In 1804, the city was obliged to
harbour a French garrison that was established there
to watch the movements of the English fleet; and in
1810, Napoleon gave Otranto in fief to Fouch6.
The cathedral of Otranto is a work of Count Roger
I (1088), and was adorned later (about 1163), oy
Bishop Jonathas, with a mosaic floor; the same Count
Roger also founded a Basihan monastery here, which,
OTTAWA
352
OTTAWA
under Abbot Nicetas. became a place o£ study; its li-
brary was nearly all bought by Bessarion. The first
known bishop of this see was Petrus, to whom St.
Gregory the Great refers in 596: and there is record of
his two successors; they were Sabinus (599) and Pe-
trus (601); Bishop Marcus (about 870) is beUeved to
be the author of the oflSce for Holy Saturday; Petrus
(958) was raised to the dignity of metropolitan by
Polveuctus, Patriarch of Constantinople (956-70),
with the obligation to establish the Greek Rite
throughout the province. The Latin Rite was intro-
duced a^ain after the Norman conquest, but the
Greek Rite remained in use in several towns of the
archdiocese and of its suffragans, until the sixteenth
century. Bishop Jacob IV (1378), also Patriarch of
Jerusalem, had a part in the schism of the West, for
which reason he was imprisoned by dearies of Anjou,
and compelled to abjure publicly; after that, however,
he betook himself to Avignon; Peter Anthony of
Capua (1536) distinguish^ himself at the Council of
Trent; Francis M. dall'Aste (1596) was author of
''Memorabilia Hydruntinse Ecclesise".
In 1818 Castro, formerly a suffragan of Otranto,
was united to it. Cltstro's bishops are known from
1137; among them was John Parisi, killed in 1296 by
Canon Hector, of Otranto.
The suffragans of Otranto are Gallipoli, Lecce, and
Ugento; the archdiocese has 56 parishes, 100^200 in-
habitants, 4 religious houses of men, 11 of women, 2
schools for boys, and 9 for girls.
Cappelletti, Le Chiete d^ Italia; XXI.
U. Benigni.
Ottawa, Archdiocese of (Ottawibnsis'), in Can-
ada, origpally comprised the Ottawa Valley, traversed
by the river of the same name. The northern portion
of this diocese was, in 1882, made the Vicariate Apos-
tolic of Pontiac, and then became the Diocese of Pem-
broke, itself dismembered in 1908 to form the Vicariate
AplostoUc of Temiskamingue. Ottawa still has an
area of 10,000 square miles, extends into the Ck)unties
of Carleton, Russell, Prescott, and Lanark of the
Province of Ontario, and into those of Wright, La-
belle, Argenteuil, Terrebonne, and Montcalm of the
Province of Quebec, The Dominion official census of
1901 gave the population of the archdiocese as 158,000
CathoUcs, 128,000 of whom are French-speaking and
30,000 English-speaking. A few hundreds more speak
other languages.
Ottawa, metropolitan see and capital of the Domin-
ion, was founded in 1827 simultaneously with the
opening of works on the Rideau Canal, and took its
first name of Bytown from Colonel By, a British
officer and engineer, who had charge of the construc-
tion of the canal. With its water power and admirable
position at the foot of the Chaudi^e Falls and at the
mouth of two rivers, Bytown soon came to the front
as a centre of industrv. Li 1848 its prospects were
such that Rome raised the thriving little town to the
rank of an episcopal see. Li 1854 Bytown was granted
city incorporation; and took the name of Ottawa.
When the Canadian Ck)nfederation was definitively
estabhshed in 1867, Ottawa was chosen as capital, and
has been ever since the residence of the governor-
general and the headquarters of Canadian federal
politics.
Joseph-Eug^ne-Bruno Guigues, first Bishop of Ot-
tawa (1848-74) gave his incipient diocese a soUd or-
ganization; churches and schools were built, and the
college, seminary, and hospital soon followed. Gifted
with keen foresight, Bishop Guigues formed a diocese
with the slender resources at his disposal. At his
death the Catholic population of the diocese had in-
creased from 32,000 to 93,000, and the number of
priests from 15 to 80.
Joseph-Thomas Duhamel, second bishop and first
Archbishop of Ottawa, whose episcopate of thirty-four
years brought the diocese to its present prosperous
state, will figure in the ecclesiastical history of Canada,
as a prudent, saintly, and indefatigable worker. A
country parish-priest before ascendmg the episcopal
throne, he contmued to lead the laborious Ufe of an
ordinary priest. His episcopal visitation was his
only holiday. On these occasions he would preach
several times in the day, preside at the usual cere-
monies of the visitation, and mvestigate carefully the
administration of the parish. Though stricken with
angina pectoris two years before his death, he re-
mained at his post and died in one of his country
parishes while making his visitation, 5 June, 1908.
He had been made an archbishop in 1886.
Archbishop Gauthier has been translated from the
See of Kingston, Ontario to Ottawa, 6 Sept., 1910.
The Catholic University is Ottawa^s foremost
seat of learning (see Ottawa, University of).
Higher education for young ladies is in the hands
of the Grey Nuns of the Cross and of the Sis-
ters of the Congregation of Notre Dame (q. v.).
Each of these communities has a large institute re-
ceiving himdreds of boarders and day pupils. The
elementary schools are established in conformity with
the Separate School Laws of Ontario and the Public
School Laws of Quebec. Catholic elementary schools
are, therefore, maintained by government taxation.
Catholic ratepayers have nothing to pay for other ele-
mentary schools. The Catholic schools are efficient
and well equipped. In the mind of Archbishop Duha-
mel, Ottawa, situated on the borders of two great
provinces and possessing government libraries and
museums, was aestined to De an educational centre.
Hence the numerous houses of studies established by
religious orders in the capital.
Orders of Men: Oblates of Mary Immaculate, with
five parishes, the university, a scholasticate, and
juniorat«; Dominicans with parish and scholasticate;
the Capuchins, with parish and juniorate; Fathers of
the Company of Mary, with five parishes, scholasticate,
and jumorate ; Regular Canons of the Immaculate
CJonception, with five parishes and college; Redemptor-
ists. with house of studies; Fathers of the Holy Ghost,
witn agricultural college.
The most important charitable institutions are (1)
four orphanages directed by the Sisters of Wisdom,
the Grey Nuns, and the Sisters of Providence; (2)
three homes for the aged, directed by the Grey Nuns
and the Sisters of Providence; (3) one house of correc-
tion for girls, under charge of the Sisters of Charity;
(4) one Misericordia Refuge for fallen women; (5)
three hospitals conducted by the Grey Nuns of the
Cross. The Ottawa General Hospital, the largest of
the three, was foimded in 1845 and has been enlarged
at diflferent times. The Youville Training School for
Nurses is attached; (6) St. George^s Home^ the Cana-
dian headquarters of the Catholic Emigration Society
of England. The Sisters of Charity of St. Paul receive
there the emira-ant Catholic children and distribute
them in Canadian families.
The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception,
usually called the Basilica, since it has received the
title of minor basilica, is a vast Gothic structure
with twin towers two hundred feet high, and a seating
capacity of 2000. The parishes of St. Josephj the
Sacred Heart, St. John tne Baptist, and St. Bridget
have also beautiful churches.
Albxib, Hiatoire de la Province eccUeiaatique d'Ottatoa (Ottawa,
F. X. Brunet
Ottawa, Untversitt of, conducted by the Oblates
of Mary Immaculate, founded in 1848. It was in-
corporated in 1849 under the title of the "College
of B3rtown," thus taking the original name of the
city chosen in 1866 as the capital of the Dominion
of Canada, and now known as Ottawa. The title in
OTTO
353
OTTO
question was changed in 1861 to that of the ** College .
of Ottawa'', and the power of granting degrees was
conferred on the institution by civil charter in 1866.
The university thus began its complete secular
existence with the confederation of the Canadian
Provinces, and has grown with the growth of the
Dominion. Pope Leo XIII, by Brief of 5'Eebruary,
1889, raised the Ck)llege and the State University
of Ottawa to the rsuik of a CathoUc University. The
Brief expresses the w>ll of the Holy See that the
Archbii^op of Ottawa shall be ez officio Apostolic
chancellor of. the university, and that he and the
''other bishoTO of the [ecclesiastical] provinces of
Ottawa and Toronto who shall afl&liate their sem-
inaries and colleges and other similar institutions
with the aforesaid university, do watch over the
preservation of a correct and sound doctrine in the
same.'' It may be added that the institution has
also been of late years placed among the number of
Colonial and Indian universities, whose students are
entitled to certain privileges accorded by a statute
of the University of Oxford, passed in 1887.
Situated in the capital of the Dominion, and in a
district which is largely French in population, the
Univerraty of Ottawa oners parallel coiurses in Eng-
lish and French. It is left to the choice of parents
and students to take the classical course in one or
other of the two languages. The university is gov-
erned by a chancellor, rector, vice-rector, senate,
and council of administration. The faculties so far
or^aniz^ are those of: (1) theology, (2) law, this
bem^ an examining body only, according to certain
provisions' and regulations made, in this regard, by
the provincial legislature of Ontario, (3) philosophy,
and (4) arts. Other departments are the collegiate
course and the commercial course, the former leading
to matriculation which admits to the arts course in
Canadian universities and to technical schools. The
course in arts, after matriculation, covers four vears.
In theology a course of four years is provided, and
embraces all the branches of ecclesiastical science
usually tau^t in Catholic seminaries. The univer-
sity has, in a separate building known as the Science
Hall, well-equipped physical, chemical, and miner-
alogical laboratories, also a natiural history museum
and excellent numismatic and oonchological col-
leotioQs.
On 2 December, 1903, fire totally destroyed the
main building, a structure covering the greater part
of a block 400 feet by 200. The library of the
university, consisting of over 30.000 volumes, was
wholly destroyed} but has been replaced, in great part,
laively by donations.
The teaching staff consists of fifty professors and
instructors. The number of students in 1909-10 was
591 ; of these 350 were in residence in the Theological
Building, or Scholasticate of the Oblate Fathers, the
Colle^ate Building or Juniorate, and the New Arts
Building. Students whose homes are not in Ottawa
aje required to live in the University buildings.
Private rooms are provided. The" University Cal-
endar gives a long hst of graduates and alumni, in-
cluding names of men prominent in every walk of
Canadian life.
The Science Hall, completed in 1901, and the New
Arts Building erected to replace the building de-
stroyed in 1903, are fire-proof structures and are
among the best-quipped college buildings in Canada.
The University owns ten acres of property in the city.
Like other seats of learning in Canada, the univer-
sity lately began to offer the advantages of an extra-
mural course to those who desire to pursue collegiate
studies, but who are unable to attend its lectures.
Extra-mural students are allowed to do the work of
the arts course, and to present themselves for ex-
aminations. Before being registered, candidates for
A degree must pass the matriculation, or an examina-
XI.— 23
tion accepted by the senate as eouivalent. Students
are to attend the university for the latter part of the
course, if at all possible.
The "Calendar" and "Annuaire", published an-
nually by the university, give detailed information
in regard to courses of study, conditions of admission,
examinations, and fees in all departments. The
"University of Ottawa Review", issued monthly and
forming an annual ' volume of from four to ' five
hundred pages^ is the organ of the students.
Francis W. Gbet.
Otto, Saint, Bishop of Bamberg, b. about 1060; d.
30 June, 1139. He belonged to the noble, though not
wealthy, family of Mistelbach in Swabia, not to the
Counts of Andechs. He was ordained priest, but
where he was educated is not known. While still
young he joined the household of Duke Wladislaw of
Poland: in 1090 he entered the service of Emperor
Henry IV, and about 1101 was made chancellor. In
1102 the emperor appointed and invested him as
Bishop of Bamberg. In the conflict of investitures
(q. V.) he sided chiefly in political matters with Henry
I V, although he avoided taking sides openly. He re-
fused to be consecrated by a schismatic bishop.
Through ambassadors he declared his loyalty to the
Holy See. In 1106 he joined the party of Henry V,
went to Rome, and there on 13 May, 1106, was con-
secrated bishop. He never became a partisan. In
1110-11 he accompanied Henry on his joume^y to
Rome, but, like other noble chaiBcters, he disap-
? roved of the disgraceful treatment of Pope Paschal,
'his is clear from the fact that he received the pallium
from the pope on 15 April, 1111. When the war
broke out again, he did not desert Henry V, and in
consequence was suspended by the papal party at the
Synod in Fritzlar in 1 1 18. At the Congress of Wlira-
burg in 1121 he strove hard for peace, which was con-
cluded in 1122 at Worms. Meanwhile he had devoted
himself entirely to his diocese and as bishop had led a
model, simple, and even a poor life. He increased .the
possesssions of the Church by new acquisitions, re-
covered alienated dependencies, completed the cathe-
dral, improved the cathedral school, built castles and
churches. In particular he favoured the monks, and
founded over twenty monasteries in the Dioceses of
Bamberg, Warzburg, Ratisbon, Passau, Eichstatt,
Halberstadt and Aquileia. He reformed other mon-
asteries. Thus he merited the name of ' ' Father of the
Monks".
His greatest service was his missionarv work among
the Pomeranians. In the Peace with roland in 1120
the latter had engaged to adopt Christianity. At-
tempts to convert them through Polish priests and
through an Italian Bishop, Bernard, proved futile.
Duke Boleslaus III then appealed to Otto, and it is
due to Otto that the undertaking partook of a Ger-
man character. Through an understanding with the
pope, who appointed him legate, the emperor and
the princes, he started in May, 1124, and travelled
through Prague, Breslau, Posen, and Gnesen in East
Pomerania, was received by the duke with great re-
spect, and won over the people through his quiet yet
firm attitude, his magnificent appearance, generous
donations, and gentlej inspiring sermons. He con-
verted Pyritz, Kammm, Stettin. Julin, and in nine
places established eleven churcnes; 22,165 persons
were baptized. In 1125 he returned to Bamberg. As
heathen customs began to assert themselves again, he
once more journeyed to Pomerania through Magde-
burg and Havelberg about the year 1128. In the Diet
of Usedom he gained over through his inspiring dis-
courses all the nobles of the land to Christendom. He
then converted new communities, and led back those
who had fallen away. Even after his return (in the
same year) he was in constant communication with
the Pomeranians and sent them priests from Bam-
i
OTTO 354 OTTO
bei^. His wish to couBecrate a bishop for Pomerania The hereditary duchiea were filled by men doeely eon-
was not fulfilled, aa the Archbishops oF M^deburg nected with the royal house, Franconia was held by
and Gneeeo claimed the metropolitan rights. Only in OtUi in hie own possession; Lorraine fell to Conrad the
1140 was his former companion Adalbert confirmed Red, his son-in-law; his brother Henry received
as Bishop of Julin. In 1188 the bishopric was re- Bavaria, having meanwhile married Judith, daught«r
moved to Hammin and made directly subject to the of the Bavarian duke; while Swabia was bestowed
HolySe«. In Bamberg he once more gave himself up upon his son Ludolph. The power of these didtee
to his duties as bishop and prince and performed them was substantially reduced. Otto was manifestly en-
with groat zeal. He kept out of all political turmoil, doavouring to restore their ancient official character
In the Pti^psl schism of 1130-31 he tried to remain to the duchies. This belittling of their political posi-
neutral. The active, pious, clever bishop was greatly tion suited his design to make his kinjtdom more and
esteemed by the other princes and by Emperor Loth- more the sole exponent of the imperial idea. It would
air. He was buried in the monastery of St. Michael in have been a significant step in the right direction could
Bamberg. Bishop Embrioe of Wtiraburg delivered he have made it an hereditary monarchy, ' and he
the funeral oration and applied to Otto the words of worked enei^tically towards this object',
jeremias: "The Lord called thy name, a plentiful The apparently united realm now reverted to
olive tree, fair, fruitful, and beautiful." On his mis- Charlemagne's policies in the regions where he had
sion journey he is reported to have worked many mira- paved the way. The Southern races promoted the
cles. Many happened also at his tomb. In llSOOtto work of Germanizing and Christianiring in the adja-
waa canonized by Clement III. His feast is kept on cent Slav states, and by d^recs German influence
30 September, partly also on 30 June; in Pomerania spread to the Oder and throughout Bohemia. The
on 1 October. ancient idea of universal empire now possessed Otto's
LooBBOBn. GriMchii da fiiifum Bnnibcr;, II (Munich, 1388), mind. He endeavoured to extend his suxerainty over
);???■ ^'{^."^''"^^'^^i.^if'^'' ^^./i"" i-^r**^ France, Burgundy, and Italy, and welcomed the
K^t^Xiiln. iSfl"H^^ kSJX^^^^ quarrel between Hugo of France and Ludwig IV, e*ch
ni(Leipiia, 1903), 671-S7. of whom had married one of his sisters. King and
Klemenb LOFrLEE. dukes in France balanced the scales of power which
Otto could grasp at any time as supreme arbitrator.
Otto I, THE Great, Roman emperor and German With similar intent he turned the private quarrels of
king, b. in 912j d. at Memleben, 7 May, 973: eon of the reigning house of Burgundy to account. Conrad
Heniy I and bis consort Mathilda. In 929 he mar- of Burgundy now appeared as Otto's prot^. More
tied Edith, daughter of King^ Athelstan of England, significant was the attitude he was about ;to assume
He Bucceeaed Ilemy as king in 936. His coronation towards the compUcated situation in Italy, Tlie
at Aachen showed spiritual and moral debasement in the Italian Penin-
that the Carlovin- eula was shocking, even in Borne, The namea of
gian traditions of Theodora and Marozia recall an unutterably sad
empire were still in chapter of church history. The disorder in the capi-
force. Otto pro- tal of Christendom was only a symptom of the con-
jected a strong ditions throughout Italy. Upper Italy witnessed the
central power, wars of Berengarius of Friuli, crowned emperor by
J which was opposed Marozia's son, John X, against Rudolph II of Upper
I by the German Burgundy. After the assassination of Bcrcnganua
[ spirit of individual- in 924, the strife was renewed between this Rudolph
ism, Otto'sbrother and Hugo of Lower Burgundy, Hugo finally became
Henry headed those sole ruler in Italy and assumed the imperial throne,
great insurrection- But his supremacy was shortly after overthrown by
ery movements Berengarius of Ivrea, against whom, also, there ap-
which Ottowaa fiiBt pearcd a growing opposition in favour of Adelaide, the
— obliged to sup- daughter of Rudolph II of Upper Burgundy, to sup-
Otto I, ih» Obut press. The new press which Berengarius obtained forcible possession
From kpriDt ID the Bntuh Museum Xt^ke of Bavaria, of the princess. All these disorders had been studied
Eberhard, refused to pay homi^ to the king. Otto . by Otto. Convinced of the significance of the an-
crubdued Bavaria ana bestowed the ducal throne cient ideas of empire, he wished to subject Italy to his
upon Arnulf's brother Berthold. This attitude to- authority, basing his right upon his royal rank. In
wards the ducal, by the royal, power, now for the 951 he came to Italy, released Adelaide and married
first time openly assumed, rousea strong opposition, her, whilst Berengarius swore allegiance to him. Un-
The Franksj ancient rivals of the Saxons, resented der the in&uence of the Roman Alberich, the son of
this absorption of power. The Prankish Duke Eber- MaroEia, Pope Agapetus refused the imperii crown to
hard formed an alhance with Otto's half-brother, the German king. But even without the coronation.
Thankmar, and with other disafTecl^ nobles. Otto's the universality of his rule was apparent. He stood
youngerbrotherHeniy and the unruly Duke Eiselbert de facio at the head of the West. The royal power
of Lorrune raised the banner of insurrection. Adta- was now in need of the strongest support. New and
tioD was stirred up on the Rhine and in the royal Pal- dangerous insurrections demonstrated the lack of in-
atinate on the Sakle. The affair first took a decisive temal solidarity. Particularism once more raised its
turn when Dukes Eberhard and Giselbert fell in the head. Otlo's son Ludolph was the spirit of the new
batrte of Andemach. The victory did not, however, uprising. He demanded a share in the government
reeult in absolute power. An internecine agitation and was especially irritated by the influence of Otto's
to Franconia between the lesser nobles and the duchy Burgundian consort. The particularist element as-
favoured the king. Henry now became reconciled sembled in Ludolph's camp. It fermented through-
with his royal brother, but his insincerity was mani- out almost the entire duchy and broke out openly in
feet when, shortly after, he conspired with the Arch- many parts. The danger was more threatening than
bishop of Maim and the seditious border nobles to it had been in the first insurrection. In 954 the Mag-
UBBSBinat« Otto. The plot was discovered. In 941 yars once more thronged into the empire. Owing to
there was a final reconciliation. The monarchic thiscrisis, thencecssityforastrong, centralpowerwas
principle had triumphed over the particularism of the generally recognized, and the insurrection died out.
nobles, and the way was paved for a reorganization of It was definitively terminated at the Imperial Diet
tbe constitution. Otto made good use of his success, of Aucrstadt, where it wasannounced that Conrad itfwt
OTTO 355 OTTO
Ludolph had forfeited their duchies. Meanwhile the frequently, though unjustly, attacked. In its first
Ma^ar hordes surrounded Augsburg. Bishop Ulrich part this privilege recalls the Pactum lUudovici of 817.
heroically defended the threatened city. In the great It confirms the grants which the Church received from
battle on the Lechfelde in 055, the Hungarian army the Carlovingians and their successors. The second
was completely routed by Otto, who h^ advanced part goes back to the Constitution of Lothair (824).
to the defence of the city. By this victory he freed accoraing to which the consecratioji of kin^ shoula
Germany finall}r from the Hungarian peril. It marked not be permitted before swearing allegiance to the Ger-
a crisis in thb history of the Magyar race, which now man niler. When Otto march^ against Berensarius,
became independent and founded an empire with Pope John entered into treasonable relations with the
definite boundaries. It also caused Otto to realize emperor's enemies; whereupon Otto returned to Rome
that his great object of preventing the participation and forced the Romans to take an oath never to elect
of power with the duchies was not attainable by force a pope without his own or his son's approval. John
or through the prestige of his kingly rank. He at w£U3 deposed and a la3rman, Leo VIII, placed upon the
once endeavoured to obtain a strong support from the papal throne. Then Berengarius was defeated in his
German Church throughout the empire. turn and carried a prisoner to Bamberg. Once more
The Ottoman ^stem, a close alliance of the German Rome, always in a state of unrest, rose in arms. The
realm with the Church, was begun. Charlemagne, exiled pope, John, forced his supplanter to flee. But
too, had carried out the great conception of unit^ of John died in 964,. and the Romans elected a new
Church and State, but the ecclesiastical idea had given pope, Benedict V. The emperor energetically resrt^red
a religious colouring to Prankish statemanship, whilst order and Leo was reinstated in his position. It was
Otto planned a State Church, ^th the spiritual hicr- already apparent that the emperor resJly controlled
archy a mere branch of the interior government of the the papacy which occupied the position of a mere link
realm. In order to solve this problem Otto was first in tne German constitution. The Ottoman system
constrained to permeate the Church with new spiritual was of the greatest significance to Germany in her posi-
and moral life and also free himself from the dominion tion towaras the secular powers. How greatly the
of the lay aristocracy. His own deeply religious na- German King was strengthened through the close
ture was his best guarantee. Some pau-t of the spirit of alliance between Chiih;h and State ana how it en-
ascetic piety whi(m distinguished his mother. Mathilda, hanced the prestige of the empire, is evident from the
was found also in the son; and his brotner Bruno, progress that Teutonism and Christianity were mak-
later Archbishop of Cologne, as the clever representa- mg in Slav territory. Otto chose Magdeburg, for
tive of ecclesiastical views, also exercised a great in- which he had a special attachment, as the local centre
'fluence upon the king's religious dispositions. The of this new civilization, and raised it to an arch-
close union of Church and State had an equally salu- bishopric.
tary effect upon both of the powers concerned. By Recurring disorders now recalled him to Rome,
granting the Church such royal domains as were not The pope whom he had chosen, John XUI, found an-
m use, Uie State could devote its revenues to military tagonists in the Roman nobility. The emperor per-
f)urposes. For the united realms this situation was formed his duties as protector of the Church with
ikewise rich in blessings, since under the protection stem justice and punished the turbulent nobles. John
of the bishops, commerce and trade were developed XIII then crowned his son. Otto, emperor. As a logi-
on the great ecclesiastical estates, and the lower classes cal consequence of his imperial policy, he now openly
receiv^ from the Church protection against the avowed his intention of acquiring Lower Italy, ^is
nobles. The kingdom everjrwhere retain^ suprem- supremacy would be absolutely safeguarded if he suc-
acy over the Church: the king could nominate bishops ceeded in gaining possession of the southern part of
and abbots; the bishops were subject to the royal the peninsula. Otto, however, finally abandoned the
tribunals; and synods could only be called with the war in the south. His son's prospect of obtaining
royal approval. The German court became the cen- a Byzantine princess for his oride turned the scale
tre of religious and spiritual life. In the so-called against it. The old German axiom of le^timacy,
Ottoman ren^ssance, however, women were chiefly which was once more honoured in this mamage, was
concerned, led by the women of the royal family: destined later on to revenge itself bitterly.
Mathilda, Gerberga, Judith, Adelaide, and Theophano. Otto was buried at Magdeburg. His contempo-
(^uedlinburg, founded l^ Otto in 936, was an influen- raries compared his tremendous physical strength to
tial centre of culture. But this Ottonian system de- that of a lion. He was a Saxon through and through,
pended upon one premise: if it were to benefit the In his youth he had learned all the arts of the pro^-
State, the king must control the Church. As a matter sion of arms. Though subject to violent fits of tem-
of fact, the supreme authority over the German per, and conscious of his power and genius, he prayed
Church was the pope. Yet Otto's policy of imperial- as devoutly as a child. A shrewd calculator, always
ism was rooted in the recognition of the above premise, convincing and always toiling, he correctly estimated
The conquest of Italy should result in the subjection the importance of diplomatic negotiations. He was a
of the highest ecclesiastical authority to German roy- keen observer and possessed a fine knowledge of hu-
alty. Otto was consequently obliged to make this man nature which always enabled him to select the
campaign; and the much discussed question of the proper persons for important offices in th6 govem-
motive dictating the imperial policy is resolved, mcnt.
The unworthy John XII was at that time reigning in ^K6pkb and D6nnioe8, J^hrbiuJi^ de» deut^ien Reicketunur
H^w^^ XT« «T»« ♦U-a ar*« rxf klWtxwAnV. ♦k^ T^T^ft^* ^t OUo dcm Grotaen (Berlin, 1838); KdPKE and DOuifLBB, Kauer
Rome. He was the son of Albench. the Tyrant of quo der Groaae (Leipiig, 1876) ; Fickbk. Dob deul^ehe Kauerreieh
Rome, whose covetous glances were directed towards in teinen universelUn und mUi&naUn Benehunaen (Innabnick,
the Exarchate and the Pentapolis. A rival in these as- ^^^^i^?'' gj"*- ^^ ^f^^^ H^^ ^^ *" KaUerreich (Doa-
nirafmnci msA in fhp TV»rsnn nf RArpno-ftHna wKn ah- «Wo". 1862); Sackdb, Dxe QueUen fUr denersten Rdmertuo Ottot
pirations rose in tne person OI UCTCnganus wno en- lu^stroMBburger PesUehnfl tur^e. Ver»amnduno deutacher Philo-
deaVOUred to extend his rule over Rome. Otto com- logen (Straaburg, lOOl); Sickbl, D<u PriviUgium OUo I/ur die
plied with the pope's request for aid, which exactly rdmi«che Kirche vom Jahre 962 (Innabmck. 1883): Menkel,
aiiif^ hia nmi#»f»f^ *»>iiir*»h nnlir»v Hp hfu\ nrpvinnalv ^^^' ' BeMtehungen «* den detUechen Ergbuchofen eeiner Zeit und
smteanisprojecteacnurcn policy, nenaa previously ^^ Leietungen der utMteren fur stoat, Kirehe und KuUur (Pro-
caused his son Otto, a mmor, to be elected and gram, Magdeburg, 1900); Mittao, Erzbieehof Friedrich wm
anointed king at the Diet of Worms in 961. He left Maim und die PolUik OUo» de» Oroeaen (Halle, 1896).
his brother Bruno, and his natural son, Wilhelm, re- F- Kampbrs.
^ents in Germany, and journeyed over the Brenner
and thus to Rome, where he was crowned emperor on Otto 11, King of the Germans and Emperor of
2 Feb., 962. On this occasion the so-called Ottonian Rome, son of Otto I and Adelaide, b. 955; d. in Rome,
privilege was confeired, whose genuineness has been 7 Dec., 983. In 961 he was elected king at Worms, ana
intrepid and arbitrary spirit. With him be-
gan that extravagant poGcy of imperialism, which
aimed at KAtoring Che world boundaries of the an-
cients, and to encompaas the Ancient Sea (the Medi-
terranean). Germany and Italy were to wield the
balance of power. Reacting against this imperialia-
tic policy waa the revived strength of particularism.
The conflict with the ducal House of Bavaria gave a
dangerous aspect to afffurs. In Bavaria (with Otto's
approval) the duchess dowser Judith act«d as recent
for her son Henry. Upon coming of ago he was given
the Duchy of Bavaria in fee by Otto II, who, at, the
same time, invested Ludolph's son Otto with Swabia
OD the death of Duke Burchard, ignoring the latter'a
widow, Hedwig, a daughter of Judith. Henry, named
the"QuBiTetaome", supported by Abraham of Frie-
sing, Boleslaw of Bo-
hemia, and MesiElav
of Boland, opposed
this. The war finally
ended by Judith be-
ing immured in a
cloister and Henry
declared to have for-
feitedhisduchy. Lu-
dolph's son Otto re-
ceived the vacant
duc»l throne. The
Eastmark woa sepa-
• rated from Bavaria
and given in fee to
Luitpold of Babcn-
berg, who laid thft
foundation of the fu-
family. In 978 Lo-
thair, who aspired
to the acquisition of
Western Germany,
invaded Lorraine, Tomb oi
and pillaged Aix Vatiun Crrpu.
where Otto narrow^
escaped ct^ture. But Lothur did not advance fur-
i6 OTTO
the bishop wbom he had placed there. On the Havd
and the Spree Christianity was almost annihilated.
Affdrs were in equally bad condition among the
Wentis. The reign of Otto 11 has been justly called
the period of martyrdom for the German Church. The
ledctwture
In Dorti
B at 0
decided upon; with 60,000 men. Otto marched upon
Paris, which he failed to take. liothair, however, was
obliged to come to terms, and in 980 the two kings
met near Sedan, where Otto obtained an agreement
securing the former boundaries.
In Rome, Creacentius, a son of Theodora, headed a
disorderly factional government and sought to settle
the affaire of the HoFy See by coercion. Otto crossed
the Alps and freed the papacy. While in Rome his
mind became imbued with dreams of ancient impe-
rialism; he would pve his imperialistic policy a firm
foundation by bringing all Italy under subjection. In
Southern Italy the Byzantines and Saracens united
against the German pretensiona, and in 083 the war
with these ancient powers commenced, Tarentum
fell into the hands ol the German king, but 15 July,
982, he was defeated near Capo Colonne, not far from
Ootrone. Thisbattle resulted m the surrender of A puUa
and Calabria and destroyed the prestige of the impe-
rial authority throughout Italy. The effect spread to
tbe people at the North and the turbulent Slavs on the
East, and shortly after the Danes and Wends rose up
in arms. But Otto was victorious. The Christian mis-
Mon, under the leadership of pilgrims of Passau, had
made great progress in the territory of the Magyars.
Then came the defeat in Calabria, whereupon all of
Slavonia, particularly the heathen part, revolted
a^Dst German sovereignty. The promising begin-
nmga of German and Christian culture east of the
iJbe, inaugurated by Otto, were destroyed. In Bo-
>•"":& tbe ecclesiBstical organisation was thoroughly
1, but the emperor was unable to support
the despotic policy towards the Saxonian border
nobles and incited open discontent. In 983 he held an
Imperial Diet where his son was elected king as Otto
ITI and where the assembled nobles pledged their sup-
Krt. He departed with high hopes for Southern Italy,
irtune seemed to favour the imperial leader, who ex-
pected to wipe out the disgrace suffered in the south.
He chose a new pope, Peter of Pavia (John XIV).
While in Rome he was stricken with malaria and was
buried in St.~Peter's. At the time of his death the rel»>
tions of the empire
towards the papacr
were still unaefined.
He had been unable
to maintain his polit-
ical ascendency in
Rome. His imperi-
alistic policy bad
placed the restiainta
of progressive and
pacific Christianity
and Germaniiation
on the borders; and
he, nurauiag fanciful
dreams, believed
that he might dare to
transfer the goal of
his policy to the
south.
rtichf uiU<r Otto II u.
out, III (Lcipmi<.lB02):
otto in, German king and Roman emperor, b.
980; d. at Patemo, 24 Jan., 1002. At the age of three
he was elected king at Verona, in very restless times.
Henry the Quarrelsome, the deposed Duke of Bavaria,
claimed his guardianship. This nobleman wished for
the imperial crown. To further his object he made on
alliaace with Lothair of France. WilUger, Archbishop
of Mainz, the leader of Otto's party, improved the
situation. He Induced Henry to release the impris- .
oned Iting, for which his Duchy of Bavaria was re-
stored. Otto's mother, Theophano, now assumed
the regency. She abandoned her husband's imperial-
istic policy and devoted herself entirely to furthering
an alliance between Church and Staie. Her policy
bore abroad national stamp, Onherhueband'soeath,
this princess styled herself simply "Emperor" in
Italy, though she was obliged for political reasons to
acknowledge Creacentius as Patrician by her penoiHi]
presence in Rome in 989. In Prance Louis V nad died
without heirs, and Hugh Capet was elected. This was
the work of the French episcopate, Theophano was
not able to prevent France from speedily freeing \itt-
self from German influence. The regent endeavoured
to watch over the national questions of the Empire
in the East, One of the greatest achievements of thie
empress was her success in maintaining feudal suprem-
acy over Bohemia.
After her death, the less capable Adelaide assumed
the r^ency. Unlike her predecessor, hers was not ft
nature fitted to rule; tbe Slavs rose on the eastern
OTTO
357
OTTO
border/ and the Normans were with difficulty held in
check. She died in 999. The influence of these two
wodien upon the education of the young king (who
assumed the government in 994) was not sFight. But
two men exercised even greater influence on him:
Johannes Nonentula, a pro^^ of Theophano, and
Bemward of Hildesheim. The austere Bemward
awakened in him inclinations to fanciful enthusiasm
which coloured his dreams of empire.
Supported by the spiritual princes of the Empire,
he marched into Italy. Here he behaved as though
the Roman see were a metropohtan bishopric under
the Empire. He it was who presided at synods and
dared to revoke papal decisions, and who selected the
popes. ' Like CluLrlemagne, he wa.*' convinced of the
spuitual character of his imperial dignity, and deduced
from this the necessity of setting the empire over the
papacy. He raised a German, Bruno, to the Chair
of reter under the name of Gregory V. The new pope
crowned Otto emperor 21 May, 996, but he did not
act counter to the ancient claims of the Curia, and he
eniphasized the duties and rights of the popes.
, Otto returned to Germany in 996. It was of the
greatest consequence that in Bruno the papal throne
oontained a man who encouraged the ideas of the reform
party for purification and spiritualization within the
Church, and a consequent exaltation of the papacy.
Harmonizing with this reform party was the ascetic
movement within the Church, whose principal ex-
ponent was a native of Southern Italy called Nilus.
Among his pupils was the Bohemian, Adalbert, second
Bishop of Prague, who was at that time in Rome de-
voting himself entirely to mystical and ascetic en-
thusiasm. In 996 Otto met this remarkable man
whom he succeeded in sending back to his see. As
he scrupled returning to Bohemia, he went as mis-
sionary to the Prussian country, where he was put to
death in 999. The emperor was affected by the gro-
tesque piety of this man, and it had aroused ascetic
inchnations in him also. Still another person obtained
«*eat influence over him: the learned Frenchman,
Gerbert, who came to the Imperial court in 997.
In Rome, meanwhile, Crescentius had set up an an-
tipope named John XVI and forced Gregory V to flee.
In 998 Otto went to Rome, where he pronounced se-
vere judgment upon those who had rebelled against
his decisions. Gregory died in 999, and the emperor
raised his friend Gerbert to the papacy as SylvMter II.
He too, followed the ancient path of the Curia, and
advocated papal supremacy over all Christendom.
How was this consistent and energetic policy of the
Curia to affect the youthful emperor's dreams of a
fusion of the ideal state with the ideal church in an
Augustan Theocracy? The interference with Italian
affairs was now to react bitterly upon Germany. In
1000 Otto made a pilgrimage to the tomb of his friend
Adelbert at Gnesen, where he erected an archbishopric
destined to promote the emancipation of the Eastern
Slavonians. He practised mortifications at the tomb
of an ascetic, and thrilled with the highest ideas of his
imperial dignity, he afterwards caused the tomb of
Charlemagne at Aix to be opened. Before long his
dreams of empire faded away. Everywhere there was
fermentation throughout Italy. Otto, lingering in
Rome, found himself, with the pope, obliged to aban-
don the city. In Germany the princes united in a
national opposition to the imperialism of this capri-
cious sovereign. He had few supporters in his plan to
reconquer the Eternal City. Only by recourse to arms
could nis body be brought to Aix, where recently his
tomb has been discovered in the cathedral.
WiLMANS, JtihrbUcher da DetUaehen RetchtB urUer Ottoa III
^Berlin, 1S40); Bkntzinoer, Daa Leben der Kaiserin Addheid,
Gemahlin OUoa I., lodhrend der Regierung OUot III (Breslau Dis-
sertation, 1883} ; Otto, Papai Gregor V (MOnster DissertaUon,
1881): Lux, PajMt Silvester II EinfLuts auf die PoUtik Kaiter
OUot III (Breslsu. 1898) ; Voiot. Adalbert von Prog (BerliA, 1898) ;
ScHULiTBBa, Papk Silveeter II ale Lehrer und StatUemarm (Ham-
burg, 1801); Zbabskx. Die Sldverikriege tur Zeit Ottoa III und dig
PilgerfahH naeh Qneaen (Lemberg. 1882).
F. Kampbbs.
Otto TV, German king and Roman emperor, b. at
Argentau (Dept. of Orne), c. 1182; d. 19 May, 1218;
son of Henry tne Lion and of his wife Mathilda^daugh-
ter of King Henry II of England and sister of Richard
Coeur de Eion. In the latter, by whom he was made
Earl of March, Otto found a constant support. This
connexion of the Guelphs with England encouraged
Adolf of Colore, upon the death of Henry VI and the
election of PmUp ot Swabia by the Hohenstaufens, to
Proclaim Otto king, which took place in Cologne, on 9
une, 1198. The next aim of Otto was to obtain the
confirmation of his position as head of the kingdom.
The power of the Hohenstaufens was, however, too
great. Otto and his followers hoped that Pope Itmo-
cent III, who was hostile to the Hohenstaufens, would
espouse Otto's cause in the contest for the German
throne. Innocent awaited developments. To him the
individual was of little importance^ his chief solicitude
being for the recognition of his right to decide con-
test^ elections to the German throne, and, in conse-
quence, his suzerainty over kin^om and empire. The
year 1200 was favourable to Philip. He, however,
made the mistake of taking possession of the episcopal
See of Mainz in defiance of canonical regulations,
whereupon Innocent declared for Otto. The vear 1201
marked the b^innins of energetic action on the part of
the Curia in Otto's behalf. While the papal legate,
Guido of Palestrina, constantlv gained new friends to
Otto's cause, the "sweet youth' (msse ^unge Mann),
as Walther von der Vogelweide calls Philip, remained
inactive, protesting the while at the attitude of the
pope. When, in 1203, Thuringia and Bohemia also
deserted him, Phitip's affairs were nearly hopeless.
Otto had made the broadest concessions to the Holv
See, wishing ''to become Kin^of the Romans through
the favour of God and the pope". He confirmed the
papacy in its secular possessions, relinquished the
property of Mathilda of Tuscany^ and even guaran-
teea to the pope the revenues of Sicily, He resigned all
claims to dominion in Italy, promising to treat with the
Romans and with the cities of Italy only in concur
rence with the pope. The purpose of Innocent to be-
come the overlord of Italy was thus all but accom-
plished. The moral results of this great contest for
the throne were unfortunate. Princes and bishops
shamelessly changed their party allegiance.
In 1204 the scale turned in Philip's favour. This
was due to the fact that the whole north-western part
of the kingdom became involved in the war for the suc-
cession in Holland, and could therefore manifest but
little interest in the affairs of the Guelphs. The year
1205 saw a general desertion from Otto s cause, his do-
minion being finally limited to the city of Cologne and
his possessions in Brunswick. The Archbishop of
Cologne, Adolf, had also gone over to Philip's stand-
ard, upon which sentence of excommunication had
been pronounced against him. The Diocese of Cologne
was then subjecteato all the confusion of a schism. In
addition the city of Cologne finally fell into the hands
of the Hohenstaufens. Without further delav, the
pope withdrew his support from the apparently lost
cause of the Guelphs, and began ne^tiations with the
Hohenstaufens, in which he was joined by the other
cities of Italy. After mutual concessions, the pope
promised to acknowledge Philip and to crown him em-
peror. When about to deal the last crushing blow to
the Guelphs, Philip was murdered by the Count Pala-
tine Otto von Wittelsbach at Bamberg, on 21 June.
1208. The princes now rallied round Otto, who had
shown his recognition of their right of election by com-
ing forward once more as a candidate for the crown.
Otto's next step was to take as his wife the daughter
of his murdered enemy, which was an added incentive
to the Hohenstaufens to yield themselves to his sumy.
OTTOBEUREN
358
OTTO
On 11 November, 1208, he was once more elected, this
time at Frankfort, which event was followed by a pe-
riod of mutual understanding and a short term of peace
for the kingdom. To ensure the support of the pope,
Otto drew up a charter at Speyer on 22 March, 1209,
in which he renewed the concessions previously made,
and added others. He now promised not to prevent
appeals regarding ecclesiastical affairs being made to
the Holv oee. Of the greatest significance was his act
acknowledging the exclusive right of election of the
cathedral chapter. In 1209 Otto journeyed to Rome to
receive the imperial crown. On this occasion he did
not come as a humble petitioner, but as German king to
order the affairs of Italy and to brin^ about the re-es-
tablishment of its relations with his kmgdom. As soon
as the coronation was an accomplished fact (4 Oct.,
1209), it was apparent that he intended to make the
policy of the Hohenstaufens his own. His first step
was to lay claim to Sicily. The pope, who must have
feared a re-establishment of the dominion of Henry VI
in lower Italy, excommunicated Otto on 18 October,
1210, and determined to place the young Hohenstau-
fen, Frederick II, upon the throne. The latter secured
the support of France, and thus succeeded once more
in winnmg the German princes to his cause. On the
death of Otto's wife, a Hohenstaufen princess, the
Hohenstaufen party completelv abandoned his stand-
ard for that of Frederick. The renewed conflict be-
tween the Guelphs and the Hohenstaufens was not de-
cided in Germany, but abroad. Conditions in the
kingdom were so changed that foreign arms were des-
tined to decide the contest for the German crown. So
crushing was the defeat inflicted upon the Guelph and
English forces by Philip Augustus at Bouvines (27
Julv, 1214), that Otto's cause was lost. Although he
ttideavoured in 1217 and 1218 to make a further effort
to secure the throne, he met with no great success.
Absolved from his excommunication, he died on 19
May, 1218, and was buried at St. 31asien in Bruns-
wick.
LANOBRrBLDT, KaiMT Otto IV dtT Wdfe (Hanover, 1872) ;
WiNKKLMANN, Philivp oon SchtDoben und OUo IV von Braun-
MhvoexQ (2 vols.. Leipsig. 1873-78) ; Hcrtbb, OfchichU PapH
Innocent III und $einer Zeitgeno*»en (4 vols., Hamburg, 1834-72) ;
QROTsraND, Zur Chamkteri^ik Ph%lipp9 von Schtoaben und OUoa
IV von Brauntehweig (Jena, 1886); Schwkueb, Innocenz III
und dU dtuUche Kirche wOhrend dea Thronatreite* von 1198-1908
(Strasburg, 1882) ; Luchaxbs, Innocent III (1904).
F. Kampers.
Ottobeuren (Ottobxtra, Monasterixtm Otto-
buranum), formerly a Benedictine abbey, now a
prionr, near Memmingen in the Bavarian Allgau. It
was founded in 764 by Blessed Toto, and dedicated to
St. Alexander, the martsrr. Of its early history little is
known beyond the fact that Toto^ its first abbot, di^
about 815 and that St. Ulric was its abbot in 972. In
the eleventh century its discipline was on the decline,
till Abbot Adalhahn (1082-94) introduced the reform
of Hirsau. The same abbot began to restore the de-
ca3dng buildings, which were completed, with the ad-
dition of a convent for noble ladies, by his successor,
Abbot Rupert I (1102-46). Under the rule of the lat-
ter the newly founded abbey of Marienberg was re-
cruited with monks from Ottobeuren. His successor.
Abbot Isengrim (1145-80), wrote ''Annales minores"
(Mon. Germ. Hist.: Script., XVII, 315 sq.) and "An-
nates majores'' (ibid., 312 sq.). In 1153, and again in
1217, it was consumed by fire. In the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries it declined so completely that at
the accession of Abbot Johann Schedler (141&-43) only
six or eight monks were left, and its annual revenues
did not exceed 46 silver marks. Under Abbot Leonard
Wiedemann (1508-46) it again began to flourish: he
erected a printing establishment and a common house
of studies for the Suabian Benedictines. The latter,
however, was soon closed, owing to the ravages of the
Thirty Years' War.
The most flourishing period in the history of Otto-
beuren began with the accession of Abbot Rupot
Ness (1710-40) and lasted imtil its secularization in
1802. From 1711-1725 Abbot Rupert erected the
present monastery, the architectural grandeur of
which has merited for it the name of "the Suabian
Escorial". In 1737 he also began the building of the
present church, completed by his successor, Anselm
Erb, in 1766. In the zenith of its glory Ottobeuren
fell a prey to the greediness of the Bavarian Govern-
ment (see Schleglmann, "Geschichte der S&kularisa-
tion im rechtsrheinischen Bayem", III, Ratisbon,
1906, 611-54). In 1834 King Louis I of Bavaria re-
stored it as a Benedictine priory, dependent on the
abbey of St. Stephen at Aujpburg. At present (1910)
the community consists of five fathers, sixteen lay
brothers, and one lay novice, who have under their
charge the parish of Ottobeuren, a district school, and
an industrifd school for poor boys. Noteworthy among
monks of Ottobeuren are: Nicolas EUenbpg, humanist,
d. 1543; Jacob Molitor, the learned and saintly prior,
d. 1675; Albert Krey, the hagiographer, d. 1713; Fr.
Schmier, canonist, d. 1728; Augustine Bayiiiamer, d.
1782, and Maurus Feyerabend, d. 1818, historians;
the learned Abbot Honoratus Goehl (1767-1802), who
was a promoter of true chureh music, and founded
two schools; Ulric Schiegg, the mathematician and
astronomer, d. 1810.
LiNDNSB, Album Ottdburanum in ZeitBchrifl de* hi$t. Vereina
fUr Schwaben und Neuburg, XXXI (Augsburg. 1905) ; Idem, Dm
SchriflstelUr dea Benediktiner-Ordena in Bayem, II (RatUbon,
1880). 69-113; Fstebabe^td, Dea ehemalioen ReichaaHfUa OtUn-
bauren Benedihinerordena in Schtoaben admtiUliche JahrbQeker
(Ottobeuren, 1813-6) ; Bernhard, Btaehreibuno dea Kloetera und
der Kircha au Ottobeuren (Ottobeuren. 1883); AurixoKB, Die
Kloaterkirehe in Ottobeuren (Munich, 1892-4); Baumakn, G«-
aehiefUe dea AUgdua (Kempten, 1880-95).
Michael Ott.
Ottoboni, PiETRO. See Alexander VIII.
Otto of Freising, bishop and historian, b. between
1111 and 1114, d. at Morimond, Champagne, France,
22 September, 1158. He was the son of St. Lipoid of
Austria, and Agnes, dau^ter of Henry IV. Through
his mother's first marriage with the Hohenstaufen
Frederick I, Duke of Swabia, he was haIf-broth«r of
Conrad III and uncle of Emperor Frederick Barba-
rossa. Like his younger brotners, he was early des-
tined for the priesthood, and when scarcely more than
a child he was made provost of the chapter of canons
at Klostemeuburg, near Vienna, founded in 1114. For
his education he was sent to the University of Paris,
the centre of learning, philosophical, theological, ana
classical. On his journey home he and fifteen other
noblemen entered the Cistercian Order at Morimond.
It is not known what led him to take this sudden step.
Within three years he was elected abbot of the monas-
tery, but shortly c^terwards, probably in the same
year (1137 or 1138), was called to Frdsing as bishop,
thouj^ he did not lay aside the habit of his order. As
bishop he displayed a highly beneficent activity by
founaing and reforming monasteries, and sealously
furthering scientific studies by introaucing Aristot^
lean philosophy and scholastic disputations on the
model of the University of Paris. As a result the
school at FVeising flourished anew. He removed many
of the abuses that had crept in, in consequence of the
investiture strife, and demanded back the properties
of which the Church had been robbed. In evefjr way
he raised the prestige of the Church in Freismg as
against the nobility, and after bitter struggles fre^ it
from the burdensome bailiwick of the Wittelsbach
counts palatine. As prince of the German Empire and
closely connected with the Hohenstaufen family, he
possessed great influence, and used his high standing
to adjust differences within the empire, lie was es-
pecially active in bringing about a reconciliation be-
tween Frederick and Henry the Lion, and in restoring
peace between the emperor and the pope. In 1147 he
accompanied Conrad III on his unsuccessful crusiOe
OTTO
359
OTTO
to the Holy Land. The part of the armv entrusted to
Otto was completely annihilated, and he himself re-
turned home aiter undergoing the severest privations
and facing the greatest dangers. Otto was to have ac-
compani^ Emperor Frederick on his march into Italy
in 1158, but remained behind on account of ill-health.
He went to France to attend the general chapter of his
order, and died while revisiting the monastery of Mori-
mond.
In addition to a short fragment of a history of Hilde-
brand (edited by Goldast, " Apolo^a pro Henrico IV *\
Hanover, 1611, 18sqq.), two histoncal works by Ottoof
Freising are extant, the so-called "Chronicle" (Chroni-
con seu rerum ab initio mundi ad sua usque tempora
1146 libri VIII) and the "Historjr of Emperor Fred-
erick ' ' (Gesta Friderici I imperatoris usque ad 1 1 56 hbri
II). The "Chronicle", dedicated to the cleric Isin-
grim (perhaps Abbot of Ottobeuren), is a universal his-
tory in eight books based in the main on the great
medieval chronicles, especially on Ekkehard, but also
on the church histories of RuJGinus and Orosius. Otto's
work, however, is by no means a chronicle in the sense of
its pnadecessors. He himself did not call it a chronicle,
but gave it the title of " De duabus civitatibus", since,
as he asserted, he did not. wish merely to enumerate
the different events but to combine, as in a tragedy, a
picture of the evil which aboundea in his time. For
this purpose he adheres closely to St. Augustine's
teachmg of two states, especially as elaborated in the
"De Civitate Dei", though he also used the ideas of
Orosius concerning the misery of the world. Although
the doctrine of the two states as it appears in Otto's
historical work can be variously interpreted, he un-
doubtedly wished to represent the conflict between the
dvitas Dei (City of God) and the civitas diaboli (City
of the Devil), between the children of God and the
cives BabylanicB mundigue amatores (citizens of Baby-
lon and lovers of the world). Evidently his belief is,
that after Christ the conflict between the mundane
state of Babel and the Divine state of Israel changed
into a conflict between Christianity and paganism qr
heresy. After the complete victory of Christianity,
however, he treats almost exclusively of the cwitaa Dei,
which then merges into the Church. Nevertheless, he
is compelled to represent it in its earthly admixture as
a corpus admixtum^ in which the chosen ones must live
and act. side by side with the outeasts. Guided by
these views, he gives a narrative in the first seven
books extending from the creation of the world to the
year 1 146, while the eighth book depicts the Antichrist,
the Second Coming, the Resurrection of the Dead, the
Liast Judgment, the end of the mundane state, and
the beginning of the Divine state. Thus, through a
unifying conception, he succeeded in representing the
entire range of history as a connected whole, by which
he became, if not the first, certainly the most impor-
tant representative of the medieval philosophy of nis-
tor^. The work, which was spreacT in miGiv manu-
scnpts, was first published in 1515 in Strasburg (ex
cBdibu8 M. Schureri), Wilmans issued a critical edi-
tion of it in ''Monumenta Germ. Scrip tores", XX
(Hanover, 1868), pp. 115-301, and a German transla-
tion of the sixth and seventh books was published in
Leipzig (1881, 1894).
Otto began his second historical work, ''Gesta Frid-
erici", almost ten years after the completion of his
"Chronicle". But he could not finish it. and at his
death entrusted the continuation of it to nis chaplain
Rahewin. Of course he had command of excellent, re-
liable sources, and therefore could reproduce verbatim
a number of extremely important documents. Al-
though a unifying thought is not so apparent in this
work, it is not difficult to perceive that Otto here de-
sired to prove that happiness in this world depends
upon the harmonious co-operation of Church and
State. Throughout the "Gesta" he endeavours to
show that a happy state of peace followed the termina-
tion of the conflicts between the emperor and the pope
at Frederick's accession to the throne. And even
though the feeling for the world's misery (the so-called
pessimism of Otto, or rather of the Middle Ages — cf .
Hauck, "Kirchengeschichte", IV, 479 sqq.), which
dominates his "Chronicle", crops up repeatedly, a
spirit of "cheerful buoyancy" pervades the entire
work, and the dramatis persons are depicted more
freely and with greater self-confidence. In th€ first
book he describes the events from the beginning of the
disputes between the empire and the papacy imder
Henry IV to the death of CJonrad III. In the second
he relates the history of the years of peace (1152-6).
The "Gesta Friderici", therefore, is an extremely im-
portant work, despite the fact that the author himself
could not give it tne final polish. It is notable both as
to form and content, though it cannot be expected to
fulfil all the requirements of modem standaras. The
first edition was published at Strasburg in 1515; Wil-
mans published a critical edition of it in " Monumenta
Germ. Scriptores", XX (Hanover, 1868), pp. 347-415,
and a German translation of it appeared in Leipzig
(1883, 1894).
PoTTHAar, Bibl. hist. med. cni, II (Berlin, 1896), 885-7, contains
many bibliographical references; Wattenbach, DetUsehlaruU
OeachichUqueUen im MUlelaUer, II (Berlin, 1894), 271-^: Bksn-
HEiii, Der Charakter 0Uo» und teiner Werke in MiUeil. d— InttititU
fUrdaterr. OeschichU/oraehunp, VI (1885), 1-51; Hashaosn, Otfo
von Fretting aU Oeaehxchtwphiloaoph und Kirchenpolif^ker (Leipiiff,
1900); Hauck, Kirchengeach. DeuUcManda, IV (Leipcic, 1903)*
476-85; Schuidun, Die geaehiefUaphiloa. und kirchenpolii. WdtaTk-
achauung OUoa wm Preiaing (Freiburg, 1906).
Patricitts Schlaqeb.
Otto of PaMau. — All we know of him is in the
preface of his work, in which he calls himself a member
of the Franciscan Order, at one time lector Of theology .
at Basle, and says that he finished his writing on 2
(1) Feb., 1386, dedicating it to all the "friends of
God '', both clerical and lay, male and female, and befm
for their prayers. According to Sbaralea ("Suppl.
Script. Franciscani ordinis*', Rome, 1806, 571) he was
a native of Flanders and belonged to the Franciscan
province of Cologne. His book bears the title "Die
vierundzwanzig alt en oder der guldin Tron der minnen-
den scelen ". He introduces the twenty-four ancients
of Apoc, iv, 4, and makes them utter sentences of
wisdom by which men can obtain the golden throne
in eternal life. The sentences are taken from Holy^
Scripture, the Fathers, Scholastics, and from those
heathen authors, "whom the Church does not con-
denm'^ He thus enumerates 104 "masters", among
whom are aJso some of the mystics, as Hugo and Rich-
ard of St. Victor. He generally gives accurate quota-
tion of his sources though he also draws from some not
specified, e. g., St. Elizabeth of Schonau. He tries to
remain on strictly CathoUc ground, but sometimes
loses himself in dogmatical intricacies and quibbles.
To be plain and intelligible he frequently uses trivial
expressions. He writes on the nature of God and of
man, on their mutual relation, on the requisites for
perfection: contrition, confession, and penance; on
intern^ and external life, purity of motives, shunning
idleness, love of God ana of the neighbour, the neces-
sity of faith, and the grace of God. He speaks of the
Scriptures as the storehouse of Divine wisdom and
urges the faithful to read them. In speaking of con-
templative life he insists that none can reach it with-
out spending time in the active service of God and
man. The term "friends of God" he explains ac-
cording to John^ XV, 15. and speaks of prayer, humility,
obedience, spintual lite, virtues and vices, and shows
Christ as the model of all virtues. The longest chap-
ters, eleven and twelve, he devotes to the Holy
Eucharist and to the Blessed Virgin. The last chap-
ters treat of death and the future fife. The number of
manuscript copies of the book (about forty) bears
evidence of the estimation in which it was held. It
found its way to all "friends of God" in the south of
/>
OTTO
360
OUB LADY
Gennany, along the Lower Rhine and in the Nether-
lands, it first appeared in print in 1470, probably by
Pfister in Bamberg. A modernized edition, ''Die
Krone der Aeltesteh", was made in 1835 at Landshut
as a tenth volume of '^Leitstem auf der Bahn des
HeUs".
AUq. deuUehe Biogr., XXIV, 741. and XXV. 794; Husteb,
Nommdator, II (1906). 725.
Francis Mershman.
Otto of St. Blasian, chronicler, b. about the
middle of the twelfth century; d. 23 July, 1223, at
St. Blasien in the Black Forest, Baden. Nothing is
known of the events of his life. It is probable that
in his later days he became abbot of the renowned
Benedictine monastery of St. Blasien. He is known
as the writer who continued the chronicles of Otto of
Freisin^, like whom he possessed a great talent for
presenting a clear eiirvey of events. His language
was lofty, and followed the model of the ancient
classics. Like many of his contemporaries, he liked
to apply the fixed formulas of Justinian to the German
emperors, probably on the assumption, then wide-
spread, that the Holy Roman Empire was only the con-
tmuation of the Roman Empire of the Csesars. His
chronicles, written in the form of annals, ''Ad librum
VII chronici Ottonis Frisingensis episcopi continuatse
historic appendix sive Continuatio Sanblasiana",
embrace the period from 1146 to 1209, that is, the
geriod from Conrad III to the murder of Philip of
wabia. Since he was distant in time from the facts
he narrates, his accounts are wholly objective, even
though he makes no concealment of his prejuaice iu
favour of the Hohenstaufen, who in 1218 received the
bailiwick of St. Blasien from the dukes of Z&hrin^en.
Yet, after Otto IV of Wittelsbach was recogmzed
as German emperor, he writes of him in the same
objective way as of his predecessors. Nevertheless,
without any apparent cause, the narrative breaks
off at the coronation of Otto IV. Perhaps the chron-
icler shrank from describing the bloody partv con-
flicts of the times. His chiefsources were the "Gesta
Friderici" and perhaps Alsatian chronicles. On the
whole his statements may be trusted. It is only when
he has to resort to oral reports that he becomes unre-
liable; this is especially the case in his chronology,
though he is not to be reproached with intentional
misrepresentation of facts for this reason. His chroni-
cles were published by R. Wilmans in **Mon. Germ.
Hi^t.: Script." (XX, pp. 304-34); they were trans-
lated into German by Horst Kohl in " Geschichtschrei-
ber der deutschen Vorzeit" (12 century, vol. VIII,
Leipzig, 1881. 2nd ed., 1894).
PoTTHAST. Btbl. hiat. medii <m, II (Berlin, 1896). 884 09.;
Thoilb, Die Chronik d. Otto ton St. B. kritiaeh urUersueht (Leipsig,
1877); W ATT1RNBACB, DeuttcIUands OeschicfU^quellen, II (Berlin,
1894). 284 sq.
Patricius Schlager.
r
Ouen, St. (Owen; Dadqn, Lat. AudiBnua)^ Arch-
bishop of Rouen, b. at Sancy, near Soissons about 609;
d. at Clichy-la-Garenne^ near Paris, 24 Aug., 683. His
father, Autharius, and his mother, Aiga, belon|;ed to the
Gallo-Roman race. Shortly after Ouen's birth they
came to Ussy-sur-Mame, where he spent his child-
hood, with which tradition connects a series of mar-
vellous events. Bein^ afterwards sent to the Abbey
of St. M6dard he received an education which caused
him to be welcomed at the court of Clothaire II a
short time previous to the death of that prince. The
latter's successor, Daeobert I, made him his referen-
dary or chancellor and profited greatly by his talents
ancf learning. He charged him with important mis-
sions and, it is believed, with compiUng the Salic Law.
St. Ouen found at the royal court Eloi (Eligius), an-
other holy person, whose life was very similar to his
own, and with whom he was united m close friend-
ship. Both of them, despite the disorders of the
Frankish king, served him faithfully. But when
Dagobert was dead they considered themselves re-
leased from all secular duties, and leaving the court
they devoted themselves in seclusion to the theologi-
cal studies which attracted them.
St. Ouen, w^o in 634 founded the Abbey of Rabais,
was ordained priest by Dieudonn^, Bishop of MAcon.
Some time later his virtues and great ability marked
him out for the archiepiscopal See of Rouen, left va-
cant by the death of St. Romain. Elected in 639 he
was consecrated at Rouen, 21 May, 640, with his
friend St. Eloi, who became Bishop of Moyon. The
Diocese of Rouen, in which there were still barbarian
districts from which paganism had not disappeared,
was transformed under the administration of St.
Ouen who caused the worship of false gods to cease,
foimded numerous monasteries, and developed theo-
logical studies. Occasionally the statesman reap-
peared in St. Ouen. For instance he upheld Ebroin
the mayor of the palace in his strife against the aris-
tocracy. After Ebroin's death, at the invitation of
Thierry I he went to Cologne and succ^ded in re-
storing peace between Neustria and Austrasia.
Shortly after he was attacked by the illness to which
he succumbed. His body, which was brought to
Rouen and interred in the Abbey of St. Pierre which
thenceforth assumed his name, was translated several
times, in 842, 918, and finally m 1860. St. Ouen, who
survived St. Eloi, wrote the life of his friend. Thi^s
biography, which is one of the most authentic histori-
cal monuments of the seventh century, contains a store
of valuable information regarding the moral and reli-
gious situation of that time, ft was published for
the first time by Dom Luc d'Achery in vol. V of his
"Spicilegium".
Ceiluer. Hist. gSn. dea aui. »aer. et eccU:, XVII (Paris, 1750),
687-89; CHERUELin Rev. de Rouen, II (1836), 251-64, I; (1837).
21-36; Ht9t. Liu. de la France (Paria, 173^8), III, 623-28; IV,
74; Lanovius; SS. FraneioB cancel!, (1634). 24-79; Pmr, Hie-
toire de S. Ouen (Rouen, s. d.): Reich, U^>er Audoene Leben»he-
echreib d. heilig. Eligiu$ (Halle, 1872) ; Vacandard, Venfance de S.
Ouen in Free. trav. acad. Rouen (Rouen. 1896-97), 129-53; Idem,
S. Ouen avant eon ipiecopat in Revue dee queetiont hietorigueSt
XfX (Paris, 1898), 6-50.
LAoN Cluqnbt.
Our Father. See Lord's Prayer.
Our Lady, Help of ChristiaiiB, Feabt of. — The
invocation Auxilium Chriatianorum (Help of Chris-
tians) originated in the sixteenth century. In 1576
Bernardino Cirillo, archpriest of Loreto, published at
Macerreta two litanies of the Bl. Virgin, which, he
contended, were used at Loreto: one a form which is
entirely different from our present text, and another
form (" Aliffi litaniae B. M . V. ) identical with the litany
of Loreto, approved bv Clement VIII in 1601, and
now used throughout the entire Church. This second
form contains the invocation Auxilium Christianorufn,
Possibly the warriors, who returning from Lepanto (7
Oct., 1571) visited the sanctuary of Loreto, saluted
the Holy Virgin there for the first time with this new
title; it is more probable, however, that it is only a vari-
ation of the olaer invocation AdvoccUa Christianorum,
found in a litany of 1524. Torsellini (1597) and the
Roman Breviary (24 May, Appendix) say that Pius
V inserted the invocation in the litany of Loreto after
the battle of Lepanto : but the form of the litany in
which it is first found was unknown at Rome at the
time of Pius V (see Litany of Loreto; Schuetz,
"Gesch. des Rosenkranzgebete8'\ Paderbom, 1909,
243 sq.).
The feast of Our Lady, Help of Christians, was in-
stituted by Pius VII. By order of Napoleon, Pius
VII was arrested, 5 July, 1808. and detained a prisoner
for three years at Savona, and then at Fontainebleau.
In January, 1814, after the battle of Leipzig, he was
brought back to Savona and set free, 17 Maroh, on the
eve of the feast of Our Lady of Mercy, the Patroness
of Savona. The journey to Rome was a veritable
triumphal march. The pontiff, attributing the victory
OUB LADY
361
OUB LADY
of the Church after so mudi agony and distrees to the
Bleeaed Virgin, visited many of her sanctuaries on the
way and crowned her images (e. g. the ''Madonna del
Monte'' at Cesena, ''della Misericordia'' at Treja,
"della Colonne" and "della Tempest^" at Tolentino).
The people crowded the streets to catch a' glimpse of
the venerable pontiff who had so bravely withstood
the threats of Napoleon. He entered Rome, 24 May,
1814, and was enthusiasticallv welcomed (McCaffrey,
''History of the Catholic Church in the Nineteenth
Cent.", 1909, I, 52). To commemorate his own suf-
ferings and those of the Church during his exile he
extended the feast of the Seven Dolours of Mary (third
Sui^day in September) to the universal Church, 18
Sept., 1814. When Napoleon left Elba and returned
to Paris, Murat was about to march through the Papal
States from' Naples; Pius VII fled to Savona (22
March, 1815), where he crowned the image of our
Lady of Mercy, 10 May, 1815. After the Congress
of Vienna and the battle of Waterloo he returned to
Rome, 7 July, 1815. To ^ve thanks to God and Our
Lady he (15 Sept., 1815) instituted for the Papal
States the feast of Our Lady, Help of Christians, to
be celebrated, 24 May, the anniversary of his first re-
turn. The Dioceses of Tuscany adopted it^ 12 Feb.,
1816; it has spread nearlv over the entire Latin
Church, but is not contained in the universal calendar.
The hymns of the Office were composed by Brandi-
marte (Chevalier, "Repert. Hvmnolog.^j II, 495),
This feast is the patronal feast of Australasia, a double
of the first class with an octave (Ordo Australasise,
1888), and in accordance with a vow (1891) is cele-
brated with great splendour in the churches of the
Fathers of the Forei^ Missions of Paris. It has
attained special celebrity since the Ven. Dom Bosco,
founder of the Salesian Congr^ation, ^ June, 1868,
dedicated to Our Lady, Help of Christians, the mother
church of his congregation at Turin. The Salesian
Fathers have carried the devotion to their numerous
establishments.
HoLWBCK, FcuU Mariani (Fraiburg. 1892); Qm&RANaBR, LUur-
Oioal year, 2^ Mmy, F. G. HoLWECK.
Our Lady of Good Counself Feast of. — Records
datin|( from the reign of Paul II (146;4-71) relate that
the picture of Our Lady, at first called ** La Madonna
del Paradiso'' and now better known as ''Madonna
del Buon Consiglio'', appeared at Genazzano, a town
about twenty-five miles southeast of Rome, on St.
Mark's Day. 25 April, 1467, in the old church of Santa
Maria, whicn had oeen under the care of Augustinians
since 1356. The venerated icon itself, which is drawn
on a thin scale of wall-plaster little thicker than a
visiting-card, was observed to hang suspended in the
air without the slightest apparent support; thus early
tradition, which furthermore tells how one might have
pafi»ed a thread around the image without touching
it. At once devotion to Our Lady in Santa Maria
sprang up; pilgrim-bands began to resort thither;
while miracles in ever-increasing numbers, of which a
register was opened two days after the event, were
wrought, as they still continue to be, at the shrine.
In July following, Pope Paul deputed two bishops to
investigate the allegea wonder-working image. Their
report, however, is not known to be extant. The cult
of Our Lady increased. In 1630 Urban VIII himself
went to Genazzano on a pilgrimage, as did Pius IX
in 1864. On 17 Nov.. 1682, Innocent XI had the pic-
ture crowned with gold by the Vatican Basilica. In
1727 Benectict XIII granted the clergy of Genazzano
an Office a^id Mass of Our Lady for 25 April, anniver-
sary of the apparition, elsewhere the feast being kept
a day later so as not to conflict with that of St. Mark
the Evangelist. On 2 July, 1753, Benedict XIV ap-
proved of the Pious Union of Our Lady of Grood Coun-
sel for the faithful at large, and was himself enrolled
therein as its pioneer member; Pius IX was a member,
and also Leo XIII. On 18 Dec, 1779, Pius VI, whfle
re-approving the cult of Our Ladv, granted all Augus-
tinians an Office with hymns, lessons, prayer, and
Mass proper of double-major rite; with a plenary in-
dulgence idso for the faithful, to which Pius VlII
added another for visitors to the shrine. On 18 Dec.,
1884, Leo XIII approved of a new Office and Mass of
second-class rite for all Augustinians, while on 17
March, 1903, he elevated the church of Santa Maria —
one of the four parish churches at Genazzano — to the
rank of minor pasilica; and, on 22 April following,
authorized the insertion in the Litanv of Loreto oi
the invocation "Mater Boni Consilii" to follow that
of "Mater Admirabilis". The same pontiff, ten
years earlier (21 Dec., 1893) had sanctioned the use of
the White Scapular of Our Lady of Good Counsel for
the faithful. In the United States there are many
churches and institutions in honour of Our Lady of
Good Counsel.
NoBTHCOTB. CddbraJted Sanetuariet (Philadelphia, 1868) ; Diii-
LON, The Virgin Mother of Good Courted (Home, 1884) ; Bbnnbtt,
Our Lady of Good Courted irt Qenaetano (New York, 1888);
GonoH, Our Lady of Good Courted (London, 1894) ; Vanutblu,
Certrti Storiei , . . di Genaeeano (Roma, 1839); Buonakno,
Delia Immagine di Maria SSa. . . . rrtemorie etoriche (Naples*
1874); PiFiBBi, Rektsiorte . . . dd SarUuario (Roma, 1903); Db
Orgio, letoriche rtolizie deOa prodigioea Apparieione (n. p. n. d.).
Thomas C. Middleton.
Our Lady of the Fields, Brothers of, a Cana-
dian congregation founded in 1902 at St-Damien de
Buckland in the Diocese of Quebec by Rev. M. J.-O.
Brousseau. Its object is to train orphans in industrial
and agricultural pursuits, and the arts of colonization.
The Sisters of Notre Dame of Perpetual Help, cdso
founded by Rev. M. J.-O. Brousseau in 1892, care
for the orphans up to the age of twelve years: they are
then confided to the care of the Brothers for the pur-
g)se8 above indicated. The mother-house is at St-
amien, Bellechasse Co., Lac Vert, P. Q., Canada.
There are at present six brothers and four novices.
Our Lady of the Snow, Feast of (''Dedicatio
Sanctse Marise ad Nives''), a feast celebrated on 5
August to commemorate the dedication of the church
of Santa Maria Maggiore on the Esquiline Hill in
Rome. The church was originally built by Pope li-
berius (352-366) and was called after him ''Basilica
Liberii" or "Liberiana". It was restored by Pope
Sixtus III (432-440) and dedicated to Our Lady.
From that time on it was known as ''Basilica S. Ma-
riae" or "MariaB Majoris"; since the seventh century
it was known also as "Maria ad Praesepe". The ap-
pellation "ad Nives" (of the snow) onginated a few
nundred years later, as did also the legend which gave
this name to the church. The legend runs thus: Cur-
ing the pontificate of Liberius, the Roman patrician
John ana his wife, who were without heirs^made a vow
to donate their possessions to Our Lady. They prayed
her that she might make known to them in what man-
ner they were to dispose of their property ii\ her hon-
our. On 5 August^ during the night, snow fell on the
summit of the Esquiline Hill and, in obedience to a
vision which they had the same night, they built a
basilica, in honour of Our Lady, on the spot which was
covered with snow. From the fact that no mention
whatever is made of this alleged miracle until a few
hundred years later, not even by Sixtus III in his
eight-lined dedicatory inscription [edited by de Rosd,
" Inscript. Christ.", II, i (Rome, 1888), 71; Grisar (who
has failed to authenticate the alleged miracle), " Ana-
lectaRomana", I (Rome, 1900), 77; Duchesne, "Liber
PontificaUs", I (Paris, 1886). 235; Marucchi. "Ele-
ments d'arch6olo^echr6tienne", III (Paris ana Rome,
1902), 155, etc.] it would seem that the legend has
no historical basis. Originally the feast was cele-
brated only at Sta Maria Maggiore; in the fourteenth
century it was extended to all the churches of Rome
and finally it was made a universal feast by Pius V.
OTERBBCK 3
C]«ment VIII raised it from s feast of double rite to
double major. The Masa is 'the common one for
feasts of the Blessed Vir^n; theOfficeis also the eom-
mon one of the BI. Vii^n, with the exception of the
aecond Noctum, which ie an account of the alleged
miracle. The congregation, which Benedict XIV in-
Btituted for the reform of the
Breviary in 1741, proposed that the
reading of the legend E>e struck from
the Office and that the feast should
Sffiun receive its original name,
"Dedicatio Sftnct» Maria;".
Analcria Jurii Ptinlifiai. XXIV (Rom«,
I88S), 915; Holhoci, FaHi Uariani (Frei-
bur(, ISS3). ie4-«.
Michael Ott.
Orarbvck, Fribdrich, convert
and ptunter of religious subjects, b.
at Lubeck, 3 July, 1789; d. at Rome,
12 November, 1869. Overbeck is
one of the most fascinating figures
in the realm of modem Christiaii
art. He was the soul of that roman-
tic school of painters who, under the
name of "Nazarites", exerted great
influence on the formation of the
German religious art of the nineteenth century. When
eighteen years old, Overbeck became a pupil at the
Academy of Fine Arts at Vienna. After he had
attained proficiency he quickly withdrew from the
compulsion and form^ism of the academy, and went
with three friends to Italy and above all to Rome
as the great centre for the exercise of art. In 1810
he made his home in the monastery of the Irish
Franciscans at Rome, San Isidoro, which was then
unoccupied. He was the first to recognize that the
traditjon of eccle«-
astical art had been
completely suspend-
ed by the Reforma-
tion and the icono-
clastic outbreaks,
and that later the
stifling overgrowth of
Humanslm is in-
troduced elements
into it, which had
cast a mythological
garb over the Catho-
UG ideal of art. His
worit was, by the
power of genius, to
throw a bridge over
the period of stagna-
tion and depression
that had lasted for
Overbeck lived to see
the complete success
of his titanic labours.
At Rome the father
of the "Naiaril«s",
as peril apa he may
now be called, was joined by . . ,
Cornelius, Schadow, and Philip Veit, and these
men united together into a school. It was Over-
beck's art and studies that brougHt him back to
the Chureh, and the mystical power of his piety
alone ^powered him to produce his lofty crea-
tions. The series of frescoes of the history of
Joseph in Egypt in the house called Casa Bartholdi,
those illustrating Tasso's "Jerusalem Delivered" in
ths villa of Prince Massimo, and above all that won-
derful composition "The Miracle of Rosea" in the
Portiuncula chapel at Assisi, astonished the world by
modem technic, completely independent grasp of the
subject, and most of all by proper relation of the
2 OVKBBEBa
Sainting to the domfnating raster art of architecture,
'verbeck was not able personally to develop the ideal
he had formed, the adornment of northern, especially
German clittrehes with frescoes, but his school,
largely as represented by Eduard von Steinle, baa
partiuly earned out his wishes.
The influence of Overbeck's spirit
WM by no means limited to Ger-
many. France, particularly, under-
stood the graphic speech of this new
reli^ous art; Belgium, Poland, and
Spam followed in the footsteps of the
master at Rome, The reputation of
the new leader of art was spread
throughout all classes of society,
largel]
after Mm, there
fly by his Biblical cartoons,
oil paintings are conspicuous for
their qualities but are not numer-
ous; the rr\08t noted of them, "The
Triumph of Religion in the Arts",
is the chief ornament of the St&del
Gallery at Frankfort, If the work
produced by Overbeck appeara
meagre, when contrasted with the
amount put forth by artisi« who came
_, sonistobefoundinthesubtilityof his
manner, owing to which he could execute masterly woik,
even in old age, as the wonderful cartoons of the Seven
Sacraments . and the sketches for the decoration of
the cathedral of Diakovfir, which were only used in
Cart. Hostility to the art of Overbeck and his fol-
iwcrs, the "Naiarite" school, did not fail to appear
during Overbeck's lifetime, nor is it lacking now.
Some say that the "Naiaritia", most of all Overbeck,
Veit, Filhrichf and Stdnle, have introduced Italian
art into Northern
Europe, and have
made German eccle-
siastical art, which
was stem and austere,
shallow and inapidly
sweet. Of the same
Opinion as these
orthodox " artists
are the "modems",
who assert that the
"Naiarite" canonsof
art are outstripped
and antiquated. To
these men, stvle,
the canons, and aog-
mas of art are super-
fluous, stereotyped,
and out-of-date.
Overbeck and his
companions have
been justified by
their extraordinary
gards ecclesiastical
art, which must al-
ways be a religious
art. Their influence may be recogniied also in
the closely related art of architecture, at least as
far as the Germanic people are concerned,
HowiTT, Fricdruh Omj-Jm*, lein Ltbrn und Srha£m. ed. by
(UoJon, isai).'''
C, M. Kautuann.
OverlMrK, Bcrkhard Hein'rich, German eccle-
siastic and educator, b, 1 May, 1754; d, 9 November,
1826, Of poor parents in the peasant community of
Htickel, near Osnabriick, he beoame a pedlar like his
father. At fifteen a priest prepared him for college,
and he studied with the Franciscans in Rheine.
Later (1774) he studied in Milnster, and was ordmncd
OVIEDO
363
OVIEDO
priest in 1779. As curate in Everswinkel, he did
such good work in teaching religion that the vicar-
general, Freiherr von Ftirstenberg (q. v.)» offered him
uie position of director of the normal school, which
he was about to found in Mlinster. Thenceforth he
was FOrstenberg's right hand in the reorganization
and reformation of the schools. In 1783 he settled
in Miinster, where his first duty was to conduct a
course of practical and theoretical study for school-
teachers during the autumn vacation. This institu-
tion was known as the NormaUichtUe. The village
schools at that time were very poor; in Prussia a
number of discharged non-commissioned officers made
a pretence of teaching, while in Westphalia, mere
day labourers wielded the "stick". Of "method"
there was little, except scolding and beating; Over-
berg had had personal experience of that in his own
childhood. Not even reaoing — ^much less writjng and
arithnletic — ^was taught to ah. Overberg, therefore,
stood before a gigantic problem. He solved it, as
FUrstenberg says, "earnestly and yet mildly, without
ambition, without egotism, without any deception or
deceit, untiring and with a persistency that feiured no
obstacles." His aim was to educate and instruct
teachers and to improve their wretched material cir-
cumstances. All the teachers were to take part in the
course at public expense. The course closed with an
examination, and those who passed it obtained an in-
crease in salary. As Overberg considered it best to
separate the sexes in his schools, he instructed a num-
ber of women teachers who ^igerly accepted the work.
He really created the profession of female lay-teacher.
At first^ Overberg hm:i8elf instructed the teachers,
giving nve lessons daily between 21 August to No-
vember, and teaching method as well as the various
school subiects. Later he employed an assistant
teacher. Soon his normal school was attended by
young people who wished to become teachers. This
normal school, therefore, became what is now known
in Germany as a Seminary^ and had more than 100
pupils (at first 20-30) . Besides teaching in this school
ne gave instruction in the catechism for twenty-seven
years in the Ursuline convent without remuneration,
flverv Sunday he recapitulated all that he had lec-
tured upon during the week in a public lecture which
was attended by people of all classes, especiallv by
students of theologv. In 'this work ne showed not
only his inborn faculty of teaching, but also his child-
like fidth and simplicity.
In 1789^ Princess GaJlitzin chose him as her con-
fessor. He influenced her entire activity, and met in
her company the most important men of the times.
By his tactful kindness he brought about the con-
version of Count Friedrich Leopold von Stolberg.
Overberg was the chief author of the Miinster
school ordinance, formulated on 2 Sept., 1801. He
remained director of the normal school even when he
became regent of the ecclesiastical seminary in 1809,
before which he had been for some time synodal exam-
iner and member of the LandschuUcammissicn. In
1816 he was made a consistorial and school counsellor,
in 1823, honorary rector of the cathedral, and in 1826,
shortly before his death, Oberconaistorialrat. Over-
beiv was quite familiar with the pedagogical theories
ana achievements of his time, and utilised many of
them. He was especially well acquainted with
Rochow, Felbiger (q. v.), and Francke. But his own
Bsrstem is, on the whole, unique: for everywhere he al-
lows for the demands of life. He lays emphasis upon
the importance of habit, the power of example, and
the teUing of stories. As the main support of all
education and discii)line he considers religion. Ideal
thoughts and practical everyday considerations are
well combined in his work. His basic idea is to lead
man toward his eternal goal, but he lays emphasis
upon the necessity of caring for the temporary condi-
tions of life, of cultivating prudence, and doing away
with stupidity and superstition. His instruction la
catechetic, and he mentions as its advantages the
training of reason, the formation of clear impressions
and ideas, and practice in the expression of one's own
opinions: "children should be trained to think bv
questioning them, and should be guided in their
method of thinking in such a way that they will find
out for themselves the things which we want to teach
them".« Overberg's writings contain much that is in-
teresting to teachers even to-day. Tlie most impor-
tant of them are: "Anweisung zum zweckmlissigen
Schulunterricht" (1793): newly edited by Gansen
(5th ed., 1908); "Biblische Geschichte'^' (1799).
which has appeared in over thirty editions and is still
used as a house book; "ChristkatholischesReligions-
buch" (1804); "Katechismus der christlichen L^ire"
(1804), used in the Diocese of Miinster until 1887 and
in Osnabrilck until 1900; and "Sechs BUcher vom
Priesterstande" (posthumous, 1858).
Reinkbmann, Bemh. O. in teinem Leben u. Wirken (MQiuter,
1829) : Krabbe, Leben 0. (Manster, 1831 ; 3rd ed.. 1864) ; Rkusch
in Aug. detUeche Biogr., XXV (Leipiig. 1887), 14-17: Knbcbt in
Kirekenlex. a. v.; ZOckubr in Realeneykl. far pr<4. Tkecl.^ e. v.
Oterberg u. der QaUiUinaehe Kreie,
KlBMENS LdFFLBR.
OviedOf Diocese of (Ovetensib), comprises the
civil province of the same name (the ancient Kmf^
dom of Asturias), besides certain rural deaneries m
the provinces of Lugo, Le6n, Zamora, and Santander.
Its camtal, the city of Oviedo, has a population of 42,-
716. The ancient capital of the Asturias country was
Astorga (Asturica); Oviedo was founded by Kins
Fruela I (756-68). In 760 Abbot Fnunistanus and
his nephew Maximus built a monastery there and
dedicated a church to St. Vincent the Martyr; Fruela
had houses built and the basilica of S. Salvador. His
son, Alfonso II, the Chaste, made Oviedo his capital
and restored the Church of S. Salvador. The same
king founded the See of Oviedo, in 805, combining
with it the ancient See of Britonia. A number of
bishops, exx)elled from their sees by the Saracens, were
fathered at Oviedo, where they held two councils,
t was there proposed to make Oviedo a metropolitan
sec, and such it was from 869 until the ancient arch-
dioceses of the Peninsula were restored, when the
pope declared Oviedo exempt (1105); the Concordat
of 1851 made it suffragan to Santiago.
The Cathedral of S. Salvador was restored in the
twelfth century by Archbishop Pelayo, the chronicler.
Bishop Fernando Alfonso (1296-1301) undertook an-
other restoration of the chapter-house, and his suc-
cessor, Fernando Alvarez (1302-1321), began the
cloister. At the end of the thirteenth century Gutierre
de Toledo began the new Gothic basilica, the principal
chapel bearing his arms, though it was completed oy
his successor Guillen. Diego Ramirez de Gusm^
(1421-41) built the two chapels of the south transept
(now replaced by the sacristy), the old entrance to the
church, and the gallery of the cloister adjoining the
chapter-house. Alonzo de Palenzuela (1470-85) com-
pleted the other part of the transept. Juan Arias
(1487-97) left his cognizance, the fleur-de-lys and four
scallops, on the nave. Juan Daza ( 1497-1 503) erected
the grille of the choir; Valerano (1508-12) added the
stained-glass windows. Diego de Muros, founder of
the great college at Salamanca known as the Oviedo,
had the crestings of the porch wrought by Pedro de
Bunyeres and Juan de Cerecedo, while Giralte and
Valmaseda completed the carving of the precious re-
table in the time of Francisco de Mendoza (1525-28).
Crist6bal de Rojas (1546-56) affixed his coat-of-arms
to the completed tower, with its octagonal pyramid:
one of the marvels of Gothic architecture. The chief
feature of the cathedral is the "Camara Santa'', with
its venerable relics. Bishop Pelayo relates that a
coffer made by the disciples of the Apostles, and con?
taining the most precious relics of the Holy City, was
OWEN 364 OXENFOBD
taken from Jerusalem to Africa, and after several Owen, Nicholas, a Jesuit lay-brother, martvred in
translations was finally deposited at Oviedo by Alfonso 1606. There is no record of his parentage, birthplace,
II. In the sixteenth century. Bishop Crist6bal de date of birth, or entrance into religion. Probaloly a
Sandoval y Rojas wished to open it, out could not, carpenter or builder by trade, he entered the Society of
being overcome with religious fear. Many other Jesus before 1580, and had previously been the trusty
relics are to be seen. servant of the missionarv fathers. More (1586-1661)
The most famous sanctuary of the diocese is at. associates him with the nrst Endish lay-brothers. He
Covadonga {Cwa longa)t deaicated to the Blessed was imprisoned on the death of Bl. Edbnund Campion
Virgin, by whose help the Spaniards, in 718, overcame for openly declaring that martyr's innocence, but
the Arabs commanded by Alkaman. The old building .afterwards served Fathers Henry Gamett and John
was consumed by fire 17 October, 1777. The Canons Gerard for eighteen years, was captured again with
Regular of St. Augustine, who had charge of it, had the latter, escaped from the Tower, and is said to have
been driven by lack of revenues to live scattered about contrived the escape of Father Gerard. He was fi-
in various parishes, when Philip IV compelled them to nally arrested at Uindlip HaU, Worcestershire, while
return to community hfe, increasing their endowment, impersonating Father Gamett. "It is increoible",
and building houses for them beside the monastery, wntes Cecil, "how great was the joy caused by his ar-
Urban VII made an order that the abbot should be a rest . . . knowing the great skill of Owen in construct-
dignitary of the cathedral of Oviedo. Charles III ing hiding places, and the innumerable quantity of
wished to rebuild the chapel sumptuously, but never dark holes which he had schemed for hiding priests all
went beyond beginning the work. In recent times it through England.'' Not only the Secretaiy of State
has b^n completely restored by Bishop Sanz y Fores, but Waade, the Keeper of the Tower, appreciated the
Alsonoteworthy are the two monasteries of S.Vicente importance of the aisclosures which Owen might be
and S.Pelayo at Oviedo. West of the city is the Gothic forced to make. After being committed to the Mar-
convent of S. Francisco, now used as a hospital. The shalsea and thence removed to the Tower, he was sub-
church of the convent of S. Domingo is of the so-called mitted to most terrible "examinations" on the Top-
Modem Gothic style; that of Sta Clara has a lofty cliffe rack, with both arms held fast in iron rings and
tower: S. Isidro, formerly a Jesuit church, has a body hanging, and later on with heavy wei^ts at-
splenoid faj^ade in ashlar stone. In the environs of tached to nis feet, and at last died under torture. It
Oviedo ana on the slope of Monte Naranco are the was given out that he had committed suicide, a cal- ^
famous churches of SUl Maria and S. Miguel, two umny refuted by Father Gerard in his narrative. As
art treasures of the ninth century and worthjr of end- to the day of his death, a letter of Father Gamett's
less study. The conciliar semmary of Oviedo was shows that he was still ahve on 3 March; the "Me-
founded m 1851 by Bishop I^nacio IHaz Caneja; it nology" of the province puts his martyrdom as late as
consists of a great seminary m Oviedo, and a little 12 iSov. He was of singularly innocent life and won-
seminary at Valdedios de Villaviciosa, an old Cister- derful pmdenoe, and his skiU in devising hiding-places
cian monastery. Besides the Provincial Institute of saved the lives of many of the missionary fathers.
Secondary Education of Oviedo, there is another, Foutr, Records of Bngiiah Jpauiu (London, is75S2),iy, 245;
founded by JoveUanos, at Giion. X"' ^ii ^°*'' ?^- f*^-.T ''*'5*^'**^iSv ^"''"* ^^*.2^i
^t. i_* ^^*^"«*"^> «*w2-»»jvM. Nash, Mannoru of England (London, lOOC); Taunton, HtH. of
Other bishops worthy of mention are: Bishop Ser- JetuiU in England (London, 1901); BM. Did. Eng., Cath, B. v.;
rano, venerated as a saint: Rodrigo, counsellor to Pollaxd in Did. Nat. Biog. (London, i909),B.y.
Fercfinand II of Ledn; the Tuscan Freaolo, the pope's S. Anselm Parker,
envoy to Alfonso the Wise; Rodrigo Sanchez, who
executed important commissions for popes and kings Ozanfordy John, dramatist, critic, translator, and
of Spain; Fernando de Vald6s, founder of the Univer- song-writer, b. in London, 12 Aug., 1812; d. there 21
sity of Oviedo, afterwards Archbishop of Seville jtnd Feb., 1877. Mostly self-educated, for a time he was
inouisitor general; Jer6nimo de Velasco, one of the under the tuition of a brilliant and erratic scholar, S.T.
fathers of the Council of Trent, and founder of the Fnend. His master recognizing his faculty for phi-
Hospital of Santiago at Oviedo; Alonso Antonio de losophy and his versatility wished to divert him from
San Martin^ siud to have been a natural son of Philip the dramatic career towards which he seemed inclined.
IV. The University of Oviedo celebrated its ter- In 1837 he was articled to a solicitor and is said to
centenary in September, 1908. Its building is severe have spent some time in the London office of a rela-
andsimple, in Doric order of the seventeenth century; tive and to have written on commerce and finance,
the library is very extensive, and there is a good mu- He early read the literature of Germany, Italy, France,
seum of natural histoiy and meteorological observa- and Spain, and was always "a devourer of books",
tory . This university is now considerea the least im- From the German he translated, amongst other things^
E>rtant in Spain, having but one faculty, that of civil Fischer's '' Francis Bacon" (London, 1857): Goethe's
w. Of recent years it has been falhng under the "Autobiography" (London, 1888); Eckermann's
influence of the Spanish Krausists. This sect, founded '^ Conversations with Goethe" (London, 1904), the
by Sanz del Rio, imported from Germany the Panthe- two last translations having almost become English
istic doctrines of Kraus. and seeks to extend its activ- classics and finding a place in Bohn's well-known
ities by conferences ana courses outside of the univer- series. From the French he translated Molidre's
sity, even in the Latin American republics. Among "TartuflFe"; from the Italian Boyardo's "Orlando
the distinguished men of the diocese may be mentioned: Innamorato" (in part), and from the Spanish a play
the Alvarez of Asturias, who were famous in the Mid- of Calderon. But Oxenford's chief interest lay in the
die Ages; Ruy P^rez de Avilds, celebrated in connexion drama. Between 1835, when his first play was writ-
with the conquest of Seville; Gutierre Bemaldode ten, and his death he was producing dramatic work.
Quir6s, the hero of Aljubarrota; Pedro M^ndez, the Sixty-eight plays, at least, are attributed to him.
conqueror of Florida; in modem times, the Jansenist Several have been translated into German, French,
JoveUanos, the Regahst Campomanes, the Liberal and Dutch. He also wrote librettos for operas etc.
ArgOelles Florez Estrada, Pidal, Posada Herrera; For the last twenty years of his life he was, in addition,
Cardinals Cienfuegos Sierra, Cienfuegos JoveUanos, dramatic critic to the "Times". He frequently con-
Inguanzo, and many notable prelates. tributed to newspapers and magazines, among others
RiKo. oontinuator of Florbi. EspaHa Sagrada (Madrid, the "AthenflBum^*. In April, 1853, he wrote for the
1789), XXXVII-XXXIX: Cuadbado, SavaHa, tut monumentot "Westminster Review" an essay on Schopenhauer's
j;2S£ iS^/f .SSk^^^!ri,S^ riSSJlJS, t PW»o«>P.!?y wUch is said to have founded ^e fame of
Madot, XII (Madrid. 1849); vm ui TvKirrm, Hittoria tdetidttica. that philosopher both in England and abroad. In
d0 Etpana (Barcelona, 1865). Ram6n Ruiz Amado. late life Oxenford's health weakened. He died of
CHURCH OF SANTA MARIA DE NARANCO, OVIEDO
OZKNHAM
365
OXPOBD
heart failure in 1877. Eighteen months earlier he had
been reodved into the Church.
An appreciative sketch of his life appeared in the
"Times'' of 23 Feb., 1877. The writer extols his
originality and scholaiBhip: "As an appreciator of
others, and as a quick discoverer of anything new
likely to exercise a future influence on thought he had
few equals". The value of Oxenford's criticism,
however, is somewhat lowered by a too great leniency,
proceeduQg from his natural kindliness. In private
fife he was much beloved. His conversational powers
were remarkable; and he possessed an "unsurpassed
sweetness of character ami self-forgetting nobleness
and childlikeness ".
Athmmtm. II (Ix>ndon, 1877). 258; Annual RtgiHer, II (Lon-
don, 1877); Catholic Standard and Wtddy RegiaUr (7 April, 1877).
K. M. Warren.
Ozenham, Henrt Nutcoube, English controver-
sialist and poet, b. at Harrow, 15 Nov., 1829; d. at
Kensington, 23 March, 1888; was the son of the Rev.
William Oxenham, second master of Harrow. He was
educated at Harrow School and Balliol Collie, 0}tford,
taking his degree in 1850. After receiving An^ican
orders, he became curate first at Worminghail, in Buck-
mghamshire, then at St. Bartholomew's, Cripplegate.
'VHiile at the latter place, he was received into the
Church by Monsignor (aiterwards Cardinal) Man-
ning. For a time he contemplated becoming a priest,
for which purpose he entered St. Edmund's College, Old
Hall, but after receiving minor orders, he left: it is said
that his reason was that he believed in the validity of
Anglican orders, and considered himself already apnest.
He continued to dress as an ecclesiastic and in this
anomalous position he spent the remainder of his life.
His ambition was to work for the reunion of the Angli-
can with the Catholic Church, with which end in
view, he published a sympathetic article, in answer to
Pusey's "Eirenicon", in the shape of a letter to his
friend and fellow-convert. Father Lockhart. After
the Vatican Council his position became still more
anomalous, for his unwillingness to accept the doctrine
of Papal Infallibility was known. Though influenced
by the action of Dr. Ddllinger> with whom he was on
intimate terms, he never outwardly severed his con-
nexion with the Catholic Church, and before his
death received all the sacraments at the hands of
Father Lockhart.
His published works include: "The Sentence of
Kwes and Poems" (3rd ed., London, 1871); Transla-
tion of Dollinger's "First Age of Christianity" (Lon-
don, 1866, 2 vols: two subsequent editions) and
"Lectures on Reunion" (London, 1872); "Catholic
Eschatology" (1876; new edition, enlarged, 1878);
"Memoir of Lieut. Rudolph de Lisle, R. N." (Liondon,
1886); numerous pamphlets and articles, especisdly
in "The Saturday Review", over the initials X. Y. i,
RiQO in Diet, of Nat. Biog.: Gillow. Bibl. Diet, of Eng. Cath.;
obituary notices in The Saturday Review, The Athencgum, 77m
Manchester Guardian, etc. BERNARD Ward.
Oxford, one of the most ancient cities in England,
grew up under the shadow of a convent, said to have
been founded by St. Frideswide as earty as the eighth
century. Its authentic history begins m 912, when it
was occupied by Edward the Elder, King of the West
Saxons. It was strongly fortified against the Danes,
and again after the Norman Conquest, and the mas*
sive keep of the castle, the tower of St. Michael's
Church (at the north gate), and a large portion of the
city walls still remain to attest the importance of the
city in the eleventh century. West of the town rose
the splendid castle, and, in the meadows beneath, the
no less splendid Augustinian Abbey of Oseney: in the
fields to the north the last of the Norman kings built
the stately palace of Beaumont; the great church of
St. Frideswide was erected bjr the canons-regular who
succeeded the nuns of St. Fndeswide; and many fine
churches were built by the piety of the Norman earls.
Oxford received a charter from King Henry II, grant-
ing its citizens the same privileges and exemptions as
those enjoyed by the capital of the kingdom; and vari-
ous important religious houses were founded in or near
the citv. A pandson of King John established Rew-
le^ Abbey (ofwhich a sin^e arch now remains) for the
Cistercian Order; and fnars of various orders (Do-
minicans, Franciscans. CarmeUtes, Augustinians, and
Trinitarians), all had nouses at Oxford of varying im-
portance. Parliaments were often l\eld in the city dur-
ing the thirteenth century, but this period idso saw the
b^nnin^ of the long struggle between the town and
the growmg university which ended in the subjuga-
tion of the former, and the extinction for oentunes of
the civic importance of Oxford. The accession of
thousands of students of course brought it material
prosperity, but it was never, apart from the univer-
sity, again prominent in history until the seventeenth
century, when it became the headquarters of the Roy-
alist party, and again the meetmg-place of Parlia-
ment. The city of Oxford showed its Hanoverian
sympathies long before the university, and feeling be-
tween them ran high in consequence. The area and
population of the ^ity remainect almost stationary un-
til about 1830, but since then it has grown rapidly.
The population is now (1910) about 50,000; the munic-
ipal life of the city is vigorous and flourishing, and its
relations with the university are more intimate and
cordial than they have ever been during their long his-
Oxf ord is the cathedral city of the Anglican Diocese
of Oxford, erected by Henry VlII. Formerly included
in the vast Diocese of Lincoln, it is now part of the
Catholic Diocese of Birmingham. The handsome
Catholic church of St. Al^sius (served by the Jesuits)
was opened in 1875; the (Jatholic population numbers
about 1200, besides about 100 resiaent members of the
university; and there are convents of the following
orders— St. Ursula's, Daughters of the Cross, Sisters
of Nazareth, Sisters of the M . Holy Sacrament, and Sis-
ters of the Holy Child. The Franciscan Capuchin fa-
thers have a church and college in the subuit) of Cow-
ley, as well as a small house of studies in Oxford; and
the Benedictines and Jesuits have halls, with private
chapels, within the university.
Pabxbr, Early History of Oxford {C^orA, 1885) : Wood, Survey
of the Antiquities of the City of Oxford (1889-00); Gbbbm and
RoBEBTSON. Studies Ml Oxford History (Ozf.. 1001); Tubnbb,
Records ofCiiy of Oxford (Ozf ., 1880) ; and the publioationB of the
Oxford HiflTOBzcAL Socimr (Oxford, various dates).
D. O. Huntbb-Blair.
Oxford, Univbrsity of. — I. Obigin and History.
— ^The most extraordinary myths have at various
times prevailed as to the fabulous antiquity of Oxford
as a seat of learning. It is sufficient to mention that
the fifteenth centurv chronicler Rous assigns its origin
to the time when ^'Samuel the servant of God was
judge in Judaea"; while a writer of Edward Hi's rei^
asserts that the university was founded by "certam
philosophers when the warlike Trojans, under the
kadersnip of Brutus, triumpluoitly seized on the Is-
lands of Albion". A much more lOng-lived fiction —
one, indeed, which, first heard of in the middle of the
fourteenth centuiy, persisted down to the nineteenth
— was that King Alfred, well-known as a patron of ed-
ucation, was the real founder of Oxford University.
The truth is that it is quite impossible to asngn even
an approximate date to the development of the schools
which in Saxon times were ^uped round the monastic
foundation of St. Frideswide (on the site of what is
now Christ Church) into the corporate institution
later known as Oxford University. Well-known
scholars were, we Imow. lecturing in Oxford on the-
ology and canon law before the middle of the twelfth
century, but these were probably private teachers at-
tached to St. Frideswide's monasiery. It is not un-
OXFORD I 366 OXFORD
til the end of Henry II'b reign, that is about 1180, that II. CoNSTrruTiON and Government. — Taken as a
we know, chiefly on the autnority of Giraldus Cam- whole, the universitv consists of about 14,500 mem-
brensis, that a large body of scholars was in residence bers, graduate ana undergraduate^ having their
at Oxford, though not probably yet Uving under any names on the registers of the university as well as of
organized constitution. the twenty-six separate societies (colleges, halls, pub-
Half a century later Oxford was famous throughout lie and private, and the non-collegiate body) i^mich
Europe as a home of science and learning; popes and together form the corporation of the imiversity. Of
kines were among its patrons and benefactors; the the above number about 3800 are undergraduates,
students are said to have been numbered by thou- of whom the great majority are reading for the degree
sands; and the climax of its reputation was reached of B.A.. and about a thousand are ^iduates, either
when, during the fifty years between 1220 and 1270, tutors, fellows of colleges, officials of the university, or
the newhr-founded orders of friars — Dominican, Fran- M.A.'s unofficially resident within its precincts,
ciscan, (jarmeUte, and Austin — successively settled at About 4800 members of the university are thus ac-
Oxford. and threw all their enthusiasm into the work tually living in Oxford, the remainder being those who,
of teacfiing. Kindled by their zeal, the older monas- while keeping their names ''on the Dooks , reside in
tic orders, encouraged by a decree of the Lateran other parts of the kingdom. All masters of arts re-
Council of 1215, began to found conventual schools maining on the registers are ipso facto members of
at Oxford for their own members. The colleges of '' Convocation '^ the legislative and administrative
Worcester, Trinity, Christ Church, and St. John's are body through which the university acts; and those
all the immediate successors of these Benedictine or actually residing in Oxford for a fixed period in each
Cistercian houses of study. Up to this time the secu- year form the smaller body called ''Congregation'',
lar students had lived as b^^t they might in scattered by which all measures must be passed previous to their
lodgings hired from the townsmen* of discipline there coming before " Convocation". Legislation in every
was aMolutely none, and riots ana disorders between case, however, must be initiated by the "Hebdomadal
"town and gown" were of continual occurrence. The Council ", consisting of the vice-chancellor, i)roctors,
stimulus of the presence of so many scholars living un- and eighteen members elected by " Congregation ".
der conventual discipUne incited Walter de Merton, The executive officers of the university comprise the
in 1264, to found a residential college, properly or- chancellor, a nobleman of high rank, as a mle non-
fl»nized and supervised, for secular students. Merton resident, who delegates his authority to the vice-
College (to the model of which two institutions of some- chancellor, the head of one of the colleges, and the two
what earlier date. University and Balliol, soon con- proctors, who are elected by the several colleges in
formed themselves) was thus the prototype of the self- turn, and assist the vice-chancellor in the enforcement
contained and autonomous colleges which, ^up^ of discipline, as well as in the general supervision of
together, make up the University of Oxford as it exists all university affairs, including the administration of
tonlay . The succeeding half-century saw the found- its property and the control of its finances. The pecu-
ation of ten additional colleges: two more were founded liar feature of tHe constitution of Oxford (as of Cam-
durin^ the CathoUc revival under Queen Mary; and bridge), when compared with that of every other
three m the reigns of Ehzabeth and James I. Between university in the world, is that the authority of the
1625 and 1911 — ^that is, for nearly three centuries, vice-chancellor and proctors, that is of the central uni-
there have been only three more added to the list, versity body, while nominally extending to every resi-
namely Worcester (1714), Keble (1870), and Hertford dent member of the university, is not as a matter of fact
(1874), the first and last being, however, revivals exercised within the college walls, each college being,
rather than new foundations. while a constituent part ofthe university, autonomous
The institution of "non-coUegiate" students (i. e. and self-governing, and claiming entire resppnsibihty
those unattached to any coUege or hall) dates from for the order aild well-being of its own members.
1868; one "public hall" (St. ^fiimund's) survives, of III. The Collegiate System. — Accoixiin^ to the
sevend founded in very early times; and there are combined university and college system which pre-
several "private halls", under Ucensed masters who vails at Oxford, each college is an organized corpora-
are allowed to take a liniited number of students. As tion under its own head, and enjoying the fullest pow-
a corporate body, the university dates only from the ers of managing its own nroperty and governing its
reign of Queen Elizabeth, when, under the influence of own members. Each coUege is regulated not only
the chancellor, Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester, an by the general statutes of the university, but by its
Act of Parliament was passed in 1571, incorporating own separate code of statutes, drawn up at its founda-
the "ehancellor, masters and scholars'' of Oxford. In tion (as a rule centuries ago) and added to or amended
the same reign were imposed upon the university the since as found expedient. Every college is absolutely
Royal Supremacy and the Thirty-nine Articles, sub- its own judge as to the requirements for admission to
Bcnption to which was required from every student its membership, the result being that in no two colleges
above the age of sixteen ; and from that date, for a period is the standard of necessary knowledge, or the mental
of three centuries, the university, formerly opened equipment with which a youth enters on his university
to all Christendom, was narrowed into an exclusively career, identical or even necessarily similar. The
Anglic^ institution and became, as it has ever since mere fact of a man having matriculated at certain
remained, in spite of subseauent legislation abolie^ng colleges stamps him as possessed of more than average
religious tests, the chosen nome and favourite arena attainments, while at others the required standard
of Anglican controversy, theology, and polemics, may be so low as to afford no guarantee whatever that
Keble, however, is now the only college whose mem- their members are in any real sense educated at all.
bers must be Anglicans by creed, although a certain The twenty-one colleges and four halls, and the del-
number of scholarships in other colleges are restricted egacy of non-collegiate students — that is of students
to adherents of the Englidi Church. Attendance at not affiliated to any college or hall — ^have all the same
the college chapels is no longer compulsory; and there privileges as to receiving undergraduate members;
is no kind of reUgious test requirea for admission to and no one can be matriculated, i. e. admitted to mem-
any college (except Keble) or for graduating in Arts, bership of the university by the central authority, un-
Science, or Civil Law. Only the faculty of Divinity til he has been accepted by one of the above-mentioned
(including the degrees of bachelor and doctor) re- societies. The colleges provide a certain number of
mains clewed by statute to all except professing AngU- sets of rooms within their own walls for students, the
cans: and the examiners in the theological school, remainder living in licensed lodgings in the city,
whicn is open to students of any creed or none, are all Meals are served either in the college halls or in the
required to be clergymen of the Church of England, students' rooms; and attached to every college is a
ozroBD 31
cbapel where duly service is held during term ac-
cordineto the farms of the Church of England.
IV. Tdition, Examinations, and Degbeeb. — The
university provides 130 profeaaora, lecturers, and
readers to nve iDstructlons in the several faculties of
theology (9), law (8), medicine (17), natural science,
including mathematics (27), and arts, including an-
cient and modem Janguases, geography, music, fine
arts etc. (69). The chief fcurden of tuition, however,
doee not fall on this large body of highly-equipped
teachers, whose lectures are m many cases very
sparsely attended, but on the college tutors, whose
lectures, formerly confined to members of their own
colleges, are now practically open to the whole univer-
sity. The extension of, and great improvement in,
the tuition afforded by the college tutors has led to the
practical disappearance at Oxford, at least in work foi
;7 ozroBD
loBophy; thesucceasful candidates in both these exam-
inations beiuK divided into four classes. A first cIsbs
in "Greats" (or 'ifei™ Auwaniores) is still reckoned the
highest honour attainable in the Oxford curriculum;
but the student has seven other Final Honour Schools
open to him, those of modem history (which now at-
tracts the larttest number of candidates), mllthemBtic^
jurisprudence, theology, English literature. Oriental
studies, and natural science.
Degrees. — A student who has passed the examina-
tions requisite for the B.A, degree, can further qualify '
himself lor the degree of (a) Bachelor of Medicine and
Surgery, by passing two examinations in medical and
sui^ical subjects; (b) Bachelor of Civil Law, by pass-
ing an examination in gener^ jurisprudence. Roman,
English, or international law; Ic) Bacbeior of Theology
(if m ordeiB of the Church of E^and) by presenting
honoun, of the private tutor or "coach", who for-
merly largely supplemented the official college teach-
ing. What is noteworthy at Oxford is the trouble
taken by tutors in the work of individual instruction,
which, while involving a great, and sometimes dis-
proportionate, expenditure of time and talent, has
done much to estabhsh and consolidate the personal
relations between tutor and pupil which is a distinctly
beneficial feature of the Oxford system.
ExaminaHont. — For students aspiring to the B.A,
degree are prescribed two strictly-tfefined compulsory
examinations, and two so-called pubhc examinations,
in which candidates may choose irom a wide range of
mathematics, all of a pretty elementary kind. The
second compulsory examination, that in Holy Scrip-
ture (for which a Dook of Plato may be substituted),
includes the Greek text of two of the Gospels. In the
two "public examinations", i. e. Moderations and the
Final Schools, either a "pass" or "honours" may be
Slimed at. The passman must first satisfy the exam-
iners in Moderations (i. e. classics combined with logic
or mathematics), and then for his Final School may
choose between various subjects, such as classics,
mathematics, natural science, and modem language.
"" "honour-man", if aiming at "greats", baa.
rule, first a searching examination in classics, and
then a final examination in ancient history and phi-
two dissertations on a theological subject. For what
are knownas "research degrees" (Bacnelor of Letters,
or Science) two years of residence are required, fol-
lowed by an examination, or the submission of a dis-
sertation showing original work. Candidates for the
degree of Bachelor of Music are exempted from resi-
dence, and need only have passed the examination of
RespofisionB, Bachelors of Arts can present thenieelves
for the degree of Master at the end of a stated period,
without further examination; but the Bachelor of
Medicine must pass an examination or submit a disser-
tation before obtaining the degrees of M.D. or Master
of Surgery: and there is a similar qualification required
for proceeding to the degrees of Doctor of Divinity,
of (Jivil Law, of Music, and of I>!tters or Science.
There is now no religious test in the case of any de-
crees excepting those of theology; but all candidates
for masters' or doctors' degrees nave to promise faith-
ful observance of the statutes and customs of the
university. Honorary degrees in all the faculties may
be granted to distinguished persons, without exami-
nation, by decree of Convocation.
Diplomat in certain subjects, as health, education,
Kigraphy, and political economy, are granted by
nvocation after a certain period of study and an
examinational teat. These diplomas are obtainable
by women students, who are not eligible for any de-
grees, although they may, and do, enter for the same
examination as men. The halls of women students are
OXFORD 368 OXFOBD
entirely extra-coUegiate; but women receive on exami- scholarship of its members, and the liberality and
nation certificates testiifying to the class gained by tolerance of its views. The buildings are mostly mod-
them in such honour-examinations as they choose to ern and of little interest; in the fine hall (1877) is a
undergo. striking portrait of Cardmal Manning (a scholar here
V. Expense of the Universitt Courbe. — It is 1827-30). Opposite the Master of BallioPs house
difficult to fix this even approximately, so much de- a cross in the roadway marks the spot where
pends on a student's tastes, habits, and recreations, Cranmer, Ridley, and Latimer were burned in 1555
and also on the question whether the sum named is to and 1556; and the so-called Martyrs' Memorial (by
include his expenses for the whole year, or only for the Gilbert Scott, 1841), opposite the west front of the
six months of the university terms. £120 a year collie, conmiemorates the same event; it was ^ected
ought to cover the actual fees and cost of board and chieny as a protest against the Tractarian movement
other necessary charges, which are pretty much the headed by Newman.
same at all the colleges; and if another £100 or £120 BrasenosCf founded in 1509 by Bishop Smyth of
be added for the supplementary expenses of college Lincoln and Sir Richard Sutton, as an aniplification
life, and vacation expenses as well, we arrive at what of the much older Brasenose Hall, a knocker on the
is probably the average annual sum expended. A door of which, in the shape of a nose, is the ori^ of
man with expensive tastes or hobbies may of course the curious name. In the chapel, a singular mixture
spend double or treble that amount, whereas members of classical and Gothic design, are preserved two pi^
of some of the smaller colleges may do very well on Reformation chalices. A magnificent new south front
much less; while the emoluments of the numerous in High Street (by Jackson) was completed in 1910.
college and universitv scholarships and exhibitions Christ Church, the largest and wealthiest college in
lessen the expenses of those who hold them by a cor- Oxford, foundea as "Cardinal College" by Thomas
responding amount. The Rhodes Scholarships, open Wolsey in 1525, on the site of St. Frideswide's sup-
to (Dolonial and American students, are of the an- pressed priory, and re-established by Henry VIII as
nual value of £300 each; but it is to be considered Christ Church in 1546. Wolsey built the hall and
that their holders have as a rule to make this sum kitchen (1529). the finest in England, and began the
suffice for all their wants, in vacation as well as in great C'Tom ) quadrangle, which was finiSied in
term-time. 1668. The old monastic church, dating from 1120.
VI. Universitt and College Buildings. — ^The serves both as the college chapel and as the cathedral
chief university buildings are grouped round the of the Andean Diocese of Oxford, erected by Heniy
quadrangle of the Bodleian Library, founded in 1602 VIII; in Catholic times Oxford lormed part of the
by Sir Thomas Bodley, and first housed in the room immense Diocese of Lincoln. Peckwater Quad was
Obuilt in 1480) known as Duke Humphrey's Library, built 1705-60, and Canterbury Quad (on the site of
Since 1610 the Bodleian has received by right a copy Canterbury Hall, a Benedictine foundation), in 1770.
of every book published in the kingdom, and it now The hall and library contain many valuable portraits
contains mcH*e than 500,000 books and nearly 40,000 and other paintings.
manuscripts. In the galleries is an interesting col- Corpus ChrisH, founded in 1516 by Bishop Richard
lection of histbrical portraits. West of the Bodleian Foxe of Winchester, and dedicated to Sts. Peter, An-
is the beautiful fifteenth-century Divinity School, drew, Cuthbert, ana Swithin, patrons of the four sees,
with its elaborate roof, and further west again the (Exeter, Bath, Durham, and Winchester), which he
Convocation House, built in 1639. Qose by are the had held in turn. The buildings, though not exten-
the Sheldonian Theatre, built by Wren in 1669, where sive, are of great interest, mostly coeval with the
the annual Commemoration is held, and honorary de- founder; and the college possesses some valuable old
srees are conferred; the Old Clarendon Printing-house, plate. Angels bearing the Sacred Host are depicted
built in 1713 out of the profits of Lord Clarendon's m an oriel window over the great gateway. Corpus
'^Histoiy of the Rebellion]'; the old Ashmolean Build- Christi has always maintained a high i^utation for
ing, and. the Indian Institute, built in 1882 for the sound classical learning.
b^efit of Indian students in the university. South Exeter^ founded in 1314 by Bishop de Stapledon of
of the Bodleian rises the imposing dome of the Rad- Exeter. Most of the buildings are modem: the chapel
cliffe Library, founded in 1749 by Dr. William Rad- (1857) being an elaborate copv by Gilbert Scott of the
cliffe for books on medicine and science, but now used Sainte Chapelle at Paris. There is a charming little
as a reading room for the Bodleian. The Examina- garden. Exeter has of recent years been more fre-
tion Schools (1876-82), a fine Jacobean pile which cost quented bv Catholic students than anv other college.
£100,000, are in High Street; and the cnief other uni- Hertford^ revived in 1874, having been originaUy
versity buildings are the New Museum (1855-60), an founded in 1740 but dissolved in 1818 and occupied
u^ly building in early French Gothic, containing splen- by Magdalen Hall. A handsome new chapel by
•did collections of natural science ana anthropology, as Jackson was opened in 1909.
well as a fine science library; the Taylor Buildings and JesuSj frequented almost exclusively by Welsh stu-
University Galleries, a stately classical edifice con- dents, was founded by Queen Elisabeth m 1571 ; and
tainin^ the Arundel and Pomfret Marbles, a priceless more than half the scholarships and exhibitions are
collection of drawings by Raphael, Michelangelo, restricted to persons of Welsh birth or education. Sir
Turner, and other masters, and many valuable paint- John Rhys, uie eminent Celtic scholar, is the present
ings; the Ashmolean Museum, behind the galleries, principal. The buildings are modem, or much re-
containing one of the most complete archseological stored. .
collections in England; the new Clarendon Press Xe6fe, founded by subscription in 1870 in memory of
(1830), and the Observatory, founded in 1772 by the John Keble, and now the only college whose members
RadcUffe trustees. must, by the terms of its charter, all be members of
Taking the different colleges in alphabetical order, the Anglican Church. It is governed by a warden
we have: AU SotUs, founded by Archbishop Chichele in and council (there are no fellows), and one of its prin-
1437, in memory of those who fell in the French wars, ciples is supposed to be special economy and sobriety
Its features are the absence of imdergraduate mem- of living. The buildings of variegated brick are quite
bers, the magnificent reredos in the chapel, re-dis- foreign to the prevailing architecture of Oxford, but
covered and restored in 1872, after being lost sight the chapel is spacious and sumptuously decorated,
of for three centuries, and the splendid library, es- Lincoln^ founded by Bish<n) Richard Fleming and
pecially of works on law. Thomas Hotherham, both of Lincoln, in honour of the
BaUiol. founded by Devorgilla, widow of John B.V.M. and All Saints, specially to educate divines to
Balliol, about 1262, and distinguished for the brilliant preach against the Wyokffian heresies. The buildings
OXPOBD 369 OZFOBD
are of little interest, but the chapel contains some very quired its present site a century later. None of the
good seventeenth-century Italian stained glass. buildings are more than two hundred years old. Fred-
ford,
Bishop
cloisters, tower, and other buildings, all erected in the Wadham^ founded in 1610 by Dorothy Wadham, in
founder's lifetime, are of unique beautv and interest, completion of her husband's aesigns; it occupies the
The extensive and charming grounds include the site of a house of Austin Friars, who probabl3r laid out
famous ''Addison's Walk"^ and a deer-park with fine the beautiful garden. Wadham is interesting as a
timber. The musical services in the chapel are fa- fine specimen of Jacobean woric, and as the only col-
mous throughout England. Magdalen possesses much lege whose buildings remain practically as left by their
landed property, and is one of the wealthiest colleges founder.
in the university. Worcester ^ established in 1283, under the name of
Merton, founded in 1264 by Walter de Merton, in Gloucester College, as a house of studies for Benedio-
Surrey, and transferred to Oxford in 1274, was the first tines from Gloucester and other great English abbeys,
organized college, and the prototype of all succeeding survived as Gloucester Hall for a century and a half
ones. The library (1349) is the olaest in England, and after the Reformation, and was re-founded and en-
the so-called " Mob" quad is of the same date. The dowed by Sir Thomas Cookes, under its present name,
chapel, of exquisite Decorated Gothic, contains some in 1714. There still remain the ancient lodgings
beautiful old stained glass. Merton was specially in- used by the students of the several abbevs, overlook-
tended by its founder for the education of the secular ing the finely-timbered g^unds and lake. The in-
clergy. terior decoration of the eighteenth-century chapel is
NeWy founded in 1379 on a magnificent scale by verv sumptuous.
Bishop William de Wykeham, of Winchester (founder The only survivor of the once numerous ''public
also of Winchester College). The splendid chapel, halls" is "St. Edmund's", founded in the thirteenth
with its elaborate reredos, was restored in 1879; the century in honour of St. Edmund Rich, Archbishop of
ante-chapel windows contain the original pre-Refor- Canterbury, canonized by Innocent III in 1247. The
mation glass, and there are many fine brasses. Other buildings are all of the seventeenth century. This
features of the college are the picturesque cloisters hall is closely connected with Queen's College, the pro-
(used during the Civil War as a depot for militarv vost of which appoints the prmcipid.
stores), the great hall, with its rich panelling, the val- VII. Catholics at the University. — Besides the
uable collection of old plate, and tne lovely gardens, colleges and single public hall, the/e are at present
enclosed on three sides bv the ancient city walls. New three "private halls conducted by licensed masters
College vies with Magaalen in the excellence of its fi. e. Mi.A.'s authorized and approved by the Vice-
chapel choir. ChanoeUor) and receiving a limited number of un-
Uriely founded by Edward II in 1326 on the sugges- dereraduate students. Two of these halls are in
tion of his almoner, Adam de Brome; but none oTthe Catnolic hands, one (Pope's HaU) founded for students
buildings are older than the seventeenth century, belonging to the Society of Jesus, and the other (Par-
The college is identified with the rise of the Oxford ker's Hall) established by Ampleforth Abbey, in York-
Movement, led by Newman, who was a fellow here shire, for Benedictine students belonging to that
from 1822 to 1845. There are two portraits of him monasterv. Good work is done in both of these insti-
(by Ross and Richmond respectively) in the college tjutions, the members -of which, for the most part, are
common-room. preparing to take part in tuition at the English Jesuit
Pembroke J second of the four colleges of Protestant and Benedictine colleges; and many of their members
foundation, erected in 1624 out of the ancient Broad- have obtained the highest academical honours in the
fates Hall, and chiefly notable for the membership of various university examinations. The Franciscan
)r. Samuel Johnson, of whom there is a fine portrait Capuchin Fathers have recently (1910) opened a small
and various relies. house of studies for junior members of their Order;
Queen*8, founded in 1340 by Robert de Eglesfield, they have at present the status of non-collegiate stu-
chaplain to Queen Philippa, in honour of whom it was dents. The lay Catholics who enter the university as
named.- The buildings are mostly late seventeenth- undergraduates have no college or hall of their own
century; there is some good Dutch glass in the chapel, under CathoUc direction, but become members of any
and a. very valuable library, chiefly historical. The one of the colleges which they desire to join, or of the
hall is hung with (mostly fictitious) portraits of Eng- non-collegiate body which, since 1868, has been au-
lish kings, queens, and princes. thorized to receive students who are not members of
SL John*a, formerly St. Bernard's, a house of studies any colle^ or hall,
for Cistercian monks, was refoimded in 1555 by Sir Cathohcs are, of course, exempt from attending the
John White, in honour of St. John the Baptist. The college chapels, and they have a central chapel of their
chapel, hall, and other parts of the outer quad belong own^ with a resident chaplain appointed bv the Uni-
to tne monastic foundation; the inner quad, with its versities Catholic Board (of which one of the English
beautiful garden front, was built by Archbishop Laud, bishops is chairman), who says Mass daily for the
president of the college 1611-21. The garcfens are Catholic students. The Board also appjoints every
among the most beautiful in Oxford. term a special preacher or lecturer, who gives, by the
TrirUly, originallv Durham College, a house of special injunction of the Hol]^ See^ weekly conferences
studies for the Durham Benedictines, was refounded to the students on some histoncal, theological, or
by Sir Thomas Pope in 1554. The old monastic li- philosophical subject. There are two or three resi-
brary, and other fragments of the buildings of Durham, dent Catholic fellows and tutors in the university ; but
remain; the chapel, with its fine wood-carving by the general tone and spirit of the instruction given in
Grinling Gibbons, is from designs by Wren. Newman the lecture-rooms, though not on the whole anti-
became a scholar of Trinity in 1819; he was elected CathoUc, may be described as generally non-religious,
an honorary fellow in 1878, and visited the college as The mission church of St. Aloysius is served by several
cardinal in 1880. A fine portrait of him, by Ouless, Jesuit fathers, and good preachers are often heard
hangs in the hall. there; and several relig;ious communities have re-
UniversUyf which ranks as the oldest college, though oently been established m the city. The number of
itsconnexionwithKing Alfred, said to have founded it Catholic members of the University, graduate and
in 872, is absolutely legendarv. It was really founded undergraduate, resident in Oxford does not exceed a
by Archdeacon William of Durham in 1249, and ao- hundred.
XI.— 24
OXFOBD
370
OXFOBD
Rashdau^ The Univerntiea of Europe in the Middle Ages (Ox-
ford, 1805), II, good bibliography; Ayuftb, Ancient and Preeent
8laU €if the Univeraitv of Oxford (2 vols., London, 1714); Oxford
Uniw. Commietion, MintUee of Evidence^ etc. (London, 1881);
BoAsa, Regieter of the Univereity of Oxford (Oxford, 1885} ;
hrTm,Hiet. of the University of Oxford (London, 1886); Clark,
The CoUegee of Oxford (London. 1891); Oxfdrd CoUege Hietoriee
(London, e, d.); Foster, Alumni Oxcnieneee 1216-1886 (London,
1887); Hurst. Oxford Topography (Oxford, 1899); Publicationa of
the Oxford Hietorieal Society (Oxford, 8. d.); Statute et Decreta
Univ. Oxen. (Oxford, 1909) ; Oxford Univertity Calendar (Oxford,
191,0-11); GoLDiR, A Bygone Oxford in The Month (Sept., 1880);
Camm, The University of Oxford and the Reformation in The Month
(July snd August. 1907).
D. O. Hunter-Blair.
Oxford Movement, Thb (1833-1845), may be
looked upon in two distinct lishts. ''The conception
which lay at its base'', accoroun^ to the Roval Com-
mission on Ecclesiastical Discipbne, 1906, ''was that
of the Holy Catholic Church as a visible body upon
earth, bound together by a spiritual but absolute
unity, though divided . . . into national and other
sections. This conception drew with it the sense of
ecclesiastical continuity, of the intimate and unbroken
connexion between the primitive Church and the
Church of England, and of the importance of the
Fathers as pn^oes and teachers . . .It also tended
to emphasize points of communion between those
different branches of the Church, which recognize the
/loctrine or fact of Apostolic Succession'' (Report, p.
54). That is the point of view maintained in the
"Tracts for the Tunes" from 1833 to 1841, which gave
its familiar name to the "Tractarian" Movement.
They originated and ended with J. H. Newman.
But a second, very unlike, account of the matter
was put forward by Newman himself in his "Lectures
on Anglican Difficulties" of 1860. There he con-
siders that the drift or tendency of this remarkable
change was not towards a party in the Establishment,
or even towards the first place in it, but away from
national divisions altogether. It was meant ulti-
mately to absorb "the various English denominations
and parties" into the Roman Church, whence their
ancestors had come out at the Reformation. And as
Newman had been leader in the Anglican phase of the
movement, so he opened the way towards Rome, sub-
mitted to it in 1845. and made popular the reasoning
on which thousanos followed his example. There
seems no other instance adducible from history of a
religious thinker who has moulded on permanent lines
the institution which he quitted, while assigning
causes for its abandonment. But this result was in
some measure a consequence of the "anomalous and
singular position", as Dean Church allows, held by
the English Establishment, since it was Wally set up
under Elizabeth (Acts of Supremacy and Uniformity,
8 May. 1559)
Lord Chatham brought out these anomalies in a
famous epigram. "We have", he remarked, "a
Popish Liturn^, Calvinistic articles, and an Arminian
clergy." Such differences were visible from the first.
"It is historically certain", says J. A. Froude, "that
Elizabeth and her ministers intentionally framed the
Church formulas so as to enable every one to use them
who would disclaim allegiance to the Pope." When
the Armada was scattered and broken, many adher-
ents of the old faith appear to have conformed; and
their impetus accounts for the rise of a High Anglican
party, whose chief representative was Launcelot
Andrewes, Bishop of Winchester (1555-1626). The
Anglo-Catholic school was continued by Laud, and
triumphed after the Restoration. In 1662 it expelled
from the Church, Baxter and the Presbyterians. But
from the Revolution in 1688 it steadily declined. The
non-juring bishops were wholly in its tradition, which,
through obscure by-ways, was handed on from his
father to John Keble and so to Hurrell Froude and
Newman.
However, the Laudian or Carolinian divines must
not be supposed to have ever succeeded in driving out
their Calvinistic rivals, so powerful when the Thirty-
Nine Articles were drawn up, and known from Shake-
Boeare's time as Puritans (see Malvolio in "Twelfth
Night"). Andrewes himself, though taking St.
Augustine and St. Thomas for lus masters, did not
admit the sacerdotal doctrine of the Eucharist. At
eveiy period Baptismal Regeneration, Apostolic Suc-
cession, and the Real Presence were open questions,
not decided one way or another by "the stammering
hps of ambiguous Formularies ' . If there was a High
Church in power, and if what the Arminians held, as
it was ifrittily saia, were all the best livings in England,
yet Calvin's theology, whether a little softened by
Archbishop Whitgift or according to the text of the
"Institutes", never did involve oeprivation. It was
sheltered by the Articles, as Cathohc tradition was by
the Prayer Book; and tne balance was kept between
contencung schools of opinion by means of the Royal
Supremacy.
Suggested by Thomas Cromwell, asserted in Par-
liamentary legislation under Henry VIII (1534), this
prime article of Anglicanism made the kin^ supreme
head of the English Church on earth, and his tribunal
the last court of appeal in all cases, spiritual no less
than secular. It has been said of Henry, and is
equally true of Edward VI, that he claimed the whole
power of the keys. Elizabeth, while relinquishing the
title of Head and the administration of holy rites, cer-
tainly retained and exercised full jurisdiction over " all
persons and all causes" within the realm. She ex-
tinguished the ancient hierarchy "without any pro-*
ceeding in any spiritual court ", as MacaiUay observes,
and she appointed the new one. She 'tuned the
Eulpit", admonished archbishops, and even supplied
y her own legal authority defects in the process of
episcopal consecration. The Prayer Book itself is
an Act of Parliament. "The supreme tribunalof ap-
peal, in ecclesiastical causes, from 1559 to 1832", we
are told, "was that created by 25 Hen. VIII, c. 19,
which gave an appeal from the Church Courts to the
King in Chancery for lack of justice" (Dodd, Hist.
Canon Law, 232). These powers were exercised by
the court of delegates; in 1832 they were transferred
to the judicial committee of the pnw council, whose
members may all be laymen; and, if bishops, they do
not sit by virtue of their episcopal office but as the
king's advisers. (Contrast will dnve the matter home.
The constituent form of the Catholic Church is the
pope's universal jurisdiction (see Florence, Council
op; Vatican CJouncil). But the constituent form
of the English Church, as established by Parliament,
is the universal jurisdiction of the Oown. In either
case there is no appeal from the papal or the royal
decision. When Ehzabeth broke with the Catholic
bishops who would not acknowledge her spiritual
headsnip, and when William III deprived Sancroft
and his suffragans who refused the oath of aUegiance,
a test was applied, dogmatic in 1550, perhaps not less
so in 1690. which proves that no cause of exemption
can be pleaded against the king when he acts as
supreme governor of the Church.
Such is the doctrine often called Erastian, from
Erastus, a Swiss theologian (1524-83), who denied to
the clergy all power of excommunication. In £ng-
land the course of events had run on before Erastus
could publish its philosophy. Politicians like Burgh-
ley and Walsingham acted on no theonr, but drew
their inspiration from Henry VIII. The abstract
statement of a view which identifies the Church with
the nation and subjects both equaUy to the king, may
be found in Hooker, "The Laws of Ecclesiastical
Polity" (1594-97). It was vigorously asserted by
Selden and the lawyers at all times. During the criti-
cal years of the nineteenth century, Arnold, Stanley,
and Kingsley were its best known defenders among
clergymen. Stanley declared that the Church of
Eni^and "is by the very conditions of its being neither
OXFORD
371
OXPOBD
High nor Low. but Rroafl"("Ed. Rev.", July, 1850).
In coarser but equally practical terms men saad, ''The
Church was grafted upon the State, and the State
would remain master." Nq ruling, in fact, of bishop
or convocation need be regarded by Anglicans, lay
or clerical, unless it implies, at all events tacitly, the
consent of the Crown, i. e., of Parliament.
So long as the State excluded Dissenters and Cath-
olics from its offices, the S3rstem, in spite of the Great
Rebellion, nay after the more truly disastrous Revolu-
tion of 1688, worked as well as could be expected. But
in 1828 the Test Act was repealed ; next year Catholic
Emancipation passed into law. In 1830 the French
drove out their Bouibon dynasty; Belgium threw off
the yoke of Holland. In 1832 came the Reform Bill,
which Tories construed into an attack on the Church.
What would the Royal Supremacy mean if Parliament
was no longer to be exclusively Anglican? Lord Gr^
told the bi^ops to set their house in order; ten Irish
bishopries were suppressed. Arnold wrote in 1832,
"The Church, as it now stands, no human power can
save." Wbateley thought it difficult to ''preserve
the Establishment from utter overthrow". Alexan-
der Knox, a fa^«eeing Irish writer, said, "The old
EQgh Church race is worn out." The "Clapham
sect" of Evangelicals, who came down from Calvin,
and the "Clapton sect", otherwise called High ana
Dry, who had no theology at all, divided "serious"
people among them. Bishops were great persons who
amassed wecJth for their families, and who had at-
tained to place and influence by servile offices or by
editing Greek plays. In the presence of threatened
revolution they sat helpless and bewildered. FVom
them neither counsel nor aid was to be expected by
earnest churchmen. Arnold would have brought in
Dissenters by a "comprehension" which sacrificed
doi^na to individual juagment. Whateley protested
against "that double usurpation, the interference of
the Church in temporals, of the State in spirituals".
A notable preacher and organiser. Dr. Hook, "first
gave body and force to Church theology, not to be
mistaken or ignored". But it was from Oxford,
"the home of lost causes", always Cavalier at heart,
stiU "debating its eternal Church question as in the
days of Henry IV", that salvation came.
Oriel, once illustrated by Raleigh and Butler, was
now the most distinguished college in the universitv.
For some thirty years it had welcomed original think-
ers, and among its fellows were, or had been, Cople-
ston, Whateley, Hawkins, Davison, Keble, Arnold.
Pusev, and Uurrell Froude. "This knot of Oriel
men", says Pattison^ "was distinctly the product of
the Firench Revolution." Those among them who
indulged in "free inquiry" were termed "Noetics":
th^ "called everythmg in question; they appealed
to first principles, and disallowed authority in intel-
lectual matters." The university, which Pattison
describes as "a close clerical corporation", where all
alike had sworn to the Prayer Book and Articles, had
thus in its bosom a seed of "Liberalism", and was
menaced by changes analogous to the greats revolu-
tions in the State itself. Reaction came, as was to
be expected, in the very college that had witnessed
the provocation. Oxford, of all places, would surely
be the last to accept French and democratic ideas.
John Keble (1792-1865) was the leading fellow of
Oriel. As a mere boy, he had carried off tne highest
honours of the university. In 1823 he became his
father's curate at Fairfora, and in 1827 he published
" The Christian Year ". a cycle of poems or meditations
in verse, refined, soothing, and akin to George Her-
bert's ''The Temple", bv their spiritual depth and
devout attachment to the Ekiglish Church. They
have gone through innumerable editions. Keble,
though a scholarly mind, had no grasp of metaph}rsics.
An ingrained conservative, he took over the doctrines,
and Uved on Uie recollection of the Laudian school.
Without ambition, he was inflexible, never open to
development, but gentle, shrewd, and saintly. His
convictions needed an Aaron to make them widely
effective; and he found a voice in his pupil, the
"bright and beautiful" Froude, whose short life
(1802-36) counts for much in the Oxford Movement.
Froude was the connecting link between Keble and
Newman. His friend&Jiip, at the moment when New-
man's Evangelical prejudices were fading and his in-
clination towards Liberalism had received a sharp
check by "illness and bereavement", proved to be
the one thing needful ' to a. temper which always
leaned on its associates, and which absorbed ideas
with the vivacity of genius. So the fusion came
about. Elsewhere (see Newman, John Hbnrt) is
related the story of those earher years in which, from
various sources, the future Tractarian leader gained
his knowledge of certain Catholic truths, one by one.
But thdr living unity and paramount authority were
borne in upon him by discussions with Froude, whose
teacher was Keble. Froude, savs Newman, "pro-
fessed openly his admiration for the Church of Rome,
and his hatred of the Reformers. He delighted in the
notion of an hierarchical system, of sacerdotal power,
and of full ecclesiastical liberty. He felt scorn of the
maxim, 'the Bible and the Bible only is the religion
of Protestants' ; and he gloried in accepting tradition
as a main instrument of religious teacning. He had
a high severe idea of the intrinsic excellence of virgin-
ity. . . He delighted in thinking of the saints. . .
He embraced the principle of penance and mortifica-
tion. He had a deep devotion to the Real Presence
in which he had a firm faith. He was powerfully
drawn to the Medieval Church, but not to the Primi-
tive." ("Apol.",p. 24.)
These, remarkablv enough, are char^teristics of
the later phases of the Movement, known as Ritual-
ism, rather than of its beginning. Yet Newman-s
friendship with Froude goes back to 1826; they be-
came very intimate after the rejection of Peel by the
university in 1829; and the Roman tendencies, of
which mention is made above, cannot but have told
powerfully on the leader, when his hopes for Anglican-
ism were shattered by the misfortunes of "Tract 90".
Keble, on the other hand, had "a great dislike of
Rome", as well as of "Dissent and Methodism".
The first ^rears of the revival were disfigured by a
strong anti-Roman polemic, which Froude, on his
death-bed, condemned as so much "cursing and
swearing ' * . But Newman had been as a youth ' ' most
firmly convinced that the Pope was the Antichrist
predicted by Daniel, St. Paul, and St. John." His
imagination was stained by the effects of this doctrine
as late as the year 1843. In consequence, his lan-
guaee towards the ancient Church only just fell short
of me vituperation lavished on it by the Puritans
themselves. The movement, therefore, started, not
on Roman ground, but in a panic provoked by the
alliance of O'Connell with the Whigs, of Dissenters
with Benthamites, intent on destroying all religious
establishments. How could they be resisted? New-
man answers in his opening tract, addressed to the
clergv by one of themselves, a fellow-^resb3rter. "I
fear , he tells them, "we have neglected the real-
ground on which our authority is built, our Apostolical
descent." And he made his appeal to the ordination
service — ^in other words, to the Prayer Book and the
sacramental system, oi which the clergy were the
Divinely appomted ministers.
The nrst three tracts are dated 9 Sept., 1833. New-
man and Froude, after their voyage to the Mediter-
ranean in Dec., 1832, had returned in the midst of an
Imitation in which they were speedily caught up.
Keble 's sermon — ^in itseu not very striking — on "Na-
tional Apostasy", had marked 14 July, 1833, as the
birthday of a "second Reformation". At Hadlei^,
H. J. Rose and three other clergymen had met in con-
OXFORD
372
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ference, 25-29 July, and were endeavouring to start a
society of Church defence^ with machinery and safe-
guards, as befitted responsibie persons. But Newman
would not be swamped by committees. '* Luther '^ he
wrote, '^was an individual". He proposed to be an
Apostolical Luther. He was not now tutor of Oriel.
Hawkins had turned him out of ofl5ce — a curious ac-
knowledgement of the vote by which he had made
Hawkins provost inst^^i of Keble. But he was Vicar
of St. Mary's — a parish dependent on Oriel, and the
university church. His pulpit was one of the most fa-
mous in England. He knew the secret of journalism,
and had at his command a stem eloquence, barbed by
convictions, which his reading of the Fathers and the
An^ican folios daily strengthened. He felt supreme
coiSidence in his position. But he was not well read
in the history of the Anglican origins or of the Royal
Supremacy. His Church was an ideal; never, cer-
tainly, since the legislation of Henry and Elizabeth
had the English EstabUshment enio^ea the freedom he
sought. It had issued articles of faith imposed by po-
litical expediency ; it had tolerated among its communi-
cants Lutherans, Calvinists, Erastians, and in the
persons of high dignitaries like Bishop Hoadley even
Socinians. It had never been self-governing in the past
any more than it was now. If the '4dea or first princi-
ple" of the movement was *' ecclesiastical liberty", it
must be pronounced a f^ure; for the Royal Suprem-
acy as understood by lawyers and lamented over by
High Church divines is still intact.
On that side, therefore, not a shadow of victory ap-
pears. Anyone may believe the doctrines peculiar to
Tractarian theology, and any one may reject them,
without incurring penalties in the Church Establish-
ment. They are opinions, not dogmas, not the exclu-
sive teachiiig that alone constitutes a creed. Fresh
from Aristotle's "Ethics", where virtue is said to lie in
a mean, the Oriel scholar termed his position the Via
Media; it was the golden mean which avoided papal
corruptions and Protestant heresies. But did it exist
anjrwhere except in books? Was it not * ' as a doctrine,
wanting in simplicitv, hard to master, indeterminate
in its provisons, and. without a substantive existence
in any age or country"? Newman did not deny that
"it still remains to be tried whether what is called
Anglo-Catholicism, the religion of Andrewes, Laud,
Hammond, Butler, and Wilson, is capable of being
professed, acted on, and maintained ... or whether
it be a mere modification or transition-state of Roman-
ism or of popular Protestantism." The Via Media
was an expenment. Perhaps the Established Church
"never represented a doctrine at all . . . never had
had an intellectual basis" ; perhaps it has "been but a
name, or a department of State (Proph. Office, In-
trod.). To this second conclusion the author finally
came; but not until during eight years he had made
trial of his " middle way " and had won to it a crowd of
disciples. The Tractarian Movement succeeded after
his time in planting among the varieties of Anglican
religious life a Catholic party. It failed altogether in
making of the Establishment a Catholic Church.
Palmer, of Worcester College, and his clerical asso-
ciates presented an address in 1834, signed with 10,000
names, to the Archbishop of Canterbury, defending
the imperilled interests. Joshua Watson, a leading
layman, brought up one more emphatic, to which 230,-
000 heads of families gave their adhesion. But of these
collective efforts no lasting result came, although they
frightened the Government and damp)ed its revolu-
tionary zeal. Mr. Rose, a man of high character and
distinction, had started the "British Magazine" as a
Church organ; the conference at Hadleigh was due to
him: and he seemed to be marked out as chief over
"nobodies" like Froude and Newman. His friends
objected to the "Tracts" which were the doing of
these free lances. Newman, however, would not give
way. His language about the Reformation offended
Mr. Rose, who held it to be a "deliverance"; and
while Froude was eager to dissolve the union of Church
and State, which he considered to be the parent or the
tool of "Liberalism" in doctrine, he called Rose a
"conservative". Between minds thus drawing in op-
posite directions any real fellowship was not IDcely to
endure. Rose may be termed an auxiliary in the first
stage of Church aefence; he never was a Tractarian;
and he died in 1839. His ally, WilUam Palmer, long
survived him. Palmer, an Irish Protestant, learned
and pompous, had printed his "Origines Lituigicae"
in 1832, a volume now obsolete, but the best book for
that period on the Offices of the Church of England.
His later "Treatise on the Church", of 1838, was
purely Anglican and therefore anti-Roman; it so far
won the respect of Father Perrone, S J., that he replied
to it.
Palmer was no Tractarian either, as his "Narrative
of Events", published in 1843, sufficiently proves.
The difference may be sharply stated. Genuine An^-
cans identified the Catholic Church once for all with the
local body of which they were members, and interpreted
the phenomena whether of medieval or reformed
Christianity on this principle; they were Englishmen
first and Catholics after. Not so with Newman,
who tells us, "I felt affection for my own Church,
but not tenderness ... if Liberalism once got a foot-
ing within her, it was sure of the victory in the event.
I saw that Reformation principles were powerless to
rescue her. As to leaving her, the thought never
crossed my imagination; still I ever kept before me
that thero was something greater than the Established
Church, and that was the Church Catholic and Apos-
tolic, set up from the beginning, of which she was but
the local presence and the organ." These divergent
views went at last asunder in 1845.
"The new Tracts", says Dean Church, "were re-
ceived with surprise, dLdrnay, ridicule, and indigna-
tion. But they also at once called fortn a response of
eager sympathy from numbers." An active propa-
ganda was started all over the country. Bishops were
perplexed at so bold a restatement of the Apostolic
Succession, in which they hardly believed. Newman
affirmed the .principle of dogma; a visible Church with
sacraments and rites as the channels of invisible grace;
a Divinely ordained episcopal system as inculcated by
the Epistles of St. Ignatius. But the Erastian or lib-
end did not set store by dogma; and the Evangelical
found no grace ex opere operato in the sacraments.
Episcopal^ to both of them was but a convenient
form of Church government, and the Church itself a
voluntary association. Now the English bishops, who
were appointed by Erastians ("an infidel govern-
ment" is Keble's expression), dreaded the power of
Evanf^ticals. At no time could they dare to support
the ' * Tracts ' * . Moreover, to ouote Newman, * * All the
world was astounded at what Froude and I were say-
ing; men said that it was sheer Popery." There were
searchings of heart in England, the like of which had
not been felt since the non-iurors went out. Catholics
had been emancipated; and "those that sat in the re-
formers' seats were traducing the Reformation". To
add to the confusion, the Liberalizing attack on the
university had now oegun. In 1834 Dr. Hampden
wrote and sent to Newman his pamphlet, in which he
recommended the abolition of tests for Dissenters, or,
technically, of subscription to the Articles by under-
graduates. On what ^unds? Because, he said, re-
Egion was one thing, theological opinion another. The
Trinitarian and Unitarian doctrines were merely opin-
ions, and the spirit of the En^ish Church was not the
spirit of dogma. Hampden did little more than repeat
the well-known arguments of Locke and Chilung-
worth; but he was breaking open the gates of Oxford
to unbelief, as Newman foresaw, and the latter an-
swered wrathfully that Hampden's views made ship-
wreck of the Christian faith. "Since that time ", says
OXFORD
373
ozroBD
the "Apologia'') ''Phaethon has got into the chariot
of the sun; we, alas, can only look on, and watch him
down the steep of heaven/' In Mark Pattison's
phrase, "the University has been secularized." The
Noetics of Oriel were followed by the Broad Church-
men of BaUiol, and these bv the agnostics of a more re-
cent period. From Whateley and Arnold, through the
stormy days of "Tract 90^' and Ward^s "depadar
tion'^ we come down to the Royal Commission o^
1854. which created modem Oxford. Subscription to
the Articles was done away; fellowships ceased to be
what some one has styled "clerical preserves '^ there
was an "outbreak of infideUty'\ says Pattison with a
sneer, and names like Arthur Clough, Matthew Ar-
nold, J. A. Froude, Jowett, and Max Muller trium-
phantly declare that the Liberals had conquered.
Newman lost the university, but he held it entranced
for years by his visible greatness, by his preaching, and
by nis friendships. The sermons, of which eight vol-
umes are extant, afforded a severe yet most persuasive
conmientary upon tracts and treatises, in themselves
always of large outlook and of nervous though formal
style. These, annotated after 1870 from the Catholic
point of view, were reprinted in "Via Media", "His-
torical Sketches", "Discussions and Arguments", and
two volumes of "Eissays" (see popular edition of his
Works, 1895). Keble republished Hooker as if an
Anglo-CathoUc Aquinas (finished 1836); and from
the chair of poetry were delivered his graceful Latin
" Preelections", deeply imbued with the same reUgious
colouring. Hurrell Froude attempted a sketch of his
own hero, St. Thomas k Becket, pattern of all anti-
Erastians. Bowden compiled the me of Pope Gregory
VII, evidently for the like motive. Nor were poetical
mimifestoe wanting. To the "Lyra Apostohca" we
may attribute a strong influence over many who could
not grasp the subtle reasoning which filled Newman's
"Prophetic Office". Concerning the verses from his
pen, A. J. Froude observes that, in spite of their some-
what rude form, "they had pierced mto the heart and
mind and there remained". "Lead, Kindly light",
he adds, "is perhaps the most popular h3rmn in the
language." Here, indeed, "were thoughts like no
other man's thoughts, and emotions like no other
man's emotions". To the "Lyra" Keble and others
also contributed poems. And High AngUcan stories
began to appear in print.
But inspiration needed a constant power behind it, if
the tracts were not to be a flash in the pan. It was
given in 1834 and 1835 by the accession to the move-
ment of E. B. Pusey, Canon of Christ Church and
Hebrew professor. Pusey nad enormous erudition,
gained in part at German universities; he was of high
social standing (always impressive to En^ishmen),
and revered as a saint for his devout life, lus munifi-
cence, his gravity. Though a "dull and tedious
preacher", most confused and unrhetorical, the
weight of his learning was felt. He took the place that
Mr. Rose could not have occupied long. At once the
world out of doors looked up to him as official head of
the movement. It came to be known as "Puseyism"
at home and abroad. University wits had jested about
" Newmaniacs" and likened the Vicar of St. Mary's to
the conforming Jew, Neander; but "Puseyite" was a
serious term even in rebuke. The Tractarian leader
showed a deference to this "great man" which was al-
ways touching; yet they agreed less than Pusey under-
stood. Towfuxis Rome itself the latter felt no draw-
ing; Newman's fierceness betray^ the impatience of a
thwarted affection. "O that thy creed were sound,
thou Church of Rome!" he exclaimed in the bitterness
of his heart. Pusey, always mild, had none of that
' ' hysterical passion . Neither did he regard the judg-
ment of bishops as decisive, nor was he troubled by
them if thev ran counter to the Fathers' teaching, so
intimately known to this unwearied student.
He was "a man of large designs", confident in his
edition, "haunted by no intellectual perplenties''.
e welcomed responsibility, a Uttle too much some-
times; and now he gave the tracts a more important
character. His own in 1835 on Holy Baptism was an
elaborate treatise, which led to others on a similar
model. In 1836 he advertised his great project for a
translation or "Ubrsu*y " of the Fathers, wnich was exe-
cuted mainly in conjunction with ^he pious and eccen-
tric Charles Marriot. The repubUcation of Andean
divines, from Andrewes onwaids, likewise owed its in-
ception to Pusey. The instauratio magna of theology
and devotion, intended to be purely Catholic, thus
made a beginning. It has taken on it since the largest
dimensions, and oecome not only learned but popmar;
Anglican experts have treated the titurgy, church his-
tory, books for guidance in the spiritu^Ufe, hymnol-
ogy, architecture, and rituid with a copious knowledge
and remarkable success. Of these enterprises Dr.
Pusey was the source and for many years the standard.
In 1836 Hurrell Froude, returning from Barbadoes
in the last stage of weakness, died at his father's house
in Devonshire. His "Remains", of which we shall
speak presently, were published in 1837. Newman's
dearest friend was taken from him just as a fresh scene
open^, with alarums and excursions to be repeated
during half a century — legal "persecutions", acts of
reprisals, fallings away on the nght hand and the left.
Froude died on 28 Feb., 1836. In May Dr. Hampden
— ^who had been appointed, thanks to Whateley, Re-
gius Professor of Divinity on 7 F^. — ^was censured by
the heads of houses, the governing board of the um-
versity, for the unsound doctrine taught in his " Bamp-
ton Lectures". All the Oxford residents at this time,
except a handful, were incensed by what they consid-
ered the perils to faith which Dr. Hampden's free-
thought was provoking. But it was Newman who, by
his 'Elucidations", pointed the charge, and gave to
less learned combatants an excuse for condemning
what they had not read. Nemesis lay in wait on his
threshold. The EvangeUcals who trooped into Con-
vocation to vote agamst Hampden "avowed their
desire that the next time they were brought up to
Oxford, it might be to put down the Popery of the
Movement".
At this date even Pusey celebrated the Reformers
as "the founders of our Church"; and that largely
fabulous account of the past which Newman calls "the
Protestant tradition" was beUeved on all sides. Im-
agine, then, how shocked and alarmed were old-fash-
ioned parsons of every type when Froude's letters and
diaries upset "with amazing audacity" these "popu-
lar and conventional estimates"; when the Reforma-
tion was described as "a limb badly set"^ its apologist
Jewel flung aside as "an irreverent Dissenter", its
reasoning against the Cathohc mysteries denounced as
the fruit of a proud spirit which would make short
work of Christianity itself. Froude, in his graphic cor-
respondence, appeared to be the enfant terrible who
haa no reserves and no respect for "idols" whether of
the market-place or the theatre. Friends were pained,
foes exultant; "sermons and newspapers", says Dean
Church, ".drew attention to Froude's extravagances
with horror and disgust". The editors, Keble no less
than Newman, had miscalculated the effect, which
was widely irritating and which increased the suspi-
cion their own writings had excited of some deep-laid
plot in favour of Rome (Letter to Faussett, June, 1835),
To be at once imprudent and insidious might seem be-
yond man's power; but such was the reputation Trac*
tarians bore from that day. Froude's outspoken judp-
m^its, however, marked the turning of the tide m
ecclesiastical history. "The divines of the Reforma-
tion", continues Dean Church, "never can be again,
with their confused Calvinism, with their shifting opin-
ions, their extravagant deference to the foreign oracles
of Geneva and Zurich, their subservience to bad men
in power, the heroes and saints of Churchmen." Since
J
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374
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Cobbet's indictment of the Reformation no language
had so stirred the rage of /'general ignorance'', long
content to take its legends on trust. Froude's ''Re-
mains" were a challenge to it in one way, as the "Li«
brary of the Fathers" was in another, and yet a^n
the ponderous "Catenas" of High Church authorities,
to which by and by the "Parker Society" answered
with its sixtynsix volumes, mostly unreadable, of the
Cranmer, BuUinger, and Zurich pattern. The Refor-
mation theology was doomed. What the "Anslican
raiment" has accomplished, J. A. Froude proclaims,
"is the destruction of the Evangelical party in the
Church of England".
When Samson pulled down the temple of the' Phil-
istines, he was buried in its ruins. Newman did
not shrink from that sacrifice; he was ready to strike
and be stricken. Though Hampden's condemnation
would never have been carried by the Tractarians
alone, they gave it a force and an edge in the very
spirit of Laud. To put down false teachers by author-
ity, to visit them with penalties of censure and depri-
vation, they held was the dut v of the Church and of the
State as Giod's minister. They would have repealed
Catholic Emancipation. They resisted the grant to
the College of Maynooth. They had saved the Prayer
Book from amendments, and frightened politicians,
who would have distributed the spoils of the Church
among more or less "Liberal" schemes. By the year
1838 they had won their place m Oxford; the "Times"
was commg over to their side; Bampton Lectures were
besLoning to talk of Catholic tradition as the practical
rule of faith; and Evangelicals, infuriated if not dis-
mayed, were put on their defence. Whateley from
Dublin, Hawkins, Faussett, Hampden, Golightly, in
Oxford, were calling up a motley array, united on one
point only, that Tractarians must be nandled as the
emissaries of Rome. Dr. Arnold in the "Edinbur^"
launched an invective against the "Oxford Mtuig-
nants", accusing them of "moral dishonesty". New-
man's former friend, Whateley, shrieked over "this
rapidly increanng pestilence", and transfixed its l^id-
ers with epithets; they were "veiled prophets"; their
relimon was "Thuggee"; they were working out "in-
fidel designs". Lord Morpeth in the House of Com-
mons trampled on "a sect of damnable and detestable
heretics lately sprungup at Oxford", and mentioned
Newman by name. From every quarter of the com-
pass a storm was blowing up : but it moved round a
thunder cloud called "Rome' .
"Just at this time, June, 1838 ", says Newman, "was
the zenith of the Tract Movement." A change of for-
tune began with his bishop's charge, animadverting
lightly on its Roman tendencies, to which the answer
came at once from Newman, that if it was desired he
would suppress the tracts. It was not asked of him;
but he had written to Bowden the significant words,
"I do not see how the bishop can materially alter his
chai]ge or how I can bear any blow whatever". Some
of his friends objected to publishins the tract on the
Roman Breviary; for it was not tnen realised how
much the Anglican Prayer Book owes to Catholic, i. e.
to Latin and papal sources. Newman impatiently re-
joined that they must have confidence m him. To
Keble he disclosed his idea of dvirig up the tracts, the
" British Critic ", and St. Mary's. For while preaching
high Anglican doctrine, he said, "one caimot stop still.
Shrewd minds anticipate conclusions, oblige one to say
yes or no." He collected in January, 1839, "all the
strong thinss" which he and others had flung out
against the Church of Rome^ and made of them "ad-
vertisements" to the Puseyite publications. By way
of protest on the Low Church siae, bishops, clergy, and
laity united in the Martyrs' Memorisd to Cranmer and
Latimer, set up near the spot where they suffered, in
front of Ballioi College. But the tracts were selling
faster than the printers could meet the demand. In
July, Newman, taking up again his always projected
and never vissued edition of Dionysius of Alexandria,
plunged into the record of the Monophysites and the
Council of Chalcedon. In September he wrote to F*.
Rogers, "I have had the first real hit from Roman-
isnr'; an allusion to Wiseman's telling article on the
Donatist schism in the "Dublin" foi^ugust. Walk-
iiig with H. Wilberforce in the New Forest he made to
him the "astounding confidence" that doubt was upon
'him, thanks to "the position of St. Leo in the Mono-
physite controversy, and the principle 'Securus judi-
cat orbis terrarum '^ in that of tne Donatists." A vista
had opened to the end of which he did not see. His
mind was never settled again in Anglicanism. "He
has told the story . . . with so keen a feeling of its
tragic and pathetic character", as Dean Church truly
says, "that it will never cease to be read .where the
English laniniage is spoken." It was the story of a de-
liverance. But still Samson paid for it with all he held
dear.
Parallels from antiquity might affect a student like
Newman. To the many, inside or beyond Oxford, they
meant nothing. The live question always was, how to
combat Rome, which appeared at the end of every
vista as the goal of Iractarian reasoning. The
"shrewd minds" which now harried and drove on
their leader did not take to any "middle way"; these
men cut into the movement at right angles and sang
loudly Tendimus in LaHum^ they were pilgrims to St.
Peter's shrine. J. B. Morris, Dalgaims, Oakeley,
Macmullen (converts in the sequel), came round New-
man while his older associates had not advanced. But
the captain of the band was W. G. Ward, lecturer at
Ballioi, a friend of Stanley's and for a time attracted
by Arnold, then suddenly changed for good by the ser-
mons at St. Mary's, with his one sole article of faith,
Credo in Newmannum, Ward, a strange, joyous, pro-
voking figure, pervading the university with his logic
and his jokes, was the enfant terrible of this critical
time, as Froude had been previously. They diffen»l
in a nundred ways : but both certainly urged Newman
forward at a pace ne would not have chosen. Froude
"did not seem to be afraid of inferences"; Ward rev-
elled in them. It was Froude who first taught New-
man "to look with admiration towards the Church of
Rome". Ward, of all men the least inclined to com-
promise, did not care one jot for the Church of Eng-
land, except in so far as it could be proved Catholic, by
which he understood, as Protestants and Liberals did
before him, the doctrine and discipline of the papal
communion. He had "the intellect of an archangel",
as he said ingenuously; his acuteness and audacity
were a continual chsdlenge to Newman, who partly re-
sented but still more 3rielded to them; and so the prob-
lem took a formidable shwe.'-^how much of "infused'
Catholicism" would the Establishment bear. It was
"like proving caimon". The cr^cial test was applied
in "Tract 90^', which came out on 27 February, 1841.
Once more, as in the case of Froude's "Remains",
Newman miscalculated. He had drifted so far that he
lost sight of the ever-enduring Protestantism which,
to this day, is the bulwark df the national feelins
against Rome. He thoiight his peace-offering would
not cause offence. But Ward prophesied, and his in-
stinct proved true, that it would "oe hotly received".
A lively epistle from Church (afterwards Dean of St.
Paul's) to F. Rogers at N^les shows the storm raging
early in March. What "Tract 90" affirmed was that
the Thhi;y-Nine Articles might be siped in a Catho-
lic, though not in a Roman sense; that they did not
condemn the Council of Trent, which in 1562, the date
of their publication, was not ended; and that a distinc-
tion must be drawn between the corruptions of popular
religion and the formal decrees approved by the Holy
See. It is now admitted, in the language of J. A.
Froude, that "Newman was only claiming a position
for himself and his friends which had been purpo|Sely
left open when the constitution of the Anglicao
OZFOBD
375
\
OXFORD
Church was framed '\ But he appeared to be an in-
novator and, in that excited season, a traitor. The
Philistines held him bound by his own cords; Eras-
tians or Evangelicals, they well knew that his bishop
would not shield him from attack. Four leading tu-
tors, egged on by the fanatical Golightly, and includ-
ing A. C. Tait, afterwards Archbishop of Canterbury,
demanded the writer's name and charged him with
dangerous tendencies. The hebdomadal board now
retorted on Newman the '' persecution'' dealt out to
Hampden. They would not wait even twelve hours
for his defence. They resolved on 15 March, that
''modes of interpretation such as are suggested in the
said Tract, evading rather than explaining the sense of
the Thirty-nine Articles, and reconciling subscription
to them with the adoption of errors, which they were
desired to counteract, defeat the object, and are in-
consistent with the due observance of the above men-
tioned Statutes."
This anathema was posted up on every buttery
hatch, or public board, of the colleges, as a warning to
undergraduates. Newman acknowledged his author-
ship in a touching letter, perhaps too humble; and a
war of pamphlets broke out. Keble, Palmer, and
Pusey stood up for the tract, though Pusey could not
bring himself to approve of its method uncondition-
ally. But Ward, with great effect, hurled back the
charge of ''insinceritv" on those who made it. How
could Whateley and Hampden use the services for bap-
tism, visitation of the sick, or ordination, all dead
against their acknowledged principles? But neither
did Ward follow Newman. Later on, he described the
articles as ''patient of a Catholic but ambitious
of a Protestant meaning". Whatever their lo^c,
their rhetoric was undoubtedly Protestant. For
himself, in subscribing them, he renounced no Roman
doctrine. This, like all Ward's proceedings, was
pouring oil on fire. Newman had made the mis-
take of handling an explosive matter without
precaution, in the dry Ic^al fashion of an ad-
vocate, instead of using his incomparable gift of lan-
guage to persuade and convince. His refinements
were pilloried as "Jesuitism", and his motive was de-
clared to be treason. An "immense commotion" fol-
low^. The "Apologia" describes it, "In every part
of the country, and every class of society, through
every organ and opportunity of opinion, in newspapers,
in periodicals, at meetings, m pulpits, at dinner-stables,
in coffee-rooms, in railway-carriages, I was denbuncea
as a traitor who had laid his train, and was detected in
the very act of firing it against the time-honoured Es-
tablishment." His place in the movement was gone.
He would not withdraw the tract; he reiterated its
argumei^ts in a Letter to Dr. Jelf ; but at his bishop's
request he brought the series to an end, addressing
him in a strikingly beautiful pamphlet, which severed
hiH own connexion with the party he had led. He re-
tired to Littlemore; and there, he says, "between July
and November I received three blows that broke me' .
First, in translating St. Athanasius, he came on the
Via Media once more: but it was that of the heretical
Semi-Arians. Second, thi bishops, contrary to an
"understanding" given him, began to charge vio-
lently, as of set purpose, against "Tract 90", which
.they accused of Romanizing and dishonesty. Last
came the unholy alliance between England and Prus-
sia by which an Anglican Bishop was appointed at
Jerusalem over a flock comprising, it would appear,
not only Lutherans but Druses and other heretics.
The "Confession of Augsbure" was to be their stand-
ard. Now, "if England could be in Palestine, Rome
might be in England." The Anglican Church might
have the Apostolical Succession; so had the Monophy-
sites; but such acts led Newman to suspect that since
the sixteenth century it had never been a Church at
aU.
Now then he was a "pure Protestant", held back
from Rome simply by its apparent errors and idolar
tries. Or were these but developments, after all, of
the primitive type and really true to it? He had con-
verted Ward by saying that "the Church of the Fa-
thers might be corrupted into Popery, never into
Protestantism". Did not living institutions undergo
changes by a law of their beins that realized their na-
ture more perfectly? and was the Roman Church an in-
stance? At Littlemore the great book was to be com-
posed "Op the Development of Christian Doctrine",
which view^ this.problem in the light of histonr and
philosophy. Newman resigned St. Mary's in Sept.,
1843. He waited two years in lay communion before
submitting to Rome, and fought every step of the
journey. Meanwhile the movement went on. Its
"acknowledged leader" according to Dean Stanley
was now W. G. Ward. On pure Anglicans a strong in-
fluence was exerted by j. B. Mozley. Newman's
brother-in-law. Keble, who was at odds with his
bishop, vacated the chair of poetry; and the Tracta-
rian candidate, Isaac Williams, was defeated in Jan.,
1842. Williams had innocently roused slumbering
animosities by his "Tract 80", on "Reserve in com-
municating religious knowledge", a warning, as ever
since, Low Church partisans have maintained, that the
Establishment was to be secretly indoctrinated with
' ' Romish errors ' ' . The heads of houses now proposed
to repeal their censure of 1836 on Hampden, tnough he
withdrew not a line of his Bampton Lectures. It was
too much. Convocation threw out the measure by a
majority of three to two. Hampden, by way of re-
venge, turned the formal examination oi a Ftiseyite,
Macmullen of Corpus, for the B.D. into a demand for
assent to propositions which, as he well knew, Mac-
mullen could not sign. The vice-chancellor backed up
Hampden; but the Delegates reversed that iniquitous
jud^ent and gave the candidate his degree. The
spint of faction was mounting high. Young men's tes-
timonials for orders were refused by their colleges. A
statute was brought up in Feb., 1844, to place the
granting of all divinity degrees under a board in con-
junction with the vice-chancellor, which would ipean
the exclusion from them of Tractarians. This, indeed,
was rejected by 341 votes to 21. But Newman had
said a year earlier, that the authorities were bent on
exerting their "more than military power" to put
down CathoUoism. R. W. Church calls them "an ir-
responsible and incompetent oUgarchy ' ' . Their chiefs
were such as Hawkins, Symons, and Card well, bitterly
opposed to the movement all through. As Newman
had retired, they struck at Pusey; and by a scandalous
inquisition of "the six doctors they suspended him,
without hearing a word of his defence, from preaching
for two years, 2 June, 1843. His crime consisted in a
moderate Anglican sermon on the Holy Eucharist.
Espionage, delation, quarrels between heads and
tutors, rejection of Puseyites standing for fellowships,
and a neated suspicion as though a second Popish Plot
were in the air, made of this time at Oxford a drama
which Dean Church likens to the Greek faction-fights
described by Thucydides. The situation could not
last. A crisis might have been avoided by good sense
on the part of the bishops outside, and the ruling pow-
ers within the university. It was precipitated by W.
G. Ward. Ejected from his lectui^ip at Balliol, he
wrote violent articles between 1841 and 1843 in the
"British Critic", no longer in Newman's hands. His
conversation was a combat; his words of scorn for
Anglican doctrines and dignitaries flew round the col-
lies. In 1843 Palmer of Worcester in his dreary
"Narrative of Events" objected strongly to Ward's
"Romanizing " tendencies. The " British Critic " just
then came to an end. Ward be^an a pamphlet in re-
Ely ; it swelled to 600 paees, and in the summer of 1844
urst on an irritated public as "The Ideal of a Chris-
tian Church."
Its method was simple. The writer identified all
OXFORD
376
OXFORD
tl!ui;t was Roman with all that was Catholic; and pro-
ceeded to ap^ply this test to the Church of England,
which could ill bear it. Rome satisfied the conditions
of what a Church ought to be; the Establishment
shamefully neglected ito duties as a ''guardian of mo-
rality'' and a '' teacher of orthodoxy ", It ignored the
supernatural; it allowed ethics to be thrown over-
board by its doctrine of justification without works; it
had no real Saints because it neither commended nor
practised the counsels of perfection; it was a schis-
matic body which ought humbly to sue for pardon at the
feet of the true Bride of Christ. To evade the spirit of
the Articles while subscribing them, where necessary,
in a ''non-natural" sense, was the only alternative
Ward could allow to breaking with Anglicanism alto-
§ ether. Unlike Newman, who aimed at reconciling
ifferences, and to Whom the Lutheran formula was
but "a paradox or a truism". Ward repudiated the
" solifidian" view as an outrage on the Divine sanctity ;
it was "a type of Antichrist , and in sound reason no
better than Atheism. So his- "relentless and dissolv-
ing logic " made any Via Media between Catholics and
Protestants impossible. The very heart of the Eliza-
bethan compromise he plucked out. His language was
diffuse, his style heavy, his manner to the last degr^
provoking. But whereas "Tract 90" did not really
state, and made no attempt to resolve, the question at
issue. Ward's "Ideal" swept away ambiguous terms
and hollow reconcilements; it contrast^, however
clumsily, the t3rpes of saintliness which were in dis-
pute* it claimed for the Catholic standard not tolera-
tion out supremacy; and it put the Church of fkigland
on its knees before Rome.
How could Oxford or the clergy endure such a les-
son? So complete a change of attitude on the part of
Englishmen, naughtily erect on the ruins of tne old
religion, was not to be dreamt of. This, then, was
what "Tract 90" had in view with its subtleties and
subterfuges — a second Cardinal Pole absolving the
nation as it lay in the dust, penitent. The result, says
Dean Stanley, was "the ^reiatest explosion of theologi-
cal apprehension and ammosity" known to his time.
Not even the tract had excited a more immediate or a
more powerful sensation. Ward's challenge must be
taken up. He claimed, as a priest in the Church of
Englana, to hold (though not as vet to teach) the
"whole cycle of Roman doctrine . Newman had
never done so; even in 1844 he was not fully acquies-
cent on all the points he had once controverted. He
would never have written the "Ideal"; much of it to
him read like a theory. But in Oxford the authorities,
who were acting as if with 83modical powers, submitted
to Convocation in Dec., 1844, three measures: (1) to
condemn Ward's book; (2) to degrade the author by
taking away his university degrees; and (3) to compel
under pain of expulsion, every one who subscribed the
Articles to declare that he held them in the sense in
which "they were both first published and were now
imposed by the university".
Had the penalty on Ward, vindictive and childish
as it now appears, stood alone, few would have minded
it. Even ^fewman wrote in Jan., 1845, to J. B. Moz-
ley, "Before the Test was sure of rejection, Ward had
no claims on anyone". But over that "Test" a wild
shriek arose. Liberals would be affected by it as
surelv as Tractarians. Tait, one of the "Four Tu-
tors', Maurice, the broadest of Broad Churchmen,
Professor Donkin, most intellectual of writers belong-
ing to the same school, came forward to resist the im-
position and to shield "Tract 90", on the principle of
"Latitude." Stanley and another obtained counsel's
opinion from a future lord chancellor that the Test
was illegal. On 23 Jan., they published his conclusion,
and that very day the proposal was withdrawn. But
on 25 Jan., the date in 1841 of "Tract 90" itself, a for-
mal censure on the tract, to be brought up in the ap-
proaching Convocation, was recommended to voters
by a circular emanating from Faussett and Ellerton.
This anathema received oetween four and five hundredl
signatures in- private, but was kept behind the scenes
until 4 Feb. The hebdomadal board, in a frenzy of
excitement, adopted it amid protests from the Pusey-
ites and from Liberals of Stanley's type. Stanley's
words during the timiult made a famous lut. In a
broadside he exclaimed, " The wheel is come full circle.
The victors of 1836 are the victims of 1845. TTie vic-
tims of 1845 are the victors of 1836. The assailants
are the assailed. The assailed are the assailants. The
condenmed are the condemners. The condenmera
are the condemned. The wheel is come full circle.
How soon may it come round again? " A comment on
this "furtive prophecv" was to be afforded in the
Gorham case, in that of "Essays and Reviews", in the
dispute over Colenso, 'and in the longand vexatious
lawsuits arising out of Ritualicnn. The endeavour
was made to break every school of doctrine in succes-
sion on this wheel, but always at length in vain.
Convocation met in a snowstorm on 13 Fdb., 1845.
It was the last dav of the Oxford Movement. Wa^
asked to defend himself in English before the vast
assembly which crowded into the Sheldonian Thea'tre.
He spoke with vigour and ability, declaring "twenty
times over" that he held all the articles of the Roman
Church. Amid cries and counter-cries the votes were
taken. The first, which condemned his "Ideal", was
carried by 777 to 386. The second, which deprived
him of university standing, by 569 to 511. When the
vice-chancellor put the third, which was to annihilate
Newman and "Tract 90", tiie proctors rose, and in
a voice that rang like a trumpet Mr. Gmllemard
of Trinity, the senior, uttered their "Non placet".
This was fatal to the decree, and in the event to that
oligarchy which had long ruled over Oxford. New-
man gave no sign. But his reticence boded nothing
good to the Anglican cause. The University repu-
diated his followers and they broke into detachments,
the many lingering behind with Keble or Pusey ; others,
and among them Mark Pattison. a tragic instance,
lapsing into various forms of modem unbelief; while
the genuine Roman group, Faber, Dalgairns, Oakeley,
Northcote, Seager, Morris, and a long stream of suc-
cessors, became Catholics. They left the Liberal
party to triumph in Oxford and to remould the Univer-
sity. If 13 Feb., 1845, was the " Dies Ir»" of Tracta-
rian hopes, it saw the final discomfiture of the Evangeli-
cals. Henceforth, all parties in the National Church
were compelled to "revise the very foundations of their
religion". Dogma had taken refuge in Rome.
In April, 1845, the country was excited by Sir
R. Peel's proposals for the larger endowment of May-
nooth (see Macaulay's admirable speech on the oc-
casion) . In June, Sir H. Jenner Fust. Dean of Arches,
condemned Oakeley of Margaret Street ch^)el for
holding the like doctrines with Ward, who was already
married and early in September was rec^ved into the
Church. Newman resigned his Oriel fellowship, held
since 1822^ at the beginning of October. He aid not
wait to finish the "Development"; but on the feast of
St. Denys. 9 Oct., made his profession of the Catholic
Faith to Father Dominic at Littlemore. The Church
of England "reeled under the shock". Deep ^ence,
as of stupor, followed the clamours and long agonies of
the past twelve years. The Via Media swerved aside,
becoming less theoretical and less learned, always wa-
vering between the old Anglican and the new Roman
road, but gradually drawing nearer to the Roman.
Its headquarters were in London, Leeds, and Brighton,
no longer in Oxford.
But an "aftermath" of disputes, and of conversions
in the year 1851, remains to be noticed. On 15 Nov.,
1847, the Prime Minister, Lord John Russell, nomi-
nated to the See of Hereford the "stornonr petrel"
of those controversies. Dr. Hampden. He did so
"to strengthen the Protestant character of oui
OZTETNCHtJS 377 OXTBTNCHUS
Church, threatened of late by manv defections to the was to restore the idea of the Church, and the dignity
Church of Rome^'. The '^ Times expressed amaze- of the sacraments, above all, of the Holy Eucharist,
ment; Archbishop Howley and thirteen other bishops In the Laudian tradition, though fearfully weakened,
remonstrated; but Dr. Pusey was 'Hhe leader and it sought a fulcrum and a prec^ent for these happier
oracle of Hampden's opponents/' At Oxford the changes.
Heads of Houses were mostly in favour of the nominee, Joseph de Maistre, in the year 1816, had called at-
though lying under censure since 1836. An attempt tention to the English Church, designating it as a mid-
was made to object at Bow Church when the election die term between Catholic unity and Protestant dis-
was to be oonfinned; but the Archbishop had no free- sent; with an augury of its future as perhaps one day
dom, and by congi ddire and exercise of the Royal serving towards the reunion of Christendom. Alex-
Supremacy a notoriously unsound teacher became ander iCnox foretold a like destiny, but the Establish-
Bishop of Hereford. It was the case of Hoadley in a ment must be purged bv suffering. Bishop Horslev,
modem form. too, had anticipated such a time in remarkable woras.
Almost at the same date (2 Nov., 1847) the Rev. But the most striking prophecy was uttered by an aged
G. C. Gorham, "an aged Calvinist", was presented clergyman, Mr. Sikes of Guilsborough, who predicted
to the living of Brampton Speke in Devonshire, that, whereas "the Holy Catholic Church" had Ions
"Henry of Exeter'', the bishop, holding Hi^ Anelican been a dropped article of the Creed, it would by and
views, examined him at lengtn on the subject of bap- by seem to swallow ud the rest, and there would be
tismal regeneration, and finding that he did not be- an outcry of "Popery" from one end of the country
Heve in it, refused to induct Mr. Gorham. The case to another (Newman's "Correspondence"^ II, 484).
went to the Court of Arches — a spiritual court — where When the tracts began, Phillips de Lisle saw m them an
Sir H. Jenner Fust decided against the appellant, 2 assurance that En^and would return to the Holy See.
Aug., 1849. Mr. Gorham carried a further appeal to And J. A. Froude sums it all up in these words, "New-
the judicial committee, the lay royal tribunal, which man has been the voice of the intellectual reaction of
reversed the decision of the spiritual court below. Europe", he says, "which was alarmed by an era
Dr. Philpotts, the Bishop of Exeter, refused to insti- of revolutions, and is looking for safety in the for-
tute; and the dean of arches was compelled to do so saken beliefs of ages which it had been tempted to
instead. The bishop tried every other court in vain; despise."
for a while he broke off commumon, so far as he dared. Later witnesses, Cardinal Vaughan or W. E. Glad-
with Canterbury. As Liberalism had won at Hereford, stone, affirm that the Church of England is trans-
80 Calvinism won at Brampton Speke. formed. Catholic beliefs, devotions, rites, and institu-
These decisions of the Crown in Council affected tions flourish within it. But its law of public worship
matters of doctrine most intimately. Newman's lee- is too narrow for its religious life, and the machinery
tures on "Anglican Difficulties" were drawn forth by for discipline has broken down (Royid Conmiission
the Gorham judgment. But Pusey, Keble, Gladstone, on Discipline, concluding words). The condemnation
and Anglo-Catholics at large were dumbfounded, of Anglican Orders by Pope Leo XIII in the Bull
Manning, Archdeacon of Chichester, had neither "Apostolic® Curse", 13 Sept., 1896, shuts out the hope
written tracts nor joined in Newman s proceedings, entertained by some of what was termed "corf>orate
He did not scruple to take part with the general puhltc reunion", even if it had ever been possible, which
though in measured terms, against "Tract 90' . He Newman did not believe. But he never doubted that
had gone so far as to preach an out-and-out Flx)test- the movement of 1833 was a work of Providence; or
ant sermon in St. Manr's on Guy Fawkes' day^ 1843. that its leaders, long after his own departure from
In 1845 he "attacked the Romanizing party so nercely them, were "leavening the various English denomina-
as to call forth a remonstrance from Pusey". And tions and parties (far beyond their own range) with
then came a change. He read Newman's "Develop- principles and sentiments tending towards their ulti-
ment", had a serious illness, travelled in Italy, spent mate absorption into the Catholic Church".
a season in Rome, and lost his Anglican defences. The . Lives of Newman. Mannimj. Faber, Puaey, Ward, Wiaeman,
Gorham judgment was a demo^ration that lasers JS^!"^„^XJ^ "S^^Tti^ZT^^^^iSS^.
could override spintual authonty, and that the Eng- Revival (1897) ; Palmbb, Narrative o/SvmU (1843-1883) ; M. Pat-
lish Church neither held nor condemned baptismal tison, Memoir* (1885) ;T.W.Aujm,^ Z4(/j'«D«cm^
rcHrpnpnLtinn Thia aavp liim f >ip fininhinir RtmlrP Tn '^'*°' ^^^*^*i Bdroon, Live* of twelve Good Men; A. J. Fbouds in
regeneration, i nw gave mm tne nnismng stroKe. in ^^^ studiee, Voli. ill and iv, Revival of Romaniem; H. Fboudb,
the summer of 1850, a solemn declaration, calling on Remain* (1837); Gladstomb, LeUere on Relipunu Sultjeett, ed.
the Church to repudiate the erroneous doctrine thus Lato?^T (P^O); Guinbt. HurreU Froude (1907); Hampden*^
impU«l, was riiped by Mamung Pi«ey, KeWe, and ^f!iXti^^^^^f. S^!^X. ^JSST jt
Oth&C leading High Anghcans; but with no result, save Mozlbt, LeUere, ed. A. MoaLirr; Oakulbt. Note* on the T, M.:
only that a secession followed on the part of those who J« R- Hopb-Soott, Reminiecencee (includes oorrespondenoe) ;
could not unagine Christ's Church as tolerating her- ^i^liji^/'^s/^i^S^'^ZI^?^:'}^!'^^, TfevJ^
esy. On 6 Apnl, 1851, Manning and J. R. Hope hia daughter; Blanco White, AtUobioifraphy (1845); Life of
Soott came over. Allies, a scholar of repute, had sub- Bishop Wilberforee, by his son; Isaac Willlams, Autobioffraphy;
mitted in 1849, distinctlyon the ouestion now aptated ^6f,^SSrcl«£l2;^iXlHinv;^ ^SSSIc?!.;^
of the royal headship. Maskell, Dodsworth, Badeley, poH.
the two Wilberforces, did in like manner. Pusey William Barrt.
cried out for freedom from the State: Keble took a
non-juring position, ''if the Church of England were OxynrnchUB, titular archdiocese of Heptanomos
to fail, it should be found in my parish''. Gladstone in Egypt. It was the capital j>f the district of its
would not sign the declaration; and he lived to write
against the Vatican decrees.
Surveying the movement as a whole, we perceive rus. Thence comes its Greek name, for in Egyptian
that it was part of the general Christian uprising which it is called Pemdje. It has been mentioned by
the French Revolution called forth. It had many fea- Strabo, Pliny, Ptolemy, etc. Its inhabitants early
tures in common with German Romanticism; and, like embraced Christianity, and at the end of the fourth
the policy of a Free Church eloquently advocated by century (" VitsB Patrum" of Rufinus of Aquileia) it
Lamennais, it made war on the old servitude to the possessed neither pagan nor heretic. It nad then
State and k)oked for support to the people. Against twelve churches, and its monastic huts exeeeded in
free-thou|;ht, speculative and anarchic, it pleaded for number its ordinary dwellings. Surrounding the city
Christiamty as a sacred fact, a revelation from on high, were many convents to which reference is made in
and a present supernatural power. Its especial task Palladius, the ''Apophthegmata Patrum", Johannes
name, the nineteenth of Upper Efrypi, whose god was
Sit, incarnated in a sacred fish of the Nile, the Mormy-
OZANAM
378
OZANAM
MoBchus, etc. In 1897, in 1903 and the years follow-
ing, Grenfel and Hunt found papyri containing four-
teen sentences or fragments of sentences (\iyia)
attributed to Jesus ana which seem to belong to the
first half of the second century, also fragments of
Gospels, now lost, besides Christian documents of the
third century, etc. A letter^ recently discovered,
written by Peter the martyr^ Bishop of Alexandria, in
312, ^ves an interesting picture of this Church at
that time. Le Quien (Onens christianus, II, 577-590)
mentions 7 metropolitans of this city, nearly all Mele-
tians or Monophysistes. In the Middle Ages under
the dynasty of the Mamelukes, it was the leading city
of a province. To-day under the name of Behneseh,
it is Mitirely dismantled. Mounds of debris alone
make it possible to recognize its circuit.
GRBwnBL AND HuNT, The Oxyrynehua Papyri^ in the publica-
tions of the EoTPT Exploration Fund (London) ; Wessblt, Le»
rlu9 aneiena numumenU du ehristianiame icriU »w papyrua (Paris,
906) ; Schmidt, FragmerUe einer Schri/t dea Mdrtyerbiachofa Pe-
trua ^on Alexandrian (Leipsig, 1901).
S. Vailh£.
Osaaam, Antoine-Fr£d£ric, great grand-nephew
of Jacques Ozanam, b. at Milan, 23 April, 181^3; d.
at Marseilles, 8 Sept., 1853. His father, settled at
first in Lyons as a merchant, after reverses of fortune
decided to go to Milan. Later he returned to Lyons
and became a physician. At eighteen Fr^d^ric, in de-
fence of the Faith, wrote '' Reflexions sur la doctrine de
Saint-Simon''. Later he studied law in Paris, and
lived for eighteen months with the illustrious physi-
cian Ampere. He formed an intimate friendship with
the latter's son, Jean-Jacques Ampdre, well known
later for his works on literature ana history. Mean-
while he became a prey of doubt. "God , he said,
''gave me the grace to be bom in the Faith. Later the
confusion of an unbelieving world surrounded me. I
knew all the horror of the doubts that torment the
soul. It was then that the instructions of a priest and
philosopher (Abb4 Noirot) saved me. I believed
thenceforth with an assured faith, and touched by so
rare a goodness, I promised God to devote my life to
the services of the truth which had given me peace";
Rarely was a promise more faithfully fulfilled.
In 1836 he left Paris, where he had known Chateau-
briand, Ballanche, Montalembert, and Lacordaire,
and was appointed to the bench at Lyons, but two
years later returned to Paris to submit his thesis on
Dante for his doctorate in letters. His defence was a
triumph. ''Monsieur Ozanam", Cousin said to the
candidate, "there is no one more eloquent than you
have just proved yourself." He was given the chair of
commercial law, just created at Lyons. The following
year he competed for admission to the Faculties at
Paris, and was appointed to substitute for one of the
judges of the Sorbonne, Fauriel. philosopher and pro-
fessor of forei^ Uterature. At the same time he
taught at Stanislas College, where he had been called
by Abb4 Gratry. On Fauriel's death in 1844, the
Faculty unanimously elected Ozanam his successor.
Like his friend Lacordaire he believed that a Christian
democracy was the end towards which Providence was
leading the world, and after the Revolution of 1848
aided him by his writings in the "Ere Nouvelle". In
1846 he visited Italy to regain his strength, undermined
by a fever. On his return he published "Etudes ger-
maniques" (1847); "Pontes franciscains en Italic au
XIII« si^cle"; finally, in 1849, the greatest of his
works: "La civilisation chr^tienne chez les Francs".
The Academy of Inscriptions awarded him the
"Grand Prix Gobert" for two successive years. In
1852 he made a short journey to Spain an account of
which is found in the posthumous work: "Un p616ri-
nage au pays du Cid . In the beginning of the next
year, his doctors again sent him to Italy, but he re-
turned to Marseilles to die. When the priest exhorted
him to have confidence in God, he replied "Oh why
should I fear God, whom I love so much?" Comply-
ing with his desire the Government allowed him to be
interred in the crypt of the "Cannes".
A brilliant apologist, impressed by the benefits of the
Christian religion, he desired that they diould be made
known to all who might read his works or hear his
words'. To him the Gospel had renewed or revivified
all the genns of good to be found in the ancient and in
the barbarian world. In his many miscellaneous
studies he endeavored to develop this idea, but was
unable to fully realize his plan, in the two volumes of
the " Etudes ^ermanioues he did for one nation what
he desired to do for all. He also published, with the
same view, a valuable collection of hitherto unpub-
lished material: "Documents in^ts pour servir k
I'histoire de I'ltalie, depuis le VIII® si^e jusqu'au
XII«" (Paris, 1850). Ozanam was untiring in energy,
had a rare gift for precision and historical insight, ana
at the same time a naturalness in his verse and a spon-
taneous, pleasing eloquence, all the more charming be-
cause ot his frankness. "Those, who wish no religion
introduced into a scientific work," he wrote, "accuse
me of a lack of independence. But I pride myself on
such an accusation. ... I do not aspire to an inde-
pendence, the' result of which is to love and to believe
nothing." His daily life was animated by an apostoUo
zeal. He was one of those who si^ed the petition ad-
dressed to ihe Archbishop of Paris to obtain a lar^e
body of religious teachers for the Catholic school chil-
dren, whose faith was endangered by the current unbe-
lief. As a result of thispetition Monseimeur de Qu61en
created the famous "Conferences de Wotre Dame",
which Lacordaire (q. v.) inaugurated in 1835. When
but twenty, Ozanam with seven companions had laid
the foundations of the Society of St. Vincent de Paul,
in order, as he said to "insure my faith by works of
charity . During his life he was an active member
and a zealous propagator of the society (see Saint
Vincent de Paul, Society or). With all his zeal, he
was, however, tolerant. His strong, sincere books ex-
hibit a brilliant and animated style, enthusiasm and
erudition, eloquence and exactness, and are yet very
useful introductions to the subjects of which they
treat.
CEumrea compUtea d*A.-F. Oxanam (2Dd ed., in 11 vols., Paris,
1862); Lacordaire, Pridirxc Oaanatn, in the V vol. of the com-
plete edition of hia works; O'Meara, F. Ozanam (London. 1879);
C.-A. Ozanam (a brother of FrM^ric), Vie de Pridiric Oaanam
(2nd ed.. 1882); Huir, Fridirie Oaanam (1888); Baudrillart.
L'apologitique de Fridiric Oxanam in Rente pratique d'apologitiqtta
(15 May. 1909).
Georges Bertrin.
Osanam, Jacques, French mathematician, b. at
Bouligneux (Ain), 1640: d. in Paris, 3 4pril, 1717. He
came of a rich family wnich had renounced the Jewish
for the Catholic religion. From the same family
sprang the better known Antoine-Fr^^ric Ozanam
(g. v.). Though he began the study of theology to
please his father, he was more strongly attracted to
mathematics, which he mastered without the aid of a
teacher. At the age of fifteen he produced a mathe-
matical treatise. Upon the death of his father, he
gave up theology after four years of study and began,
at Lyons, to give free private instruction in mathemat-
ics. Later, as the family property passed entirely to
his elder brother, he was reluctantly driven to accept
fees for his lessons. In 1670, he published trigonomet-
ric and logarithmic tables more accurate than the
then existing ones of Ulacq, Pitiscus, and Briggs. An
act of kindness in lending money to two strangers se-
cured for him the notice of M. d'Aguesseau, father of
the chancellor, and an invitation to settle in Paris.
There he enjoyed prosperity and contentment for many
years. He marri^l, had a large family, wid derived an
ample income from teaching mathematics to private
pupils, chiefly foreigners. His mathematical publica-
tions were numerous and well received. The manu-
script entitled ''Les six livres de rArithm^tique de
0ZU8
879
OZIAS
Diophante auj^ment^i et reduits k la spMeuse" re-
ceived the praise of Leibnitz. "R^cr6atioiiB", trans-
lated later into English and well known to-day, was
published in 1694. He was elected member of the
Academy of Sciences in 17(U. Th^ death of his wife
plunged him into deepest sorrow^ and the loss of his
foreign pupils through the War of the Spanish Suc-
cession, reduced him to poverty.
Ozanam was honoured more abroad than at home.
He was devout, charitable, courageous, and of simple
faith. As a young man he had overcome a passion for
gaming. He was wont to say that it was for the doc-
tors of the Sorfoonne to dispute, for the pope to decide,
and for a mathematician to go to heaven in a perpen-
dicular line. Among his chief works are: ''Table des
sinus, tangentes, et s^cantes" (Lyons. 1670); "M6-
thode g6n^rale pour tracer des cadrans (Paris, 1673);
''G4om6trie pratique" (Paris, 1684): ''Trait6 des
lignes du premier genre ** (Paris, 1687) ; " De Tusage du
oompas" (Paris, 1688) ; " Dictionnaire math^matique"
(Pans, 1691); "Oours de math^matiques" (Paris.
1693, 5 vols., tr. into English, London, 1712); "Trait6
de la fortification " (Paris, 1694) ; ** R6crtotions math6-
matiques et physiques" (Paris, 1694. 2 vols., revised
by Montucla, Paris, 1778, 4 vols., tr. by Hutton. Lon-
don, 1803, 4 vols., revised by Riddle, London, 1844);
''NouveUe Trigonom^trie" (Paris. 1698); "M^thode
facile pour arpenter" (Paris, 1699); "Nouveaux Ele-
ments d'Alg^bre" (Amsterdam, 1702); "La G^ogra-
phie et Cosmographie" (Paris. 1711); ''La Perspec-
tive" (Paris, 1711).
FoNTENBLLB, Eloge fTOtatuun in (Buvru. I. 401-40B (Puis,
1826) or in JMm. d* FAead, dtt m. de Porta (tf <«.). aim. 1717.
Paul H. Linxhan.
ObIm niTTr, TVtV, i. e., "Yahweh is my strength",
name of six Israelites mentioned in the Bible. (1)
Ozias, King of Juda (809-759 b. c), son and successor^
of Amasias. On the latter's death he was chosen king
though he was only sixteen years of age (IV Kings, xiv,
21, where, as in ch. xv also, the name Azarias appears
instead ot Osias, /probably through a copyist's error;
ef. II Par., xxvi, 1). His long reign of fifty-two years
is described as pleasing to (jod, uiough he incurs the
reproach of ha vmg tolerated the ' ' high places ' ' . This
stricture is omitt^ by the chronicler, who, however,
relates that Ozias was stricken with leproi^ for having
presumed to usurp the priestly function of burning in-
cense in the Temple. Ozias is mentioned among the
lineal ancestors of the Saviour (Matt., i. 8. 9). (2)
Ozias, son of Uriel, and father of Saul of the branch of
Caath (I Par., vi, 24). (3) Ozias, whose son Johathan
was custodian of the treasures possessed by King
David outside of Jerusalem (I Par.^ xxvii, 25). (4)
Ozias, son of Harim, one of the pnests who having
taken "stnmse wives", were forced tq give them up
during the rdorm of Esdras (I Esdr., x, 21). (5)
Ozias, son of Miahaj of the tribe of Simeon, a ruler of
Bethulia (Judith, vu, 12). (6) Ozias, one of the ances-
tors of Judith, of the tribe of Ruben (Judith, viii, 1).
Lmttna in Viooubouz, Diet, <U la BH>U, b. v.
Jambs F. Dribooll.
ParanduB, titular see, recorded under "Paeanden."
among the titular sees in tbe official list of the Curia
Romana as late aa 18M, when it teas suppreesed aa
Devcr having existed as a residential see. Ita preseat
titular is Mgr lA>n Livinhac, superior general of the
White Fathers. The name of "Pacanden." owes its
origin, without doubt, to the See of Aeanda in Lycia,
whose bishop, Panretius, signed in 458 the letter of the
bishope of Lycia to Emperor Leo, acd which is men-
tioned in the "Notitiie Episcopatuum " from the
seventh to the thirteenth century among the Buffra-
gaoa of Myra. Its exact site is unknown.
Le Qdtih. Orient thriaianui. I. SS5; P^TRiDts, Aeanda in
Dut.d'hiil.itdigioe.iai.. I. 2i3. S. P^TRlDfcs.
PaccA, Bartolomueo, cardinal, scholar, and states-
man, b. at Benevento, 27 Dec., 1756; d. at Rome, 19
Feb., 1844;aonof Orazio Pacca, Marahcsedi Matrice,
and Crispina Malaspina. He was educated by the
Jeswts at Naples, by the Somaschans in the Clemen-
tine College at Rome, and at the Accademia de' No-
bili Ecclefriaa-
tici. In 1785
tre of anti-Ro-
man Bicitation.
He waa conse-
crated titular
Archbishop of
Damiata and
arrived at Co-
logne in June,
1786. TheArch-
bishop of Co-
logne, Arch-
duke Maximil-
ian of Austria,
Pacca at Rome,
BlKTOUMUUO P<
who had written a courteous letter
told him he would no tbe rect^nized unless he formally
promised not to exercise any act of jurisdiction in the
archdiocese. The same attitude was taken by the
Archbishops of Trier and Maim. Hostility to Rome,
incited chiefly by the work of Febronius (see Febroni-
ANisu) was then at a high pitch on account of the
establishment of the new nunciature of Munich. The
other bishops, however, and the magistrates of Cologne
received Pacca with aJl due respect. Even Prussia
made no difficulty, and its monarch, in recognition of
his friendly attitude, was accorded at Rome the title of
king, against which Clement XI (1701) had protested
when the emperor would have granted it. On his jour-
ney through his dominions on the Rhine Frederick Wil-
liam received the nuncio with great honour.
Pacca's position with respect to the three ecclesias-
tical electors was difficult. When the Archbishop of
Cologne, in 1 786, opened the University of Bonn, that of
Cologne being still loyal to the Holy See, the discoursea
given were a declaration of war against the Holy See,
At Cologne, too, an attempt was made to support Fe-
bronian propositions, but was frustrated by the nun-
cio, against whom innumerable pamphlets were di-
rected. But Pacca induced some prominent German
writers to uphold the rights of the Holy See. He soon
had a dispute with the Elector of Cologne, Conform-
ably to the Punctuation of Ems, agreed on by the
three archbishop electors and the Archbishop of Salz-
burg in 1786, the Archbishop of Cologne protested
against a matrimonial dispensation ^ven by the ntm-
cio in virtue of his faculties, and went so far aa to zrant
dispensations not contained in bis quinquennial Cut-
ties, instructing the paators to have no further r«-
course to the nuncio for similar di^nsations. The
nuncio, in accordance with instructions from Rome,
directed a circular to all the pastors in his jurisdiction
apprising them of the invalidity of such dispensations.
The four archbishops thereupon appealed to Joseph II
to entirely abolish the jurisdiction of the nuncios, and
the emperor referred the matter to the Diet of Ratia-
bon, where it was quashed, Pacca also opposed free-
dom of worship for the Proteataiit« oF Cologne, but so
tactfully that bis intervention was not apparent, aod
did not oflend the King of Prusda, In 1700 he went
on a secret mission to the Diet of Frankfort to safe-
guard the interests of the Holy See, and prevented tbe
adi^tion of a new concordat.
When the French invaded the Rhine Provincea, he
was ordered to leave Colore, but he had the satisfac-
tion of being finally recognized as nuncio by the Arch-
bishop of Trier, In 1704 he was appointed nuncio in
Portugal, but accomplished nothing of imfiortance
there. Of both nunciatures, he wrote memoirs, con-
taining observations on the character of tbe countries
and their governments. White still at Lisbon, be was
created c^\iinal of the title of S. Silvestro in Capite
(23 February, 1801), and assigned to various conpB-
gations. In 1808 French troops were stationed in
Rome. Yielding to the indstence of Napoleon, Pius
Vll sacrificed Cardinal Consalvi, his faithful secretary
of State, and the pro-secretaries, Casoni, Doria, and
Gabrielh. The last-named was surprised in bis apart-
ments by the soldiers, placed under arrest, and ordered
to leave papal territory. Two days later (18 June,-
1808) the pope appointed Pacca pro-secretary.
In his new position Pacca carefully avoided every-
thing that mi|^t provoke the emperor's anger, even
ignoring the excesses of the French soldiery in and
about Rome. But in August he felt obliged to pubU^
in every province a decree forbidding subjects of the
Holy See to enlist in the new "Civic Guard" (see
Napoleon I) and, in general, under any foreign com-
mand. The "Civic Guard" was a hotbed of turbu-
lence that might easily produce a rebellion in the Pon-
tifical States. But Nliollis. the French commandant,
was furious, and threatened Pacca with dismissal from
Home. The pro-secretary replied that he took orders
from the pope alone. Realizing that the annexation of
Rome was inevitable, Pacca took precautions to, pre-
vent a sudden attack on the Quirinal ; at the same time
advising calm and quiet. The Bull of excommunica-
tion against Napoleon had been prepared in 1806, to
be published in the event of annexation. On 10 June,
1809, when the change of government actually took
place, the Bull was promulgated; on 6 July, the Quiri-
nal was attacked, the pope arrested and taken to
Franceand thence to Savona. Pacca was among those
who accompanied him. As far aa Florence, he tried to
cheer Pius VII; at Florence he was torn from the pon-
tiff's side, much to his sorrow, and saw him again only
at Rivoli and Grenoble, From Grenoble he was con-
ducted (6 Aug., 1809) to Fenestrelle, where he was
confined with great severity, and could hsfdly find op-
portunities for confession and communion. Latw,
nowever, this restriction was removed. During this
period the captive minister found time to write thoae
records which farmed the substance of his "Memorie
storiche del minist^x)" etc.
PACCANARIST8
381
PACHOMIXJS
Finally, on 30 January, 181B, he was told that in
view of the concordat concluded between the pope and
Napoleon at Fontainebleau (25 January) he was free
to join the pope. Napoleon had long objected to
his liberation, declaring: ''Pacca is my enemy". At
Fontainebleau he and the other liberated cardinals in-
sisted that Fius VII should retract the last concordat
and refuse further negotiations until he was back in
Rome with full freedom. Pacca also suggested the
re-establishment of the Society of Jesus, although
both the pope and he himself had been educated m
prejudices against the society. When Pius VII was
conducted to Sayona the second time, Pacca was de-
ported to Uz^ (January, 4814), leaving that place on
22 April. He joined the pope at Sinigaglia whence he
accompanied nim to Home. Appointed cardinal
camerlengo in the same year, he exerted himself to re-
establish the religious orders from the foundations not
already sold.
Durmg the absence of Consalvi at the Congress of
Vienna, racca again became pro-secretary of State,
the restoration of the pontifical Government thus de-
volving on him. He was reproved by Consalvi, from
Vienna, for his severity towards the supporters of the
Napoleonic regime, and vainly tried to justify his con-
duct. When Murat, King of Naples, sent his troops
through the Pontifical States to meet the Austrians,
Pacca advised Pius VII to seek temporary refuge at
Genoa, fearing that Murat would attempt to ravage
the domains of the Holy See. During the pope's ab-
sence, the provisional Government caused the arrest of
Cardinal Maury on a charge of having secret intelli-
gence with Murat, and his trial was continued even
after the pope's return. But Consalvi, immediately on
his arrival, stopped the proceedings. The rest of
Pacca's life was occupied in the afTairs of the different
congregations to which he was assigned, and in the
administration of the suburbicarian sees. Leo XII
appointed him pro-datary, he was the first to hold
tne post of cardinal legate of Velletri, and he was
active against the Carbonari.
Cardinal Pacca's house was frequented by the most
illustrious scientists, men of letters, and artists, both
Roman and foreign. He had excavations made at
Ostia at his own expense, and with the objects dis-
covered formed a small museum in his vineyard on
the Via Aurelia (Casino of Pius V).
Acute observations on politics and the philosophy
of history are foimd in his ''Memorie storiche della
nunziatura di Colonia"; "Dei grandi meriti verso
la Chiesa Cattolica del clero dell' University e de'
Magistrati di Colonia nel secolo XVI"; "Notizie sul
Portogallo e sulla nunziatura di Lisbona"; ''Memorie
storiche per servire alia storia ecclesiastica del secolo
XIX" (180^14); "Notizie storiche intorno alia vita
e gli scritti di Mons. Franc. Pacca, arcivescovo di
Benevento (1752-75)". (See also Consalvi; Pius
VII.)
Diario di Roma (1844), n. 39; Album di Roma (1844), n. 16:
RiNiBBi, Corriapondenaa intdita de* cardinali Consalvi e Pacca nu
tempo dd Congretao di Vienna in Diplomazia pontificia, V (Turin,
1903) ; Wiseman, RecoUectiona of the Last Four Popea (London,
1858).
U. Benigni.
Paccftnariflts. See Sacred £[eart of Jesus, So-
ciety OF.
Paoa, Peter. See Gozo, Diocese of.
PachomiUB, Saint, d. about 346. The main facte
of his life will be found in Monasticism. II. Eastern
Monaslicism before Chalcedon. Having spent some
time with Palemon, he went to a deserted village
named Tabennisi, not necessarily with the intention
of remaining there permanently. A hermit would
often withdraw for a time to some more remote spot in
the desert, and afterwards return to his old aoode.
But Pachomius^ never returned; a vision bade him
gtay and erect a monastery; ''very many eager to em-
brace the monastic life will come 'hither to thee'\
Although'from the first Pachomius seems to have re-
alized ms mission to substitute the cenobiticsd for the
eremitical life, some time elapsed before he could
realize his idea. First his elder brother joined him,
then others, but all were bent upon pursmng the ere- f
mitical life with some modifications proposed by
Pachomius (e. g., meals in common). Soon, however,
disciples came who were able to enter into his plans.
In his treatment of these earliest recruits Pachomius
displayed great wisdom. He realized that men, ac-
quainted only with the eremitical life, might speedily
become disgusted, if the distracting cares of the
cenobitical hfe were thrust too abruptly upon them.
He therefore allowed them to devote their whole
time to spiritual exercises, undertaking himself all
the burdensome work which community life entails.
The monastery at Tabennisi, though several times
enlarged, soon became too small and a second was
founded at Pabau (Faou). A monastery at Cheno-
boskion (Schenisit) next joined the order, and, before
Pachomius died, there were nine monasteries of his
order for men, and two for women.
How did Pachomius get his idea of the cenobitical
life? Weingarten (Der Ursprung des Moncthums,
Gotha, 1877) held that Pachomius was once a pa^an
monk, on the ground that Pachomius after his baptism
took up his abode in a building which old people said
had once been a temple of Serapis. In 1898 Ladeuze
(Le C^nobitisme pakhomien, 156) declared this
theory rejected by Catholics and Protestants alike.
In 1903 Preuschen published a monograph (Monc-
thum und Serapiskult, Giessen, 1903), which his
reviewer in the "Theolorische Literaturzeitung"
(1904, col. 79), and Abbot Butler in the "Journal of
Theological Studies'' (V, 152) hoped would put an
end to this theonr. Preuschen showed that the sup-
posed monks of ^rapis were not monks in any sense
whatever. They were dwellers in the temple who
practised "iuQubation'', i. e. sleeping in the temple to
obtain oracular dreams. But theories of this kind
die hard. Mr. Flinders Petrie in his "Egypt in
Israel" (published by the Soc. for the Prop. ofCnrist.
Knowl., 1911) proclaims Pachomius simply a monk
of Serapis. Another theory is that Pachomius's re- ^
lationa with the hermits became strained, and that he
recoiled from their extreme austerities. This theory
also topples over when confronted with facts. Pacho-
mius's relations were always affectionate with the old
hermit Palemon, who helped him to build his monas-
tery. There was never any rivalry between the her-
mits and the cenobites. Pachomius wished his monks
to emulate the austerities of the hermits; he drew up
a rule which made things easier for the less proficient,
but did not check the most extreme asceticism in
the more proficient. Common meals were provided,
but those who wished to absent themselves from
them were encouraged to do so, and bread, salt, and
water were placed in their cells. It seems that
Pachomius found the solitude of the eremitical life
a bar to vocations, and held the cenobitical life to be
in itself the higher (Ladeuze, op. cit., 168) The main
features of Pachomius's rule are described in the
article already referred to, but a few words may
be said about the rule supposed to have been
dictated by an angel (Palladius, "Hbt. Lausiaca",
ed. Butler^ pp. 88 soq.), of which use is often made
in describing a Pacnomian monastery. According
to Ladeuze (263 sqq.), all accounts of this rule
go back to Palladius; and in some most important
points it can be shown that it was never followed
Dy either Pachomius or his monks. It is unneces-
sary to discuss the charges brought by Am^lineau
on the flimsiest grounds against the morality of
the Pachomian monks. They have been amply
refuted by Ladeuze and Schiwietz (cf. also Leipoldt,
"Schneute von Atripe", 147).
FACHTLKB 382 FACmOUS
In addition to tte bibliography abvMuly givwi (Eaatern Mo- c. 1234. Local authors identify him with a certain
SK&?i^.^&3i^«.'S?^ PJJT^L^^*^^ Before becoming. Fri« Minor
In A9ut%ca . . . patrohgia origru., IV (Paris. 1908). he had been poet laureate at the Court of Frede-
F. J. Bacchus. rick II of Sicily. When St. Francis, towards 1212,
preached at San Severino, in the Marches, the poet
saw two resplendent swords crossed on tne saint's
Pachtler, Georgb Michael, controversial and
educational writer, b. at Merffenthcim, Wtlrtemberg, breast. Deeply impressed by this vision, he asked
14 Sept., 1825; d. at Exaten, Holland, 12 Aug., 1889. to be receiv^ into the new order, and St. Francis
He skidied in the University of Tubingen and was gladly complied, giving him the name of Padficus.
ordained priest in 1848; he then took a course of In 1217 he was sent to france, where he is sajd to have
philology in the University of Munich and became become the founder and first provincial of the Friars
professor in the '^ . . -rr.., • -«-^ »*j T_xt «__? * * «
Father Pachtler
vears later ,. ^ ^ .
lege of Feldkirch, Austria. His educational labours lie wished to summon Brother Pacificus and send him
were interrupted twice, when he acted as military with other friars through the world, preaching the
chaplain to the Tyrolese troops during the Italian praises of God (Spec. Perfect., c. 100). The last cer-
campaign (1866), and to German volunteers in the tain date in the life of Brother Pacificus is that of the
papal army (1869-70). After the expulsion of the Bull "Magna ricut", 12 April, 1227 (Bull. Franc. I,
Society of Jesus from the German Empire (1872), 33-34; R^aldus, ad an. 1227, 64. 65), in which
Pachtler lived mostly in Holland and Austria, devot- Gregory IX recommends the Poor Clares of Siena to
ing himself to literary work. He was the first editor his care. Later authors who say he died at SufiBano,
of the ''Stimmen aus Maria-Laach", published by in the Marches, confounded him with another friar
the German Jesuits, one of the leadins Catholic pen- of the same name. According to^Gonzaga, he was
odicals in Germany. He was an able and fertile sent by Brother Elias back to France, where he died,
writer on questions of the day: the Vatican Council, Pacificus was long credited with having put the songs
the Roman question, the labour movement, Free- of St. Francis into verse. But for the simple oonstruc-
masonry, and Liberalism. tion of the ''Canticle of the Sun ", the saint needed no
Among hb works are: '' Actaet Decreta Sacrosanct! help, whilst the other two do not belong to him at all.
et (Ecumenici Concilii Vaticani'' (1871), "Die Inter- Some Italian verses said to have been composed by
nationale Arbeiterverbindung" (1871), "Der Gotie Pacificus are given by Italian authors,
der Humanitftt oder das Powtive der Freimaurerei" JS!S!^ £f 'flf^:^^;J^*!SS?. ^"^JfS^J^HS^
(1875), "Der stille Krieg gegen Thron und Altar, oder S2flSS2i;;Sl%5«^
das Negative der Freimaurerei" (1873), "Der Euro- 1897), 7-8; lO; IV (Quancohi. 1006). 285-86; Thoiub Tuacva.
paische Militarismus" (1876), "Die Geistige Knech- S^t ^'K^"''^^ j5o/'T!S^'!lJ? ^%-^'^* ?^'' fT*?"
r„«« A^w. VAlL.^,. r4„^»K ^<.o B/kk..1,i»^i»^.x^r ^^ -^^wl XXH (Hanover, 1872), 492; Gomcaoa, Dt ongine S€rapk, R^
tung der Vdlker durch das Schulmonopol des mod- HgionU (Rome, 1587); Wadding, Ann4:U€9 Minorum, ad anri212.
emen Staates" (1876), "Das gdtthche Recht der 39-42; icto 55., Jul., Ill, 170-74; I^ncioti, AfemorM tnlorno a«
FV^KeundderKircheauf <Ue^hde" ps;^^^ His ^i^rtfoSSS'J^-.^^.SSS^S'/^S;^^^^^
book on the reform of higher education: Die Reform (Turin, I90i), i-40; Mabiotti, / prim^rdi gionoH ddr OnHn$
unserer Gymnasien" (1883), attracted the attention mirufritieo ndU Marehe (Caatelplanio, 1903). 124.
of the foremost German educationists, and he was Livariub Ouger.
invited to become a contributor to the "Monumenta
Germaniffi Psedagogica'', published in Berlin under Padflcut of Ceredano (Cbrano), also known as
the editorship of Karl Kehrbach. He contributed Pacificus of Novara (Novarienbis), Blessed, b.
four volumes (II, V, IX, and XVI of the series^ 1887- 1420 at Cerano, in the Diocese of Novara in Lombard]^,
94), the last being edited by Father Duhr, S.J., after supposedly of the much respected family of Ramati;
ttie author's death. Pachtler's volumes form the d. 14 June, 1482. He entered the Franciscan Order
standard work on the educational system of the Jes- of Observants at Novara in 1445. After his ordina-
uits; it is entitled: ''Ratio Studiorum et Institutiones tion, he was employed in preaching, in which field
Scholasticss Societatis Jesu, per Germaniam olim the Itidian Observants of that time were especially
Vigentes". The work contains the official documents prominent. Pacificus also had a share in the preach-
of the society which have reference to education, parts mg of the crusade against the Turks undertaken by his
of the constitutions, decrees of the legislative assem- oraer. The general chapter of the Observants^ held in
blies of the order, ordinances of generals, reports of Ferrara, 15 May, 1481, sent him as commissioner to
official visitations, the various revisions of the "Ratio Sardinia to administer and inspect the Fnwciscan
Studiorum", schedules of study, disciplinary regula- monasteries in that country, where he died. Accord-
tionSj directions for the training of teachers, and ing to his wish, his body was brought to Cerano and
treatises of private individuab which explain the buried in the church attached to the Franciscan mon-
practical working of the s;^8tem. Much of the mate- astery. His head was given to the parish church of
rial had never been published. Through the pub- that place. He was at once honoured as a saint, and,
lication of these valuable documents, certain erro- in 1745, Benedict XIV approved his veneration for
neous conceptions entertained by many concerning the Franciscan Onler and the Diocese of Novara. His
the Jesuit system of education, its aims, and meth- f^^t is celebrated on 5 June. Bl. Pacificus is famous
ods, have forever been removed. Although the work as the author of a dissertation, written in Italian and
deals particularly with the Jesuit schools in Germany, named after him the "Summa Pacifica'', which treats
Austria, Switzerland, and the Netherlands, it con- of the proper method of hearins confessions. It was
tains much that is of general interest, and consti- first printed at Milan in 1479 under the title: ''Somma
tutes the most important source of information on the Pacinca o sia Trattato della Scienza di confessare"
educational labours of the Society of Jesus.
summon au$ Marta-Laaeh, XXXVII (1889); Manum&nta G^r-
(Hain, "Repert. typogr.", n. 12259; Copinger/* A Sup-
plement to Hain'^, n. 12259; II, 4573-5). The work
manuB P^Bdagogica. XVI. introduction g^ was also published'in Latin at Venice (1501 and 1513).
IVOBERT DCHWICKERATH. Waddino, AnnoUt Ord. Min., XIV (Rome, 1736), 165, 20S,
PadttUi. Saint. See Babcujna, Dioceb- of. ^k^^}}«ji: ^^^:'^{l^};\X;;^'^^^^i:'3irS^.
FaemCUS, a disciple of St. Francis of ASSISJ, b. p^^^ da Cerafu> (Genom. 19S2)i CAiMOiJi, nb. PbeifieoBamaH
probably near Ascoh, Italy, in the second half of csoyta, 1882); Acta 8S„ Jun.. I, 802-3 C2nd ed., 78SMKQ;
the twelfth century; d. probably at Lens, France, '«"» ^ iCircUOw., ■. v. Michabl Bihl.
PACIFICU8
883
PADEBBOBN
FadfleuB of Sftn SoTerino, Saint, b. at San Sev-
eiino, in the March of Ancona, 1 March. 1653; d.
there 24 Sept., 1721; the son of Antonio M. Divini
and Mariangela Bruni. His parents died soon i^fter
his confirmation when three years old; he sunered
X many hardships until in December, 1670, he took the
Franciscan habit in the Order of the Reformati. at
Forano, in the March of Ancona, and was ordained on
4 June, 1678, subsequently becoming Lector or Pro-
fessor of Philosophy (1680-83) for the younger mem-
bers of the order, after which, for five or six years, he
laboured as a missiona^ among the people of the
surrounding coimtly. He then sufifered lameness,
deafness, and blindness for nearly twenty-nine years.
Unable to give missions, he cultivated more the con-
templativelife. He bore his ills with angelic patience,
worked several miracles, and was favoured by Goa
with ecstasies. Though a constant sufferer, he held
the post of guardian in the monastery of Maria delle
Grazie in San Severino (1692-3), where he died. His
cause for beatification was begun in 1740; he was
beatified bv Pius VI, 4 August, 1786, and solemnly
canonized bv Gregory IX, % May, 1839. His feast
is celebrated on 24 September.
MsLcaiOBBX, Vita di S. J*aaAeo da San Severino (Rome, 1839),
compiled from the Acts of Cfanonisation; Sdcaci da Cajole,
Viia di 3' Pacifico da Sanseverino (Prato, 1898) ; Diotalusvi,
Vita di 8. J^»cifico Divini dei Minori da Sanaeverino (Quaracchi,
1910).
Michael Bihl.
Pacioli (Paciuolo), Lucas, mathematician, b.
at Borgo San Sepoloo, Tuscany, towards the middle of
the fifteenth century; died probably soon after 1509.
Little is known concerning v his me. He became a
Franciscan friar and was successively professor of
mathematics at Perugia, Rome, Naples, Pisa, and
Venice. With Leonardo da Vinci, he was in Milan
at the court of Louis the Moor, until the invasion of
the French. The last years of his life were spent in
Florence and Venice. His scientific writings, though
poor in style, were the basis for the works of the six-
teenth-century mathematicians, including Curdan and
Tartaglia. m his first work, ''Summa de Arith-
metica, Geometria, Proportioni, et ProportionaUta",
Venice, 1494, he drew freely upon the writings of
Leonardo da Pisa (Fibonacci) on the theory of num-
bers. Indeed he has thus preserved fragments of some
of the lost works of that mathematician. The appli-
cation of algebra to geometry, and the treatment, for
the first time, of double-entry book-keeping and of
the theory of probabilitv also help to make this
treatise noteworthy. The '* Divina Proportioni"
(Venice, 1509), was written with some co-operation on
the part of Leonardo da Vinci. It is of interest chiefly
for some theorems on the inscription of polyhedrons in
polyhedrons and for the use of letters to indicate
numerical quantities. His edition of Euclid was pub-
lished in 1509 in Venice.
Chaslu, Apereu hiaUnique rar VOrioine et U DSveionpement
dee MUhodee en Qiomttrie (3rd ed., Paria, 1889); Libri. Hietoire
dee Sciencee Mathimatiqttee en Italie, III (2nd ed., Halle, 1865).
Paul H. Linehan.
Pactum Caliztinum. See Callibtub II, Pope;
Concordat.
Padorbom, Diocese of (Paderbornbnsis), suffra-
fan of Cologne, includes: the District of Minden,
iTestphalia, except the parish of Leite; the District of
Amsberg. Westphalia^ except a few parishes; Prussian
Saxony; five districts m the Rhine Province; the Prin-
cipality of Lippe; the Principality of Waldeck; the
Duchv of Gotha; the Principalities of Schwarzburg-
Rudolstadt and Schwarzburg-Sondershausen; and
the Vicariate Apostolic of Anhalt (see Germany, map).
The diocese is divided into 53 deaneries. There are
547 parishes (20 missionary, 266 succursal); 1403
secular and 93 regular priests: 1,508,000 Catholics,
and 5,250,000 non-Catholics. The part of the diocese
in^huringia is also divided among three other eccle-
siastical administrative districts: the episcopal com*
missaries of Magdeburg and Heiligenstadt, and the
'^ Ecclesiastical Court'' (GtisUiches Uerichi) of Erfurt.
The cathedral chapter has the right to elect the
bishop; it consists of a provost, a dean. 8 capitular and
4 honorary canons; 6 cathedral vicars are stationed at
the cath^al. The diocesan institutions are: the
seminary for priests, the diocesan institute of phi-
losophy and theolo^ with 8 professors, the theological
college (Collegium l/eoninum) J the seminary for Boys
{Collegium Liborianum) at Paderbom, the seminary
for boys (Collegium' BonifcUianum) at Heiligenstadt,
and the orphans' home of Lippe at Paderbom, Under
religious cbrection also are the bo3rs' colleges of War-
burg, Attendom, and Brilon.
Tne orders existing in the diocese are: Franciscans, 8
monasteries, 69 fathers, 21 clerics, 68 brothers ;'Domini-
cans, 1 monastery, 5 fathers, 4 brothers; Redemptor*
ists, 1 monastery, 8 fathers, 7 brothers; Mission-
aries of the Sacred Heart of Jesus, 1 community, 11
fathers, 51 clerics, 21 brothers; Brothers of Chanty, 4
monasteries, 82 brothers, l^h^ female orders and con-
gregations, which have '256 institutions with 3320
sisters, include: the Benedictine Sisters of Perpetual
Adoration, 2 priorates; Canonesses of St. Augustine,
1 convent; Poor School Sisters of Notre Dame, 3 in-
stitutions; Ursulines, 3 houses; Sbters of Christian
Charity; Daughters of the Blessed Virgin Mary of the
Immacidate Conception, mother-house at Paderbom
and 15 institutions; Sisters of Charity of the Christian
Schools, mother-house at Heiligenstadt, and 6 institu-
tions; Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul, mother-house at
Paderbom and 99 houses; Poor Franciscan Sisters of
Perpetual Adoration, mother-house at Oloe, 39 insti-
tutions; Franciscan Sisters of the Sacrea Hearts of
Jesus and Mary, mother-house at Salekotten, 23
houses; Grey Sisters of St. Elizabeth from Breslau,
provincial house at Halle, 20 institutions; Sisters of
Charity of St. Vincent, from Fulda, 5 houses; Poor
Sisters of St. Francis, from Aachen, 4 institutions;
Sisters of Charity of St. Francis, from Mtinster, 3
convents; Sisters of St. Francis, from Thuine, near
Freren, 5 institutions; Poor Franciscan Sisters, from
Waldbrcitach, 2 institutions; Poor Servants of Jesus
Christ, from Dembach, 18 institutions; Sisters of
Clement, from MUnster, 3 houses; Sisters of Charity of
St. Elizabeth, from Essen, 1 house; Sisters of the Holy
Cross from Strasburg, 2 institutions: Daughters of
Christian Charity of St. Vincent from Cologne-Nippes,
1 house; Sisters of Our Lady from Mtilhausen (Rnme-
land), 1 institution.
The city of Paderbom is the headquarters of the
Boniface Association (q. v.): among others are the
Societv of St. Vincent, the Society of St. Elizabeth,
the Nlothers' Society, the Young Men's Society, the
Young Women's Sodalities, the Society of Catholic
Germany, etc. The Catholic institutions include 120
institutions for the protection of children; 50 orphan
asylums; 100 schools for handicrafts and domestic
science; 135 sanatoria and hospitals; 65 stations for
visiting nurses; and 300 religious homes for the poor.
Among the newspapers are: the'^Westfalisches Volkch
blatt", the "Sonntagsblatt Leo", the "Bonifatiua-
blatt", and the scientific magazine, ''Theologie imd
Glaube". The most important churches are: the
cathedral at Paderbom, which in its present form
dates from the twelfth and fourteenth centuries; a
church with three naves of equal height in the style
of the Romanesque and Transition periods; the
Romanesque cathedral of St. Patroclus at Soest,
built in 954; the cathedral at Erfurt, dates back to
1153; and the Gothic cathedral at Minden, built be-
tween the eleventh and the fifteenth centuries.
The first church at Paderbom was founded in 777,
when Charlemagne held a diet there. It is certain
that Paderbom was a bishopric in 805 or 806; the
PASIRBOBH 3
bidiop was Hatbumar, a Saxon (d. 815). Before this
FadBrbora was under the Dioceee of Wanburg. The
DioMse of Paderbom then included the larger part
of Idppe, Waldeck, aod neaiiy half of the former
Countahip of Ravensberg.
St. fiadurad (815-62) completed the cathedral,
eocourwed die building of the cathedral school, ana
the eetablishm^it of several mona8t«tie8. He received
from Louis the Pioiu special protcctioD for his diocese,
which was benefited financially, in that henceforward
it received all the court fees. When the bishops re-
c«ved the cauntship is unknown, but this was con-
finned to Bishop Jjuthard (8(52-86) in 881 by King
Louis. Otto II beatowed the right la a free election of
bishops upon Bishop Folkmar in 974 (d, 981). In
1000 the cathedral was burnt; Rethgar (d. 1009) began
a new cathedral, completed by his succesBor, Meia-
weric. The latter established the Benedictine Mon-
ast«ry of Abdinghof
at Paderbom, found-
ed a diocesan colt^ie
at Busdorf, and im-
proved the cathedral
school. During the
Strifeof Investitures,
the emperor, later of
Uie pope. Helnricb
I, Count of Asset,
elected bishop under
the protection of the
opposing King Her-
mann, in 1090 was
exiled by the Em-
peror Henry IV, and
tied to Magdeburg,
where in IICB he was
elected archbishop.
TheSee of Padertxim
Heinrich if, Count of Werl-Amsber^, who had had
himself installed in 1084 at Rome as bishop by Henry
IV, and who had helped in the expulsion of Heinrich
I. He received the papal sanction in 1106. Bern-
hard II, Lord of Oesede (1127--60), restored the cathe-
dral (burnt in 1133).
Signed (1178-80) lived to see the downfall of
Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony. The rights which
the old dukedom had exercised over Paderborn were
transferred to the Archbishop of Cologne. The
claims of the archbishops of Cologne were settled in
the thirteenth century, almost wholly in favour of
Paderbom. Under Bemhard II of Ibbenbiiren (1198-
1204) the bailiwick over the diocese, which since the
middle of the eleventh century had been held as a
fief by the Counts of Amsberg, returned to the bishops.
This was an important advance in the development
of the bishops' position as temporal sovereigns. From
this time on the bishops did not grant the bailiwick. as
a fief, but managed it themselves, and had themselves
represented in the government by one of their clergy.
They strove successfully to obtain the btuliwicks over
the abbeys and monasteries situated in their diocese.
During the reign of Bernhard IV (1228-^7) the Minor-
ites settled in the diocese. Under him the community
life of the cathedral canons ceased completely, and
the canons, twenty-four in number, shared with the
bishop the property, arcbdiaconates, and obediences
(I23I).
Simon I, Lord of Uppe (1247-77), was engaged in
Struggles with Colt^pie; Otto von Rietberg had also to
contend with Colognei in 1281, when only bishop-
elect, he received the regalia from Rudolph of
Habsburs, and full judicial power (except peniJ judi-
cature); benoeforward the bishops were actual sove-
reigns, though not over the whole of their diocese.
M FADKBBOBH
Bemhard V of Lippe (1321-41) had to acknowledge
the city of Paderbom aa free from his judidal suprem-
Heinrich IIl^ Spiegel Bum DemnberK (1361-
Chui
Paderbom. Simon II, Count of Stembe^ (1380-89), ,
involved the bishopric in feuds with the nobility, wba
after his death devastated the country, Wilhelm
Heinrich von Berg, elected 1399, sought to remedy the
evils which had crept in during the foregoing feuds,
but when in 1414 he interested himseir in the vacancy
in the Archbishopric of Cologne, the cathedral chapter
in his absence chose Dietrich von MOrs (1415-43).
The wars of Dietrich, also Archbishop of Cologne,
brought heavy debts upon the bishopric; during the
feuds of the bishop with the City of Soest (1444-49)
Paderbom was devastated. The reign of Simon III of
Lippe (1463-89) was occupied with the correction
of Church discipline.
Hermann I, Land-
grave of Hesse (1496-
1S08), was an excel-
lent ruler.
Under Erich, Dulu
of Bmnswick-Gru-
benhagen (1502-32),
the Reformation ob-
tained a foothold in
the diocese, although
the bishop remained
\oyai to tke Church.
Hermann von Wied
(1532-47), also Arch-
bishop of Cologne,
sought to introduce
the new teaching at
Paderbom as well as
Cologne, but he was
opposed by all
clssses. The count-
luBnTtDi ships of Lippe, Wal-
deck, and Pyrmont, the part of the diocese in the
Countship of Ravensbei^ and most of the parishes on
theright bank of the Weser became Protestant, Aftei
the removal of Hermann von Wied, Paderbom had
three active Catholic bishops: Rembert von Kerrsen-
brock (1547-68), Johann II von Hoya (1568-1574)
published the Tridentine Decrees, and Salentin. Count
of Isenburg (1574-77), also Archbishop of Cologne.
Heinrich IV, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg (1577-85), was
a Lutheran; he permit!^ the adoption of the Aura-
burg Confession by his subjects. Apostasy from the
Church made such advances that in the city of Pader-
born only the cathedral and the Monastery of Abding-
hof remained faithful. To save the Catholic cause, the
cathedral chapter summoned the Jesuits to Paderbom
in 15S0. Thcodor von Furstenberg (1585-1618) re-
stored the practice of the Catholic religion, built a
gymnasium for the Jesuits, and founded the Univer-
aity of Paderbom in 1814.
Ferdinand I of Bavaria (1618-50) was not able to
save the bishopric from the horrors of the Thirty
Years' War, Thcodor Adolf von der Reck (1650-90
tried to repur the damages of the war, Ferdinand II
von Fdrstenberg (1661-83), poet, historian, scholar,
and promoter of the arts and sciences, founded the
"Ferdinandea", for the support of thirteen mission-
arips for the northem Vicariate. Hermann Wemer
(1683-1704) and his nephew Frani Arnold (1704-18)
were admirable prelates. Under Klemens August at
Bavaria (1719-61), the Seven Years' War wrou^t
great damage. Wilhelm Anton von der Assebuif
(I763-82)foundedaBcminarvfDrpriMtsinl777. Frani
Egon von Fiiretenberg (1789-1825) lived to see the
secularization of nearly all the chapters and mona*-
teries in his diocese. The territory ol the diocese wait
to Prussia, the bishop became a prince of the empire;
PADILLA 385 PADUA
but his spiritual jurisdiction was untouched. He saw of savages, who attacked them and slew Fr. de PadilUi
the enlargement of his diocese, resulting from the Bull as he c5mly knelt in prayer. The savages threw the
"De Salute Animarum", 16 July, 1821, which ex- body into a pit. The date and locaUty of his martyr*
tended Paderbom, and placed it under Cologne. dom are uncertain, Fr. Vetancurt in his Menologio
Friedrich Klemens yon Ledebur-Wicheln (1826- assigning 30 November. 1544. Some beUeve he per-
41) divided the diocese into deaneries. Konrad Mar- ished in eastern Colorado, or western Kansas, but thia
tin (1866-79) held a diocesan ^od in 1867, and is conjecture. The story, believed in New Mexico,
took part in the Vatican Council. In the Kultur- that his body was discovered by Pueblo Indians,
l^ampf he stood firmly for the freedom of the Church, brought to Isleta, interred beneath the sanctuary of
suffered many penalties, and died an exile in Belgium, the church, and that it rises and falls at stated penods
Franz Kaspar Drobe (1882-91) revived the institu- is a myth. The remains of the Franciscan buried
tions for the education of priests. Hubertus Simar there are doubtless those of Fr. Juan Jos6 de Padilla,
(1891-1900) rebuilt the theological seminary in 1895 who died a peaceful death there two centuries later,
and became Archbishop of Cologne in 1900; Wilhehn Fr. de la Cruz and Brother de Ubeda were likewise
Schneider (1900-1909) was a philosopher and theo- put to death at the instigation of Indian sorcerers at
logian; Karl Joseph Schulte, formerly Professor of the missions on the Rio Grande.
Apologetics and Canon Law in Paderbom, was elected Mkndieta, Hutoria ecUndstica indiana (reprint, Mexico,
in 1909, and consecrated 19 March, 1910. J?70> • Tello. Crdnicade la Santa PronnciadeXaluco (reprint.
FtJB»T.NBBRO. Manumenta Paderbanuiuia (Paderbom. 1672; ^.''^^'ff^iJ^V^^^^^^^lQ^^^^
4th ed.. Lemgo. 1754) ; Schaten. AnnaU* Pade^bomen»e* (3 vols. t^J'fi^^^^^'^a^^^.T^^^
2nd ed. MQniter. 1774-75) ; Bessen. Ge»ehicfUe de» BUtuxM Paderl VyTJ!'^^'^?^]^^^ V>Z^ J^^S. '^^ITl/JJ^^ ^(i^A^t*
bom (2 vols.. Paderbom. 1820); Giefer*, Die Anfange de» Bis- U^??;^®,«^?vT^;J2^*^n? tJT^'tt^R^^^l^l^TR^U
tunu Paderbom (Paderbom, 1860) ; Evelt, Die WeihbiBeh6fe von >^tS.^\ l?!5] ' rA^^SfJztV rwftn rJ^^ n«f WN«i vSS"
Paderbom (Paderbom. 1869. 1879) ; LOher. GeechichU dee Kamp- f^fi^ f^i; I*^' ?i^n r^zJTo.^^JSSi »^^^^
fee urn Paderbom 1697-1604 (Berlin, 1874) ; Wilmans and FiNKi. i^fP^ 'u.f^fi^^: i7^^ ^^I^ ^S^i ?r^iZ^ IS^tt
Jeeuiten (Paderbom. 1892). I; Idku, Geechichte der Stadt Pader- Enqelhardt. TA«Framn«oon«in^r*«ma (Harbor Springs. 1899).
bom, I. It (Paderbom. 1899-1903): Idem, Studien und QueUen ZePHYRIN JLNGELHARDT.
Mur Geechiehte Paderbonu, 1 (Paderbom. 1893); Idem, Preue- «« ^ ^ m a r^ a t>^
•en und die PaderbomeriKUfeler und Stifler 180^-1806 (Pader- PaaroaaO, THE. Bee OOA, ARCHDIOCESE OF; PBO-
bom, 1905); Treisen. Die UnivertUOt Paderbom (Paderbom, TECTORATE OF MISSIONS.
1898); Tenckhoff. Die BischOfe von Paderbom von Hatsumar bi$
Rethar (Paderbom. 1900); Schdltx, Beitrdge eur Geechiehte der Padua, DiOCESE OF (PaTAVINa), Northern Italy.
I^ndeehoheu im BiHum Paderbom (MQnBter. 1903); Liebe. Die rj,j^ city is situated on a fertile plain, and b sur-
hUholiachen Wohltdtigkeiteanekuten und eotialen Veretne %n der -^"^ , V *° ''*''"" *^" "" ", J^ ^.r JT^» *^. **' ""*
Didzeee Paderbom (Freiburg. 1906); Freisen. Suiat und katho- rounded and traversed by the Bachiglione River. Its
liache Kirehe in den deuteehen Bundeeataaten Lippe, Waldeck-Pirr^ streets are almost all flanked with colonnades. ThemOSt
'KlS^.^^F^iii^f'^n li%1l:rffi^'^r« ?Plei«^d Of its Churchy is" a Santo '.', that is the ba«l.
■ter. 1908); Hbnsb. FHhrer durch Paderbom ^Paderbom, 1910); Ica 01 St. Anthony of Padua, begun in 1232; its Style IS
Zeiuekrift fQr vaterldndisehe Geaehichie und Auertumekunde, eec- mixed Romanesque and Byzantine, irrespective of later
^^^:^^^J^^^\^'U^t^vr" '" ''*^"~ modifications; it has seven cupolas, and isdividedinto
Joseph Linb. three naves. On the high altar is a crucifix in bronze
by Donatello, the author also of the bronze bas-reliefs
Padilla, Juan de. Friar Minor, protomartyr of on the walls of the apse; the bronze candelabra
the United States of America, member of the Andalu- are by Andrea Riccioj the chapel, called ''Capella
sian province, came to Mexico probably in 1528, join- del Santo" (1500-33), is filled with ex-voto offenngs,
ing tne province of the Holy Gospel. During 152^ and contains nine bas-reliefs by Lombardi, represent-
1531 he, with an unnamed friar, accompanied Nufio ing miracles of the saint; the chapel of the relics and
de Guzm^ to Nueva Galicia and Culiacdn^ and pre- that of San Felice are also full of works of art. The
vented the oppression of the natives while acting paintings in this church are by Mantegna, Paolo
as militcuy chaplain. From 1531 to 1540 he made mis- Veronese, and Tiepolo, while the frescoes are by
sionary tours among the Indians of Tlamatzoldn, Tuch- Giotto and Altichiero da Zevia. The Church of Santa
pdn, Tzapotitl^, Totlamdn, Amula, Caul^, Xicotl^, Giustina, rebuilt in 1502, is crowned by eight cupolas,
AvaJos or Zaoldn, Amacuec^, Atoyac, Tzacoalco, and has fourteen side chapels; there are paintings by
and Colima. He founded the convent of Tzapotldn, Paolo Veronese, Luca Giordano, and Parodio. Be-
becoming its first superior, and erected another at side thfe (^urch is a famous monastery of the Bene-
Tuchpdn, making it the headquarters for the mission- dictines, which dates from the ninth century; in the
ary f nars. He established the monastery of Tulant- fifteenth century a reform of the order began in this
cingo, governing it until 1540, when he resigned to convent of Santa Giustina, now used as barracks,
follow Fr. Marcos de Niza, the discoverer of Arizona The cathedral was destroyed by an earthquake in
and New Mexico, with Francisco Vdsouez de Coronado, 1117, and was rebuilt by Michelangelo, who, however,
on the memorable march to the fabled Seven Cities, finished only the choir and the sacristy. The church,
and thus reached the Upper Rio Grande near the called "degli Eremitani" (1264 and 1309), contains
present Bernalillo about the end of 1540. He also frescoes by Mantegna. The seminary was founded by
accompanied Coronado in his search to Quivira, Bishop Federico Comaro in 1577, and was greatly
probably as far as central Kansas. When the dis- enlarged by Blessed Cardinal Gregorio Barberigo in
appointed general and his amw in 1542 abandoned 1671; connected with it are a printing press and a rich
New Mexico, Fr. de Padilla, Fr. Juan de la Cruz, library.
Brother Luis de Ubeda or Escalona, resolved to stay Among the secular buildings are the Palazzo della
behind to evangelize the Indians. A Portuguese Ragione, dating from 1166, restored in 1218, 1^20,
soldier, Andres da Campo, two Mexican tertiaries. and 1756; the Loggia del Consiglio (the palace of the
Lucas and Sebastian, two other Mexican Indians, ana "Capitano"); andthe university (1493), by Palladio
a half-breed boy also remained with the zealous friars, or Sansovino; annexed to it are a library, with 2500
After working with' success among the Tfguez on M$S., an anatomical amphitheatre, founded in 1594
the Rio Grande for some time, Fr. de Padilla's zeal by Fabrizio d'Acquapendente, a museum of natural
urged him to afford other tribes an opportunity of history, a large collection of ancient physical instru-
knowing and serving Christ. Accompanied by Da ments, a collection of petrified objects, a botanical
Campo, Lucas, Sebastian, and the two Mexican In- garden (1545, the first in Europe), and an observatory,
dians, he set out for the north-east. When the little erected on a tower of the castle of Ezzelino. Among
party reached the plains, they encountered a band the public monuments are: the equestrian statue en
XI.— 25
PAOUA 3!
GnttsmetatabyDoDatellooD the piaisadct Santo; the
gtatue of Petrarch; &nd the tomb of Antcnor, the
legendaiy founder of the city.
Padua (Falavatm) was the chief city of the Veneti,
who were continually at war with the Gauls; the
Veneti, therefore, were naturally friends of Rome, In
302 s. c. Cleoavmita, King of Sparta, sailed up the Po
with a part of his fleet; but the Patavians drove bim
back with severe loss. The city long enjoyed inde-
pendence, and obtained liomaa citizenship only in
49 B. c. Under the first emperors, Padua was one of
the most heavily-taxed cities. It had a flourishiiig
wool industry, and its people were famous for their
orderly conduct, Latin bteratuje also flourished
I destroyed in 408 by Alaric,
of Padua waned; i
in 452 by Attila, and
in 601 by Agilulfus,
King of the Lom-
bards. In the tenth
century it was har-
assed by the Hun^
liana, especially is
903. In 1087, with
the consent of Heni;
IV, Padua made it-
self a free commune:
and in the time of
Barbarossa it was
among the first cities
to establish the Lom-
bard League, It was
at war with Venice in
ILIO and 1214; with
Viceniainll40,1188,
and 1201; and with
the Ezzelini. Ezse- |
lino IV succeeded in
obtaining the sover-
eignty in 1237. For
eighteen years he ex-
ercised a most inhuman tyranny; among his victims
was the prior of Santa Giustina, Arnaldus, who died
after an imprisonment of eight years. In 1256 an
army of crusaders, sent by Alexander IV, captured the
citj\ which Pzielino attempted in vain to recapture.
liie city once more ftounshed; but internal discord
developed anew, and wars with neighbours began
again, with the result that Padua, foflowing the ex-
ample of other cities, offered the lordship to Jacopo
Carrara in 1318. In 1320, however, Padua was com-
Delled to receive an imperial vicar; and the attempt of
Marsiliol of Carrara, son of Jacopo (1328), to rid him-
self of that functionary, turned only to the advantage of
the Scaligeri (Alberto and Mastino), which family were
driven from Padua in 1337 by MarsiJio, succeeded by
Ubertino. The latter greatly increased the territory
of the state, and was succeeded by Mareilio II Papa-
fava, and by Jacopo II (1345) a protector of letters
and' of the arts, assassinated in 1350 by Gulielmo,
natural son of Giacomo I. Francesco I, captain of
iceeded, butwasun-
corapelled to accept
n 1378 he agisted the Genoese
_ . ,„ . successful,
u^nst the Scaligeri, from whom he took
Feltre, Belluno Treviso, and Ceneda (1384). His
eon Francesco Novello (1388) voluntarily submitted
to the Vieconti of Milan; but was imprisoned, to-
gether with his father, who had withdrawn from the
government. Francesco Novello escaped from prison,
and in 1390 reconquered Padua; and in 1403 he waged
war against the Visconti and took Brescia and Verona.
In 1404 he made an attempt against Viccnza that
brought upon him a war with Venice. After a long
siege, father and son went to Venice, to obtain f avour-
6 > PADUA
able conditions of peace, were detuned and put to death
(1405); the rule of the Carrara thus came to an end,
and Padua fell to Venice. In 1509 the Emperor
Majdmilian I took the city from the Venetians; the
Venetians haying retaken it, the town was besieged
ag^n by the imperialists, who had already taken a
bastion, when the explosion of a mine drove them
back; thenceforth Padua followed the fortunes of
Padua is the birthplace of: the poetess Isabella An-
barefia, and his nephew Bartolommeo; Ottonello Dea-
calzo; the man of letters Ceaarotti; the naturalist
Donati; the mechanician Giacomo ddl' Orolo^o; the
Sainters Francesco Squarcione (Paduan school),
tefano dall' Araere; G. B, Bissoni; Campagnola,
Girolamo Padovano;
M antegna ; Alesaio
Varotari (R Pado-
vanino); the female
Scanferia; the sculp-
tor Tiiiano Aspetti;
Blessed Pellegrino
Manzoni (d. 1267);
Blessed Compagno
(d. 1264), and of
Blessed Cardinal
Bonaventura da Pa-
dova (d. 1385).
Padua gave a
number of mart3'rfl
to the Church: St.
Giustina, Virgin; St.
Daniel; and the Bish-
op Maiimus. The
first bishop is said
to have been St.
Prosdocimus, who
cannot have gov-
erned the diocese
earlier than the beginning of the third century, when
the See of Milan was created, even if Crispinus, at the
Council of Sardica in 347, was the twelfth Bishop
of Padua. After the destruction of the city by Attila,
the bishops resided on the island of Mefamoceo,
and took part in the schism of The Three Chapters;
Tricidiua (620) returned to Padua, which had again
grown up. Among the other bishops were Gaushnus,
who, in 964, found the reUcs of the third bishop St.
Fidcntius; Blessed Bernardo Maltraverso (1031);
Pictro (1096), deposed by the Council of Guastalla;
- " "■ "^ertaldo, killed in 1147 by Tomraasc
Gerardo Marostica (1169), a pacifier
St. Bcllino Bertaldo,
Capodivacca; Gerardo
On account of the tyranny of Ezzelino IV, the see was
vacant from 1239; Paoano della Torre (1302) built
the episcopal palace; Ildebrandino (1319), Pontifical
legate on various occasions; Pileo da Prata (1359),
founder of the Coll^o Pratense; PietroBarba (1448),
Pope Paul II; Fantino Dandolo (1449), formerly a
high functionary of Venice; Jacopo Zeno (1460), the
biographer of his uncle Carlo, who commanded in the
war against Genoa; Nicol6 Ormanetto (1570); Giorgio
Comaro (1697) held important charges under the re-
public; Carlo Rezzonico (1743), Pope Clement XIII;
Francesco Scipione Doni dall' Orologio (1807). The
provincial Synod of 1350 was important.
The diocese is sulTragan of Venice; it has 32t
parishes, 570,200 inhabitants, 1 Cathohc daily paper,
and 1 weekly Catholic publication.
Cafpelletti, L4 Ckiai if rioKa, X; Idbh. Sifria ii Padua (1
Tb vol«.. P«iu.; l«Ji-10ia), SiBTORi, GuSoilor. d«ll« Chiatii
Padaia (Padui. 1S»4); Vehci, Sloria drgti fnlini (Banuio,
1779) ; Cnnoci-UL. Sloria dtOa dsmtnonniH fwrareH in J^>d«s (1
Toll., Pulujt. 1843)1 VoujUHH, PadM alt JHuntCMoiu (Lsiptii,
IBM)- U. BUNIGNL
PADUA
387
PADUA
UmvEBairr of Padua dates, according to some Jacopo da Piacenia, Lapoda CaHtiglionchio, and the
anonymous chroniclee (Muratori, "Rer. ItaT Script.", canonist and tbeoloKian, Francesco Zabarella, after-
VIII, 371, 421, 459, 736), from 1222, when a part of wards cardinal; in medicine Bruno da Longoburpj,
the studium of Bologna, includine professors and Pietro d'Albano, Dino del Garbo, Jacopo and Gio-
students, withdrew to Padua. The opinion that vanni Dondi (also excellent mechanicians), Marcilio,
- Giovanni and Guglielmo
Santa Sofia, Jacopo da Forld,
PYederick 11 tranafened the
Studium of Bologna to Padua
in 1241 Is groundless. But
even before this emigration
there were prafesBors of law
at Padua, as Gerardus Poma-
dellus (c. 1105), afterwards
Bishop of Padua; further-
more, his predecessor. Bishop
Carto, was called sacrorum
earumum doctor. The con-
tract proposed by the com-
mune of Vercelli to the Rec-
tors of the studeDta of PaduB
in V22i shows that besides
both laws and dialectics, med-
icine and gramm ar were taught
there. Ihe students were
divided into four national-
ities: French, Italian, Ger-
and Biagio Pelacani. Phil-
oeophy was often taught, as
elsewhere, by professors of
medicine, mostly averroists,
tike Petrus Aponcnsis and
Mundinus. The moat dis-
tinguished philosophers who
Pier Paolo Veraerio (1340-
1414), afterwards Bishop of
Capo d'latria, a learned hu-
manist and student of antiq-
uity; the Franciscan, An-
tonio Trombetta, a famous
Scotist. From the fifteenth
century there were in theology
and metaphysics two courses,
one Thomistic, with piofea-
Bors preferably Dommican,
and the other Scotist, with
profeseors chiefly from the
Friars Minor. Famous in the
beginning of the sixteenth
century were the controver-
sies between the averroist
philosopher . Achillini, and
■ the Alexanarist, Pietro Pom-
--*' ponazzi (q. v.). The doc-
trines of the latter (who had
From gone to Bologna) , especially on the soul were opposed.
or part of the university (14
professors and sufficient stu-
dents to occupy 500 houses)
should be transferred to Ver-
celli for at least eight years.
The university, however, was
not suspendeaon that account,
as is evident from the Life of
St. Antonio, But the tyranny
of Ezieiino (1237-56) caused its decadence, aiuiu guuc iu uuiuHuay, cb^icuiuij' uh i.iiEsuuin<;i[iuij|iuiicu,
1260 it revived under the commune which eatablished among others, by Agostino Nifo, another professor of
the rights of the professors and students, and the philosophy at Padua. The humanist Girolamo Fra-
salaries (300 lire for legiate and 200 for canonists) ; the castoro taught philosophy there.
examinations were held before the bishop, who also Among the professors of letters were: Rolandino,
granted the teachers' licences. In 1274Paduahad the historian of Padua (thirteenth centuri^), and Giovanni
I of the Coun-
cil of Lyons, equal
with the Universities
of Paris and Bologna.
In 1282, on account
of certain communal
laws against the clergy
and the university,
Nicholas IV threat-
ened to deprive Padua
of its Studium, but
the commune re-
lented, and the Stu-
dium acquired great
renown, nvdline Bo-
lo^ia, especially in
jurisprudenee. From
the beginning of the
fourteenth century
the school of medicine
was also famous. The
professors in this fac-
ulty introduced Aver-
roiam in philosophy.
The theological faculty
In the
da Ravenna, friend
of Petrarch; the hu-
manists Gosparino
Banizi, Francisco
Mleifo, Vittorino da
Feltre,adi8tinguished
pedagogical writer
and educator, Lauro
Quirino; the Greeks
Demetno Chalcocon-
dylas, Alessandro
Zenoe, Nicolas Leo-
nicoB, Marino Bo-
cichem, Romolo Am-
asacus, and Nicolo
Caliachius; Giovanni
Fascolus, Francesco
Robortellos, the his-
torian SigoniuB, the
Ct French I^tinist
c. Ant. Muretus.
Justus Liptuus. and
the great Latin lexi-
cc^aphers of the
eighteenth century, Jacopus Faciolatus, and Egidio
s instituted by Urban V ii. _.„ ,, ,_. _ , .
! year the Collegium Toroacense Forcellini. ABtronomy.orastroIogy.wastaughtalready
wasfounded, the first of its kind in Padua. There were in thefourteenth century. The most noted professors
other institutes from 1390, as the college of St, Marco were, in the fifteenth century, Geor^ Pcarbacn, and his
for six medical students, the college of Cardinal Pileo disciple Johann Miiller, called Regiomontanus; in the
(1420) for twenty (afterwards twelve) students. sixteenth century, Giovanni Battista Capuano and
The professors of thin first period included the juris- Galileo Galilei, who also taught mechanics and other
consults, Alberto Galeotto, Guide SuRsara, Jacopo physical sciences. Chief among the theologians was
d' Arena, Riccardo Midombra, Albrado Ponte^ Ro- the French Dominican Hyacinthe Serry (1698), who
lando Piaztola. Jacopo Belvimo, Bortol Sahceti, and introduced there the new method of banng theology
the odd>rated Baldo; the canonista. Ruffino and more on Scriptural and patristic ai^umMiU than on
PAGANISM
388
PAGANISM
philoBophical speculationsi in which he encountered
much opposition from the Conventual Fra Nicola
Buico. Among the jurisconsults, after the closing of
the university (1509-17), were the canonist Meno-
chius^ Alciatus, Lancelotti, and Pancirolo, famous also
tor his knowledge of Roman antiquities.
A characteristic of the University of Padua, even in
the eighteenth century, was its internationalism, as
seen from the list of professors about Facciolati; it
.was attended espedally by Germans. When Venice
passed under Austrian domination (1814) the univer-
sitv was transformed, like that of Pavia. At present
it has the ordinsury four faculties, besides a scnool of
applied engineering and a school of pharmacy and
obstetrics. Various astronomical institutes, bacteri-
ological, physiolosical, hygienic, and pathological;
chemical, physical, and geodetic laboratories; an
anthropological museum; a botanical garden; and an
astronomical observatory complete the equipment of
the university. It has 128 chairs, 68 professors, 20
paid, and 107 private, tutors. In 1906, there was
established near the university an institution for the
education of Catholic young men. University educa-
tion in Italy is strictly governmental, and without it
all professional possibilities are closed to young men.
At some seats of learning. Catholic Clubs were started
to help them against the peril to their faith and
morals, but they failed. The small Pensionata, situ-
ated in the neighbourhood of Padua, between the
Basilica and the church of Sta. Juliana, was trans-
formed into a large establishment. The students at-
tend a weekly conference which treats of points of
faith affecting modem conditions of life ana science.
CoLLX, Storia teientifieo leUeraria dello Studio di Pctdova (Padua,
1824); Facciolatus, Fasti gymruuii Patavini (Padua, 1757);
Favabo, Lo Studio di Padova e la Republiea Veneta (Venice,
1889); Cermi ttorici auOa R. Univertitd di Padova (Padua, 1873).
U. Benigni.
Paganism, in the broadest sense, includes all re-
ligions other than the true one revealed by God. and,
in a narrower sense, all except Christianity, Judaism,
and Mohammedanism. The term is also used as the
equivalent of Polytheism (q. v.). It is derived from
the Latin pagus, whence pagani (i. e. those who live
in the country), a name given to the country folk who
remained heathen after the cities had become Chris-
tian. Various forms of Paganism are described in
special articles (e. g. Brahminism, Buddhism, Mith-
raism); the present article deals only with certain as-
pects of Paganism in general which will be helpful
m studjring its details and in judging its value.
I. Claims of Paganism to the Name of Religion.
Influence on Public and Private Life. — Histo-
rians of religion usually assume that religions developed
upwards from some common germ which they call
Totemism, Animism, Solar or Astral Myth, Nature
Worship in general or Agrarian in particular^ or some
other name implying a systematic interpretation of the
facts. We do not propose to discuss, theologically,
philosophically, or even historically, the underlying
unity, or universal originating cause, of all religions, S
any such there be. History as a matter of fact presents
us in each case with a religion already existing, and in
a more or less complicated lorm . Somewhere or other,
some one of the human elements offered as universal,
necessary, and sufficient germ of the developed religion,
can. of course, be found. But we would point out that,
in the lonf; run, this element was not rarely a cause of
degeneration, not progress; of lower forms of cult and
crmi, not pure Monotheism. Thus it is almost cer-
tain that Totemism went for much in the formation
of the Egyptian religion. The animal-standards of
the tribes, gradually and partially anthropomorphized,
created tne jackal-, ibis-, hawk-headed gods familiar
to us. But there is no real trace of the evolution from
Zoolatry to Polytheism, and thence to Monotheism.
The monotheiBtic records are more sublime, more
definite in the earlier dynasties. Atum, the object of a
superb worship, has no animal equivcdent. EJven tiie
repression of popular follies by a learned official caste
failed to check the tendency towards gross and un-
paralleled Zoolatry, which was food for Roman ridi-
cule and Greek bewilderment, and stiixed the author
of Wisdom (xi, 16) to indignation (Loret, "L'Egypte
Satires'*, xv).
Animism also entered largely into the reli|donfl of
the Semites. Hence, we are taught, came Polyda&-
monism, Pol3rtheism, Monotheism. This is not cor-
rect. Polydsemonism is undoubtedly a S3rstem bom
of belief in spirits, be these the souls of the dead or the
hidden forces of nature. It "never exists alone and
is not a 'reli^ous' sentiment at all'' : it is not a degen-
erate form of Polytheism any more than its undevel-
oped antecedent. Animism, which is reallv a nuve
philosophv, played an immense part in the formation
of mythologies, and, combined with an alread3r con-
scious monotheistic belief, undoubtedly gave rise to
the complex forms of both Polydsemonism and Poly-
theism. And these, in every Semitic nation save
among the Hebrews, defeated even such efforts as
were made (e. g. in Babylon and Assyria) to reconsti-
tute or achieve that Monotheism of which Animism
is offered as the embryo. These facts are clearly indi-
cated and summed up in Lasrange's " Etudes sur les
Religions sdmitiques' (2nd ed., Paris, 1904).
Nature Worship generally, and Agrarian in particu-
lar, were imable to fulfil the promise they appefured to
maJce. The latter was to a large extent responsible for
the Tammuz cult of Babylon, with which the worships
of Adonis and Attis, and even of Dionysus, are so
immistakably allied. Much might have b€«n hoped
from these religions with their yearly festival of the
dying and rising god, and his sorrowful sister or
spouse: yet it was precisely in these cults that the
worst perversions existed. Ishtar, Astarte, and Cy-
bele had their male and female prostitutes, their
Galli: Josiah had to cleanse the temple of Yahweh of
their booths (cf. the Qedishim and Kdabim, Deut.,
xxiii, 17; II Kings, xxiii, 7; cf. I Kings, xiv, 24; xv, 12),
and even in the Greek world, where prostitution was
not else regarded as religious, Eryx and Corinth at
least were contaminated oy Semitic influence, which
Greece could not correct. "Although the story of
Aphrodite's love", says Dr. Famell, "is human in
tone and very winning, jret there are no moral or
spiritual ideas in the worship at fdl, no conception of a
resurrection that might stir human hopes. Adonis
personifies merely the life of the fields and gardens
that passes away and blooms again. All that Hellen-
ism could do for this Eastern god was to invest him
with the grace of idyllic poetry" ("Cults of the Greek
States", II, 649, 1896-1909; cf. Lagrange, op. cit.,
220, 444 etc.)
Mithraism (q. v.) is usually regarded as a rival to
nascent Christianity; but Nature Worship ruined its
hopes of perpetuity. "Mithra remained", says S.
Dill, "inextncably linked with the nature-worship
of the past." This connexion cleft between it and
purer faiths "an impassable gulf " which meant its " in-
evitable defeat" ("Roman Soc. from Nero to Aurel.",
London, 1904, pp. 622 sqq.), and, "in place of a di-
vine life instinct with human sympathy, it had only
to offer the cold symbolism of a cosmic legend " (ibid.).
Its ver3r adaptability, M. Cumont reminds us, "pre-
vented it from shaking itself free from the ffOBS or
ridiculous superstitions which complicated its ritual
and theolo^; it was involved, in spite of its austerity,
in a questionable alliance with the orgiastic cult of
the mistress of Attis, and was obliged to drag behind it
all the ^eighi of a chimerical or hateful past. The tri-
umph ol Roman Mazdeism would not only have en-
PAGANISM 389 PAGANISM
sured the perpetuity of all the aberratioDB of pagan Essentially connected with the fate of women it
nmtidsm, but of the erroneous physical science on that of children. Their charm, pathos, possibilities
which its doflpa rested." We have here an indica- had touched the pagan (Homer, Eiuipides, Vergil,
tion why religions, into which the astral element Horace, Statius), even the claim of their innocence
entered largely, were intrinsically doomed. The di- to respect (Juvenal). Yet too often they were con-
vine stars that ruled life were themselves subject sidered merely as toys or the destined support of their
to absolute law. Hence relentless Fatalism or nnal parents, or as the hope of the State. With Christian-
Scepticism for those sufficiently educated to see the ity, each becomes a soul, infinitely precious for God's
logical results of their mechanical interpretation of sake and its own. Each has its heavenly guardian,
the universe; hence the discrediting of myth, the aban- and for each death is better than loss of innocence,
donment of cult, as mendacious and useless; hence the Education, in the fullest sense, was created by Chris-
silencing of oracle, ecstasy, and prayer; but, for the tianity. The elaborate schemes of Aristotle and
vulgar, a riot of superstition, the door new opened to Plato are subordinated to state interest. Though
magic which should coerce tne stars, the cult of hell, based upon "sacred" books, education in ancient
and honour for its ministers — ^things all descending times, when organized, found these highly mythologi-
into the Satanism and witchcraft of not unrecent days, cal, as in Greece or Rome, or rationalised, as in Confu-
Even the supreme and solar cult reached, not Mono- cian spheres of influence. Both Greeks and Romans
theism, but a splendid Pantheism. A sublime phil- attached great importance to a complete education,
osophy, a gorgeous ritual, the support of the earthly supported it with state patronage (the Ptolemies).
Monocracy which mirrored that of heaven, a liturgy state initiative and direction (the Antonines), ana
of incomparable solemnity and passionate mysticism, conceived for it hi^ ideals (the "turning of the soul's
a symbolism so pure and high as to cause endless con- eye towards the hghf, Plato, "Republic", 515 b):
fusion in the troubled mind of the dying Roman Em- yet, failing to appreciate the value of the individual
pire between Sun-worship and the adorers of the Sun soul, they made education in fact merely utilitarian,
of Righteousness — all this failed to counteract the the formation of a citizen bein^; barely more complete
aboriginal lie which left God still linked essentially to than under the narrow and rigid systems of Sparta
creation. (See F. Cumont. "Les reli^ons orientales and Crete. The restriction, in classics! Greece, of ed-
dans le paganisme romain , 2nd ed., raris, 1909, es- ucation among women to the Helairai is a fact sisnifi-
pecially cc. v, vii-viii; "Le mysticisme astral", Brus- cant of false ideal and disastrous in results (J. B.
sels, 1909, invaluable for references and bibliography; Mahaffy, "Old Gk. Educ", London^ 1881; S. S.
"Texteset Monuments . . . relatifs aux Myst^res de Laurie, "Historical Survey of Pre-Chnstian Educ",
Mithra",!, 1899, II, 1896: "Th6ol.solairedu paganisme London, 1900; L. Grasberger, "Erziehung u. Unter-
rom.", Paris, 1909.) We do not hint that these ele- richt un klass. Alterum'', Wttrzburg, 1864-81; G.
ments which have been assigned as the origin of an Boissier, "L'instruct.publique dans Tempire romain."
upward revolution have tflways, or only, been a cause in "Rev. de Deux Mondes'', March, 1884: J. P.
01 deseneration: it is important to note, nowever, that Rossignol, "De Teduc. des hommes et des lemmes
they have been at times a germ of death as truly as of chez les anciens'', Paris, 1888).
life. Error in education was conditioned, we saw, by er-
II. Social Aspect. — Christianity first and alone ror of political ideal. No doubt, all the older polities
of religions has preached, as one of its central doc- were sanctioned directly by religion. The local god
trines, the value of the individual soul. What natural and the local ruler were, for the Semites, each a melek
religion already, but ineffectually implied. Christian- (kin^), a haal (proprietor), and their attributes and
ity asserted, reinforced, and transmuted. The same oualification almost fused. Or, the ruling dynasty
human nature is responsible at once for the admirable descended remotely, or immediately, from a god or
kindnesses of the pagan, and for the deplorable hero, making the king divine; so the Mikado, the
cruelties of Christian men^ or groups, or epochs; the Ionian and Doric overlords. Especially the Orient
Sagan religions did little, if anything, to preserve or went this way, most notably Egypt. The Chinese
evelop the former, Christianity waged ceaseless battle emperor alone might pray to the Sublime Ruler whose
against the latter. As for woman, the promiscuity son he was. Rome deifies herself and her governors,
which is the surest sign of her degxtuiation never ex- and the emperor-cult dominates army and province,
isted as a general or stable characteristic of primitive and welds together aristocracy and tne masses (J. G.
folk. In China and Japan, Buddhism and Confucian- Frazer, "Early Hist, of the Km^hip'', London, 1905;
ism depressed, not succoured her; in ancient Egmst, Maspero, "Comment Alex, devmt Dieu en Egypte";
her position was far higher than in late; it was hi^h Cumont, "Texteset Monuments deMithra",irp.ii,c.
too among the Teutons. Even in historic Greece as in iii ; J. Toutain, " Cultes paiens dans I'emp. rom. , I, ra-
Rome, divorce was difficult and disgraceful, and mar- ris, 1907). It is hard to judge of the practical effects;
riaee was hedged about with an elaborate legislation obviously autocracy profited, the development of obe-
ana the sanctioxis of religion. The glimpses we have dience, loyalty, courage in the governed (Rome:
of ancient matriarchates speak much for the older, Japan) bemg undoubted. Yet the system reposed
honourable position of women; their peculiar festivals upon a lie. The scandids of the court, the familiari-
(as in Greece, of the Thesmophoria and Arrephoria; ties of the camp, the inevitable accidents of human
in Rome, of tne Bona Dea) ana certain worships, as of Ufe, dulled the halo of the god-king. Far more stable
the local K6pa( or of Isis, kept their sex within the were the organizations resulting from the subtle
sphere of religion. As long, however, as their intrinsic polities devis^ by Greek experiment and speculation,
value before Grod was not realized, tne brute strength and embodied in Roman law. Aristotle s political
of the male inevitably asserted itself against their philosophy, almost designed — as Plato's frankly was —
weakness; even Plato and Aristotle regarded them for the city state, was carried on throu^ the Stoic
more as hving instruments than as human souls; in vision of the City of Zeus, of world -empire, into the
high tragedy (an Alcestis, an Antigone) or history (a concrete majesty of Rome^ which was itself to pass.
Cloelia, a Camilla), there is no figure which can at all when confronted in Christianity with that individual
compare, for religious and moral influence, with a Sara, conscience it would not recognize, into the Civitas Dei
a Rachel, an Esther, or a Deborah. It is love for of an Augustine. Aristotle and Plato survived in
mother, rather than for wife, that Paganism acknowl- Aquinas, tne Stoic vision in Dante; GrMory VII re-
edges (see J. Donaldson, "Woman in anc. Greece and produced, in his age and manner, the effective work
Rome, etc. . . . among the early Christians'', London, of an Augustus. And of it all the soul was that King-
1907; C. 8. Devas, "Studies of Family Life". London, dom, Hebrew-bom, which, spirituaUzed by Christ and
1886 ; Daremberg and Saglio, " Gynseceum' , etc.) . preached by Paul, has been a far mightier force for dv-
PAGANISM
390
PAOANIBH
ilLBation than ever was the r6\it of the Greeks. As
long as the ultimate source of authority, the inalien-
able rights of conscience, and the equality of all in a
Divine sonship were unrealized, no true solution of the
antinomy of state and individual, such as Paul could
offer (Rom., xiii etc.) was possible. [Cf. £. Barker,
"Polit. Thought of Plato and Aristotle", London,
1906, esp. pp. 237-60, 281-91, 119-61, 497-515; G.
Murray, "fUse of the Gk. Epic", Cambridge, 1907;
P. Allard, "Ten Lectures on the Martyrs", tr. (Lon-
don, 1907); Idem, "Les Persecutions''^ (Paris, 1885-
90) ; Sir W. Ramsay's books on St. Paul, esp. " Pauline
Studies" (London, 1906); "Paul the Traveller"
(1897); "Ancient King Worship", C. C. Lattey, S.J.,
English C.T.S.1
In these systems, the weakest necessarily went to
the wall. Even the good Greek legislation on behalf
of orphans, wurds, the aged, parents, and the like; ^ven
the admirable instinct of aldtis which shielded the de-
fenceless, the suppliant, the stranger, the "stricken of
God and afflicted", could not (e. g.) stop the exposi-
tion of sickly or deformed infants (defended even by
Plato), or render poverty not ridiculous, suffering not
merely ugly, death not defiling. Yet the sober re-
ligion of the Avesta preaches charity and hospitality,
and these, the latter especially, were recognized Greek
virtues. In proportion as travel widened minds, and
ideals became cosmopolitan, the barbarian became a
brother; under the Antonines charity became official
and organized. Always, in the Greek world, the
temples of .^culapius were hospices for the sick. Yet
all this is as different in motive, and therefore in prac-
tical effect, from the "mutual ministry of love" oblig-
atory within the great family of God's children, as
is the counterpart of Christian self-sacrifice, Buddliist
Altruism. (Cf. L. de la V. Poussin, "Bouddhisme",
Paris, 1909, especially pp. 7-8, where he quotes Olden-
berg, " Buddhismus u. christliche Liebe" m " Deutsche
Rundschau", 1908, and "Orientalischen Relig.", pp.
58, 266 sqq., 275 sqq.) In slavery, of course, a chasm
is cleft between Paganism and Christianity. By pro-
claiming the rights. of conscience and the brotherhood
of men, Christianity did for the slave what could
never have been accomplished by demanding the in-
stant and universal abolition of slavery, thereby risk-
ing the dislocation of society. In Christ, a new rela-
tion of master to man spring up (I Cor., vii, 21; I
Tim., vi. 2) : the Epistle to Philemon becomes possible.
Yet while it is true that in many ways the slave's lot
might be miserable (the ergastulum), and inhuman
(the Roman slave might technically not marry), and
immoral (Petronius : " nil turpe quod dominus jubet "),
yet here too, human nature has risen above its own phi-
losophies, laws, and conventions. Kindness increases
steadily : even Cato was kind; social motives (Horace),
philosophical considerations (Seneca)^ sheer legisla-
tion (already under Augustus), devotion (at Delphi,
slaves are manumitted to Apollo: contrast the beauti-
ful Christian emancipation in Ennodius, P. L., LXIII.
257; sentiment, and even law protected the slaves
tomb or loadiis) answered the promptings of gentle
hearts. The contubemium became parallel to mar-
riage; nationality never of itself meant slavery; edu-
cation could msix friends of master and man ("loco
fiUi habitus", says one inscription); Seneca general-
izes: "homo res sacra homini: servi, humiles amici."
But not all the sense of the "oignity of man", taught
by Che Roman comedians and philosophers, could sup-
ply even the emancipating principles, far less the force,
of Christian equality in tne service of God and the
fellowship of Christ (H. A. Wallon, "Hist, de I'Esclav-
age de TAntiq.", Paris, 1847; Boeckh, "Staatshaus-
haltung d. Athener.", I, 13; C. S. Devas, "Key en."
(1906), 143-150 and c. v; P. Allard, "Les Esclaves
chrdt.", Paris, 1876; G. Boissier, "Relig. romaine",
II, Paris, 1892).
III. Art and Ritual. — Omnia plena deo: the
nearer God is realized to be, the richer the efflores-
cence of reli^ous art and ritual; and the purer the
concept of His nature, the nobler the sense-worship
that greets it. Hence the world's grandest art has
grown round Christ's Real Presence, though Christ
said no word of art. Thus, heresy has always been
iconoclastic; the distant God of Puritanism, the dis-
incamate Allah of Islam must be worshipped, but
not in beauty. To Hindus, gods were near, but
vile; and their art went mad. To the Greeks, save
to a smaller band of mystics, whose enthusiasm
annihilated external beauty in the efifort after spirit-
ual loveliness, all comeliness was bodily: hence the
splendid soulless statues of gods (though for a few
choice perceptions — Pausanias, Plutarch — the Olym-
I>ian Zeus had "expression", and conveyed divine
significance); hence their treatment of the inanimate
beauty of Nature was far less successful and profoimd
than was that of the austere Hebrew, to whom, in his
struggle against nature worship and idolatry, plastic
art was forbidden, but whose nature-psalms nse higher
than anything in Greek Uterature. The pure new
spirit breathing in the art of the Catacombs disguises
from us^ at first, that its categories are all pagan —
though in human models little was directly borrowed,
the Orpheus, Hercules, Aristeas type are given to
Christ; strange symbols (the disguised cross, the dol-
phin speared on trident) occur sporadically; "pagan"
sarcophagi were doubtless boueht direct from pa-
gan warehouses! most startliugiv is the difference
felt in the spintual treatment by early Christian
Art of the nude (E. Muntz, "Etudes s. I'hist. de la
peinture et de I'iconographie chr6tienne", Paris, 1886;
A. P6rat4, "L'arch6ologie chrdt.", Paris, 1892; Wil-
pert,"Roma Sotteranea: le pitture, etc.", Rome, 1903).
Christian ritual developed when, in the third cen-
tury, the Church left the Catacombs. Many forms
of self-expression must needs be identical, in varying
times, places, cults, as long as human nature is the
same. Water, oil, light, incense, singing, procession,
prostration, decoration of altars, vestments of priests,
are naturally at the service of universal religious in-
stinct. Little enough, however, was directly bor-
rowed by the Church — nothing, without being " bap-
tized"^ as was the Pantheon. In all these things, the
spirit is the essential: the Church assimilates to her-
self what she takesM>r, if she cannot adapt, she rejects
it (cf. Augustine, Epp., xlvii, 3, in P. L., XXXIII,
185; "Contra Faust.^', XX, xxiii, ibid., XLII, 387;
Jerome, "Epp.", cix^ ibid., XXII, 907). Even pagan
feasts may be "baptized" : certainly our processions of
25 April are the Robigalia; the Rogation days may re-
Elace the Ambarualia; the date of Christmas Day may
e due to the same instinct which placed on 25 Dec.,
the Natalis Invicti of the solar cult. But there is little
of this ; our wonder is, that there is not far more [see Kell-
ner, "Heortoloeie" (Freiburg, 1906). See Christmas;
Epiphany. Also Thurston, "Influence of Paganism
on the Christian Calendar " in "Month " (1907), pp. 225
sqq. ; Duchesne. "Grig, du Culte chr6tien",tr. (London,
1910) passim; Braun, "Die priestlichen Gew&nder "
(Freiburg, 1897); Idem, " Die pontificalen Gew&nder"
(Freiburg, 1898); Rouse, " Greek Votive Off erings "
(Cambridge, 1902), esp. c. vj. The cult of saints and
relics is based on natural instinct and sanctioned by
the lives, death, and tombs (in the first instance) of
martyrs^ and by the dogma of the Communion of
Saints; it is not developed from definite instances of
hero-worship as a general rule, though often a local
martyr-cult was purposely instituted to defeat (e. g.)
an oracle tenacious of pagan life (P. G.. L, 551; P. L.,
LXXI, 831; Newman, "Essay on Development, etc.",
II, cc. ix, xii., etc. ; Anrich, " Anfang des Heiligenkults,
etc.", Tiibingen, 1904: especially Delehave, "Ld-
gendes hagiographiques," Brussels, 1906). Augustine
and Jerome (Ep. cii, 8, in P. L., XXXIII, 377; "C.
Vigil.", vii, ibicL, XXXIII, 361) mark wise tolerance: .
PAGANISM 391 PAOANIBM
Duchesne [''Hist, ancienne de rdslise'', I (Rome, allies. Certainly, from the East came much of the
1908),640;cf. Sozomen, ''Hist. eccl. VII, XX, inP. G., mystic Dualism, enjoining penance, focusing atten-
LXVII^ 1480] reminds us of the occasional necessary tion beyond the grave, preconizing purity of all sorts
repression: Gregory, writing for Augustine of Canter- (even that abstention from thought wmch leads to
bury, fixes the Church's principle and practice (Bede, ecstacy). which inspired Orphism, Pythagoreanism
"Hist, eccl.", I, XXX, xxxii, in P. L., XCV, 70, 72). etc., and transfused the Mysteries. Till Plato, these
Reciprocal influence there may to some small extent notions achieved no high literary success, .^schylus
have been; it must have been slight, and ouite possibly preaches a sublime gospel: his austere series — Wealth,
felt upon the pagan side not least. All know how Delf-sufficiency, Insolence, God-sent Infatuation, Ruin
Julian tried to remodel a pagan hierarchy on the — has echoes of Hebrew prophecy and anticipates
Christian (P. AUard, " Julien I'Apostat", Paris, 1900). the "Exercises"; yet even his stem dpdffavri voBeU is
IV. MoRALFTY, Abcesis, MYSTICISM. — For an ap- calmed into the va0€tp /tA0ot — a true wisdom, repose,
preciation of pagan religions in themselves, and for an reconciliation. Even in this life Sophocles sees high
estimate of their pragmatic value in Ufe, it should be laws living eternally in serene heaven, a joy for men of
noted that, in proportion as a pagan religion caught obedience. Euripides, in the chaos of his scepticism,
glimpses ot high spiritual flights, of ecstacy, penance, lives in angry bewilderment, not knowing where to
otherworldliness, the "heroic", it opened tne gates place his ideal, since Aplirodite and Artemis and the
of all sorts of moral cataclysms. A frugi religio was other world-forces are, for him, essentially at war.
that of Numa: the old Roman in his worship was It is in Plato, far better than in the nihilist asceticisms
catUisaimiu et castianmtLa. For him, Servus says, re- of the East, that the note — not even yet quite true —
ligion and fear (=a^e) went close together. Pieiaa of asceticism is struck. The body is our tomb (ffQfM,
was a species of justice (filial, no doubt), but never ^^am); we must strip ourselves of the leaden weights,
suT^atUio. The ordinary man "put the whole of re- the earthy incrustations of lifej the true life is an exer-
ligion in doing things", veiling his head in presence of cise in death, a bitoUaat rt} Sef, as far as may be; like
the modest, featureless numinaf who filled his world the swans we sing when dying, "ffoing away to God'',
and (as their adjective-names ^ow — Vaticanus, Ar- whose servants we are; "death dawns", and we owe
gentariuSf Domidttca) presided over each sub-section sacrifice to the Healer-hero for the cure of life's
of his life. Later the Roman virtues. Fides, CastUas, fitful fever; "I have flown away", (the Orphic magic
Virtus (manliness), were canonized, out religion was tablets will cry) "from the sorrowful weary wheel" of
already becoming stereotyped, and therefore doomed existences.
to crumble, though to the end the volatile Greeks Directly after Plato, the schools are coloured by his
(Tcudcf dcO marvelled at its stability, dignity, and thought, if not its immediate heirs. Stoic and Epicu-
decencv . So too the hi^ abstractions of the G&thAs rean really aimed at one thin^ when they preached their
(Moral Law, Good Spirit, Prudent Piety etc., the dird^€taanddrapa^(a, respectively *Ai^Xov«ildir^ou: be
Amesha-spentas of the Avesta to be— Obedience, the a&rdpxv^, master of your self and fate. In Roman
Silent Submission, and the rest), especially the enor- days of imperial persecution, this Stoicism, "touched
mous value set by Persian ethic upon Truth (a virtue with emotion", passed into the beautiful, though ill-
dear to Old Rome), witness to hves of sober, quiet founded religion of Seneca: all philosophy bicame
citizenship, generoiis. laborious, unimaginative, just practical, an ars vivendi: Life is our ingens negotium,
to God and man. Exactly opposite^ and disastrous, yet not to be despaired of. Heaven is not proud:
were the tendencies of the idealistic Hindu, losinz ascendentibiisdimanumporrigerU/Ayw4tpoP€iPj8t.FB.\il
himself in dreams of Pantheism, self-annihilation, and was even then enjoining (Col., iii, 1, 2), echoing Plato's
divine union. Especially the worship of Vishnu (god ^povuv dSdyara ical eetd (Tim.. 90 c), his r^r &iw 6doO M
of divine grace and devotion), of Krishna (the god ii6fie$a (Rep., 621 c), his "life must be a flight" dirA
so strangely assimilated by modem tendency to rfly ^v^^i^e^Keore (529 A), and Aristotle's doctrine that
Christ), and of Siva (whence Saktism and Tantrism) a man must iBayaretv i^ Saow Mix^rai (Eth. N.^ X,
ran riot into a helpless licence, which must modify, one vii) . written so long ago. The more acute expressions
feels, the whole national destiny. We cannot pass of tnis mystical asceticism were much occupied with the
conventional judgments on these aberrations. It is future life and much fostered or provoked by the
easily conceded Uiat paeans constantly lived better developed Mysteries. Impossible as it seems to find
than their creed, or, anynow, than their myth; blind a race which believed in the extinction of the soul by
terrors, faulty premisses, warped traditions orifonated, death, survival was often a vague and dismal affair,
preserved, or distorted customs pardonable when we prolonged in cavernous darkness, dust, and uncon-
know their history: astounding contradictions co- sciousness. So Babylon, Assyria, the Hebrews, earlier
exist (the ritual murders and prostitution of Assyria, Greece. Odysseus must make the witless ghosts
together with the high moral sense revealed in the self- drink the hot blood before they can think and speak,
examination of the second Shurpu tablet; the sancti- At best, they depend on human attendance and even
fied incest and gross myth of Egypt, with the superb companionship; hence certain offerings and human
negative Confession of the Book of the Dead). Even sacnfice on the grave. Or they can. on fixed days,
in Greece, the terrifying survivals of the old clithonic return^ harry the living, seek food and blood. Hence
cults, the unmoral influence (for the most part) of the expulsion-ceremonies, the Anthesteria, Lemuria, and
Olympian deities, the unexacting and far more popu- the like. Kindlier creeds, however, are created, and,
lar cult of local or favourite hero (Herakles,Asklepios), at the Cora Cognatio, the souls are welcomed to the
are subordinate to the essential instincts of alids, Biiut, places set for them, as for the gods, at the hearth and
piliMffit (so well analysed by G. Murray, op. cit.), with table, and the family is reconstituted in affection,
their taboos and categorical imperatives^ reflected Hopes and intuitions gather into a full and steady
back, as by necessity, to the expressed will of God. light, even before the mscriptions of the catacombs
The religion of the ordinary man is perfectly and fi- show that death was by now scarcely reason for tears
nally expressed in Plato's sketch of Cephalus (Re- at all. The "surer bark of a divine doctrine", for
I>ublic, init.). whose instincts and traditions had car- which the anxious lad in the "Phsedo" had sighed,
ried him, at life's close, to a goal practically identical had been raven to carry souls to that "further shore'
with that achieved by the philosophers at the end of to which Vergil saw them reaching yearning hands,
their laborious inquiry. But the Mysteries had already fostered, though not
All asceticism is, however, founded on a certain created, the conviction of immortality. They gave
Dualism. In Persia, bevond all others dualist, the no revelations,, no new and secret doctnne, but power-
fight between Light and fiarkness was noble and fruit- fully and vividly impressed certain notions (one of
ful till it ran out into Manichsism and its debased them, immortahty) upon the imagination. Gradu-
PAGANISM
392
PAGANISM
idly, however, it was thought that initiation ensured a
happy after-life, and aton^ for sins that else had been
punished, if not in this life, in some place of expiation
(Plato, "Rep.", 366; cf. Pindar, Sophocles, Plutarch).
These mysteries usually began with the selection of
iniliandif their preUminary "baptism", fasting, and
(Samothrace) confession. After many sacrifices the
Mysteries proper were celebrated, including nearly al-
ways a mimetic dance, or "tableaux", showmg heaven,
hell, purgatorjr; the soul's destiny; the gods [so in
the Isis mysteries. Appuleius (Metamorphoses) tells
us his thrilling and profoundly religious experiences].
There was often seen the " passion " of the god (Osiris) :
the rape and return of Kore and the sorrows of Deme-
ter (Eleusis), the sacred marriage (Here at Cnossus),
or divine births (Zeus: Bnmos), or renowned inci-
dents of the local myth. There was also the "exhibi-
tion" of symbolical objects — statues usually kept
veiled, mysterious fruits or emblems (Dionysus), an
ear of com (upheld when Brimos was bom). Fi-
nally there was usually the meal of mystic foods —
grains of all sorts at Eleusis, bread and water in the cult
of Mithra, wine (Dionysus)^ milk and honey (Attis),
raw bull's flesh in the Orphic Dionysus-zagreus cult.
Sacred formulse were certainly imparted, of magical
value.
There is not much reason to think these mysteries
had a directly moral influence on their adepts; but
their populanty and impressiveness were enormous,
and indirectly reinforced whatever aspiration and
belief they found to work on. Naturally, it has been
sought to trace a close connexion between these rites
and Christianity (Anrich, Pfleiderer). This is inad-
missible. Not only was Christianity ruthlessly ex-
clusive, but its apologists (Justin, Tertullian, Clement)
inveigh loudest against the mysteries and the myths
they enshrine. Moreover, the origin of the Christian
rites is historically certain from our documents. Chris-
tian baptism (essentially unique) is alien to the re-
peated dippings of the iniiiandif even to the Taurobo-
uum, that bath of bull's blood, whence the dipped
emerged renatus in aiemum. The totemistic ongin
and meaning of the sacred meal (which was not a sacri-
fice) wherein worshippers communicated in the god
and with one another (Robertson Smith, Frazer) is too
obscure to be discussed here (cf . Lagrange, " Etudes,
etc."^ pp. 257, etc.) . The sacred fish of Atergatis have
nothing to do with the origin of the Eucharist, nor,
even probably, with the Ichthys anagram of the cata-
combs. (See Fr. J. Dolger: 1X9X2, das Fischsymbol,
etc., Rome, 1910. The anagram does indeed repre-
sent ' I1^^oOf Xpurrbs GeoO 'T«^f ^um/jp^ the usual order of the
third and fourth words bein^ inverted owing to the
familiar formula of the imperial cultj the propagation
of the symbol was often facilitated owmg to the popular
S3rrian fish-cult.) That the terminolo^ of the mys-
teries was largely transported into Christian use
(Paul, Ignatius, Origen, Clement etc.), is certain; that
liturgy (especially of baptism), organization (of the
catechumenate), disciplina arcani were affected by
them, is highlv probable. Always the Church has
forcefully moulded words, and even concepts (cbn-i^p,
4iru^yi/fSf ^atrruriiJbt^ ^orrurfibtj reX^ijf , \&yos) to suit her
own dogma and its expression. But it were contrary
to all likelihood, as well as to positive fact, to suppose
that the adogmatic, mythic, codeless practices and
traditions of Pajganism could subdue the rigid ethic
and creed of Christianity. [Consult Cumont, opp. cit. ;
Anrich, "Das antike Mysterienwesen, etc." (Got-
tingen, 1894); O. Pfleiderer, "Das Christenbild, etc."
(Berlin, 1903), tr. (London, 1905). Especially Cabrol,
"Orig. liturpdues" (Paris, 1906) ; Duchesne, "Chris-
tian Worship , passim; Blotzer in VStimmen aus
Maria Laach". LXXI, (1906), LXXII, (1907); G.
Boissier, "Fin au Paganisme" (Paris, 1907), especially
1, 117 sqq.; "Religion Romaine", passim; Sir S. Dill,
op. cit.; C. A. Lobeck, " Aglaophamus " (1829); E.
Rohde, "Psyche" (Tubingen, 1907); J. Reville, "Re-
lig. k Rome, s. 1. Sev&res" (Paris, 1886); J. E. Harri-
son, "Prolegomena" (Cambridge, 1908), especially
the appendix; L. R. Famell, op. cit., and the lexicons.]
As strange historical phenomena, we not« therefore
the coexistence of the highest with the lowest; the
sublime tendency, the exiguum dinamerif and the ter-
rific catastrophe: human nature buffeted by the crav-
ing for divine union, prayer, and purity, and by the
sense of sin, the need of penance, and helplessness of
its own powers. Hence, savagery and biood attend
the communion-feasts, grotesque myths accompany
the loftiest ideals, sensual reaction follows flagellation
and fasting. And we admire how, in the Hebrew
nation idone, the teleological ascent was constant; so-
briety meant no lowered aim; passion implied no
frenzy. In the strong grasp of the Christian disci-
pline alone, the further antimony of self-abn^ation
and self-realization was practically and spiritually
solved, thou^ theoretically no adeauate ^q>re8sion
may ever be discovered for that solution* As his-
toncal problems remain certain connexions yet to be
more accurately defined between the "dress" of
Christian dogma and rite (whether liturgical, or
of formula, or of philosophic category) and the cir-
cumambient religions. As historicsd certainty stands
out the impassable gulf, in essence and origin, be-
tween the moral and rehgious systems of contempo-
rary Paganism, especially of the Mysteries, and the
Christian dogma and rite, formed on Palestinian soil
with extraordinary rapidity, and rigidly exclusive of
infection from ahen sources. [Cf. L. Friedl&nder,
"Roman Life and Manners, etc." (190&-10), espec.
Ill, 84^313; O. Seeck, "Gesch. des Unteiganges der
antiken Welt", I (Berlin. 1910), II (1901), III (1909),
and appendices, B. Alio, "L'Evangile en face du
syncr6tisme palen" (Paris, 1910). ]
V. Religious Philosophy. — This, we suppose, is
the highest form of human reaction upon the religious
datum of which the soul finds itself in possession, or at
least may provide it with the purest, if not the most
imperative, mode of worship. From this point of view
the older rationalizing cosmogonies (as of Greece) are
of little interest to us, save in so far as they witness
already to that distinction between Zeus, supreme, and
Fate, to which he yet is subject, an earlier imconscious
attempt, perhaps^ to reconcile the antinomies easily
seized by true rehgious instinct in the popular tradi-
tions as to the gods. The mjrUiological cosmogonies
of Babylon and Assyria will, however, be of surpassing
interest to the "comparative" student of Semitic
religions. Noteworthy is the curve of Greek tendency
— starting in Ionia, monistic, static, and anti-religious;
grown d3rnamic in Heraclitus, whose Fire will pass, as
Logos, into the Stoic system; transferred alter the
Persian wars to Attica, and profoundly dualized in
Plato and Aristotle, whose concepts, however, of
World-soul and of tne Immanent Nature-force were
powerful for all time. Through the Stoics, ex-
pressed in terms borrowed consistently from the ex-
?[uisite Egyptian mythology, of Thot, of Osiris, and of
sis, this elaborate system of converging >3urrents is
synthesized in Plutarch, while from Plutarch's sources
Philo had drawn the philosophy in which he strove to
see the doctrines of Moses, and in terms of which he
struggled to express the Hebrew books.
Thus was it that the Logos, in theory, impersonal,
immanent, blindly evolving in the world, became
(transfigured on the one hand by pa^an m3rth, and by
too close contact^ on the other, with the Angel of
Yahweh and the ideals of the Alexandrian sapiential
literature) so near to personification, that John oould
take the expression, mould it to his dogma, cut short
all perilous speculation among Christians, and assert
once and for all that the Word was made flesh and was
Jesus Christ. Yet many of the earlier apologists were
to make great trouble with their use of Platonic f oimu-
PAGANISM
393
PAGANISM
I», and with the Logos. Two principles emerge as
governing Greek thought — God must have the first
place, 0^ 7d/> Tdpepyoy dec ToteurOw, t6p dcdp^ — and yet
the nearer we approach Him, the less can we express
Him, B€6w fbptty rk Hpyow^ wbpbvra di iK^ip€i,9 if voWoit
dSdparop (Pythagoras, Plato). To how many answers
tentatively given does Euripides's sad prayer witness:
"O Thou that upholdest earth, and on earth hast Thy
Throne, whoe'er Thou be, hard to guess, hard to know
— ^Zeus, be Thou law of nature, or human thought of
man, to Thee I pray: for Thou, moving in silent path,
in justice guidest all things mortal." To the im-
manent, supreme Force, consciously exacting service,
or, at least, blindly imposing obechence, Greek phi-
losophy almost inevitably came, and, in spite of itself
and its sceptical and mechanicalpremises, amounted
to a religion. In the mouth of Epictetus God is still
sung triumphantly — "What can I do. I, a lame old
man, save sing God's prdses, and call on all men to
join me in my song?" — till the Stoic current died out
m Aurelius, stunned to acquiescence, no more enthu-
siastically uniting himself to the great law of God in
the world.
But into neo-Platonism, coloured with Persian,
Jewish, and even Christian language, the movement
paeeed; already, in the "Isis and Osiris" of Plutarch,
a pure mysticism and sublimity of emotion barely to
be surpassed had been achieved; in the "Metamor-
phoses" of Apuleius the syncretistic cult of the Egyp-
tian goddess expresses itself in terms of tenderness
and majestv that would fit the highest worship, and,
in the concluding prayer of the Apuleian Hermes, an
ecstatic adoration of God is manifested in language
and thought never equalled, still less surpassed, save
in the inspired writers of the Church. But all these
c^orts of pagan religious philosophy, committed
nearly always to a rigid Dualism, entangled accord-
ingly in mechanical and magic practices, tricked out
in false mythology, risking and losing psychical bal-
ance by the use of a nihihst asceticism of sense and
thought, died into the miserable systems of Gnosti-
cism, ManichsBism, and the later neo-Platonism; and
the current of true life, renewed and redirected by
Paul and John, passed into the writings of Augus-
tine. [Consult Zeller, "Phil, der Griechen" (Leipzig.
1879), tr. (London, 1881); Idem, "Grundriss, etc.^*
(4th ed,, Leipzig, 1908). tr. (London, 1892) : Gomperz,
"Gr. Denken" (Leipzig, 1903), tr. (London, 1901);
cf. Flinders Petrie, "Personal Relig. in E^Tt before
Christianity" (New York, 1909), unsatisfactory; J.
Adam, "Religious Teachers of Greece" (Edinburgh,
1908); Dill, op. cit.; Idem, "Roman Society in the
last century of the Western Empire", especially val-
. uable as a picture of the tenacity of the dying pagan
cult and thought; Spence, "Early Christianity and Pa-
§anism" (London, 1904): L. Habert, "Doctr. Relig.
. Philosophes Grecs" (Paris, 1909); L. Campbell,
"Religion in Greek Literature" (London. 1898); E.
Caird, "Evolution of Theology in Greek Philoso-
phies" (Glasgow, 1904), "Evolution of Relipon"
(Glasgow, 1907); H. Pinard in "Revue Apolog^tique"
Q909); J. Lebreton, "Origines du Do^pne de la
Trinity", I (Paris, 1910), where the summits reached
by Greek and Hellenizea Jewish religious endeavour
are appreciated. On the general question : de Broglie,
"Prool^mes et Conclusions de Thist. des Religions",
Paris, 1889.]
VI. Relations between Paganism and Revela-
tion.— Ethnology and the comparative history of
pagan religions do not impose upon us as an hypothe-
sis that primitive Revelation which Faith ascertains
to us. As a hypothesis it would, however, solve many a
problem; it was the easier therefore for the Tradition-
alist of a century ago to detect its traces everywhere,
and for Bishop Huet ("Demonstr. evangelica", Paris,
1690, pp. 68, 153, etc.), following Aristobulus, Philo,
Josephus, Justin, Tertullian, and many another dis-
ciple of the Alexandrians, to see in all pagan law and
ritual an immense pillage of Jewish tradition, and, in
all the gods^ Moses. The opposite school has, in all
ages. faUen into worse follies. Celsus saw in Judaism
an "Egyptian heresy", and in Christianity a Jewish
here^, on an equality with the cults of Antmous, Tro-
phomus etc. (C. Cels., HI, xxi); Calvin (Instit., IV, x,
12) and Middleton (A letter from Rome, etc., 1729)
saw an exact conformity between popery and pagan-
ism. Dupuis and Creuze herald the modem race of
comparative religionists, who deduce Christianity
from pagan rites, or assi^ to both systems a common
source in the human spint. Far wiser in their genera-
tion were those ancient Fathers, who, not always see-
ing in pagan analogies the trickery of devils (Justin in
P. G., VI, 364, 408, 660; Tertulfian in P. L., I, 519,
660; II, 66; Firmicus Matemus, ibid., XII, 1026, 1030),
disentangle, with a true historic and religious sense, the
reasons for which God permitted, or directed, the
Chosen People to retain or adapt the rites of their pagan
ancestry or environment, or at least, reproaching them
with this, iiecognize the facts (Justin, loc. cit., Vl, 517;
Tertullian, P. L.. II, 333; Jerome, ibid., XXV. 194,
XXIV, 733, XXII, 677, is striking; Eusebius, P. G.,
XXIL 521; especially Chrysostomj ibid., LVII, 66,
and Gregory of Nazianzus, ibid., XXXVI, 161, who
are remarkable. Cf. St. Thomas, I-II, Q. cii, a. 2).
The relation of the Hebrew code and ritual to those of
pagan systems need not be discussed here: the facts,
and, a fortiori, the comparison and construction of the
facts, are not yet satisfactorily determined: the ad-
mirable work of the Dominican school (especially the
"Religions semitiques" of M. J. Lagrange; cf. F. Prat,
S.J., "Le Code de Sinai", Paris, 1904) is preparing
the way for more adequate considerations than are at
present possible.
Whether Paganism made straight a path for Chris-
tianity may be considered from two points of view.
Spealung from the standpoint of pure history, no one
will deny that much in the antecedent or environing
aspirations and ideals formed a prcBparatio evangelica
of high value. "Christo jam tum venienti", sang
Prudentius, "crede, parata via est". The pagan
world "saw the road , Augustine could say, from its
hilltop. "Et ipse Pileatus Christianus est . said the
priest of Attis; while, of Heraclitus and the old philos-
ophers, Justin avers that they were Christians oef ore
Christ. Indeed, in their paneg3rric of the Platonic
philosophy, the earlier Apologists go far beyond any-
thing we should wish to say, and indeed made difficul-
ties for their successors. Attention is nowadays di-
rected, not only to the ideas of the Divine nature, the
logos-philosophies, popular at the Christian era, but
especially to those oriental cults, which, flooding down
upon the shrivelled, officialized, and dyin^ worship of
the Roman or Hellenic-Roman world, fertilized within
it whatever potentialities it yet contained of purity,
prayer, emotional religion, other-worldliness generally.
A whole new religious language was evolved, betoken-
ing a new tendency, ideal, and attitude; here too
Christianity did not disdain to use, to transcend, and
to transform.
Theologically, moreover, we know that God from
the ver^ outset destined man to a supernatural union
with Himself. " Pure nature", historically, has never
existed. The soul is naturaliler Christiana. The
truest man is the Christian. Thus the ' * human spirit "
we have so often mentioned, is no human spirit left to
itself, but solicited by, yielding to a resbting grace.
Better than Aristotle guessed, mankind lx<* ^* Ottbp.
For Christus cogilabatur. 'Aei wovtl rh f'lSoi', said the
same philosopher: and all creation groans and travails
together until the full redemption; "all nations of
men " were by God "made of one blood for to dwell on
all the face of the earth . . . that they should seek the
Lord, if haply they might grope after Him and find
Him." They failed, alas, though they had the ivU
PAOANO
394
PAONINO
yvtacit of God (Rom., i, 32; cf. i, 19): the higher they
went, the more terribly they fell:. but, alongside of the
tragic first chapter of Paurs Epbtle, is the second, and
we dare not forget that the elect people, the Eldest
Son, the heir of oracles and law. fell equally or worse,
and made the name of God to be blasphemed among
the Gentiles it contenmed (Rom., ii, 24). Yet for all
that, God used the Jews in his plan, and none will dare
to say He did not use the Gentiles. They reveal them-
selves in history as made for God, and restless till they
rest in him. History shows us their effort, and their
fsdlure; we thank God for the one, and dare not scorn
the other. God's revelation has been in many frag-
ments and in many modes; and to the pagan king,
whose right hand He had holden. He decla^: ''For
Jacob mv servant's sake, and Israel my chosen, I have
called tnee by thy name: I have sumamed thee,
though thou, thou hast not known Me: I am Yahweh,
and there is none else; beside Me there is no God : (yet)
will I guide thee, though Me thou hast not known''
(Is., xlv. 4 sq.). For still Cyrus worshipped at the
dirine 01 Ahura.
C. C. Martinlaub.
PafTA&Oy Mario, jurisconsult and man of letters, b.
in Brienza, Province of Salerno, 8 Dec., 1748; d. at
Naples, 29 Oct., 1799. At twenty he became special
lecturer in morsd philosophy at the University of Na-
ples, at the same time practising law. He published
various works on criminal jurisprudence, e. g., "Con-
siderazioni sulla procedura criminale". He became
professor of law m 1787. He likewise published in
1792 some political essays on barbarian peoples, and the
origin and decadence of civilized society and of nations,
revesding the idea of Vico. As early as 1768 he haa
written a political review of the entire Roman legisla-
tion, which was much applauded. In this is discerned
the influence of Mont^quieu and in general of the
philosophy then in vogue. The novelty, and in part
the audacity, of these theories created some enemies,
and, althougn he enjoyed the favour of the Court^ he
was imprisoned. His writings, accused of irreUgion,
were suDJected to theological examinations, which re-
sulted in his favour. When in 1799 the French estab-
lished the republic at Naples, Pa^ano was one of the
most active. He wrote the constitution, built up on
the remains of the French Constitution of 1793. On
the restoration of the monarchy, Pagano was on the
side of those republicans who made the last resistance
at the Castel Nuovo. Contrarv to the agreement of
capitulation, he was imprisonea and condemned. In
prison he composed sesthetic discourses and produced
a number of lyric and dramatic compositions, of which
only two were printed, the tragedy "Gerbino", and
the melodrama "Agamemnon".
GiuSTiNiANi, Memorxe degli acriltori legali del regno di Napoli
(Naples, 1787-88); Masba, EUigio di Pagano.
U. Benigni.
Page, Anthont, Venerable, English martyr, b. at
Harrow-on-the-Hill, Middlesex, 1571; d. at York.
20 or 30 April, 1593. He v. as of gentle birth and
matriculatea at Oxford from Christ Church, 23 No-
vember, 1581, being described as "scholaris Mri-
Wodson". He entered the English College, Reims,
30 September, 1584, and received minor orders,
April, 1585. He was ordained deacon at Laon, 22
♦September, 1590, and priest at Reims, 21 Septem-
ber, 1591. Dr. Anthony Champney, who was his con-
temporary at Reims, in his MS. (q. v.) history of the
reign of Elizabeth, as quoted by Bishop Challoner,
describes him, as being of wonderful meekness, of a
virginal modesty and purity, and of more than com-
mon learning and pietv, and as having endeared him-
self to all by his singular candour of mind and sweet-
ness of behaviour. He was condemned for being a
Eriest. under 27 Eliz., c. 2., and was hanged^ disem-
owelled^ and quartered
Challonsb, Miuionary PriesUt I, no. 08; Clabk, RegiaUr cf
Oxford UnivertUy, II (Oxford. 1887-9), 105; Knox, DouayDiarim
(London. 1878), 202. 205. 234. 241.
John B. Wainvwright.
Pago, Francis, Venerable. See Tichbornk,
Thomas, Venerable.
Pagi, Antoine, and his nephew Francois, two
French ecclesiastical historians. Antoine, b. 31 March,
1624, at Rognes in the Department of Bouchee-
du-Rhone; d. 5 June, 1699 at Aix. After studying
with the Jesuits at Aix., he entei^ the monastery
of the Conventual Franciscans at Aries, and made
solemn profession on 31 January, 1641. For some
tivie he devoted himself to preaching, but at the age of
twenty-nine years he was elected provincial, an office
which he held four times. He devoted his spare time
to the study of history. Discerning numerous chrono-
logical errors, and frequently misstatements of facte in
the '' Annales ecclesiastici" of Baronius, he made it his
life-work to correct them and otherwise elucidate the
valuable work. Papi's first volume was printed dur-
ing his lifetime (Pans, 1689) ; the remaining three vol-
umes, reaching till the year 1198, the laist year in
the work of Baronius, were completed in manuscript
shortly before his death. The whole work was edited
in four volumes by his nephew Francois Pagi: *'Crit-
ica historico-chronologica in universos annales ecclesi-
asticos em. et rev. Csesaris Card. Baronii'' (Geneva,
1705; second ed., 1727). Mansi embodied it in his
edition of the '^Annales" of Baronius (Lucca, 1736-
59). Though, on the whole, the '^Critica'' manifests
^at care and an unusual knowledge of history, it
is not entirely free of errors. His other works are:
"Dissertatio hypatica seu de consulibus ceesareis"
(Lyons, 1682). printed also in ''Apparatus in Annales
ecclesiasticos (Lucca, 1740), pp. 1-136; "Disseiv
tatio de die et anno mortis S. Martini ep. turonensis",
and a few ininor treatises in defense of his' " Disserta-
tio hypatica", in which he had set down various rules
for determining the consulship of the Roman empe-
rors, and which had been attacked by Cardinal Noris
and others. He also edited: ''D. Antonii Paduani 0«
Min. sermones hactenus inediti" (Avignon, 1685).
FnANgois. b. 7 September, 1654, at Lambesc in
Provence; a. 21 January, 1721, at Orange. After
studying with the Oratonans at Toulon, he became a
Conventual Franciscan, was three times provincial,
and assisted his uncle in the correction of the "An-
nales" of Baronius. Besides editing the ''Critica"
of his uncle he wrote a history of the popes up to the
year 1447: "Breviarium historico-chronologico-criti-
cum illustriora Pontificum romanorum gesta, con-
ciliorum generalium acta . . . complectens" (4 vols.,
Antwero, 1717-27). The history was continued in
two volumes by his nephew, Antoine Pagi, the
Younger (Antwerp, 1748-53).
Mimoirea de Trhioux (Ti^voux. 1711), 1512-39. 1903^1;
(1712) 273-291; (1717), 1939-67; Apparatue in Annalee Baronii,
p. xvii; Bibliothique ancienne et modeme, VII, 119-200; XXVIII,
211-228; JourwU dee Savantp, LXII. 189-198; LXV, 274-280.
Michael Ott.
Pagnani, Clement. See Kandy, Diocese of.
Pagnino, Santes (or Xantes), Dominican, b. 1470
at Lucca, Tuscany; d. 24 Aug., 1541, at Lyons, one of
the leading philologists and Biblicists of his day. At
sixteen he took the religious habit at Fiesole, where he
studied under the direction of Savonarola and other
eminent professors. In acouiring the Oriental lan-
guages, then cultivated at Florence, he displayed un-
wontea quicksightedness, ease, and penetration. His
genius, industry, and erudition won him influential
friends, among them the Cardinals de' Medici, subse-
quently Leo A and Clement VII. As a sacred orator
his zeal and elocjuence kept abreast with his erudition
and were as fruitful. Summoned to Rome by Leo X,
he taught at the recently opened free school for Orien-
tal languagea until his patron'^ death ( 1521) . He then
PAINTINa
395
PAINTINO
spent three years at Avignon and the last seven years
of his life at Lyons. Here he was instrumental in es-
tablishing a hospital for the plague-stricken, and. bv
his zeal and eloquence, diverted an irruption of Wal-
densianism and Lutheranism from the city, receiving
in acknowledgement the much coveted rights and
privileges of citizenship. The epitaph, originally
adorning his tomb in the Dominican church at Lyons,
fixes the date of his death beyond dispute. The merit
of his "Veteris et Novi Testamenti nova translatio''
(Lyons, 1527) lies in its literal adherence to the He-
brew, which won for it the preference of contempo-
rary rabbis and induced Leo X to assume the expenses
of publication. After the pontiff's death these de-
volved on the author's relatives and friends. Several
editions of it, as well as of the monxmiental ''Thesau-
rus linguse sanctse*' (Lvons, 1529), were brought out
by Protestanjbs as well as Catholics. Among other
productions, all of which treat of Sacred Scripture,
Greek, or Hebrew, were ''Isagoges seu introductionis
ad sacras literas liber unus" (Lvons, 1528^ etc.), and
"Catena argentea in Pentateuchum'' in six volumes
(Lyons, 1536).
See Vbbsions of thb Biblb; Qv^tip-Echard, Sariptorea O. P..
II (Paris, 1721); Toubon, Hiat, dea hommea iUtulrea de Vordre de
St. Dominiaue, IV (Parb, 1747) ; Tiraboschi, Storia della Utter.
itai., VII (Venice, 1451); Mandonnet, s. v. Dominxcainaf and
VioouBOux. Diet, de la SihU, a. v. (Paris, 1010).
Thob. 1 K. Rbilly.
Painting, Religious. — Painting has always been
associated with the life of the Church. From the time
of the Catacombs it has been used in ecclesiastical
ornamentation, and for centuries after Constantine
religi6us art was the only form of living art in the
Christian world. Its fecundity has been wonderful,
and even now^ although much diminished, is still im-
portant. Until the Renaissance the Church exercised
a veritable monopoly over this sphere. Profane paint-
ing in Europe dates only from the last three centuries,
and it took the lead on^ in the last century. It may
therefore be said that throughout the Christian Era
the history of painting has been that of religious
painting.
It would be absurd to seek tx> place the Church in
contradiction to the (jospel on this point, as did the
Iconoclasts in the eighth century ana the Protestants
in the sixteenth. The doctrine of the Church has )>een
clearly enunciated by Molanus in his ''Historia SS.
Imaginum" (Louvain, 1568; the best edition is that
of Paquot, Louvain, 1771; an ample bibliography is
found on pp. 212-24). It is truly remarkable that
such a magnificent development of artistic thought
should proceed from a purely spiritual doctrme
preached by humble Galilean fishermen who were
ignorant of art and filled with the horror of idol-
atry characteristic of the Semitic races. Far from
reproaching the Church with infidelity to the teach-
ings of her Founder, we should rather acknowledge her
wisdom in rejecting no natural form of human activity,
and thus furthering the work of civilization.
The very fact that the Church permitted painting
obliged her to assign it a definite object and to pre-
scribe certain rules; art never seemed to her an end in
itself; as soon as she adopted It she made it a means of
instruction and edification. "The picture'', says the
Patriarch Nicephorus, "codceals the strength of the
Gospel under a coarser, but more expressive form."
"The picture is to the illiterate", says Pope St. Greg-
ory, "what the written word is to the educated." In
like manner St. Basil: "What speech presents to the
ear painting portrays by amute imitation." And Peter
(Domestor says, in a famous text : "The paintings of the
churches are in place of books to the uneducated"
(ouaH l^)ri laicorum), "We are, by the grace of God,
those who manifest to the faithful the miracles wrought
by faith" — ^thus the painters of Siena express them-
selves in the statutes of their guild (1355). The same
ideas are contained in the "Treatise on Painting" of
Cennino Cennini, and in France in the " livre des Me-
tiers" of the Parisian Etienne Boileau (1254). In
1513, at the height of the Renaissance, Albrecht Dtirer
wrote: "The art of painting is used in the service of
the Church to depict the sufferings of Christ and of
many other models; it also preserves the countenances
of men after their death." Almost the same definition
is given by Pacheco, father-in-law of Velasquez, in his
"Arte de la Pintura", printed at Seville in 1649.
The constant doctrine of the Church was defined at
the Second (Council of Nicsea (787), and is sumihed up
in the often quoted formula: "The composition of the
image is not the invention of the painters^ but the
result of the legislation and approved tradition of the
Church" (Labbe, "Concil.", VII, "Synod. Nicana",
II, Actio VI, 831, 832). It would be impossible to
define more clearly the importance of art in the life of
the Church, and at the same time its subordinate posi-
tion. Thence, obviously, results one of the chief char-
acteristics of religious painting, its conservative in-
stinct and its tendency to hieratic formalism. Art
being regarded as didactic, necessarily partook of the
severe nature of dogma. The slightest error bordered
on heresy. To alter anything in the garments of the
saints or of the Blessed Virgm, to depict the former
shod or the latter barefooted, to confuse the piety of
the simple by innovations ana individual whims, were
all serious matters. The Christian artist was sur-
rounded by a strict network of prohibitions and pre-
scriptions. From this resulted the artistic danger of
soulless, mechanical repetition, which religious paint-
ing did not always escape. The responsibnity for this,
however, must not be ascribed to the Church, but
rather to human slothfulness of mind, for, as a matter
of fact, there is an element of mobility in art as it is
understood by the Church. Religious art may be
called a realistic art. Its appeal to the emotions by the
representation of facts obliges it to be more and more
exactly imitative, and it must adopt the progressive
stages of technio to express all the phases of human
feeling. Even the most immobile of^the great Chris-
tian schools, the Byzantine, has only an apparent im-
mobiUty ; more intimate knowledge inspires increasing
admiration for its vitality and elh^ticity. The inno-
vating and creative faculty has never been denied to
the religious painters. In the twelfth century Guil-
laume Durana, the famous Bishop of Mende, wrote in
his "Rationale" (I, 3): "The vanous histories as well
of the New as of the Old Testament are depicted ac-
cording to the inclination of the painters. For to
painters as to poets a license has ever been conceded to
dare whatever they pleased."
I. The Catacombs. — ^The monuments of religious
painting for the first four centuries are to be sought
only at Rome (see Catacombs, Roman; Ecclesias-
tical Art, Origin) . But this peculiar art must not be
taken as typical of what was in vogue elsewhere. It is
a great mistake to look in the Roman cemeteries for
the origin or the cradle of Christian painting: as has
been conclusively proved by the learned researches of
Strzygowski and Ajnalof, an art. which seems to have
been fully developed by the end of the fifth century,
grew up in Syria. Egypt, or Asia Minor, and com-
pletely supplanted that of the Catacombs. The latter
did not survive the very special conditions under which
it arose, and was but an isolated and local school with-
out development or future, but none the less valuable^
venerable, and pleasing.
II. Byzantine Painting. — A. The New Iconogror-
phy. — By the edict of 313 Christianity was recog-
nized as the official religion of the Empire. The
Church left its hiding-places and breathed freely, and
the period of the basihcas began. A profound trans-
formation of religious painting was the result of this
triumph. The time had come to display the insignia
of Christ's victory with the same material splendour
PAINTINa 396 PAINTINa
which the State attached to the imperial majesty In its earlv period Byzantine painting was strictly
of Caesar. The Good Shepherd of the Catacombs realistic. The mosaics, e. g., on either side of the
and the pastoral scenes gradually disapp^Eued; the choir of S. Vitale at Kavenna, show the Court of
last traces of them are found in the rotunda of St. Justinian and Theodora — sickly, dissolute figures; the
Constantia and in the mausoleum of Galla Placidia men, coarse^ the women, bleached and bedizened,
at Ravenna (c. 450). In the magnificent mosaic of overladen with jewels and dressed in the extreme of
S. Pudenziana at Rome (before 410), the Cross, which luxuir — ^unforp^ettable personifications of a corrupt
stands in mid-heaven above a Senate of Apostles and dazzling Ufe. This care for documentary exacti-
wearing the laticlave, is already a symbol of tnumph. tude was applied also to the past: historic characters
Christ appears as a celestial imperator invested with were treated as contemporary. The Christians of the
awe-inspiring glory. ''The arches of the world'', first three centuries had been obliged to content them-
writes Eusebius, "are His throne, the earth is His selves with conventional types, without individual
footstool. The celestial armies are His guard." — character, for their figures of Christ; but here Byzan-
Thus formidably is the God of the Gospel portrayed tine art raised Qew questions. The Christological dis-
on the porch of the ancient Vatican. putes of the time necessitated new dogmatic defini-
Rome still preserves the oldest remains of the new tions. In painting a certain school, appealing to a
art, but the East has claims to priority. Such recent text of Isaias, mamtained that Christ was hideous,
discoveries as those of M. Clddat in the necropolis In answer to these, appeal was made, in the fourth
of £1 Bagaout (fourth century) and in the convent of century, to the so-called ''Letter of Lentulus to *the
Baouit (sixth century), the excavations of M. Gayet Senate''. Christ, according to this document, had
in the tombs of Antinoe and the fimeral portraits blue eyes and light hair falling smooth to His ears,
unearthed at Fayum form an accumulation of evi- then in curls over his shoulders. One recognizes here
dence which leaves no doubt on this point. To these the desire to give to the figure of the Saviour a certain
may be added the famous miniatures of Cosmas majestic beauty embodied in the stereotyped traits
IncUcopleustes and of the "Roll of Josue" (preserved of a portrait which leaves no room for the play of
at the Vatican), the originals of which date from the fancy.
sixth century, or those of the Mesopotamian Evangel- The same process of determination went on at the
iary, illustrated in 586 by the monk Rabula (Lauren- same time for the principal characters of sacred his-
tian Librarv, Florence), and, although of somewhat tory, for the Blessed Virgin, the Patriarchs, and the
later date, tne paintings of the Evangeliaries of Etsch- Apostles, and each of these pictorial types acquired
miadzin (Axmenian, dated 989) and Rossano, repro- the force of a law. The Council of 692, for example,
duced from obviously earlier models, either Alexan- decreed that Christ should be represented as the
drian or Syriac. These paintings are chiefly narrative Lamb. This scrupulosity extends to accessories and
and historical in character. The Church, having con- embellishments: at San Vitale, Ravenna, the "Hospi-
quered paganism, must now face the task of supplying tality of Abraham" has for its setting a vast verdant
its place. And tne Church quickly recognized in her landscape; at San Apollinare Nuovo, the city of
own experience with paganism the efficacy of images Classis and the palace of Theodoric are accurately
as means, of instruction. This is testified by a letter represented. In Gospel scenes veritable reproduo-
(end of the fourth century) from St. Nilus to the pre- tions of Jerusalem were aimed at. The *care for exact
feet Olyinpiodorus, who had built a church and wished representation was, at the same time, coimteracted
to know if it were fitting that he should adorn it only by the passion for grandeur and splendour of efifect
with scenes of the chase and angling, with foUage. etc., which dominated all Byzantine painting. The latter
havins in view only the pleasure of the eye. St. Nilus tendency arose partly from the exigencies of decora-
repUed that this was mere childish nonsense, that the tive work and tne inexorable laws governing monu-
fitting thing in the sanctuary was the image of the mental style. Decoration implies work intended to be
Cross, and on the walls scenes from the Old Testament viewed from a distance, and therefore simple in out-
and the (Gospel, so that those who, being unable to Hne and colossal in scale, reduced to absolute essentials
read the Scnptures, might by these pictures be re- strikingly displayed on a wall-surface. Hence certain
minded of the beautiful deeds of the followers of the conventions, the result of optical laws: few gestures,
true God, and thereby impelled to do in like manner, little action, no agitation or confusion. The counte-
Obviously, the holy anchorite here recommended gen- nances have an impassive and fixed expression, as the
nine historical compositions. The Church, replacing tragic actor, in the Greek theatre, assumed mask and
the vast pagan repertory of legend and fable, created cothurnus, and chanted the solenm lines to a slow
for the imagination a new basis, likewise derived from recitative.
the past. At that date the best apology for the Church This theatrical and imposing style was, however,
was the story of its life and its genealogy, and this was less artificial than might be supposed. It naturally
perseveringly set forth during the early centuries after ascribed to the personages of the sacred drama the
Constantine. This historical tendency is clearly evi- ceremonious dignity of the Byzantine world, modelling
dent at St. Mary Major's in the forty mosaics, exe- the past on the present. One of the most marked
cuted in the time of Pope Sixtus III (432-40), which effects of these ideas is the repugnance to representing
relate the lives of the Patriarchs Abraham, Isaac, suffering and death. At San Apollinare Nuovo, in
Jacob, Moses, and Josue. Christ's victonr and His the portrayal of the Passion, not Christ, but his execu-
glorious Advent also find expression in the "^triumphal tioner, carries His Cross. The artist reverently omits
arches" of St. Paul's Without the Walls (under the scene on Calvary, and indeed Christian art for a
Leo 1, 440-61) and of the Lateran (under Hilary I, long time observed the same reticence (cf. Br^hier,
461-68). "Origines du Crucifix", Paris, 1904). But on the
But Rome, conquered by the hordes of Alaric, had other hand there is the taste for noble composition,
fallen from her political rank, and henceforth the the love of symmetry, the striving after grandiose ana
evolution of Byzantine painting must be followed at solemn effects. From these same ideals of pomp and
Ravenna and Constantinople. grandeur resulted a type of expression in harmonv
B. MonumerUcdPairUiiig to the Iconoclastic CoTUro- with them, monumental painting in the more solid,
versy. — ^Representing deeds rather than ideals, events more luxurious style of mosaic. This was already an
rather than symbols, the Byzantine School endowed ancient art, well Imown to the Alexandrians, practised
Christianity with a complete system of representation iJso by the Romans, who used it chiefly for the pave-
of all types, some of which are still used, and once for ments of their villas. But it was reserved for the
all formulated the essential traits of the great scenes Byzantines, who applied it to mural decoration, to dia-
of religiouB history. (See Btzantink Abt.) cover its true resources. (See Mosaics.)
PAiNTma
397
PAINTINa
C. From the Iconoclast Controversy to the School of
Mount Athos, — The Iconoclast controversy (725-850)
arrested the development of this powerful school at its
height. The movement originated in Islam as a fierce
outburst of the Semitic idealism of the desert. The
Iconoclast emperors were by no means barbarians, but
enlightened princes, dilettanti in their way, very often
devotees ana theologians; such in particular were Leo
the Isaurian and Theophilus. These emperors prided
themselves on being worshippers "in spirit and in
truth", and proscribed art only in its "idolatrous", or
religious, applications. Feminine devotion in the end
triumphed over these scruples. Meanwhile there had
been wide devastation; the convents had suffered
especially; and when the veneration of images was re-
established, nearly all the churches had lost their
ornaments, the mosaics had been torn down, and the
frescoes whitewashed. As often happens, howevier,
the Church came out of the conflict more vigorous
than ever. A new Byzantine School, very different
from the first, and a second golden age were to com-
mence. The first Byzantine School was an historical
one, the second was wholly liturgical and didactic.
Each decorative element assumed a symbolical value.
Christ the king, surrounded b^ the celestial hierarchy,
looks down from the vaults; m the sanctuary, behind
the altar, reigns the Virgin, seated, holding the Child
in her lap as a figure of the Church, the "living throne
of the ^mighty"; the rest of the apse presents the
precursors ofChrist, the bishops, doctors, and two great
Eucharistic scenes, the "Communion of the Apostles"
and the "Divine Liturgy " ; on the walls are developed
the lives of the saints and martyrs and that of Christ.
In the story of the Gospel the order of time is broken
and from the mass of miracles a few great scenes are
detached which the Church celebrates at the twelve
principal feasts. Two essential ideas are brought into
prominence: the Redemption and the Resurrection —
the scene of Calvary and the Descent into Limbo. In
the narthex, the Life of the Virgin assumes a novel
importance, while the Old Testament, on the contrary,
tends to disappear.
Four important monuments in the East mark the
apogee of the new style; these are: St. Luke in Phocis.
the Nea Moni of Chios, the beautiful church ot
Daphni near Athens, and, m Russia, that of St. Sophia
at Kiev. All four date from the tenth century, but
show none of the perfection of detail and precision of
execution which make the mosaics of S. Vitale a fin-
ished t3rpe of painting; but the decorative effect is
beyond compare. Notning in the art of painting can
surpass these churches encased in golden shells and
peopled by a host of gaunt, colossal figures. At this
date most of the Gospel compositions were virtually
stamped with a Ne varietur; for each of them a
group of artistic geniuses had provided a permanent
type.
A more important fact is that at this time the
Byzantine style conquered the West and became
truly universal. At about the same time the West
was undergoing a singular upheaval: the old feudal-
ism was separating itself from the soil and setting
itself in motion. For two centuries the exodus of
the Crusades was to continue, marking the beginning
of a new civilization for Europe. Byzantine colonies
appeared in Italy, notably those of Venice, in the
North, and of Sicily, in the South, forming hotbeds of
Byzantism at the two ends of the Peninsula. Within
thirty years (1063-95) Venice accomplished the marvel
of St. Mark's which she was to go on decorating and
perfecting; for three centuries (the narthex is of the
thirteenth century, the bajptistry of the fourteenth
century). In the neighbourhood of Venice there are
examples at Torcello, Murano, and Trieste, while the
twelfth century witnesses in Sicily, under the Norman
princes, the appearance of four incomparable churches :
that of Martorana (1143), that of Cefalii (1148), the
palace church at Palermo (c. 1160), and the Cathedral
of Monreale (c. 1180). Of all these masteipieces St.
Mark's is the best known, but only from the Pantocra-
tbr in the apse at Cef aid is it possible to realize to
what beauties of nobility and melancholy, and to
what majesty of style, the art attained.
For the sake of completeness, mention must be
made of the numerous icons, the various types of the
Madonna (Panagia, Nicopceia, Hodegetna), of the
miniature paintings in manuscripts (which were im-
portant for the diffusion of motives), of enamels such
as those in the Pala d'Oro of St. Mark's, and of
the small portable mosaic pictures, like the valuable
diptych preserved at the Opera del Duomo, at Flor-
ence. Tne task of the Byzantine School was accom-
plished, but it did not at once disappear. In the four-
teenth century it produced the fine mosaic cycle of
Kahrie-djami and at the beginning of the fifteenth
century, within the solitude of Athos, shut in by
the Mussulman world, it continued to produce and
covered all Eastern Europe with countless paint-
ings of the school of Panselinos. With the twelfth
century, however, it had fulfilled its purpose, and
the further development of religious paintmg was in
the West.
III. Reuqious Paintino in thb We8T, to the
Cinque Cento. — A. North of the Aim. — ^Through the
medium of the monks and the Crusades all Europe was
rendered fruitful by the Byzantine School. From the
Byzaiitine a Western art was to develop, in which the
loss in external luxury was gradually supplied by
Eliancy and power of expression. A distinction must
ere be made between the art of the countries north of
the Alps, and that of the southern countries. Little
need be said of the former: the Romanesque churches
seem to have been very rich in paintings, but most of
them are lost, and in the Gothic churches, which soon
after began to be erected, there was little room for
mural painting; stained glass took its place. But
the personality of the artist was scarcely felt in this
art, and as to drawing and subjects, stained glass
is scarcely more than a reflexion of miniature painting.
Its study, therefore, has but a purely iconographic
interest. It began in France with the windows of St-
Denis (1140-44), and the school of St-Denis spread
throughout the North, to Chartres (c. 1145), York, Le
Mans (c. 1155), Angers, and Poitiers. During the fol-
lowing century the school of Notre-Dame^e-Paris
played the same part.
The iconography of these windows is essentially
symbolic, and the allegorical spirit of the Middle Ages
is nowhere more apparent. It was an old Christian
idea that each person and fact of the Old Testament
was an image prefiguring a person of the New. This
idea only expanded with full wealth of detail in the
Gothic art of the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries.
With wonderful subtlety of interpretation the attempt
was made to discover tne most unforeseen, and some-
times the oldest, relations. Books such as those of
Rabanus Maurus, or the '^Speculum ecclesise" of Ho-
norius of Autun, or the "Glossa ordinaria" of Wal-
afrid Strabo, must be read to obtain an idea of the
spirit in wMch the Middle Age read its Bible and pic-
tured it. In the "Bestiaries", too, which, supplied
material for this art, there is a fantastic natural his-
tory, a singular menagerie, each curiosity of which
conceals some pious allegory. The material universe
was transformed into a sort of vast psychomachia, an
immense system of metaphors. No other school ever
equalled this astounding idealism.
B. In Italy, — (1) Giotto and the Giottesques. —
After the fall of Rome and the Empire, Italy was for
centuries in a most miserable condition. In the sixth
and seventh centuries the Iconoclast reaction sent in
the direction of Rome a host of Orientals, principally
monks, who were the chief victims of the persecution.
It it probably to these Greeks that we owe the frescoesy
PAiNTiNa 398 pAiNTma
doubtless dating from the seventh century, which intellectual and theological, it became democratic and
were discovered, in 1898, at Sta Maria Antiqua. popular. Faith became visualized. The whole effort
Under the influence of the great Abbot Desiderius, of the painters, as well as of the people, was to imagine
the school of Monte Cassino assumed the leadership as vividly as possible the life and sufferings of Chiist.
in an artistic movement which was to extend as far as A multitude of dramatic elements develo^d in Chris-
Cluny. Some eleventh-centuiy monuments, such as tianity, and originated a sort of rudimentary theatre,
the church of S. Angelo in Formis, have preserved (See Italy, Italian Literature; Jacoponb da
frescoes which attest the importance of this Benedic- Todi.)
tine school; but its traces are to be found chiefly in All these charabteristics began to show themselves
miniatures, and especially in volumes of a particu- in painting also. At Padua, in 1306. Giotto outlined
lar kind, such as the "Exultet-rolls" (see Exultet). the earliest and best formulated of nis school in the
This style spread throughout Italy in the twelfth cen- *'Life of the Virgin", closely linked with the history
tury , but soon declined. In the churches and museums of the Passion. The painter retained only the pathetic
of Tuscany are to be found a great number of icons, elements of Christianitv. A number of new scenes
madonnas and crucifixes, such as the miraculous appeared, while the old ones were enriched with
Christ preserved at St. Clare of Assisi, and which is countless new features. The picture is filled with
said to have spoken to St. Francis. These works show figures, gestures are softened, expression grows tender
to what a depth of barbarism the Byzantine school and human. ''Giotto", sa^s Vasari. ''was the first
had fallen about 1200. Nevertheless, it was still cap- to put more kindness into his figures . During three
able of producing beautiful work. The Madonna of centuries of development some scenes, such as the
Guido of Siena, for instance, preserved in the Public Nativity and the Epiphany, continuea to grow in
Palace, and dated 1221 (not 1281, as according to movement, expression, and picturesque effect. Sym-
Milanesi) , proclaims a veritable renewal of the ancient holism and didactic intent are absent : painting ceases
formula, teinpered by the grave. and gentle Siennese to have an^ object but to represent life. The teach-
mysticisiq. This is still more obvious in the works ing of Chnst, the parables, and the sacraments dis-
of the great Duccio (see Duccio di Buoninsegna), appear, to be replaced by scenes of sorrow and the
the Rucellai Madonna (1285) or the ** Madonna drama of Calvary, every moment of which is minutely
Maesta" (1311). treated in detail. What primitive Christian art
Such was the persistency of the Byzantine move- avoided with a sort of modesty or fear now became
ment at Siena, but a movement in another direction its chosen and persistent subject. The striking feature
issued from Rome in the middle of the thirteenth cen- of these pictures is a wholly new impression of famil-
tury. Recent excavations have brought to light at iarity and warmth.
S. Maria in Trastevere a cycle of very important After the great frescoes of the life of St. Francis
frescoes of which Ghiberti, in his "Commentary", at Assisi a host of local saints and contemporary beati
gives Pietro Cavallini as the author. The chief scene were honoured in like manner. In painting these con-
represents the Last Judgment. It is impossible to temporary lives, the artists had to create traditions;
praise excessively the beauty of this composition, the therefore thev painted what they saw — ^faces, oos-
nobility of the draperies, the majesty of the types, tumes. assemblages of people. They became realists
Ancient art undoubtedly exercised a powerful mflu- and ooservers, and these same tendencies appeared
ence on Cavallini, as on his contemporary , the sculptor in their paintings of the Gospel. There was little
Nicholas of Pisa. In the thirteenth century a revival need of invention: the theatre and its representations,
took place at Rome which foreshadowed the Renais- the processions, and the tableaux vivarUs assisted their
sance of a later age. Unhappily, few of its monuments imagination (cf . Male, " Renouvellement de Tart par
remain, but the mosaics of S. Maria in Trastevere. les mystdres" in "Gazette des Beaux-Arts", Feo.-
that of St. Mary Major, by Jacopo Torriti (1296), and May, 1904). The following are some "Passions" of
the Genesis frescoes of St. Paul Without the Walls, the Giottesque school, in chronological order: in the
known through drawings in a MS. at the Vatican, lower church of Assisi, by Pietro Lorenzetti (c. 1325) ;
reveal the importance of this ancient Roman school, by Gerini, at S. Croce, Florence; by a Sienese master
The same compositions are also found in the upper in the Neapolitan church of Donna R^^a, or that bv
church at Assisi, which was to be the cradle of Italian Andrea da Firenze (c. 1350) at the Spanish chapel;
painting. It is now proved that these scenes were the lastly the splendid frescoes of Altichiero and Avanzi in
work of Cavallini and his school. There is nothing the chapel of the Santo of Padua (1370).
to prove that Cimabue did not work here, but he But all this realism was never an end in itself: its
would have done so only as a pupil of the Roman object was to reach the emotions; and it made mani-
school (see Cimabue). fest the character of humaniW in Christianity. Hence
This is also true of the great Giotto in his earliest the many paintings of the Blessed Virgin, in which
dated works: the Navicella of St. Peter's (1298), the art incessantly sang to her the tenderest hymns of
Stefaneschi retable and the Jubilee fresco painted in love. The Panagia of the Byzantines, the Virgin of
1300 at St. John Lateran. It was otherwise with his the Middle Ages, Throne of God, Queen of Heaven,
second sojourn in Rome, for his early Assisi frescoes, gave place to the Mother, the most beautiful, the
the28scenesof the "Life of St. Francis '* (c. 1293) are sweetest, and the tenderest of women. After St.
wholly in the Roman manner. At Rome, therefore, Bernard — il swo fedeU Bernardo — St. Francis of Assisi,
in the thirteenth century was created the gioitesco and St. Bonaventure, devotion to the Madonna be-
style, the doUe stil nuovo which was to charm Italy came one of the chief Christian devotions. . Schools
for a hundred years. (See Giotto di Bondone.) competed as to which should paint the holiest and
Giotto instilled into the painting of age the wonderful most exquisite Virgins, and none were more charming
poetry of Franciscan Christianity. St. Francis has than those of Siena — Sena vetua civiUu Virginis.
been called the Father of Italian art, and the sa3dng The Madonnas of Simone di Martino, of the two
is true if taken with a certain elasticity of meaning. Lorenzetti, of Lippo Memmi, and their successors,
Both he and St. Dominic rejuvenated and reanimat^ began the incomparable poem to which Raphael, Van
the Church. The history of religious art down to the Dyck, or Murillo addea perfect strophes^ without,
Reformation and the Council of Trent could only be however, obliterating the meinory of their ancient
accurately written in the light of this great historic predecessors.
fact. All that Byzantine and early medieval art had The same inspiration is evident in the punting
represented as dogmas assumed the stirring character which represent the moral, didactic, or pmlosophic
of life. To say that art became secularized would be painting of that time, such as the frescoes of "Good
io risk miscomprehension, but in truth, from being and Evil Government" at Siena by the Lorenxetti (c.
PAIKTINO 899 PAINTINa
1340)^ those of the Church militant and the Church a fortunate period, in which the simplicity of the soul
teachmg in the Spanish Chapel (c. 1355), or those of was not marred by the discovery of nature and art.
the "Anchorites" and the "Triumph of Death" in Even the poor Carmelite Fra Filippo Lippi, unwilling
the Campo Santo of Pisa (c. 1370), all showing the monk as he was, whose restless u^ was far from ex-
same popular and practical character. Such pictures emplary, was animated by true and delicate piety,
have tne force of a sermon; there is no strictly artistic His " Nativity" (Berlin), his " Madonna" (Uffizi), and
intention, but an obvious intention to instruct and his "Adoration of the Holy Child" (c. 1465; Louvre)
impress. This is also made clear by the celebrated recall Angelico.
allegories of the Franciscan Virtues, in the lower C, The rifteenlhCentury in t?ie North. — ^WhatMasac-
church of Assisi (c. 1335), and in the frequent repeti- cio's frescoes were for fifteenth-century ItaJy, that and
tion of the Last Jud^ent (by Giotto at Padua and much more was the retable of the Van Eycks for
the Florence Signona; by Orcagna at S. Maria the rest of Europe. This colossal work was begun in
Novella, etc.). This theme of death and the Jud^- 1420, completed and set up in 1432. Throughout the
ment was evidently a favourite one with the Mendi- fifteenth century the art of the schools of the North
cants: at Assisi ana Padua are two frescoes represent- retained the allegorical and symbolical character
ing a Friar Minor indicating a skeleton beside him. which marks this great work. Such books as the
And hence the "Triumph of Death" at Pisa and the "Speculiun humanae salvationis" or the "Biblia pau-
terrible "Dance of Death" of northern Europe. perum" dominated iconography and furnished artists
This popular art required popular modes of expres- with their favourite subjects. But, with all this, in
sion. Cavallini and Giotto still made mosaics, and Flanders naturalism was unrestrained, IJiat of tlie Van
Cimabue is best known to us as a mosaicist. But Eycks making even Masaccio's seem vasue and ab-
this slow and expensive method was unsuited to a stract. A portion of the change accomplished by them
democratic, sentimental, and impassioned art, while is foreshadowed in the works of the limboures (see
fresco, which had never been abandoned, even during Limbourg, Pol db). To the revolution which they
the Byzantine period, offered to the new ideas a more effected in the manner of beholdins corresponds an-
plastic and animated mode of expression. With less other in the manner of painting. The whole fifteenlJi
material opulence, the latter process was rapid, cheap, century spoke of the "mvention of the Van Eycks" :
and apt at reproducing the undulations of life, ex- it is hard to say in what this consisted, but if they did
pressing at once the exactness of nature and the emo- not, as was believed, discover oil-painting, they cer-
tion of the artist. Thereby a new element entered into tainly invented new processes and a new style. (See
the execution itself , an individual element of sentiment Eyck, Hubert and Jan Van.) Undoubtedly this
and spontaneity only limited by the conditions of realism lacked taste and charm. The types were com-
mural painting and the exigencies of an art always mon, vulgar, and middle-class, and these faults were
somewhat oratorical. Inebriated, as it were, with even exaggerated by the disciples of the school — Jean
this new liberty, the Giottesque painters covered Italy Daret, Ouwater, Dirck Bouts, Van der Goes, and
with innumerable paintings. Indeed, this school, as a Petrus Cristus. The school's photographic impassi-
whole, despite grave faults, constitutes the richest and bility, on the other hand, was suddenly offset by the
freest fund of religious painting. equally exaggerated and somewhat contorted passion
(2) Masaccio and His Age. — But it must be ac- of the Braban9on Van der Weyden, at once a realist
knowledged that the Giottesques formed a popular and a mystic. Such as it was, this robust school con-
school which was too often satisfied with worthless quered Europe in a few years, even Italy feeling its
improvisation. The task of imbuing painting with powerful influence. In France, Simon Marmion,
artistic feeling was that of the two ^at pamters, Nicolas Fremont, and Jean Fouquet were little more
Masolino (c]. v.) and Masaccio (q. v.), the latter espe- than somewhat refined and ^alhcized Flemings. In
daily, in his frescoes in the Carmelite chapel at Flor- Spain it suffices to mention Luis Dalmail and in Fortu-
ence (l426) soimding the keynote of the future. Nev- gaL Nuflo GouQalez, both being pure Flemish,
ertheless, despite their seriousness of conception and German painting, on the other hand, while it owed
aim, the religious element of these frescoes is scarcely much to the neighoouring Flemish school, remained
to be taken into account. There are evidences of much more original in spirit. In it is found the deep
great progress in the art, the nobility of ideas, the and tender sentiment lacking in the school of the Low
elevation of style, the seriousness and grandeur of the Countries, a popular mysticism derived, not from
work, but the gain of Christian feeling and piety is less books, but from tne interior treasures of the soul. The
manifest. But Masaccio's powerful naturalness was school which produced (c. 1380) the Clarenaltar of
for a time in harmony with the mystic sense, and re- Cologne and (c. 1400) the delightful little "Paradise"
ligious art then yielded perhaps its most exquisite of Frankfort obviously possessed but mediocre gifts;
flowers. The works of Gentile da Fabriano, such as its sense of form was often defective, but even the
the "Adoration of the Magi" (1423; Academy of piety of Angelico did not speak a purer language. A
Florence), those of Pisaniello, such as the "Legend of superior plastic education produced the work of
St. George" (c. 1425; St. Anastasia, Verona), and in a Stephan Lochner, the fine Dombild (1430), the "Ma-
lesser degree those of the Milanese Stefano da Zevio donna of the Violet", and the marvellously sweet
breathe the inimitable grace of a pure and holy joy, "Madonna of the Rose Garden". From this school
which is still more charmingly apparent in the works was descended the most famous of the Northern mys-
of the Camaldolese LorenzoMonaco, and especially in tics, the tender and graceful Memling (q. v.). In his
those of the Dominican Fra Giovanni da Fiesole, work a new aristocracy, that of sentiment, transfigures
whose genius won for him the surname of Angelico the Flemish opulence. The same moral delicacy and
(q. V.) . familiarity with Divine things sweeten and spiritualize
Angelico's disciples did not reach his level, but a the works of Gerard David, and especially of Quentin
youthful charm distinguishes the spiritual paintings of Massys. who became a painter through love. At the
Benozzo Gozzoli, whose "Adoration of the Magi" in end of tne fifteenth century there was no German town
the Riccardi chapel is one of the most perfect works of or province which had not its local school. For a long
the Renaissance, while his " Genesis" frescoes in the time only two of these were known or regarded: that of
Campp Santo of Pisa (1469-85) will always be loved Cologne, with its anonymous masters, the Master of
for tfoir exquisite figures amid rich landsca^. But the Passion of Lyversberg, the Master of the Death of
perhaps this pious joy never inspired anything more Mary, the Master of the Holy Family {Heiligensippe)^
lovable than the works of the old Umbrian masters, and, most powerful of all, the Master of the Barthol-
Ottaviano Nelli, Allegretto Nuzi, Domenico Bonfigli, om&usaltar; and the school of Nuremberjc, with its two
and Boccati da (Jamerino. The early Renaissance was famous painters, Wohlgemuth and Pleyden wurff . But
PAINTINa 400 PAINTINa
In reality no comer of Franconia, Suabia, Alsace, or at the Cambio of Perugia and Raphael in his statue
the Tyrol remained sterile. It was a popular art, lo- produced the masterpieces of the painting of ideas,
calizedj sentimental, and extremely incorrect, often It would be vain to deny that the spirit of the
coarse m form, but refined in soul even to affectation. Renaissance possessed irrehgious tendencies. Cer-
and which in its pious imagery expressed better than tainly such a work as that of Ghirlandajo in the choir
any other certain ideas of svmpatny and tenderness, of S. Maria Novella is singularly secular in tone.
There is nothing more thrilling than the Passion of Even in more serious works, such as Leonardo's won-
Hans Multescher nor more appealing than the altar- derful ^'Last Supper'' at Milan, it is readily seen that
piece of St. Wolfgang by the Tyrolese Michel Pacher. despite its sublime beauty it was not intended merely
Elsewhere in Germany there were other admirable to edify. However, these matters must be treated
stylists, such as Hans Baldung and Ck>nrad Witz at with reserve, owing to the delicate nature of questions
Fribourg and Basle, foreshadowing the perfection of of religious sincerity. We can hardly assert that the
Holbein. Dominicans for whom these works were executed were
But the great Albrecht DUrer was to express all that poorer judges than we, nor is it clear by what rieht we
was most intimate in Germanic religion, and beautiful connect refigious meaning with certain archidc forms,
as were his pictures he expressed the deepest meanings In this the Church has judged with more delicacy,
in his prints. This more direct and less expensive art, never having restricted a sentiment to certain forms,
produced for the masses, satisfied the German de- but having left it free to create that most fitting to it
mands for populahtv and individuality. To this and to speak to each age the language which will be
Durer's gemus was wholly devoted, and art does not best unaerstood. The fact is that at no period was
possess more moving masterpieces than the '^ Apoca- refigious activity so fruitful; no other has bequeathed
lypse" series (1498), the " Life of the Blessed Virgin" to us so many altar-pieces, oratory pictures, Niadonnas
(1506), the "Little Passion" (1509), and the "Great and saints. It was the a^e of countless pictures for
Passion" (1510). But side by side with this contem- pious confraternities, and it is quite probable that the
piative, intimate, and noble spiritual art was a second artist, who was so often a member of the confrater-
tendency, no less thoughtful, but impassioned, violent, nit3r, infused something of his heart into his work,
dramatic, and which went to extremes in the search At Siena especially sucn charming painters as Vec-
for expression and the mania for the pathetic. It was chietta or Benvenuto di Giovanni were no less remark-
inspired by the mystery plays. All technical progress able for their piety than their talents. Perugino,
and perfection of realization were utiUzed to express it is true,, has been called an Atheist, but of thfi we
emotion. It began with Van der Weyden, Memfing have no certainty, nor do we know Vasari's authority
did not escape it in his Munich picture of the "Seven for the statement. On the other hand we note in
Sorrowsof the Blessed Virgin", Massys painted blood- him (before he lapsed into mechanical production) a
besprinkled Holy Faces and Magdalens with reddened reaction against drjmess and intellectualism. (See
and streaming eyes, Durer's "Passions" terrify by Perugino.) Botticelfi and FiUppino Lippi show a
their intensity of sorrow, but the most tragic of all was tendency to the nervous pathos of Roger van der
Mathias Griinewald, whose terrible "Crucifixions" at Weyden and Quentin Massys. An extremely ascetic
Colmar and Stuttgart are Uke the nightmare of a bar- and terrifying spirit distinguishes Luca Signorelli.
barian visionaiy. This love of the horrible became a More worthy of study are the works of CrivelU and
genre. Infernal fantasies, the dreams of an unhealthy Cosimo Tura at Verona and Ferrara, showing a love
imaffination, haunt the thoughts of Jerome Bosch, for depicting suffering which borders on caricature,
while, on the other hand, idylUc insipidity and childish- At Bologna, on the other hand, the productions of
ness appear in the "Holy Family and "Ffight into Costa and Francia are marked by a more temperate
Egjrpt " of Cranach and Patenier. At this juncture religious emotion, while a group of Milanese painters
came the Reformation, which destroyed painting in including Foppa and Borgognone upheld, even amid
Germany. Leonardo's influence, the mystical traditions of the
IV. The Cinque Cento and the Later Schoolb. — ancient school. The appearance of new motifs based
A. Tuscany y Umbriay and Rome. — The two tendencies on devotion to the Precious Blood, to the Holy Fam-
observed in the North, naturalism and pathos, devel- ily, the maternity of the Blessed Virgin, etc., indicated
oped also in contemporary Italy. Protestant criti- the continuous enriching of religious life and the con-
cism has greatly exaggerated the irreligion of the stant activity of Christian piety. Undoubtedly when
Renaissance. Undoubtedly some painters, absorbed Leonardo painted the "St. Anne" of the Louvre,
by problems of expression and the study of atmos- and Raphael his "Madonna of the Goldfinch", they
phere, models, and perspective, neglected refigious did not aim at portraying ascetic mortification, but
emotions. At Florence especially there were a num- rather a serene confidence in the beauty and nooilitj
ber of artists who saw in their craft only a question of of fife. It is difficult to stamp this optimism as an
form. Form, as a matter of fact, owes much of its error.
progress to the studies of Castagno, Paolo Uccello, B. Venice and the Schools of Northern Italy. — ^The
the Pollaiuofi, Andrea Verrocchio, and Baldovinetti, Venetian school has been greatly misjudged from a
but their learning, importance, and great services refigious standp)oint. Because the Venetians could
cannot conceal the poverty of tneir art and the nar- paint better than any others, and because they set
rowness of their ideas; they were professors and use- great value on the charm of colouring, they have been
ful pedagogues, but neither poets nor true artists, charged with paganism and immorality. Quite the
On the other hand the Renaissance was the period contrary is true. Two very different traditions are
whentheloveof ideas, so unnatural to Itafian thought, evident in Venetian painting: the first that of the
manifested itself by most important works. The popular painters employed by the confraternities, the
decoration of the Sistine Chapel (c. 1480) at the com- guilds, and the scuole; the other that of the official
mand of a Franciscan pope, is perhaps the most painters in the service of the State, the patricians, and
clearly symbofical assemblage of Itafian art. On the the convents. The former school, which was that of
walls the fife of Moses is portrayed parallel with that Lazzaro Bastiani Carpaccio, Cima da Conegliano, and
of Christ. Thirty years later Michelangelo depicted Diana, filled the panshes of Venice and the Islands
on the ceifing the Defivery of Israel, the Prophets, the with briUiant and delightfully ingenuous works. Noth-
Sibyls, and the Ancestors of Christ. The Apparta- ing could be more charming than Carpaccio's paint-
mento Borgia was decorated by Pinturicchio with ings, such as his Legend of St. Ursula or the oratory
didactic frescoes in imitation of the Spanish chapel; pictures in San Giorgio de' Schiavoni. The second
Fifippino Lippi represented at the Minerva the and more scholarly school, proceeding from the Vivl^
"Triumph of St. Thomas Aquinas"; while Perugino rini and the great Paduan mastery Andrea MantegDa*
pinrriNa 401 paintino
is chiefly represented by the three Bellini, the last of tion of the form without thought for its import was
whom, Uiovanni, is not only one of the most beautiful what dried up and poisoned the school which issued
of painters, but also one of the most elevated and from Raphael and especially from Michelangelo, the
recollected. The works of Giorgione are no less poeti- art of Giulio Romano, Zuccheri, Vasari, and Giusep- <
cally inspired, and his heads of Christ are marvels of pino. Before the end of the century a strong reaction
emotion. It may be questioned how Titian can be set in against this corrupt and empty art. In 1582 the
charged with irreligion in his ''Assumption", his Carracci founded their academy at Bologna, and at
Pesaro Madonna, his ''Martyrdom of St. Lawrence", Rome, about the same time, the independent and
his frescoes in the Santo of Padua, or his " Death of St. eccentric Caravagsio scandalized the public by brutal
Peter Martyr". In his "Bacchanal" of Madrid and painting roughly oorro wed from the lowest reality,
the "Flora of the Uffizi we encounter the same prob- In his ''Death of the Blessed Virgin " (c. 160$) now at
lem presented by Raphael, which then faced all cul- the Louvre he did not hesitate to copy a drowned
tured minds. We can scarcely accuse of religious woman. Nevertheless Caravaggio did much to turn
insincerity the author of the "Entombment" and art once more in the direction of nature and truth.
"Crowning with Thorns" of the Louvre, who after so His "Entombment", at the Vatican, is one of the im-
many joyous pictures painted as his last testament FK)rtant works of modem painting and the manifesta-
and farewell to life the funereal "Piet&" of the Acca- tion of a new art.
demia of Venice. The same is true of the other great Thus, of its own volition, art inclined to return to
Venetians^ Palma, Veronese, Bonifazio, Tintoretto, naturalism while religion endeavoured to hold it back,
and the divine Corregio. St. Ignatius in his "Spiritual Exercises" indicates the
But the Church was obliged by harsh criticism to be share of sentiment and imagination in the psychology
vigilant with regard to humanistic extremes. At of belief, laying great stress on the "composition of
Florence the work of Fra Bartolommeo or Andrea del place " and the use of the senses as aids to the imagina-
Sarto, at Ferrara that of Garofalo, at Brescia that of tion with the object of arousing an emotion. It will
Moretto or Romanino, at Vercelli that of Gaudenzio readily be seen what assistance painting would be to
Ferrari, at Venice itself that of Lorenzo Lotto, are so such a system, and that is why the Jesuits restored to
many heralds of a " counter-reformation ", wMch be- art all the importance which the Protestants had taken
came definite about 1550, at the time of the Council from it. Naturalism was the necessary result of this
of Trent, and which derived its origin from Venice. A spirit, and in this Jesuit art merely resumed the con-
significant circumstance was the action of the Inquisi- slant tradition of Christianity. Nor was this all; the
tion against Veronese for having introduced fanciful picture should inspire emotion, and the corollary of
figures into his religious pictures. The painter was naturalism was pathos. By more than one character-
acquitted, but the art of the Renaissance had received istic the Cathohc school of the seventeenth century
a blow from which it never recovered. It was the recalls the great Franciscan school of the fourteenth,
period when the pope ordered Daniele di Volterra A curious fact is the recurrence of popularity of Fran-
(Ricciarelli) to clothe decently the too audacious^ ciscan legend. The "Vision of St. Francis", the
nakedness of his "Last Judgment", when the learned "Stigmata", the "Vision of St. Anthony of Padua",
Molanus (Meulen) wrote ms work on images, when the "Last Communion of St. Francis of Assisi" are the
St. Charles Borromeo and his cousin the cardinal, with titles of masterpieces in the schools of Antwerp, Bo-
their circle of zealous associates, preached a return to logna, Naples, and Seville. A still more sigmncant
an enlightened, serious religion, purified of popular circumstance was that the Renaissance, like the an-
medieval superstitions and recovered from the danger- cient Byzantine art, had avoided all portraval of the
ous compromise with the external forms of pagan nat- sufferings of Christ: Raphael, Titian, or Michelan-
urahsm (cf. J. A. Symond's "Renaissance in Italy: gelo never painted a Crucifixion, though among the
The Catholic Reaction ", I, i-iv) . After having exer- masterpieces of Rubens were an " Ascent of Calvary ",
cised great toleration the Church was about to take an "Erection of the Cross", a "Piercing with the
vigorously in hand the direction of ideas. Tintoretto's Lance "« and a "Descent from the Cross". The
last works at the Scuola di S. Rocco display a system Renaissance had also lost the taste for and the sense
of sjrmbols as abstract as a stained-glass window of the of narrative; but the art of the seventeenth centurv
thirteenth century; painting once more became the presents numerous examples of this ability restored,
handmaid of theology. From Venice itself came the such as the "Life of St. Cecilia" at S. Luigi di Fran-
last Byzantine, the strange Greco^ the pupil of Titian cesi and the "Life of St. Nilua" at GrottiJerrata, by
and Veronese, whose emaciated, sickly, dned-up style Domenichino; the Lives of St. Thomas and St. Peter
is a protest against the whole luxuriant ideal of the Nolasco by Zurbaran, etc. The Gospel and the
Ren^ssance, and who became the founder of Spanish "Legenda aurea" were restored to honour. If the
painting. Renaissance had been a retrogression or an eclipse
C. The Baroque SchooL — ^The most striking trait of Christian sentiment, Baroque art was a real
of the new school was its unity of style and method, resurrection.
In the fifteenth and even in the sixteenth century there V. Modern Religious Paintino. — Great religious
was an endless number of little schools, each town painting ends with Tiepolo; his Spanish imitators,
having its own, but in the seventeenth century paint- Bayeii and Goya, produced charming works, but did
ing once more became international. A single manner nothing new. Save for a few somewhat touching
of seeinff and thinking predominated and there was no works of Lesueur the classic French school was wholly
essentifid difference between a Flemish and an Italian lacking in religious originality. Philippe de Cham-
or Spanish picture. More than one social or political pagne was a Fleming, a good painter whose talent
reason may be advanced for this, e. g., the politi- Jansenism almost destroy^. New theories and the
cal supremacy of Spain and the estabhsnment of the spirit of the eighteenth century struck a fatal blow
Viceroy alty of Naples, or the cosmopolitanism of the akunst the painting of the Church. To the admirers
painters. But the only good reason was the existence of extreme antiquity such as Winckelmann and
of a general organization, a universal institute which Lessing, and their disciple, Diderot, Christianity was
forced a common direction on all ideas. But the time an inferior religion which had diffused an unworthy
has gone by when the word baroque was used to dis- system of aesthetics throughout the world. European
parage two centuries of art, as the word Gothic thinly painting was dominated by a sort of artistic Jacob-
disguised a condemnation. What science is to the inism. David and his school produced no religious
modern world the idea of beauty was to sixteenth- painting; undertheEmpiretheonly "Christ" worthy
century Italy. Thus the lost Grecian ideal was re- of mention is that of the gentle Prud'hon. However,
stored t]m>ugh Florence and Venice, but the cultivfr- » curious reaction follow^ this arid fanaticism; the
XI.— 26
PAKAWA
402
PAKAWA
Middle Ages be^an to be understood. Even under the
Directory and in David's studio there was a small
body calling themselves the **Primitif8'\ Chateau-
,briand'B '^ Genius of Christianity'' was published on
the same day as the Concordat of 1S02. At Rome a
little circle of German artists, weary of Goethe's Hel-
lenic rationalism, returned to mysticism, discovered
St. Francis of Assisi^ and by pamting reopened the
sources of the moral hf e. Unfortunately these * * Naza^-
renes", Overbeck, Steinle, and the rest, had but a poor
artistic sense. A Frenchman, Jean Dominique Ingres,
had better success and endowed with life his Bestowal
of the Keys" (1820), his "Vow of Louis XIII" (1824),
hb "St. Symphorian" (1834), and some of his Virgins.
Other painters also treated religious subjects: the
Protestant Ary Scheffer, Paul Delaroche, even De-
camps. But the only one who succeeds in arousing
emotion is Paul Delacroix, whose "Christ on Mt.
Olivet" (1827), "Descent from the Cross" (1834),
"Good Samaritan" at Mantua, "Christ Stilling the
Tempest", and especially his Chapel of the Angels in
the church of St. Sulpice, are examples of immortal
passion and poetry. With Flandrin's frescoes may be
mentioned tnose of Victor Mottoz at St. Germain
TAuxerrois, of Chass^riau at St. Roch, and especially
the splendid scenes from the "Legend of St. Gene-
vieve" (1878-98) by Puvis de Chavannes in the old
Pantheon. Henner and L^n Bonnat have painted
famous Christs; Ernest Hubert has painted Virgins
such as that of "The Deliverance" (1872) which are
real masterpieces. Some of Bouguereau's are also
worthy of mention.
But in France, as elsewhere, religious painting prop-
erly so called tends to disappear. The attempts of
some sincere painters in England and Germany have
had but few imitators. Despite rare merits, the Pre-
Raphaelite school has left only studied works in which
scholarship supersedes sentiment. This is especially
true of BumeJ-Jones and Rossetti, whose style too
often shows affectation and artifice. James Tissot,
with his scrupulous Orientalism, has failed to capture
the true Evangelical perfume. The best work of this
school has been proauced by Holman Hunt in his
"Scapegoat" ana "Shadow of the Cross", which
display singular refinement, somewhat hardened by
emphasis, but new, impressive, and original. The
German Gebhardt does not approach these master-
pieces in his "Last Supper" of the Berlin Museum.
A recent Franciscan Pre-Raphaelitism in France has
produced the prints of Charles Marie Dulac and some
charming decorations of Maurice Denis, such as his
"Assumption" in the church of Vdsinet.
The reason for this impoverishment of religious art
must not be sought in a diminution of the Christian
sentiment. It is due primarily to the fact that reli-
gious art has become an industry and concurrence is
no longer possible between the artists and the dealers,
but the chief reason lies in the very evolution of reli-
gious ideas, which now seek a new form. This has
been shown by the painter John La Farge ("Higher
Life in Art, " 1908). Much of the religious sentiment
of the nineteenth century has been expressed in land-
scape painting. To the angelic soul of Corot painting
was always a prayer, and the same is true of our great-
est Christian painter. Millet, whose peasants naturally
assume the appearance of Biblical characters, as of the
paintings of the same class by L^n Lhermitte (" Pil-
grims of Emmaus", 1894, Boston Museum; "Amone
the Lowly", 1905, New York Museum), those of
L^roUe, Fritz von Uhde, and especially of Eugene
Carri^re.
Such are the outlines of religious painting during
the past 900 years. Ancient Christianity expressed
every sentiment and ignored no shade of human
nature. And if religious painting now seems uncertain
in Europe, in view of the great movement incessantly
impelling from East to West and in consideration of
the wonderful development of the Church in the New
World, who knows what future still awaits it in
America?
Qeneral: Seroux d'Aoincoobt, Hist, de Vart par lc« monu-
ment* (Paris, 1892), 6 vol«. in fol.; Winter and Dbhio, KunU'
geMhichU in Bildem (5 vols., Leipsig, 1890-1900) ; Reinach, RS-
pertoire de peintwee arUtrieuree au X VIII* «. (3 vols., Paris. 1905-
10) : Kraub, Geechichie der chruUiehen KunH (Freib. im Breiag.,
1895-1900); Woermann and Woltmann, GeeehiehU de MaUrti
(Leipsig, 1879-88) ; Michel, Hietoire de Fart depute lee premier$
tempi duritiena jxiemi'd no«your« (Paris, 1895) ; Vbnturi. Storia deff
Arte Il<Uiana (Milan, 1901); Burckbardt, ^ Cicerone (Paris,
1892); LowRiE, Chrieiian Art and Archteology (New York, 1901);
Gradmann, Geeehiehte der ehrietlichen Kunst (Stuttgart, 1902);
MuTHXR, History of Painting from the Fourth to the BigkteenA
Century (New York, 1907).
Special: First period. — Db Roasi, Roma SoUerranea (Rome,
1864-67); PiRATi, L'ardUologie chrHienne (Paris, 1892);
ScHULTZE, Arehaologie de <^tehriMichen Kunst (Munich. 1895);
Marucchi, Le catacombe romane (Rome, 1903); Idbm, Blemente
d^archioloffie ehrttienne (Paris, 1899-1902); Wxlpbrt, Die Koto-
combengemdlde (Freiburg, 1892).
Second period. — Dibhl, ManuH d*art hywardin (Paris, 1910);
Strstgowbki. Orient oder Rom (Leipsig, 1902) ; Idem. Kleinaeien
(Leipzig, 1903) ; Kondakopf. Histoire de Vart hyuintin eonetdM
prineipaUment dane lee miniatures, French tr. (Paris, 1886-91);
AiNALOW, Origines helUnistiquee de Vart bytantin (St. Peters-
burg, 1900); ScHULTz AND Barnblbt, The monastery of Si. Luke
of Stiris in Phocis (London, 1902); Millet, Le monasthe de
Daphni (Paris, 1899) ; Didron, Manuel de lapeiniure (Paris, 1845).
Third Deriod. — Kraub, Burckbardt, Michbl, etc., opp. eiL
above; \iale, L*art religieux en France au XIIL sikde (2hul ed.,
Paris. 1902) ; Idem, L'art religieux en France dlafindu moyen dge
(Paris, 1908) ; Didron, leonographie ehritienne (Paris, 1843) ; Di-
dron and Cahier, Le$ Vitraux de Bourges (Pans, 1846) ; MOnts,
Les Pricuraeurs de la Renassiance (Paris, 1882; Italian ed., Flor-
enoe, 1002); MOntz, Histoire de Vart pendant 2a Renaiseance
(Paris, 1889-95) ; WOlpplin, Die Klassieehe Kunet, BinfUhrung in
die Italienisehe Renaissance (Munich, 1901); Crowb and CavaIt'
CABELLX, Gesehichte der Italienischen Malerei (Leipsig, 1869-76;
English ed., London. 1903); Thode. Franz von Aseiei und die
Angldnge der Kunst in Italien (Berlin, 1903; French tr., 1909);
L. DouoLAB, History of Siena (London, 1902) ; Idem, Fra Angdieo
(London, 1002); Janitbchbk. Gesehichte der deutschen M<Uerei
(Bcriin, 1890): R^au. Les Primilifs allemands (Paris, 1910);
Bouchot, Les Primilifs fran^ais (Paris, 1904); Sampbrb t Mi-
OUEL, Quattrocentistas eatalafias (Barcelona, 1907); Bertaux,
L' Exposition de Saragosse (1911); Crowe and Cavalcabellb,
Les anciens peintres flumands (Brussels, 1862-63); DBHAiaNBa.De
Vart chritien en Flandre (Douai, 1860) ; Weale. The Barly Painters
of the Netherlands in Burlington Maganne (1903); Idem, Hone
MenUine (London, 1902); Bbrbnbon, LorenMO Lotto (London.
1902); Cobbio, El Greco (Madrid, 1908); Brousbollb, Vart re-
ligieux pendant la Renaissance (Paris, 1908).
Fourth period. — Ebb, Die SpOirenaissanee (Berlin, 1886);
Gurutt, Gesehichte des BarockstUes (Stuttgart, 1887-89); Fra*-
chetti. n Bernini (Milan, 1900) ; Boehm. Guido Reni (Bielefeld,
1910); Fdbti. Murillo (Leipsig, 1892); Fromentin, Les Maitres
d* autrefois (Paris, 1876); Bodb, Studien zur gesehichte der ho^
landisehen Malerei (Brunschurg, 1883) ; Vbnturi, Tiepolo. French
tr. (Paris, 1911).
Fifth period. — Dblabord'e, Hippolyte Flandrin (Paris, 1873);
Idem, Ingres (Paris. 1867) ; Rolland. J. L. Millet (London. 1903);
Steinle, Briefwechsel (Fribourg, 1898); db la Sizbraune, La
gtinture anglaise contemporaine (3rd ed., Paris, 1903); Idem,
uskin ei la religion de la BeauU (5th ed.. 1903); Idem. Le miroir
de la vie (Paris. 1902) ; W. H. Hunt, The Preraphadite Brotherhood
(London, 1906); SAaillbs. Bugkne Carrihre (Paris. 1911).
Louis Gillst.
^akaw& Indians, also written Pacod, one of a
group of cognate tribes, hence designated the Paka-
wdn (formerly Coahuiltecan) stock, formerly ranging
on the upper waters of the San Antonio and Nueces
rivers, in Southern Texas, and extending to or beyond
the Rio Grande. The group comprised at least fifty
small tribes — ^few of which contained more than
two or three hundred souls — the principal being the
Pakawd, Payaya, Sanipao, Tilijae, Pamaque, and
Xarame. They are notable for their connexion with
the famous San Antonio missions and for the record
which Father Garcia has left of their language, which
appears to have been used over a considerable area for
intertribal communication. Almost nothing is known
of the ethnolo^ of the Pakawdn tribes, which were of
low culture, without agriculture or fixed habitation,
but roving from place to place, subsisting upon game
and the wild fruits of the mesquite, pecan, and cactus,
dwelling under temporary shelters of brushwood and
grass thatch, and with very little tribal cohesion or
organization. While their neighbours, the T6nkawa
and other tribes of eastern Texas were notorious can-
nibals, this was probably not true of the PaJcawd who,
AMONG THE LOWLY
l£on lbebuittis, 190S, hbtbopoutan ucseuu, new tokk
€
I
PALJBOaRAPBT
403
PALAOGRAPBT
while inconstant, seem to have been of unwarlike and
generally friendly disposition.
The nrst civihzed men to encounter the Pakaw^n
tribes were the shipwrecked Cabeza de Vada and his
three companions, survivors of the Narvdez expedi-
tion, who spent seven years (1529-1636) wandering
over the Texas plains before finally reaching Mexico.
It is possible also that the Pakawd were represented
among the . neophytes whom the Franciscan Father
Andr& de Olmos drew out of Texas and established
under the name of Olives in a Tamaulijas mission in
1544. The earliest known missionary effort among
the Pakawdn tribes id that of the Franciscan Damian
Massanet (or Manzanet), the father of the Texas
missions, who in 1691 stopped at the village of the
Payaya tribe, near the present San Antonio, set up
a cross and altar and said Mass in the presence of
the tribe, explaining; the meaning of the ceremony,
afterwards distributing rosaries and gaining the gpod
will of the chief by the gift of a horse. Throughout
their history the Spanish Texas missions were in charge
of Franciscans, directed from the Colleges of Zaca-
tecas and Quer6taro in Mexico. In 1718 was estab-
lished the Spanish presidiOf or garrison post, which
later grew into the city of San Antonio. In the same
year the mission of San Francisco Solano, fotmded in
17(X) on the Rio Grande, was removed by Fr. Antonio
de Olivares to the neighbourhood of the new post and
renamed San Antonio de Valero, famous later as the
Alamo. The principal tribe represented was the
Xarame. Other establishments followed until in 1731
there were within a few miles of San Antonio five mis-
sions, occupied almost exclusively by Indians of Paka-
win stock, viz:
(1) San Antonio de Valero (later, the Alamo) — 1718
— on San Antonio river, opposite the city. In 1762 it
had 275 neophytes. (2) San Jos^ y San Miguel de
Aguayo — 1720— -six miles below San Antonio. This
was the principal and most flourishing of the Texas
missions, and residence of the superior, with what was
said to be the finest church in New Spsdn. In 1762 it
had 350 neophytes, and 1500 yoke of work oxen.
(3) Purfsima Concepci6n de Acufla (originally a Caddo
mission in ^ast Texas), removed 1731 to San Antonio
river just below the city. In 1762 it had 207 neo-
phytes. (4) San Juan Capistrano (originally the
Caddo mission of San Jos^ in east Texas), removed
1731 to San Antonio river about seven miles below the
city. In 1762 it had 203 neophytes^ with 5000 horses,
cattle, and sheep. (5) San Francisco de la Espada
(originaUy a Caddo mission in east Texas), removed
1731 to San Antonio river, nine mil^s below the city.
The chief trib^ represented were the Pacao, Pajalat,
and Pitalac, numbering together about IQOO souls.
In 1762 it had 207 neophytes with some 6000 cattle,
horses, sheep, and goats. It was here that Father
Garcia wrote his "Manual". The ruins are locally
known as the "fourth mission".
The missions probably reached their zenith about
1740. In that or the preceding year an epidemic dis-
ease wasted the Texas tribes, and about the same
time the jealousies of the San Antonio settlers and the
increasingly frequent raids of the wild Lip^ and
Comanche checked further development. In 1762 an
official report showed 1242 neophytes, although the
missions were already on the decline. In 1778 small-
pox ravaged the whole Texas area, practically exter-
minating several small tribes. In 1793 the report
showed^wer than 300 neophytes remaining in the five
missions, and in the next year they were formally dis-
solved by official Spanish order, provision being made
for securing a portion of lands to the few surviving
Indians, ^me of the monks remained and continued
their ministrations for at least ten years longer. In
1801 another smallpox visitation practically completed
the destruction of the tribes. In 1886 Dr. Albert Gat-
sohet, of the Bureau of Ethnology, could find only 28
representatives of the stocky all on the Mexican side of
the Rio Grande in the neighbourhood of Camargo.
Excepting for a short vocabiaary collected bv him, our
only knowledge of the language is derivecf from Fr.
Bartholom6 Garcia's "Manual para administrar los
Santos sacramentos, etc." (1760), written in Pakaw^
for the San Antonio missions and published in 1760.
Bancbott. Hiat. of the North Mexican Statee and Texat (San
Francifloo. 1886-9); Bolton in Hodoe. Handbook Am. Indt. (Bur.
Am. Bthn. Bulletin), Texan tribal and miaaion articles (2pt8.,Wa8h-
in«ton, 1907-10); Garrison, Texas (Boston. 1903); Pilung,
Proof eheeU of a Bibliography of the Languagee of the N. Am. Inde,
(Bur. Ethnolocy, Washincton, 1885), for Garcia title; Sbra,
Hiat. of the CaUiolie Chttrch in the United SiaUt (New York. 1880).
Jamss Moonet.
PalflBography (vaXaid^ "ancient", ypa4^, "writ-
ing"), the art of deciphenng ancient writing in manu-
scripts or diplomas. It is distinguished from epi-
graphy, which provides rules for reading carved
inscriptions, and from diplomatics, which studies the
intrinsic character of written documents, while pal«-
ography concerns itself only with written characters
and the classification of documents by their external
characters.
During the Renaissance period the reading of man-
uscripts, necessary to the printing of classic authors,
became widespread, but it was only in the seventeenth
century that scholars thought of reducing their obser-
vations to a system and formulating rules for the read-
ing of manuscripts and diplomas. As early as 1681, in
the first edition of his "De re diplomatica", Mabillon
devoted a study (I, xi) to the various kinds of Latin
writing, and gave specimens of these in the plates ac-
companying his book. It was on this model that
Montfaucon, after having worked on the editions of
the Greek Fathers, published his " Pakeographia
GrsBca" (Paris, 1708), simultaneously creating the
word and the thing. From that time, thanks to the
labours of Villoison, Natalis de Wailly, Lipoid De-
lisle, and Henri Omont in France, of Thompson in
England, of Gardthausen in Germany, palteograph^
has become the basis of all study of historic^, reli-
gious, or literary texts. There are as many branches
of palaeography as there are different kinds of writings,
but the science of Oriental written characters is as yet
hardly formed. In general students have had to be
content with determming the place of each character
in the succession of such characters. (See Ph. Berger,
"Histoire de T^criture dans Tantiquit^", Paris, 1892.)
In 1819, however, Kopp, in his " Palseographia Cri-
tical, laid the foundations for Oriental palsBOgpraphy,
while devoting himself exclusively to Semitic lan-
guages. The province of palsology, therefore, more
particularly consists of Greek anoTLatin characters,
together with all those derived therefrom (Gothic
alphabets, Slavic, etc.).
1. Greek PaluEOgraphy covers two periods: A.
Antiquity (till the fourth century after Christ) ; B. the
Byzantine Period (from the fourth century to modem
times).
A. Antiquity, — This period is much better known to-
day, owing to the numerous discoveries of papyri
which have been made in Egypt (see Manuscripts).
The differences between the various modes of writing
are not so marked as in Latin documents. Besides,
the material employed influenced the form of the let-
ters: papyrus does not lend itself as well as parchment
to rounded forms. The chief systems of characters
used on papjrrus are: (1) The Capital, employed some-
what rarely, and chiefly known through inscriptions.
On the papyri it is alreadv mixed with uncial forms.
One of the most ancient documents of this writing is
the papvnis called the "Invocation of Artemis" (li-
brary of Vienna, third century b. c). The words are
not separated from ^ one another, and the uncial form
of the lunar aigma ^ is found. The greater number
of the other letters-^-A, E, P, n, etc.— -nave the same
form as in the inscriptions.
PAUtOGRAPBT
404
PAUEOGRAPBT
(2) The Uncial. — ^The term is borrowed by analogy
from Latin palseology. A passage from St. Jerome C' In
Job *\ ed. D. Valarsii, ix, 100) proves that capital writing
was formerly designate uncial. The term is now con-
ventionally appli^ to rounded forms as distinguished
from the square forms of the capital. It does not ap-
pear to have been definitively formed until the
Hellenistic period, and then chiefly at Alexan- ^ •.
dria. The most characteristicunciiJletterB are: A ^ ^^
(X)
The first four of these letters have similar forms in the
Latin alphabet. On the papyri thus composed (Papy-
rus of Cnrysippus in the Louvre, end of third century
B. c; fragment of Euripides on parchment at Berlin,
100 B. c; papyrus of the Constitution of Athens in
British Museum, first century after Christ), the abbre-
viations are few, the words are not separated, and
punctuation is rare. The accents and breathings pei^
fected by the grammarians of Alexandria appear by
degrees. (3) The Cursive, directly derived from the
capital, the forms of which it retained for a long time.
The letters are joined by ligatures which allowed the
writer to write flowin|^y without raising his calamus
after each letter. This writing is chiefly used on ad-
ministrative papyri for accounts, census, contracts,
letters, reports, etc.; it is found, however, in cqpies of
literary works and a part of the Constitution of
Athens, cited above, is written in cursive writing. In
this writing the a takes the minuscule form, the B re-
tains its capital form or takes the sin^li- s fled ap-
pearance of u; the H has the form of P; from the
Roman period only dates i/ ii the prolongation
of the first stroke of the t*^ * J/^, The majuscule
cursive, which is that of the ancient papyri, is dis-
tinguished from the minuscule cursive, used on the
papyri of the sixth and seventh centuries.
b. Byzantine Period, — The history of Greek writing
in the Middle Ages is more or less parallel with that of
Latin. Until the ninth century uncials predominated.
(Manuscripts in epigraphical capitals were not found
in the East as in the West.) In the ninth century
there arose in the Eastern, as in the Carlovingian, Em-
pire a minuscule which became the customary script of
manuscripts, but which always retidned its traditional
forms more faithftdly than did the Latin character.
The uncial is the chief script of parchment MSS. from
the fourth to the ninth century. Dated MSS. written
at this period are rare, and no more than its beginning
and endinff can be determined. According to the
rules laid down by Montfaucon and Gardthausen, a
manuscript is ancient in proportion as its characters
resemble those of inscriptions. The most ancient
MSS. have disconnected letters and abbreviations;
they incline to rounded or almost square forms; the
letters are nearly always of an equal height; the
strokes are slightly marked; as a general thin^, the
simplest forms are the most ancient. The position of
the initials is also an indication: not much larger than
other letters on the papyri, they begin to spr^Eid over
the margin in the fouru century, and soon acauire
great importance; they are at first black, but are later
embellished with colours. Such is the character of the
ancient uncial, one of the most important specimens
of which is furnished by the fourtn-century '* Codex
Sinaiticus" (a. v.). The same is true of the ''Dios-
corides^' of Vienna, written^about a. d. 506, in
which is found the abbreviation 0 for od.
The new uncial, on the other hand, appeared only at
the end of the seventh and during the
ei^th century. To the square and round €i li V
letters succeeded elongated characters *.
terminating in a point; right angles ^ U. V ^
were replaced by sharp comers; circles a A
became pointed and tapering ovals. ^ p V j
The origins of this style have been
mistakenly sought in the ancient pap3rri (see Gard-
thausen. "Byz. Zeit.'', XI, 112): examples of it may.
indeed, be found in marginal glosses of the sixth- and
seventn-century Syriac MSS. preserved in London,
but this is all. The style appears fully formed chiefly
in the MSS. of the ninth ana tenth centuries. Throu^
all these MSS. is traced the growing use of breathings
and accents. Ligatures and abbreviations become
more frec^uent. Beginning with the tenth century,
dated uncial MSS. multiply. Script, hitherto sloping,
becomes almost perpendicular. In Cod. Vat. 3&i
(dated 949) reappear the round, full forms, which in-
creased in number in the eleventh and twelfth cen-
turies. In the Evangelary of Harlei 5589 (dated
995) the B a&- Ti nsumes jt the ap-^/^pearance of
a Slavic letter D J) , the A and the "Ware orna-
mented with little points, I T we meet with liga-
tures and abbreviations, 0 9 A> for rod and rd etc.
Soon, especially in religious books, round letters re-
turned to favour. There then arose a liturgical uncial
with ornamented letters (eleventh and twelfth cent.).
The pap3rri of the Byzantine period (sixth and seventh
centuries) show the minuscule cursive, distinguished
from the majuscule cursive by the greater ease with
which the letters are joined by means of ligatures, and
by more frequent abbreviations. This script, which
is characteristic of pap3rri, is found only exceptionally
in parchment MSS. : traces of it are foimd in the ninth-
century Codex Bezs in the possession of the Univer-
sity of Cambridge (see Codex Bszis).
Minuscule character appears suddenly in Greek
MSS. of the ninth century, at the very time when it
was taking; root in the West as a consequence of the
Carlovingian reform. As in the West, it was destined
to supplant all others. It has been thought, not with-
out probability, that St. Theodore the Studite (759-
826), who attached such importance to the copying
of MSS., was instrumental in this reform. The cur^
sive minuscule may have furnished the elements for
this character; it appears, however^ chiefly as the con-
tinuation of the small uncial, which increases in re-
finement in the MSS. of the eighth century. Thebce
arose the idea of combining the advantages of the
uncial with that of the cursive, and the new writing
quickly spread through all the monastic studios of the
Greek world. Definitively adopted for the cop3ring of
MSS. and engrossing of diplomas, it never underwent
such radical changes as did the Carlovingian. Its
development may, however, be divided into three
stages: (1) Ancient Minuscule (ninth to end of tenth
century), connected with the cursive of the papyri,
but with the letters more carefully separate, in spite of
the ligatures. (2) Middle Minuscule (from middle of
tenth to end of eleventh century) shows a revival of
the uncial and the cursive. The MSS. of this period
evidence particular care; except for the ascenders, or
uprishts, which go beyond the line, the letters are of
an aunost eaual neight; the words are generally sep-
arated and the abbreviations, still limited, follow pre-
cise rules. (3) The New Minuscule (twelfth century
to modem times) acquires an increasingly obscure ap-
pearance because of the growth of abbreviations and
ugatures. Besides, the employment of paper, which
was partly substituted for parchment, contributed
to make it assume a more cursive character. One
of the most characteristic let- ters is the B, which is
found under the cursive form l^ until the twelfth cen-
tuiy and then resumes its normal shape.
The three alphabets (Gardthausen, op. cit. infra
in bibliography, tables 5, 6, 9) are:
PAUtOOKAPHT
405
PAUtOGRAPHT
for
printed
largi
of the MSS. It was also adopted by imperial or
episcopal chanceries for copying diplomas.
Abbreviations. — In Greek handwriting two sorts
of abbreviations are to be distinguished. (1) Those of
reli^ous MSS. are the most ancient, being found in
uncial MSS. and transmitted by tradition to the
minuscule. The abbreviation is effected by the sup-
pression of vowels and indicated by a bar. The
nouns thus abbreviated were those having a religious
character.
Cuwf^
40O
ei
ee6f
0KOI
0COT6jCOf
I HA
'iffpaijX
reached the Greeks through f|
the West, and do not appear %/
in MSS. before the fifteenth
century. Dates, according to the era of the Creation
of the World, are written in letters.
National and Provincial Writings. — Owing to the
unity of culture which prevailed throughout the ter-
ritory subject to the Gre«k Church, there is no marked
difference Detween the MSS. copied at Constantinople
and those which originated in the provinces. Mgr
Batiffol considers the minuscule in the MSS. of South-
ern Italy (Abbey of Roesano) as but sli^tly different
from that of Constantinople; but his conclusions have
been opposed by Gardthausen (Byiant. Zeit., XV,
T 5r T JTrjIX 177 , been opposed by uardthausen (Byiant. Zeit., XV,
IC 'IritroGs ilWirX 'Itfiowaki/itt 1 (jj 'Iwdrn^f 236), who sees here simply the difference between the
^«.«[; in — work of disciples and that of masters. The same
JrvC JipiffrAt C I POC irravp6t scholar has studied, at Sinai, Greek MSS. copied in
Armenia or Geor^a in the thirteenth century, and
(2) In minuscule MSS. abbreviations are made by has found their writing the same as that of Constanti-
interrupting the word and cutting off the last letter nople^ In the West the national writings, as they are
with a transverse line. For the reader's assistance caUed, disappeared before the Carlovingian minuscule,
the scribe retidned the characteristic consonance of and in the East the influence of the Greek Church was
the last syllable. These abbreviations, tables of such as to prevent the formation of provincial hand-
which ¥rill be found in the works of Montfaucon and writing. In the West, where the monks sometimes
Gardthausen, are by far the most numerous and in-
crease from the beginning of the thirteenth century.
Examples: —
copied Greek MSS. and edited bilingual glosses (see
Miller, ''Glossaire Gr^co-latine de Laon", notices and
extracts from MSS., 29, 2), the Greek writing is fre-
quently awkward or irre^ar, but, far
'- .?.- vi scrupulously transcribe the characters
which the MSS. copied by the Greeks offered as
iW/ (eWypji), €ip/(6ip9Vj?).
Abbreviations by superscribed letters are also found : —
€
models.
It was quite otherwise with alphabets derived from
the Greek and applied to foreign languages. Created
under the influence of the Greek Church, but adapted
to a vocabulary very different from the Gredc, they
became truly national writings. Such is the charac-
ter adopted by the Copts, which resembles Greek
^..^ writing, and is merely a transformation
u (i;s), 'B' (i)^o>@/® (\^"^). ^ (>'»0> ® H ?^m Ir&*"2n'^;5*'iii^ "^ffit:
y^V /• \ m.^ , s. Bishop of the Goths, borrowed, in the
Among the abbreviated endings may be cited :-
Some conventional signs (found tabulated in Gard-
thausen, op. cit., p. 259) are veritable hieroglyphics:
they are used chiefly in astroloracal or chemical
treatises. The moon is designated oy a crescent, the
sea by three undulating lines, etc. (see Wiedmann,
" Byzantinische Zeitschnft ", AlX, 144). Lastly, the
Greeks, like the Latins, knew a tachygraphical char-
acter in which syllables were represented by signs.
Several of these tachygraphical signs, indicating end-
ings, parts of the verb "to be", etc., are transferred
to the minuscule, and some recur in Latin handwriting.
X4r
A/'
y/-
t>
^
(€lV«Cl)
(ICTIV)
(dwo)
tt "> (ov)
-^0' (it)
Numerals. — In Greek MSS. numerals are expressed
by letters of the alphabet followed by an accent. Three
fourth century, the characters of which he made use to
translate the Bible into the Gothic language (Socrat^.
"Hist. Eccles", IV. xxxiii, 6), but he was cdso indebted
to the Latin alphabet; moreover, traces are found in
this ancient Gothic writing of the runes in use before
that time. So, about 400, St. Mesrop, also desiring
to translate the Bible, created the national alphabet
of the Armenians by a mixture of the Gredc uncial and
cursive. The Georgian character, a still nearer neigh-
bour to the Greek, has the same origin. Finally, the
missionaries sent b3r the Greek Church among the
Slavic people, especiallv Sts. Cyril and Meth^ius,
created the Slavonic alphabet, from which the writings
of all the Slavonic peoples are derived.
This was about 855. The Glagolitic
alphabet (glagol, "word "), which Slavic
legend attributes to the invention of
St. Jerome, is probablv due to some
disciple of St. Cyril, wno composed it
with the aid of Slavic nmes and the
Cyrillic alphabet (Leger's hypothesis
— "Cyrille et M^thode", Pans, 1868),
unless it is simplv an adapted Gredc
minuscule (Gardthausen, "Palsog.'\
109). The most ancient MS. in Cyrillic characters is
the Gospel of Ostromir, dated 1057, but there was
discovered at Prespa (Bulgaria) . in 1888, an inscription
in this writing in the name of tne Tsar Samuel^ dated
993 (Bulletin of the Russian Archaeological Institute of
Constantinople, III, 1899).
A-
m
i
(fv)
Con)
(criy)
(rwv)
PAUIOORAPHT
406
PAUBOORAPH?
Latin Paljboorapht. — ^The Latin alphabet is de-
rived, according to the most widelv accepted opinion,
from the Greek alphabets of Southern Italy. Its let-
ters are composed of the following elements, the no-
menclature of which it is important to know: (1) Of
vertical lines called ascenders when they extend above
the line, and tails when they are prolonged below it;
(2) horizontal lines, called bars or crosses; (3) convex
Imes, designated under the name of paunches or ciu-ls.
Thus B is formed of an ascender ana a double paunch,
H is formed of two ascenders and a cross, etc.
The history of Latin writing and its derivatives is
divided into nve periods: A. Antiquity; B. Barbarian
Period; C. Carlovingian Reform; D. Gothic Period;
E. Sixteenth*Century Reform and Modem Writing.
On two occasions there has been a ^stematic reform
in Latin writing intended to restore it to its primitive
purity: under Charlemagne, and in the sixteenth
century.
A. Antiquity. — In the most ancient MSS. (fourth
and fifth centuries) there are four kinds of writing.
(1) The Capital is composed of large and regular letters
written between two parallel lines, beyond which they
seldom extended. It seems to nave been the oldest in
use among the Romans, who made use of it almost
exclusively for inscriptions. The epigraphical, or ele-
gant, capital, similar to the ordinaiy majuscule of our
printed books, was used in MSS., but there exist only
rare specimens of it. Such is the Virgil of the Vatican
(Lat. 3256), which may be attributed to the beginning
of the fourth century; other MSS. of Virgil of the
same period are in the Vatican (Lat. 3255) and at St.
Gall. The only difficulty in reading these MSS. lies
in the fact that the words are not separated. The
letters differ but little from those of oiu* printed books.
The A ordi- A a narily appears under one of
two forms: /l and /^. The character V desig-
nates both U and V; in the same manner I is used for
both I and J. This beautiful writing seems to have been
reserved for MSS. de luxe and for the most revered
works, such as Virgil or the Bible. The rustic capital,
much used from the end of antiquity, is less graceful;
its characters are more slender and less regular; their
extremities are no longer flattened by the small grace-
ful bar which adorns the epi^aphical capital. Such
is the writing of the Prudentius of Paris (Bib. Nat.,
Lat. 8084), in which is found the signature of the con-
sul Mavortius (527). All these MSS. lack punctu-
ation, andin those where it occurs it was added later.
(2) The Uncial is a transformed capital writing in
which the ascenders are curved and the angles
rounded. At first this expression, derived from the
Latin uTtcta, ' 'one-twelfth , was api)lied to the capitsJ
writing itself. Examples occur in the Latin in-
scriptions of Africa, but it is above all the writing
used in MSS. The letters most modified are: A, D,
E, G, H, M, Q, T, V, which became respectively:
An example of a MS. in uncials is furnished in the
collection of Acts of the Council of A(iuileia (381),
transcribed shortly after this date (Paris, Bib. Nat.,
Lat. 8907); others are the Livy of the Biblioth^que
Nationale (Lat. 5720) and several MSS. of the sixth
and seventh centuries.
(3) The Half-Uncial, a combination of uncial and mi-
nuscule letters. The letters E, V, H retain the uncial
form; the D has sometimes the uncial
form, sometimes the minuscule; the N ^ TL ^V
is in capital. Characteristic letters are: *cy>'
(respectively, a, g, r). The most ancient specimen is
the Verona palimpsest, written in 486, containing the
consular annals from 439 to 486.
(4) Minuscule (jicri'ptura minuta) presents simplified
forms similar to the modern characters of ordinary or
italic print, within more restricted limits than the
capital and the uncial. It was used from the imperial
period for accounts, business letters, etc. The best
known MSS. are not prior to the sixth century (Latin
MS. 12097, Bib. Nat., Paris); the greater number
date only from the seventh century. Even in the
Roman period ligatures were numerous. The most
characteristic forms i m
are those of a, b, d,^ 1^ e,f ^T^vt A|W),1t .Tt/
e, f, g. 1, 1, m, n, r, » • » 'l»J» » > » »|
and s, respectively.
(5) The Cursive includes all rapidly traced writing.
The si2e of the letters is smaller, their shape is simph-
fied,^ and they are joined together. From this resulted
occasional serious deformations of the alphabet. Be-
fore the sixth century it was a modification of the
capital ; from this time forth it borrowed its characters
chiefly from the minuscule. The most ancient known
specimens are the papyrus fragments of Herculaneum
(W. Scott, "Fraupnenta Herculanensia", Oxford,
1865), which date from a. d. 53 and a. d. 79; the wax
tablets of the gold mines of Vorotspak (Transylvania),
written between a. d. 131 and a. d. 167 (Corpus
Inscript. Latinar^ m*^) J ^^^ Er^tian pap3rri of the
fourth century (Karabacek, ''Mitteilungen aus der
Sammlung der Papyrus Erzherzog Rainer", Vienna,
1886); the fragments of sixth-century imperial re-
scripts found in Eg3rpt, which are distinguished by
large irregular letters, joined, without anv separation
of words (Thompson, ''Handbook of Pakeog.", 211-
13). This writing was much employed in legal docu-
ments down to the seventh century, and it is found in
the papyrus charters of Ravenna (end of sixth cen-
tury); on the other hand, it was but little used in the
copying of MSS., and serves only for glosses and mar*
ginal notes.
(6) The Tironian Notes. — ^The Romans were ac-
quainted with a still more rapid system of writing,
used to take down speeches or notes. These were the
Tironian notes, the invention of which is attributed to
TuUius Tiro, a freedman of Cicero (Suetonius, "De
Viris iUust. reliq.". 135), or to the poet Ennius. Ac-
cording to Plutarcn (Cato Jun. 23) Cicero had formed
tachygraphs for taking down his speeches. These
notes were not arbitrary signs, like those of modem
stmosraphy, but mutilated letters reduced to a
strai^t or curved line and linked together. Some-
times a single letter indicated a whole word (e. g., P
for primus). The chanceries of the Middle Ages
doubtless made much use of these notes.
There is no pimctuation in the most ancient MSS.
But according to the Greek grammarians, whose doc-
trine is reproduced by Isidore of Seville, a single sign,
the point, was employed: placed above, it indicated a
long pause (disiunctiOf or perioduSf whence our word
penoa); placed below, a short pause (suhdistincHOf
comma); in the middle, a pause of medium length (di»-
tinctio media, colon). In the greater number of MSS.
the point above or periodus, and the point below, or
commay were used exclusively.
B. Barbarian Period {Fifth to Eighth Century). —Mtcr
the Germanic invasions there developed in Europe a
series of writings called national, which were all de-
rived from the Roman cursive, but assumed distinc-
tive fojms in the various countries. Such was. in
France, the Merovingian minuscule, characterized by
lack of proportion, irregularity, and the number of
ligatures. The writing is upright, slightly inclined to
the left, the MSS. are not ruled, and the lines some-
times encroach on one another. The phrases are sep-
arated by points and begin with a majuscule letter m
capital or uncial; the abbreviations are few. Accord-
ing to the Corbie MS. of Gregory of Tours (Paris, Bib.
Nat., Lat. 17665), the a has the form of a ^ i
double c CC and is sometimes superscribed ^ ^^
when it is joined to the following letter 1*
PAIJ100SAPH7
407
PAIJEOOEAPH7
(apud) ; the c is sur- mounted o b v an appendix in
the form of a crosier C; the e is gotten looped and
resembles ^ an8: %, true, also,
of the o:^ O-VT^ secern {iormicam), the 1 affects
cursive forms, I ^^ ; the r and s are distinguished
with difficulty; * • ^'^"^ and t is included in a great
many ligatures which ch^ige its form; the i, without a
dot, often goes above the line. The writings of royal dip-
lomas, thirty-«even of which are preserved in the Bio.
Nat., Paris, differs only from the minuscule of MSS. in
that the higher and more slender characters are con-
nected by tradition with the cursive of the imperial acts
of the fifth centunr. The first line and the royal signa-
ture are in more elongated characters; at the beginning
of the document is the chrismon, or monogram of Christ,
formed of the Greek letters X and P interlaced, which
replaces the invocation in use in the imperial diplomas.
Tironian^ notes also accompany the siffnatures on
twenty-seven diplomas; they represent the names of
persons — referendaries or notaries — who assisted in the
preparation and expediting of the document. The
reading of these, unaertaken by Jules Havet (d. 1893)
and completed bv Jusselin (Biblioth. Ecole des
Chartes, 1907, 482), has furnished valuable informa-
tion on the organization of the royal chancery. Tiro-
nian notes are also employed for the correction of
MSS. and for mar^nal notes.
Lombardic writme, which developed in Italy dur-
ing this period, until the ninth century, bore a great
resemblfljice to the Merovingian minuscule; it was
also introduced into some Frankish monasteries in the
eighth century. From the ninth century it assumed,
in Southern Italy, a more original character and long
survived the Carlo vingian reform. In the twelfth cen-
tury it reach^ its apogee in the scriptorium of Monte
Cassino; it became regular, and was characterized by
the thickness of the strokes which contrasted with the
slender pjortions of the letters. In the twelfth century
this writine acquired more and more angular shapes.
It persisted in Southern Italy until the end of the thir-
teenth century. Its use in diplomas was abolished by
Frederick II as early as 1231. Until the beginning of
the twelfth century the pontifical chancery made use
of a similar handwriting called liiXera beneventanaf char-
acterized by letters with long ascenders and by excep-
tional i^apes — e. g., the a in the form of the ureek w,
the E and J with a loop like that of the O. The Visi-
gothic handwriting {littera toUtanaj mozarabica) was
employed in Spain from the eighth to the twelfth cen-
tury. It combined with the Roman cursive some ele-
ments of the uncial and is generally illegible. Accord-
ing to Rodrigo of Toledo (De rebus Hispanise, VI, 2^)
a Council of Toledo in 1080 decreed — doubtless imder
the influence of the Cluniac monks — that it should be
replaced by the French minuscule.
Irish wnting (scriptura scottica), unlike the others,
did not proceed from the Roman cursive. It is found
imder two forms: (1) A half-uncial, somewhat large
and regular, with rounded outlines (seventh-century
Evangeliarium of Trinity College, Dublin, called the
''Book of Kells''-; Maesyck Evangeliarium, Belgium,
eighth century) . The words are separated, the ligatures
numerous, the initials often encircled with red dots, and
the abbreviations rather fre- 2| quent. i l. Some
conventional signs also occur: ^ (ejus)^ i» (enim),
Jm (**0> 1^ (ai4tem). This^ writing was chiefly used
• f o r n the transcription of liturgical books.
(2) A pointed minuscule, oearing no relation to the
Roman cursive, and also derived from the half-uncial.
This writing acquired still more angular forms in the
eleventh centuiy, and throughout the Middle A^es
remained the national writing of Ireland. The Irish
MSS. are remarkable for the fantastic and rich deco-
ration of their initials (see Mant7Scripts, Illumi-
nated).
The Anglo-Saxon writing is derived from both the
Irish writing and the Roman script of the MSS. which
the missionaries brought to the island. As in Ireland,
it is sometimes round, broad, and squat (especially in
the seventh and eighth centuries), sometimes aneular,
with long and pointed ascenders. The liturgical MSS.
differ from those of Ireland in the frequent use of gold
in the initials. The Evangeliary of Lmdisf ame (£)ok
of Durham), transcribed about 700 (London, Brit.
Museum), is one of the most beautiful examples of
round writing. Anglo-Saxon writing disappeared
after the Norman Conquest, but the Carlovmgian
minuscule which succeeded it was formed partly under
the influence of the Irish and Anglo-Saxon monks who
had been brought to the Continent.
C. CarUwingian Reform, — The reform of writing
undertaken in the monasteries on Charlemagne's initia-
tive was inspired by the desire for correct and easily
legible texts of the Sacred Books. Models were sought
in the ancient MSS., and Servatus Lupus, Abbot of
Ferri^res, persuaded Eginhard that the royal scribe
Bertcaudus should take as a model the ancient capital
("Lettres". ed.' Desdevises du Dezert, Paris, 1888, pp.
60, 61). The monastery of St. Martin of Tours, of
which Alcuin was abbot (796-804). may be considered
the chief centre of this reform ana produced the most
beautiful manuscripts of this period — e. g., the Evan-
geliary of Lothair, the Bible of Charles the Bald, the
Sacramentary of Autim, the book of St. Martin of
Quedlinburg. These MSS. served as models for the
monastic scriptoria throughout the empire, and by de-
grees the Carlovingian writing conquered all the
West. In these MSS. are found the various kinds of
ancient writing: the epigraphic capital, the rustic cap-
ital, the uncial, the naif-uncial, and the minuscule.
With few exceptions, the capital was little used except
for titles, initials, and copies of inscriptions. The
MSS. of St. Martin of Tours show a partiality for a
beautiful half-uncial, but the most important reform
was the creation of the minuscule, which became, ex-
cept for titles, initials, and the first lines of chapters,
the writing used in the greater number of MSS. This
minuscule prevailed throughout Europe in the twelfth
century, and in the sixteenth century, when another
reform of writing was inaugurated, the Italian copy-
ists and typographers again used it as a model. M. L.
Delisle (M6m. Acad, des Inscript.^ XXXII) has shown
that the half-uncial and the cursive uncial, employed
in the sixth and seventh centuries for the annotation
of MSS., may be traced as elements in the Carlovin-
gian minuscule. Among its chief characteristics are:
A sometimes open ^, sometimes closed, and derived
from the imcial 2L; the ascenders L J I Lof the b,
d, 1, and h broadened at the top ^>**' j v ^T^ j ^^e g re-
tains its semi-uncial form ^; the i no longer goes above
the line. The MSS. hence a forth well ordered present a
clear and pleasing appearance. The words are nearly
always well separated from one another; ligatures are
rare, but that of the & (for and) has been retained.
Sentences begin with majuscules and are separated by
points (weak punctuation) or semi-colons (strong
punctuation). At first, abbreviations were few, but
they increased in the tenth century. One of the most
beautiful specimens of this minuscule is furnished by
the MS. Lat. 1451, in Bib. Nat., Paris^ transcribed in
796, and containing a collection of conciHar canons and
a catalogue of the popes.
In documents ot the imperial chancery the reform
of writing was at fijrst less pronounced, and the scribes
retained the elongated writing of tne Merovingian
{>eriod; it became, however, clearer, more regular, and
ess encumbered with ligatures, while care was taken
in the separation of the words. In the time of Louis the
Pious, on the other hand, the minuscule of MSS. began
to be seen in official documents, and soon it supplanted
writing. At the same time it followed some ancient
traditions: it is generally more ornamented than the
writing of MSS., the space between the lines is greater,
the ascenders of the d, i, and 1 are usually lengthened,
PALAOGRAPBT 408 PAUEOGRAPHT
the first line of a diploma is always in slender and becomes more and more frequent, not only in minutes
elongated characters. and registers, but even in certified copies (exp^ifioiu
Such is the system of writing which, thanks to its aoUnnmes). It is evident that the scribes wrote more
simplicity and clearness, spread throughout the West, freauently and freed themselves from the ancient
and everywhere, except in Ireland^ took the place pf traditions. This transformation became still more
ike national writings of the barbarian period. In the pronounced in the fifteenth century, when Gothic
tenth century it was, however, less regular, and it b^ writing took on a national character in the various
came more slender in the eleventh century. The MSS. countnes of Europe. The writine of charters then be-
and official documents are generally very carefully came finer and more cursive, the letters are less care-
executed, the words are well separated, and abbrevi- fully formed and all joined together. At last printing,
ations are not yet very numerous. Beginning with which spread through the West about 1450, fix^
Clement IV (1046-48), the pontifical Chancery sub- the characters then in use. The majuscule letters,
stitutra this writing for the liUera beneoerUana; how- called capitals, used to begin sentences or proper
ever, until Paschal II (1099-1118), the two s}rstems names, are always borrowea from uncial or capital
were emploved simultaneouslv. It was only in the writing. Cursive writing was much employed, even
latter pontificate i>eriod that the Carlovingian became for the copying of books. Moreover, according to the
the exclusive writing of the pontifical notaries, as it temperament of individual scribes, sradual transitions
remained until the sixteenth century. occur between the 'Metter of form" and the cursive.
D. Gothic Period {pwelfih to sixteenth century). — Such, e. g., is MS. 9242 of the Library of Brussels
Gothic writing arose from the transfonpations of the (Chronicle of Jacques de Guise), dated 1446.
Carlovingian minuscule, much as Gothic architecture Abbreviations. — One of the chief difficulties in read-
is derived from Romanesque. The transition was at ing documents of the twelfth to the sixteenth century
first imperceptible, and most of the MSS. of the first is the frequency of abbreviations. This was carried
thirty years of the thirteenth century do not differ to such an excess in official documents that some
from those of the preceding epoch. It is only notice- princes — e. g., Philip the Fair, by his ordinance of July,
able that the letters thicken and assume a more robust 1304 (Ordonnances des Ro3rs de France, I, 417) —
appearance, and that abbreviations are more frequent, vainly endeavoured to restrain their use. Abbrevia-
Soon changes are introduced: the regularity is more tions continued to multiply until the fifteenth century
pronounced, curves are replaced by angles, the lower and they are found not only in manuscripts but also
extremities of certain strokes are provided with more in the greater number of printed books previous to
or less fine lines in the shape of hooks, which turn up 1520. Happily, these abbreviations were not arbitra-
to the right to join the next stroke; the upper curves rily conceived: their use followed determined rules,
of the letters m and n are replaced by uigles. Among Besides, each branch of learning had special abbrevia-
the most ancient examples is a MS. copied at St. Mar- tions for its technicid terms, d writing the vemacu-
tin of Toumai in 1105 (Paris, Bib. Nat.. Lat. Nouv. lars — English, French, Grerman. etc. — abbreviations.
2195, reproduced in Prou, "Palaeography", pi. VII, 1), were less numerous, and they followed the same rules
and a charter of the Abbey of Anchin near Lille (be- as Latin abbreviations. These rules are reduced to a
tween 1116-20; Flammermont, "Album pal6og. du few essential principles.
nord de la France", pi. IV). On the mortuary roll of (1) Abbreviation, by a sigla, or single letter, repre-
Bl. Vi talis. Abbot of Savigny (d. 1122), are found, sents the whole word of which it is the initial. The
among signatures collected in France and England, sigla is doubled to indicate the plural (D. N. for Domv'
specimens of the new writing mingled with the Car- nus Noster; DD. NN. for Domini Nostri; FF. for Fra^
lovingian minuscule. Diplomatic writing follows an- ires). In thepontifical charters of the thirteenth century
cient tradition until the thirteenth century, and re- occur: a. s. (apo8tolica8cripia);e,m. {eumdemmodum);
tains the elongated ascenders, which sometimes end in /. u. (fratemitati vestrce). Siglas, which were fre-
a more or less curled stroke. Nevertheless, as earlv as quently used in inscriptions, were less common in
about 1130 the influence of Gothic writing was felt in manuscripts and charters. Of rather frequent occur-
the charters of the North, some of which are even rence are: e (est), S. (signum, "seal"), SS. (suhscripsi),
written in the characters used in MSS. Among the i. (id est).
most beautiful charters of this period may be men- (2) Abbreviation by interior contraction consists in
tioned those of the papal Chanceiy ; in the twelfth cen- suppressing one letter or more in the interior of a word,
tury their writing had become simple, elegant, and the suppression being indicated by a horizontal line
clear. above the wonL_ (a) Suppresaon of vowel8_ (the
At the end of the twelfth and during the thirteenth oldest \iaed)]_Dn» (Dominus) »ca (sanctus), ep«, nc
century the change in handwriting was more pro- (epiacopiui), apHapinttLs). (b) Suppression of a single
nounced. MSS. and charters in the vulgar tongue vowel :a#id (ajnui), /at (fecit), ui (vet), (c) Retention
are more and more numerous. Writing ceases to be a of only the initial and final letters: pr (voter), mP
monastic art; it no longer possesses its former beauti- (martyr), he (fioc). (d) Contraction of the last sylla^
f ul uniformity, and takes an individual character from ble, especially the termination unt: fueH (fuerunt) atr
the scribe. Abbreviations multiply; side by side with (aliler), m^ (oratioY, of the termination aiion in
the elegantly shaped Gothic minuscule appears in French: Migaon (oUigation). Li Latin and French
official documents (registers, minutes, etc.) a smaller, the final letters are sJways retained in substantives,
more cursive writing, pointed and ligatured. The adjectives, and adverbs.
tendency during this period is to diminish the size and (3) A sm^l letter placed above a word indicates
to thicken the letters. In luxuriously executed liturgi- the suppression of one or several letters. A vowel
cal books, however, large thick letters, termed "letters written over another vowel indicates the initial letter
of form", are used. This sort of letters persisted until* and the termination. The consonants m, r, t placed
the sixteenth century and served as a model for the above the line are used to indicate the terminations
earliest type used in printing. Finally, the diplomatic um, ur, it.
writing used in charters disappears in the first part (4) Abbreviation by suspension consists in leaving
of the thirteenth century, but the writing of books the word unfinished; the omission being indicated by a
takes on a cursive character. In the fourteenth stroke, which cuts through j.any ascender tjiat may
century the writing of ordinary books becomes more be in its way: on (ante) SOv (8olido8),^rinen (paris-
and more slender, angular, and compressed. The ier^sis), amor (amaruni)', in French, lieuteniJieulenarU).
"letter of form" is reserved for inscriptions, for copy- The syllable ram and the genitive plural terminations,
ing the Bible and liturgical books. The same charac- orum, arum, are abbreviated by the suppression of
ters appear in Qffipii^ documents where cursive writing the last two letters; in this case the foot of the r is
PAIJ10OSAPB7
409
PALZBOORAPST
nvenatransver8ebar:CC?|i^ (coram) o^rihiCiJSp^P
Xonieeessorum). T
(5) Abbreviations by special signs. — ^The sign most
widely used is a small horizontal bar, sometimes
waved, placed above the word, which indicates an ab-
breviation by contraction or suspension: nro i^nMitcL),
In the thirteenth century the bar has a ^ • ^
theforms: ^^ Q^ ^^. The signs, J ' ,
represent ^ sometimes the termination
iM, especiaUy in ablative plurals in biM; sometimes the
terminations gt^e, et^ and the final m of the accusative.
Other signs have a more determined value :^ for r;
(k q\ for UT^ OS, tta, and in the North of France / all ter-
y ^ ^ minations in s and, exceptionally, in et. The
origin of this sign is a Tironian note; it arises from the
joining of u with a. The following are abbreviations
of the verb mm and others of the most widely used
signs:
Ease CC', * ^S^ ^Q ^V
•^*^ TC , 'T' and in fifteenth century /j > S » 3
Pub
Obiitf ohitiui, Qj ^^
(6) Letters enclosed in larger letters, found chiefly
in inscriptions on titles of MSS.
(7) Monograms. — The letters of a single word com-
bined in a single figure. This custom must have been
borrowed from the Greek chanceries in the Carlovin-
gian period. The best known are those of Charle-
magne (Karolua) and Clotaire (Hlotarius): —
O f^ ^ Dictionaries of
^^A • j\ ' 1^ abbreviations will
~ \lm,m.^L^ ■ ^ . ^ be found in special
J\ Y fi '^ ■»5 works (see bioliog-
I y raphy). From
Urn J^ ancient times sig-
las were so numerous that, under Nero, the grammarian
Valerius Probus compiled a lexicon of them, of which
only the juridical section has survived (ed. Mommsen,
"Granmiatici latini", IV, 265). At the end of the
fifteenth century lexicons of the same kind were com-
piled in Italy; one of these published at Brescia in
1534 has been reproduced (Bib. de I'Ecole des Chartes,
1902, pp. 8, 9).
Numerals. — Roman numerals never ceased to be
used, and with two exceptions they were placed be-
tween two points.
. IIII . represents IV
8
tt
tt
tt
VI — ^in Merovingian MSS.
M
Numbers were indicated by the multipliers — IIII" =
80, V" =» 100. Roman numerals were nearly always
written in minuscules. The termi-^y%0 nation indi-
cates a cardinal or ordinal adjective : \ 1/ , miUesimo.
The Arabic figures, of Hindu origin, employed as early
as the tenth century b vGerbert, appear in mathematical
treatises in the twelfth century and are hardly found in
other works before the fifteenth century. In the fif-
teenth century . ,-^ -% #% • ^. / ^ ^ ^
the forms of the I (0, > , ^ , f , %6,7, ^.9
mne di^ts are: ^' ' '«-
Tiroman notes and tachygraphy. — ^Tironian notes
continued to be used in diplomas or for glosses of MSS.
until the twelfth century. Latin MS. 1597 (Bib. Nat.,
Paris) contains some tenth-century exercises from the
Tironian manual (see Bib. Ec. des Chartes, 1906, 270).
Pooe Sylvester II also used for his letters a North-
Italian tachygraphical system, in which each syllable
is represented by a sign of its own (see J. Havet
''S^ajices de F Academic des Inscriptions", 1887). In
the Middle Ages various secret codes were used for
writing (cryptography). These mostly consisted in
suppressing vowels and suppl3ring their places with
groups of points. Sometimes the consonants, while
retaining their own value, also represent the preceding
vowel in alphabetical order (b = a, f =e. k=i, p=o).
Chief Difficulties in Reading Medieval Documents.
— First to be reckoned with are enors of transcription,
which occur not only in authors? MSS., but even in
diplomas. Examples of two words joined in one also
occur, of which the most frequent cases are: the join-
ing of the possessive adjective to the substantive (e. g.,
viriaui for viri sui), the personal pronoun to the verb
(e. g., tueris for iu eria), of the preposition to its com-
plement {invUoinui for in vUa sua), of the conjunction
to the following word {silalia for si taUa). Another
difficulty arises from the arbitrary division of words
between two lines. It is now admitted that division
can only be made at the end of a syllable, and there
is a custom of placing a hvphen at the end of the line
to indicate that the word is divided: in the Middle
Ages the same syllable was unhesitatingly divided
between two lines, and the hyphen, intromiced in the
fifteenth century, never became universal. Finally,
before beginning the study of documents it is neces-
sary to have some ideas of the orthography of the
languages in which the texts are written. Not only
had the vulgar tongues (Engli£^, French, German,
Provencal, etc.) forms which have now disappeared,
but the orthography of Latin itself was very different
from ours. Not to mention letters improperly added
to words, and Germanic breathings (especiaUy in the
Merovin^an period), it must be remembered that the
termination of the genitive feminine singular is alwa^rs
in e (raae for roaai). During the greater part of tms *
period, also, the diphthongal vowels ae are written
separate.
Sixteenth Century Reform and Modem Writings. —
One consequence of the Renaissance was a progressive
abandonment of Gothic for the writine of books. The
Italian typographers created the modem Latin char-
acter on the model of the Carlovingian minuscule.
This reform was adopted in Latin countries : in Eng-
land Latin characters were introduced as early as 1467
and by degrees supplanted the Gothic character or
''black letter '\ On the other hand, this character
persisted in German-speaking countries, which have
not even yet entirely abandoned it. Books copied by
hand became more and more rare. In legal docu-
ments and correspondence writing assumed a more
individual character; abbreviations were left to the
fancy of each writer — a licence i/diich sometimes in-
creases the difficulty of deciphering. At the banning
of the eighteenth century writing tended to become
more rc^ar and by the end of that century attained
great perfection. The thoroug^ily individual charac-
ter of nineteenth-century writing renders all palseo-
graphical study of it hopeless.
Oriental. — Rosnt, Archivea paliographiquea de VOrient H de
VAmtrique, I (Paria, 1869-71) (notices on Turkuh. Sanskrit, Chi-
nese, Japanese, Siamese, Ligurian, Cuneiform, American, Ocean-
ian writing); SiLVBSTBB, PaUoffraphie univeraeUe (Paria, 1839-
41); MoELLER, OrientalUehe Palaoffraphie (Eisleben. 1844);
BuRBELL, ElemenU of SotUh Indian PaJao^rapAy (London. 1878);
MoRiTK, Arabic Palaography (Cairo, 1905); Pauboqraphxcal
SodSTT, ed. Wright, Onental SertM (London, 1875), 83.
Greek. — Montkaucon, PalaoQra'phia Oraca (Paris, 1708);
JoRET, La palioffraphie grecque tie ViUoiton^ in Rente tie jAilolo^
(1908). 175-80; Gardthausen. Cfriechieche PaUloffraphie (Leap-
sig. 1879) (still the only complete handbook) ; Thompson, Hand-
book of Greek and Latin Palaography (London. 1894) ; Omont,
Fac-eimiU de fnanuecrita greca d^a de la Bibliotheqtie Nationaie du
IX' au XIV* eiide (Paris, 1891); Idem, Fa<yaimiU dea pJus
aneiena mantucrita greca en oncialea et en minuacuU de la Bibltoth.
Nat. VI'-XI* aiide (Paris. 1892) ; Hevrt, Hiatory of WriHng (Lon-
don. 1907) (portfolios); Kenton. Ths PaJUtograpky of Greek Pavi/ri
PAUtOLOQUS
410
PAUtONTOLOGT
(Oxford, 1809) : Wbbsklt, Studien tur PaiOoffraphie und Papynta"
foTichunq (Leipsig, 1901 — ); Gardthauben, OeschicfUe der
i/rieehisctien Taehuffri^phie im AUertkum in ArchivfUr Utenographie
(1905); HOHLWBIN, La papyroioifie grecqae (Louvain, 1905).
Latin. — Mabillon, De re diplomatica^ I (I'arU, 1601); Du-
CANOB, Ghtarium medioB et infinut latinitatU: Scripiura; Nataus
DB Waillt, EUmenU de paliograpkie (Pari*, 1838) ; Chassant.
Palioffraphie dee chartee et dee mantucrita du XI* au X VII* eiecle
(Paris, 1876) ; Diet, dee abbriviatume latinee et franqaieee (Paris,
1876) ; Pbou, Manxui de paUographie UUine du VI* au X VIII'
eihde (Paris, 1890; new eel., 1910) ; Rbussns, EUmente de paUo-
graphie (Louvain, 1899) ; Blam, LaUinieche PaUlographie; MOi/-
LBR, Handbueh der klaeaiechen AUerlumaufieeenechaft, I (1892);
Qrobbbr, Grundrieederromaniechen Philologie, 1 (1888), 157-196;
Die eehrifdiehen Quellen; Pajdl, Grundriee der germanischen Pkilo-
logie, I (1901). 263-82; Mbibtbr, Qrundriee der Geschichtewieeen-
eeha/t, I (1906), 21-171; Bbbthols, Lateinieche PaUlographie;
Stbppbns. Pal&oaraphie latine (Trier and Paris, 1908) ; MuSoz T
RiVBRO, Manual de paleogra/ia diplomdtica eapafiola (Madrid,
1890); Chreatomaihia paUographica (Madrid, 1890); Thompson
(see above, under Grbek) ; Fbiedrich, Ucebnd Kniha paleogra-
phie latinakS (Prague, 1898); Dblislb. MHangea de paUographie
et de bibliographie (Paris. 18S0) ; Mimoires sur Viccle calligraphigue
de Tour$ in Mim. Acad. iMcript., XXXII, I (1885); CHAMPOiy
UON, PaUographie dee daaaiquea lalina (Paris, 1837); Bond.
Thompson, and Warner, Occvdental Series of the Pakaographical
Soe. (London, 1873-83); Chatbuain, PaUographie dee daaaiquea
latin^t (Paris, 1884-97); Album wiUographique de la Sociiti de
I'BcoU dee Chartea (Paris, 1887) ; Bourmont, Lecture et tranacrip-
tion de.1 vieilUa feriturea: Maniiel de paUographie dee X VI; X VII'^
XVIII' aiidea (Caen, 1881); Gilbert, Faeaitnilea of National
Manu^eripta of Ireland (Dublin and London, 1874-84) ; Sanders,
FaeaimiUa of National Manuacripta of England (Southampton,
1865-OS) ; Idbm, FacaimUea of Anglo-Saxon Manuacripta (South-
ampton. 1878-84); Md8<b dea ARCHrvES Nationalbs, Docuf-
ment9 originaux de Vhialoire de France (Paris, 1872); MusiB des
'Archives DifiPARTBMBNTALES, Recueil de fao^miUa (Paris. 1878) ;
Fl\mmsrmont. Album paUographique du nord de la France (Lille,
1896) : Prou, R^Meil de fac-aimiUa dUcriturea du XII' au X VII'
aiicU (Paris, 1904); Koenneckb, Bilderatlaa der deutachen na-
tional Litteratur (Marburg. 1894) (numerous facsimiles); db
Vribs, AUtum palceographicum (Leyden, 1909); Bond and
Thompson in Palaographical SociHy*a Publicationa (London.
1874-94) (455 plates). Reorganised as The New Palsographical
Society, the same Society has published, since 1903. various speci-
mens of Greek and Latin writing (7th fasc., 1909).
Louis Br^hier.
Pal8M>lo|ru8f House of. See Byzantine Empire.
PftlAOntology (X^or tQv xaXatu^i' 6vT<av)^ or the
science of fossils, deals with extmct or primeval ani-
mals and plants. It treats of their characteristics,
classification, life and habits, geographical distribu-
tion, and succession. It embraces also whatever
deductions may be drawn from these investigations
for the history of the organisms and of the earth.
Palaeontology, therefore, is closely connected with
geology, botany, zoology, comparative anatomy, and
embryology, or ontogeny, wluch at the same time
serve it as auxiliary sciences. The science of fossils
is divided into palsBophytology {fvrhv^ plant), also
called phjrtopalseontolo^, or paleobotany (jSordpi;,
herb), treating of fossil plants, and palseozoology
(^i)ol', animal), treating of extinct animals.
Histaricai. Summary. — Even in antiquity fossil
marine animals attracted the attention of a number
of philosophers who, in some measure, explained them
correctly, drawing the conclusion that at one time
there had been a different distribution of sea and
land. The earliest of these philosophers was Xeno-
phanes of Colophon, the founder of the Eleatic school
of philosophy (600 b. c). After him came Strabo,
Seneca etc.; the earUest Christian observers were
TertuUian of Carthage (160-230), and Eusebius of
Cawarea (about 270-339). In the Middle Ages Httle
attention was paid to fossils, which were generally
regarded as products of a creative force of the earth
(vis plasticat or virtus formafiva)^ though a few men
like Albert us Magnus, and later Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519) held correct views on the subject. In
the sixteenth century the first engravings of fossils
were published by the Swiss physician Conrad Gess-
ner. It was not until a century later, however, that
a few scholars, particularly the Englishmen, Robert
Hooke, John Ray, and John Woodward, vigorously
maintained the organic origin of fossils. The opinion
was still universal that fossils represented life de-
stroyed by the flood, a theory championed especially
by Scheuchzer. William Smith (1769-1839) was the
first to recognize the value of fossils for the historical
investigation of the strata of the earth, his theory
being introduced into France by Alexander Brong-
niart (1770-1847), who, with Cuvier (1769-1832), was
the fii^ to apply the principles of botany, zoology,
and comparative anatomy to paleontology, whereby
the latter became a science. The designation "pake-
ontology", however, was first given it by a pupil of
Cuvier, Ducrotay de BlainviUe, and the zoologist
Fischer of Waldheim. Since then about one hundred
thousand species of extinct organisms have been de-
scribe. Cuviar and his successors, as d'Orbigny,
A^as^z, d'Archiac, and Barrande, however, main-
tamed the catastrophic theory, that is, the doctrine
that at the end of each geologic period the entire fauna
was destroyed, and replaced by a new order of life.
Darwin's "The Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection" (1859) proved a tummg-point for these
theories, for since that time the theory of descent was
also applied to pakeontology. and tonday is generally
accepted. We may especially mention the works on
this subject by Kowalewsky, Rtitimeyer, Gaudry,
Cope, W. Waagen, Neumayr, and Zittel.
The geological and palffiontological collections of
universities serve for the study ofpalflBontology and
instruction in this science, as do also similar collections
in museums of natural history. The national geolog-
ical collections and geological societies have the same
object. There are only two purely palseontological
societies, the Swiss and the Lonaon: their object
being the publication of palceontoiogical works.
Pals^zoolo^ is cultivated almost exclusively by
geologists; it is only in exceptional cases that zoolo-
gists occupy themselves with this science, while
phytopaleeontology is carried on mainly by botanists.
The object of palseontological study is petrefactions
(from xirpotj stone, and facerCf to make), or fossils
(fossiliSf what is buried). Fossils are those remains
or traces of plants and animals which before the be-
ginning of the present geological era found their way
into the strata of the earth and have been preserved
there. Most of the species thus found are extinct,
but the more recent the strata the greater the number
of extant species it contains. As implied by the word
petrefaction, most palseontological remains have been
transformed into stone, but leaves and bones com-
Eletely incrusted in limestone, and therefore petrified,
ave been found which belong to the present geolog-
ical era and are, therefore, not considered fossifi,
whereas the skeletons of the mammoth and rhinoceros
frozen in the ice of Siberia, or the insects preserved in
amber are. The fossilization of the remains of plants
and animals could take place only under very unusual
conditions, for in the normal process of decay, only the
hard parts of the bodies of animals at the most, as
bones, teeth, shells of molluscs, etc., are preserved.
Even these hard parts gradually disappear by dis-
integration through atmospheric influences. One
very important process of preservation for primeval
organisms is carbonization, which affects plants par-
ticularly; it takes place under water, air being ex-
cluded. Most frequently, however, organic remains
are completely penetrated by solutions of mineral
matter and are thus in the literal sense mineralized or
petrified. Generally the petrifying substance is car-
lx>nate of lime, but silicious earth, and more rarely
brown clay iron-ore, red iron-ore, zinc-spar, sulphide
of zinc, black lead-ore etc., also contribute to produce
fossils. The mineralization does not always destroy
the original structure of the tissue, especially in case
of silicatization. But there are still other means of
preserving as fossils the remains of ancient organisms.
Not infrequently such remains are covered by mineral
waters with an envelope, the organic body itself was
afterwards dissolved, leaving only an impression. On
the other hand molluscs, echinoderms, corals, etc..
PALAONTOLOGT 411 PAUtONTOLOGT
have their hollow chambers filled with a mineral sub- sea. At the same timey however, deposits were
stance and afterwards the outer shell is chemically formed by lakes; on land forests grew and land ani-
removed, so that only a cast of the inside or a hard mals lived, in warm seas there were luxurious growths
kernel remains. Finally, the tracks of birds and rep- of coral. Naturally each of these regions produced
tiles, and traces of the trails of Crustacea and worms organisms utterly different; consequently some lucky
which have been preserved as impressions are counted discovery such as that of shells which found their way
as fossils. These are often found with the remains of into deposits of plants, or that of the bone of a mam-
molluscs, as the well-known impressions of medusas mal imbedded in the sea-sand is required, in order to
in the lithographic slate of Bavaria. be able to decide whether the deposits are contem-
The study of palsontological objects is often at- poraneous. From what has been said it is clear that
tended with great difficulties as for the most part the all fossils are not equally important and useful in
remains found are incomplete and their correct in- determining the age of strata. Thus, all remains of
terpretation reauires careful comparison with living land and fresh-water organisms are of less importance,
organisms. PalsBontology, therefore, makes use of because most strata were deposited bv the ocean,
the methods of zoology and botanv, but its task is a Even the marine fossils are not all equally important,
far more difficult one. In the fossils of animals all the The most important are those coznoining tne most
fleshy parts are lacking, and even the hard parts are rapid changes in character with the most extensive
often enough only very imperfectly represented, and geographic^ distribution.
preserved in fragments. The blossoms of plants are Tne most important task of paleontology is the in-
completely wanting, while leaves, fruit, stem, and root vestigation of uie history of the development of life,
are hardly ever found together. Consequently, pals- for it is the only science which furnishes means and
« ontologists have piven special attention to the study in the fosols offers documents to elucidate this prob-
of the comparative anatomy of the hard parts of lem. Only in this way is it possible to learn whether
organisms, and thus discovered important organic the past and present orgamsms form a continuous
lawsj among these should be especially mentioned whofe. or whetner the fauna and flora of the various
Cuvier's ''law of correlation". By this is meant the perioas in the earth's history were destroyed by
mutual dependence of the different parts of an organ- catastrophes and were replaced by a new creation,
ism, which enables us, e. g., from the teeth alone, to There are two fimdamental characteristics of el\ or-
decide whether an animal was carnivorous or herbiv- ganisms: heredity and variation. It is, at the same
orous etc. Furthermore, by the aid of palaeontology time, interesting to prove that the conception of
the material of the biological sciences was enlarged to mutation and with it of the evolution of living beings
an astonishing degree, and many gaps therein were is older than the knowledge of its capacity of persist-
filled. The problems of the development theory re- ence. Aristotle believed that eels sprang from mud,
ceived much light from the same source. Finally Theophrastus accepted the belief that the tubers of a
palffiogeography is wholly dependent on this science, number of plants were formed from the earth, and
as the fossils indicate where there were continents and even Goethe maintained the opinion that plant-lice
oceans, where the animal life of the coast developed, were developed from parts of the plants. With Un-
where coral reefs grew, where lakes containing fresh naeus began the perception of the great importance in
water organisms existed, where the primeval tropical physical law of the capacity of persistence in organ-
forests flourished, and where the tundras of the cold isms, which makes it possible for the naturalist to
regions extended. This not only enables us to fill the or^^anize the whole of the p^reat kingdom of living
outlines of ancient continents and oceans, but also beings into genera and species. Darwin was as the
furnishes the means of determining the geographical opponent of Linnaeus, in that he once more brought
distribution of plants and animals, and the climatic the capacity for mutation of all organisms into the
conditions during the different geolo^cal eras. focus of natural philosophy.
Of special importance is the historical side of According to the theory of the evolutionist all life
Salaeontolo^. As has already been said, William issued from several cells, or according to some from
mith was the first to recognize the importance of fo»- a single cell. Of this cell, of course, no fossilized
sils for the historical investigation of the earth's traces can have been preserved. Yet according to
strata. Before his day they were regarded as proofs this theory we should Expect the most ancient strata
of the Flood. The greater part of the surface of the to be filled with the remains of animals and plants of
earth consists of varying stratified rocks that have the lowest type capable of preservation. This, how-
been deposited by the ocean, by brackish, and by ever, is not the case. In the Cambrian, the oldest
fresh water. Geology studies the individusJ strata stratified formation, which has yielded somewhat
and infers their age from their succession. This can abundant fossils, all families of the animal kirgdom
easily be done in U limited district, but if two districts are found^ with exception of the vertebrates; all plants
somewhat distant from each other are compared, then are likewise inissing. These two groups first appear
it will prove impossible by geology alone to establish in the Silurian formation. The organisms found in
that the two strata are of the same age, for at the same the Cambrian formation are not the lowest of their
time in one place limestone may have been deposited, kind, the brachiopods, for instance, and the trilobites
in another sandstone, and in a third clay. Again, are as highl]^-organized as the present representatives
strata of an epoch which appear in one place may be of their species. In the same manner, vertebrates are
wanting in another. In sucn cases the geologist may represented in the Silurian formation by the trunk-fish
receive great assistance from palaeontology. For the or oatraciidcBf and the oldest known plants are the algcB
stratified portion of the earth generally contains fos- and the highly-organized ferns. Consequently the
sils which are found more or less frequently, which are lowest classes are not the earliest. When by the dis-
so distributed that each group of strata corresponds to covery of older remains the limits of life were traced
a definite collection of species that lived when these further back, here also remains of higher organisms
strata were deposited. * In such a case paleontology were found, so that even here we are very far removed
determines the chronological succession of the several from the beginnings of life. In attempting to find
fauna and flora and studies the mutual relations of the traces of the simpl^ organisms the Eozoon canadense
organic remains foimd at the different localities. By played a great r6le until it was seen that in the remains
this means the contemporaneousness of the various m question crystals of olivin or chrysolite, that had
strata may be recognized or the parallelism of the been converted into serpentine, had produced the il-
several strata established. In doing this, however, lusion of an organic structure. Great importance was
many obstacles have been overcome with considerable also attached to the appearance of graphite in the
difficulty. Most strata have been deposited by the earliest of strata, until Weinschenk proved, at least
PALIBOMTOLOaY 412 FAUBONTOLOaY
for many of them, that they owed their existence to istics of hoofed animals, beasts of prey, and insectiv-
volcanic action. Equally inconclusive are the earliest orous animals. Such collective types as they are
limestones, now that we know that these are still called, however, are very rare, whereas according to
being produced chemically in the ocean. In short, the theory of descent they should be found in large
palseontology tells us nothmg about the origin of life; numbers.
the whole series of organisms, from the simplest pro- In the smallest classified case of minute systematic
toplasmic masses to the differentiated forms found in units it is true palseontological series of descent may
the Cambrian rocks is missing. be recognized, for here individual species by imper-
If we survey the fossils so far known in historical ceptible mutations lead to new species. The best
order, the following facts are ascertained: The earliest known line of descent of this kind is probably the
or primary period of the earth is the era of the Pterin ancestral tree of the horse, published long ago by
do^yiay the ferns, horsetails, and .club-mosses; in the Huxley; but this very case illustrates the difficulties
Tnassic and Jurassic periods the gymnosperms pre- of such problems, for just now it is very doubtful if
VBJXj and beginning with the cretaceous ]3eriod the some of the links should be inserted in the series,
angiosperms. The history of the animal kingdom is Moreover, such proofs always contain hypothetical
similar. Of the artictdata, only the Crustacea appear elements. Besides, connecting liiiks are often lack-
in the earliest formations, insects and spiders are not ing; or parts separately found, such as teeth or bones,
found until the Upper Carboniferous. The first verte- are the only means of completing a line of ancestral
brates are found in the Upper Silurian, these are some descent. A special obstacle to the recognition of true
trunk-fish or ostraciidae, which reacned their most relationship is the phenomenon called convergence,
flourishing period in the Upper Devonian. The first ^ convergence is meant the fact that, in consequence
vertebrates living on land appear in the Carboniferous of similar conditions of life, uniformity of organs of
period; these were amphibians represented by the even of the entire structure can be developed by ani-
stegocephala, and the first reptiles. The Triassic also mals far apart in systematic classification. Thus, for
yields tne first small mammals, which, however, do not example, a mollusc of the cretaceous period, a brachi-
become important until the Old Tertiary period, while opod of the Carboniferous, and a coral of the Devo-
true birds are already known in the Jurassic. Man, iiian externally are much alike. Or, again, in Mesocoic
who appears in the Quaternary, concludes the series, times the reptilia prevailed in water, air, and on land.
Thus, starting from geological antiquity, the fossils of There existed in this period beasts of prey, along with
which still in part seem strange to us, although in al- herbivorous and insectivorous animals, cheiroptera in
most all cases they can be inserted without cufficulty the air, and fish-like camwora in the ocean. In the
in the existing orders and classes of the animal and latest geological periods the mammals took the lead,
vegetable kingdoms, there is found a progressive ap- and placental mammals took possession of all three
proximation to the organisms now existing which is elements. Alongside of these there existed camivor-
completed by the gradual and unbroken succession of ous, insectivorous, and rodent marsupials,
beings more and more highly differentiated. If we study the fossils of successive strata we will
At the first glance this seems to be a brilliant con- notice along with the forms which are g^raidusdly
firmation of the theory of development, but when changed, numerous new forms unconnected with pre-
more closely examined it is seen that the guiding- viously-existing forms. There is, therefore^ a gap
thready which should lead from one point to another, which cannot be filled up by means of small, mappre-
is contmually broken and the loose ends cannot readily ciable changes, as the Darwinian theory of descent de-
be connected. Vertebrates first appear in the Silurian mands, because there is not time enough for numerous
and angiosperms in the cretaceous, but there are no intermediate members of the series. H&ckel, there-
organisms leading up to these groups. Thus we are fore, assumes a process of change which he calls meta-
met by the broad fact that both vertebrates and flow- kinesis, by this he understands '' an almost violent and
erin^ plants with covered seed appear without inter- always far-reaching change in the forms, which cer-
mediate links. The same thing is true of each one of tainly cannot take place m the adult form of the or-
the classes in the animal and vegetable kingdoms, ^anism, but only in its earlier younger stages when the
We see them, indeed, appear one after another in individual organs are not yet histologically specialized
time, but we always miss the intervening liiJcs which and therefore possess a more or less mdependent plas-
would indicate genetic relations among the several ticity". In the shortest space of time such metaki-
orders. It is true that at times animal remains are netic processes can completely change the appearance
foimd which, it is believed, may rightly be claimed as of the entire fauna and flora, and in the history of life
the missing links. The best known of these is prob- periods of relative constancy alternate with those of
ably the aboriginal bird, the archseopteryx. which violent change and new formation. Under these con-
ranks midway between reptile and bird. Its plumage, ditions the individual genera act very differently,
its bird-like foot, and the closed capsule of its skull Many genera of the brachiopods, the foraminif era, the
characterize it as a bird, while the structure of the echinoderms, gasteropoda, as well as the mollusca. the
vertebrse, the teeth, and the long, lizard-like tail cephalopods, and the Crustacea extend almost witnout
point to the reptiles. Since, however, it has been change from geological antiquity up into the present
found that these reptile-like peculiarities also appear time. Other genera, on the contrary, have only a life
in embryonic birds, there is no longer any doubt that of very brief duration. In these latter is perceived, at
the species under consideration are real birds, the times, a very gradual remodelling by mutations, mu-
highly-differentiated last link of an extinct class of tations which being separated into fragments by a vio-
birds. In the same way the opinion that the thero- lent metakinetic break-up, afterwards give rise to a
morpha, a kind of reptile, are the aboriginal form of large number of species; thus the vital energy of the
vertebrates, has not prov^ tenable. At the same genera is soon exhausted. This phenomenon brings
time we now and then find in the record of successive us, therefore, face to face with a new problem, com-
geological strata forms that may be regarded as the monly called the ''extinction of specieil '.
common starting-point of two or of several orders. One circumstance must, however, still be pointed
We know, for instance, the connecting links between out, namely that the variability of the form groups
the four-branched and six-branched corals, or between does not appear to be uidimited in all directions, but
the ganoids, and the teleosts (bony fish), also between that this variability in different families frequently
the two great groups of carnivorous and insectivorous moves independently in the same direction. For in-
marsupials on the one side and the herbivorous mar- stance, there was a tendency toward bilateral sym-
supials on the other. At the base of the placental metry in the animal kingdom at a fairly early period,
mammalia are found forms which unite the character- and individual echinoderms attained it; but it was not
I
FALSONTOLOOY 413 FAUBONTOLOaY
general until the era of the worms. One family of entiation and specialization of peculiarities, which are
worms already had giUs, yet it was only upon the subject now to an increase and again to a decrease,
appearance of the nrnltiscoidea that such organs for By means of this metamorphosis new species, new
breathing were always present. In the same manner genera, and even new families mav easily arise. This
the crocodiles, alone of the reptilia, have a heart di- may exemplify for us progressiyc development, which,
vided into two ante-chambers and two main cham- however, snould be strict^ distinguished from ascend-
bers, a form of heart which is found, once more, with- ing development. The new forms produced to-day in
out exception among birds and mammals. This agree- the breeding of animals or in floriculture, belong en-
ment among various groups, however, cannot be based tirely to the domain of progressive evolution. Hith-
upon a close relationship, out, strictly speaking, comes erto unquestioned proofs of ascending development
a^ under the conception of convergence. have been lacking m paleontology, nor does experi-
If we survey extinct organisms, there are without ment supply the deficiency. We may therefore say
doubt many important considerations which tell for that the organisms of the geological ages are connected
the theory of development. However, the theory of by descent, and that there is good reason for accepting
development in its extreme, monistic sense, signifies progressive development in the several lines of de-
that all life, both animal ana plant, springs from a sin- scent down to the present time. But if we go beyond
^le root. For this many proofs are still lacking, even this and set up a divergent line of descent for the
if we set aside the fact that the oldest organisms of whole world of organisms, or seek to trace all organ-
every family (except the vertebrates and plants) are isms back to a single cell, we abandon the foundation
highly organized, inasmuch as their oldest progenitors of fact. If, therefore, we infer that a general develop-
may have been made unrecognizable by the metamor- ment cannot be established by the facts, we are still
phosis of the earliest rocks and thus withdrawn from within the lines of the theory of descent, for the essen-
our observation; and even if the enormous length of tial conception of this theory is that the systematic
time required for the development of forms so highly species of zoology and botany are not rigid and un-
specialized as the trilobite, does not seem to be suffi- cnangeable, but nave developed from ancestors unlike
ciently represented in the eozoic sediments. But in themselves, and may likewise develop into differently
the later formations also the entire family of verte- formed descendants. It is the business of the theory
brates appear without any preparation; among the of development to investigate the facts and causes
plants to name only a few, the flowering cretaceous which underlie the series of organic forms, at the head
aneiosperms appear without any precursors, and the of which stand existing species. Consequently, it is no
Older Tertiary Drinks without warning us, all ten or- essential part of its aim to prove that development is
ders of the mammaha; even among these ten orders a ascending or that it supposes a single original progeni-
cloeer relationship can be conjectured in only a few tor.
cases. In the pedigree of organic beings, therefore. One of the questions involved in this problem is that
we meet with cnasms which cannot be bridged oyer of the descent of man, which will be touched on here
even with the help of Hackel's metakinesis. In view because it has aroused the greatest interest. We may
of this fact it is hardly possible any longer to maintain begin by stating that palseontology has, indeed, made
the opinion that all life has sprung from a single root known to us an older race of men with very beetling
(monophyletic) . It appears much more probable that brows and an almost total absence of chin, but that up
the different genera oi animals and plants originate in to now no ape-like progenitors of men have been dis-
various roots (polyphyletic). The advocates of the covered. Wherever fossil remains of man have been
monophyletic theory, it is true, declare that the experi- found — and hitherto they have been found only in the
ence of animal breeders and florists shows that new Quaternary period, for all reports of Tertiary man
variations appear for the first time in few examples have so far been proved unreliable — man always ap-
only, and that in view of the fragmentary character of pears as a true man. So far only a relatively small
pauBontoloncal records these first examples may have number of remains of Quaternary man are known (e.
perished. If we were to accept this explanation we g. the skulls of Spy. Neandertal, and Krapina, and the
should deceive ourselves as to the difficulties of the lower jaws of Scnipka, La Naulette, and Ochos).
problem of development. For in every case a whole There is. moreover, the Pithecanthropus eredtMfpaitB
series of intermediate links is missing, and it would, of the skeleton of which were found by the Dutch
therefore, be strange that none of these should have military surgeon Eu^en Dubois in 1891 on the island
been transmitted to us. It would be still more start- of Java. Since its discovery it has been industriously
ling if the transition-links had regularly perished in all brought forward by certain supporters of tJie theory of
the larp;er units of classification. devefopment as the long-sought missing link between
We infer therefore that the facts presented to us by ape and man. At present, however, it is agreed that
the known fossils compel us to accept a polyphyletic this Pithecanthropus is only a large gibbon, an ape, al-
descent. It is, therefore, interesting that zoologists like though there is no doubt that, as regards the size of
E. von Beer, Fleischmann, and Th. Boveri, and anum- brain, he should be placed between tne largest man-
ber of botanists like A. von Kemer, who work in a ape now known and man. One more fact must be
different field, have also gradually adopted a polyphy- emphasized. Volz and Elbert have lately investigated
letic line of descent. the locality in Java where the Pithecanthropus was
Finally, if we examine more closely the individual found, and, they have proved incontestably that the
groups of forms, we see their mutual relations in a new strata in which these remains were discovered belong
and peculiar U^t. For the studies in qu^tion show to the Quaternary period, that therefore the Pithecan"
that the extinct animals and plants, while differing Ihrovus ereclus was a contemporary of man and could
more or less in structure from those now living, did not not be his ancestor.
fall below them in the perfection of their organization. When we look at H&ckePs ''Stammbaum der
that, on the contrary, in many cases indeed, a decline Primaten'' (Descent of the Primates), the pedigree
is manifested. All the great orders begin at once with seems somewhat fuller. In this work the ancestors
highly differentiated forms, so that, with Koken, we of man are arranged in the following order: Archi"
can only speak of a ''modification of limited system- primaSf from which are descended the Pachylemures,
atic divisions". including the LemuravidcBy from which in turn the
Development may, therefore, take place without necr(demures are descended; and these are the direct
Progress m organizations, for all forms which have ancestors of the apes. Starting with the ape the
een classified as belonging to the same genus or the descent is continued as follows: Archipithecius, the
same family stand upon the same level of organization, primeval ape: Prothylobates, the primeval gibbon;
The difference consists essentially in a strong differ- rithecatUhropua alaius, the speechless man-ape; Homo
PALAFOX
414
PALAFOX
stupidusj the stupid man; and finally Homo sapiens.
It will not be uninteresting to examine this line
of descent a little more closely. Both the Pachyle~
mures and the Necrolemures are conceived quite
indefinitely. The specially indicated forms: Archi-
jjrimaSt ArchipUhecuSj ProthylohateSj Pilhecanthrojms
alaliMf are pure inventions, not even the smallest
bone belonging to them is known, in fact there
is nothing to them but their imposing names. Never-
theless, as Klaatsch asserts, it cannot be doubted that
there are a sufficient number of facts to lead every
thinking man to the inexorable conclusion that man
has sprung from the same source of life as the animal
kin^oom. The onl}^ question is: whether, from the
similarity of two beings in structure and function of
body, in spite of what we know of the phenomena
of convergence, we not onlv may, but, as Klaatsch
says, logically must, infer their genetic connexion in
the sense of a blood relationship or of descent from
the same basic form? Klaatsch answers this question
in the affirmative, but we rather agree with Kathari-
ner. whose answer is : '^ At this point our views diverge,
ana all the more as it is impossible to reach a com-
pletely satisfactory conclusion on the origin of man-
kind if we base it solely on morphology and ignore
man's spiritual side. A discussion of this question
based on palseontoloracal data is fruitless, as the de-
cision is too gre&tXy influenced bv the conception which
men have of creation as a whole and of its need of a
first cause, of their views on the theory of cognition,
and of other subjective considerations." Conse-
quently, neither palssontology nor morphology can say
anything positive concerning the physical origin of
man.
When we review the facts of palseontology, we
recognize that this science, while offering probable
arguments for a progressive evolution of the organic
world, can only to a limited desree — even with the aid
of fossil fauna and flora — explain the process of de-
velopment, and that certain phenomena, such as the
complete disappearance of entire large groups, cannot
at present be satisfactorily explained. The question
of the efficient causes of the changes in the organic
world has already begotten many theories, to decide
the merits of which palseontology sometimes assists
us. Darwin's theory has exceedingly few adherents
among pakeontologists. On the other hand, Lamarck's
teaching, developNed by Cope as neo-Lamarckism,
meets with continually increasing acceptance. It
teaches that the development of organisms rests
mainly on hereditary chfuiges. produced by the use
or non-use of the organs, as well as by correlation and
direct transforming influences, while selection has only
a slight, if any^ importance. Nevertheless, we must
confess, with Diener, that ^'in our attempts to explain
the changes of the present forms of life, which are the
results of purely mechanical causes still acting before
our eyes, we constantly meet with the action of factors,
which we cannot directly understand with the aid of
physical science alone. The knowledge of the phenom-
ena of adaptation is a matter of experience, but the
explanation, how such an adaptation of the cell-groups
of a complicated body is possible, belongs to the do-
main of metaphysics. Whether we speak of new crea-
tions, in the sense of A. d'Orbigny, or of the modifica-
tion of the fauna, in both cases we formulate biological
phenomena which are not clear to us in their nature,
and the explanation of which by a mechanical method
does not satisfy our need of causality."
Knorb and Walch. tiammlung wm MerkwUrdigkeiten der Natur
(Nuremberg, 1755-71); Cuvieb, OssemenU foaaiUt (12 vols..
Paris. 1834-37) ; Bronn-ROmer. Lethwa geognottica (6 vols, and
atlas, 1851-56); Goldfuss, Petrefada Germanug (3 vols., 1826-
44 and 1862). and ed. Gibdel (1866); Quenstedt. Deuttehland*
Pdrefaktenkunde (7 vols, and atlas, 1849-84) : Idem, Handbuch der
Petrefaktenkunde (1885); Unokr, Urv>eU (3d ed., 1864): Zittel,
Handbuch der PalAorUologie (5 vols., Munich, 1876-93) ; Idem, ed.
Broili, Grundzikge der Paldoniologie (Munich. 1910); Steinmann
▲KD D6DERLEIN, Elemcnle der Paldontologie (1890); Frech,
Lathaa g9ogno9t%oa (1876 — ) ; Gaudrt, Lea BnchainmenU du moruU
anitnal (Paris, 1878-1890): Idem, PaUontologie philo9ophiqu9
(Paris. 1896); Cope, Evolutioii of the Vertebrata (Chicaco, 1884);
Idem, The Primary Fadore of Organic Ewlution (Chicago. 1896);
Steinmann, BinfUhrung in die Paldontolngie (Leipsic, 1907);
Nicholson and Ltdbkksr, Manttal of Palaontoloay (London,
1889) ; Zittel and Eabtmann, Texihook of Palaontology (2 vols.,
London. 1900-02) : Schimper, TraiU de paUontdogie UgHale (3
vols, with atlas, Paris. 1869-74); Saporta. Monde dee planUe
avant Vapp. de rhomme (Paris, 1878) ; Seward. PoeeU Ptants (2
vols., Cambridge, 1898 — ); Potoni4, Lehrbueh der Phylopaldon^
tologie (Leipcig, 1910); Zeiller, BUm. de paUoboi. (Paris. 1900);
Zittel, Qeachtchte der Paldontologie (Munich, 1899) ; Scott. Stwi.
in Foee, Sot. (London. 1900): Neumatr. BrdgeechiehU (2 vols..
Leipsig. 1889); ed. Uhuo (Leipsig, 1895); Idem, Die Stdmme dee
Tierrexchee ("Vienna, 1889) ; Koken, Die VonveU und ihre Eniwieh-
lungegeechichle (Leipsig, 1893); Idem, Paldontologie und Deeeen-
demlehre (Jena, 1902): DiriRBT, Lee transformatione du monde
animal (Paris, 1907) ; German tr. Wegener, Die Umbildung der
Brde und dee Lebene (Stuttgart. 1909) ; Walther, GeechichU der
Erde und dee Lebene (Leipsig, 1908); Waaoen. Uneere Brde
(Munich. 1909); Diener, PeudontUogie und Abetammungelekre
(Leipzig. 1910); GOrich, Leitfoeeilien (Beriin. 1908—}; Stromkr
VON Reichenbach, Lehrbueh der Paldoeoologie (Leipsig, 1909 — 0.
Periodicals.— Potoon/oto^rapAioa (Stuttgart, from 1846) ; Pub-
lieatione of the PaJaontdographical Society of London (from 1847);
Neuee Jakrbueh fQr Mineralogie und Ptdaontologie (Stuttgart.
1830 — ); BeitrOge xur Geologie und Paldontologie OeeUrreiehe
Ungame und dee Oriente (Vienna, from 1882) ; Traruactione of the
Swiea PaUeontologieal Society (Basle, from 1874) ; Mhn. de la Soc
GtoL de France, Section of PalBontology (Paris, 1890 — ) ; Abhand-
lungen der k.k. geolog. Reicheanetalt (Vienna, from 1852); JPoto-
ontolographia IttUiea (Pisa, 1895—'): Palatontologia Indiea (Cal-
cutta, 1861—).
LuKAS Waagen.
Palafoz y Mandoia, Juan de, Bishop of La
Puebla de los Angeles in Mexico, b. at Fitero in Na-
varre, 24 June, 1600; d. at Osma in Spain, 1 October,
1659. He was a son of Jaime de Palafox y Mendoza,
Marquess of Ariza. After studying at the University
of Ssuamanca he was appointed member of the Coun-
cil of War and of the Indies at the Court of Madrid.
In 1629 he renounced this dignity and was ordained
priest. He accompanied Frincess Mary as almoner
to Germany and upon his return was consecrated
Bishop of Puebla de los Angeles, 27 December,
1639j and appointed "visitador general" of Mexico.
He arrived there, Jime, 1640. He soon came in con-
flict with the Franciscans, Dominicans^ and Augustin-
ians, whose many exemptions and privileges he looked
upon as encroachments on his episcopal jurisdiction.
In May, 1642, he received secret advice from Madrid
to take temporary charge of the Government in place
of the viceroy, Villena, who had been accused of
financial mismanagement and of secret sympathy
with the Portuguese rebels in New Spain. At the
same time he was appointed Archbishop of Mexico.
From 10 June to 23 November, 1642, he was acting
viceroy, but would not accept the dignity of arch-
bishop. During his viceroyalty of five months he
corrected many financial abuses, framed new statutes
for the University of Mexico, and. to root out idolatry
among the abongines, destroyea many Aztec idols
and other pagan antiquities collected by preceding
viceroys.
In 1647 began his conflict with the Jesuits. The
reason of the strife was the numerous exemptions
and privileges which the Jesuit missionaries had en-
joyea in Mexico since the beginning of the seventeenth
century and which, in the opinion of Palafox, under-
mined his episcopal authority. In a letter to Inno-
cent X, dated 25 May, 1647, he denounced the use
which the Jesuits were making of their privilege and
asked the pope for redress. The pope answered with
a brief, datea 14 May, 1648, in whicn he sustains the
bishop in all disputed points of jurisdiction, but ex-
horts him to be more kind and lenient towards the
Jesuits. A second letter to Pope Innocent X, dated
8 January. 1649, more acrimonious than the first, is
often attributed to Palafox, but was probablv forged
by enemies of the Jesuits, as it is disavowed by Pala-
fox in a defence of his actions which he addressed to
Philip IV of Spain in 1652. In May, 1649, Palafox
left for Spain. On 27 May, 1653, Pope Innocent X
issued a new brief, in which he confirmed his previous
decision in favour of Palafox. The bishop was trana*
PALA1CA8
415
FALATINATX
ferred to the Diocese of Oama in Spain on 24 Novem-
ber, 1653. He spent the remainder of his life labour-
ing with his usual zeal for the spiritual welfare of
his flock, which honoured and reverenced him as a
saint.
The process of his canonization was introduced in
1726 under Benedict XIII and was continued during
the pontificates of Benedict XIV, Clement XIII,
Clement XIV, and Pius VI . At the last session which
was held on 28 February, 1777, twentynsix out of forty-
one votes favoured his beatification, but Pius Yl
suspended the final decision. His literary produc-
tions, consisting chiefly of ascetical, pastoral, and hi»-
torical treatises in Spanish, were published m fifteen
volumes (Madrid, 1762).
liUfHa ddta tUa del venercMt tnontignore Don Ounanni di Peda-
fox e Mendogat veaeovo d^Angelopoli t poi cf'Osina, I, II (Floronce,
1773); RoBBNDS, Viday wiHudtM de D. Juan de Paltifox y Men-
dota (MBdrid. 1666); Dinouabt, Vm d€ Jean de Palafox {Co-
logne, 1767), anti-jesuitieal; Banckoft. HxHory of Mexico^ III
(San Fraocuco. 1883), 98-134; Equrxm, Palafox y loa JeeuUae
(MBdrid, 1878).
Michael Ott.
Palftmas, Gbeqobt. See Hestchasm.
PalAlor (or Palliser), Thomas, Venerable, Eng-
lish martyr, b. at Ellerton-upon-Swale, parish of
Catterick, North Riding of Yorkshire; d. at Durham,
9 August, 1600. He arrived at Reims 24 July, 1592,
whence he set out for Valladolid 24 August, 1592.
There he was ordained priest in 1596. He was ar-
rested in the house of John Norton, of Ravensworth,
near Lamesley, County Durham, who seems to have
been the second son of Richard Norton, of Norton
Conyers, attainted for his share in the Rebellion of
1569. Norton and his wife (if the above identifica-
tion be correct, she was his second wife, Margaret,
daughter of Christopher Redshaw of Owston) were
arrested at the same time, and with them John Talbot,
one of the Talbots of Thomton-le-Street, North* Rid-
ing of Yorkshire. All four were tried at Durham and
condemned to death, Palasor for being a priest, and
the others for assisting him. Another gentleman was
condemned at the same time but saved his life by
conforming, as they might have done. Mrs. Norton,
being supposed to be with child, was reprieved.
The others suffered together. Bishop Challoner tells
how an attempt to poison Palasor and his companions
made by the gaolers wife resulted in the conversion
of her maid-servant Mary Day.
Craxxonbr, Missionary Prieele, I^ no. 122; Fobter, Qlover*8
VieiUUion of Yorkehire (privately pnnted, London. 1875), 244,
245, 577; Knox. Douay Diariee (London. 1878), 246. 247; BibL
Did, Bng, Cath,, V, 198, 237.
John B. Wainewriqht.
Palatinate, Rhenish (Ger. RheinpfaU)^ a former
German electorate. It derives its name from the title
of a royal official in the old German Empire, the pals-
grave (Pfalzgraf) or count palatine. In the Carlovin-
gian penod the coimt palatine was merely the repre-
sentative of the king in the high court of justice. Otto
the Great in 937 appointed a coimt palatine for Ba-
varia— and subsequently for other duchies also — ^who
also had supervision of the crown lands situated in the.
duchy, as well as of the imperial revenues payable
there, and had to see that the duke did not extend his
powers at the king's expense. The palsgrave of Lor-
raine, who had his seat at Aachen, was later esteemed
the foremost in rank. In 1155, after the death of the
palsgrave Hermann of Stahleck, Frederick Barbarossa
transferred the countship to his half-brother Conrad
(1155-05), who united the lands belonging to the
office with his own possessions on the central Rhine,
the inheritance of the Salic kings. He made his resi-
dence at Heidelberg, where he built a strong castle.
Thus the palatinate of Lorraine advanced up the Rhine
and became the palatinate "of the Rhine . Neither
the lands of the palatinate, nor those which Conrad
had inherited, formed a compact whole; but by fur-
ther acauisitions. which Conrad made, the foundation
was laid for the principality to which the name Pa-
latinate has climg. Conrad's daughter Agnes married
Henrv the Lion's son, the Guelph Henry the Long,
who oecame palsgrave (1195-1211); in 1211 he re-
signed it to his son Henry the Younger, who d. child-
less (1214). The di^ty passed to the Duke of Ba-
varia, Louis of Kelheim of the House of Wittelsbach;
Louis's son, Otto the Illustrious, married Henry the
Long's daughter, who also bore the name Agnes. In
this way the Rnenish esta:tes of the Hohenstaufen
came to the House of Wittelsbach. in whose hands
part of them remain to the present day.
Otto the Illustrious acquired in addition, one-half of
the county of Katzenellenbogen; Louis II the Severe
(1253-06) received from the last Hohenstaufen, Con-
radin, the latter's estates in the Nordgau, in the pres-
ent Upper Palatinate (OherpfaU, in Bavaria), as
pledge. In the thirteenth century the dignity of pals-
grave was raised from its original ministerial character
to complete independence, and the coimt paJatine,
largely m consequence of the union with Bavaria, be-
came one of the powerful territorial magnates, subse-
quently the foremost of the secular princes of the
empire. The union with Bavaria was dissolved by
Emperor Louis the Bavarian, who after 1319 governed
the Palatinate also; in the family compact of Pavia,
1329, he divided the possessions of the Wittelsbachs
so that he himself retained the old Bavarian lands,
while he left to his nephews Rudolf and Rupprecht the
Rhenish Palatinate and the Upper Palatinate. This
division existed imtil 1777. The electoral dignity, ac-
cording to the compact, was to be exercised alter-
nately oy Bavaria and the Palatinate; but this provi-
sion was altered iti the ''Golden Bull" of Charles IV,
to the effect that the electoral office was attached to
the Palatinate alone, which on that account has since
been called the electoral Palatinate; in return the PaJ-
atinate had to relinquish the northern part of the
Uppor Palatinate to Charles. Of the nephews of
Louis the Bavarian, Rudolf reigned until 1352, Rup-
precht until 1390. Rupprecht was one of the foremost
champions of the interests of the princes as opposed to
the cities, and by his victory over the league of Rhen-
ish cities at Alzei in 1388 ap;ain restored the princes'
authority on the central Rhme. He foimded the Uni-
versity of Heidelberg in 1386. His nephew Rupprecht
II (1390-98) regained from King Wenzel part of the
Upper Palatinate; the rest was won by Rupprecht III
(1398-1410), who in 1400 was elected King of Ger-
many. ^
By the ''Golden Bull" the division of a territory, to
which the electoral dignity was attached, was foroid-
den; this provision was evaded by selecting special
estates for the establishment of younger sons. Sev-
ered lines were thus formed in the Palatinate after the
death of Rupprecht III: the old electoral line; the line
of Stephen, which in 1459 split into Simmern and
Zweibriicken: the line of Neumarkt, extinct in 1448,
and the line ot Mosbach, extinct in 1499, whereupon the
lands belonging to these two lines reverted to tne elec-
toral house. In the electoral line Rupprecht III was
succeeded by his son Louis III (1410-36), one of the
leading personalities at the Council of (Donstance; the
depos^ John XXIII was held in custody by him for
three year^ at the Castle of Eichelsheim; his men car-
ried out the execution of John Hus. He laid the foun-
dation of the famous Palatine Library. Louis IV
(1437-49) was succeeded by his brother Frederick the
Victorious (1449-75), who governed for his nephew
Philip, but wore the electoral cap himself. His reign
is almost wholly taken up with wars, in which he was
nearly always victorious. He is entitled to special
credit for his services to the University of Heidelberg.
From his marriage with Klara Tott (or Dett) of Augs-
burg the family of the princes Lowenstein is descended.
After him his nephew Philip the Sincere (1475-1508)
PALATINATE 416 FALATINATX
reigned alone. The RenaLssance wi|s zealously fos* ceived colonists from all lands without questioninff
tered; Heidelberg Castle, in which Johann Dambergi them as to their religion. Church and schook found
Rudolf Agricola. Johannes Reuchlin, Konrad Celtes in him a zealous patron: the University of Heidelberg,
and others were nospitably received, became the rally- deserted since 1630, was again opened by him in 1652,
ing point of the champions of a reform in Uterature and renowned scholars such as Pufendorf were ap-
and science, while the university remained unaffected, pointed to the professorships. In the wars between
After the death of George the mch of BavariarLand- Germany and France he remained loyal to the em-
shut, he claimed for his second son Rupprecht. who peror; as a consequence his lands simered severely
had married George's daughter, the lands of Lower from the devastation of the French soldiers in the
Bavaria; this led to a connict with Albrecht, Duke Wars for Reunion. With his incompetent son,
of Upper Bavaria^ who found in his brother-in-law, Charles Louis (1680-88), the Palatinate-Sunmem line
Emperor Maximihan, a powerful helper. For the Pal- became extinct.
atinate little was gained by the war, which lasted un- With PhiUp William (1685-90) the government
til 1505: only the city of Neuburg on the Danube with passed to the Catholic line of Palatinate-Neuburg,
its environs was ceded to the sons of Rupprecht, who which by marriage (1614) had come into possession
had fallen in battle, as the "New Palatmate'', while of Jtllich-Berg, and in 1624 into that of Ravensberg.
the rest was given to Upper Bavaria. The allodial lands of the family, however, were
In the electoral Palatmate Louis V the Peaceable claimed by Louis XIV for his brother the Duke of
(1508-44) succeeded, a man of conservative views, Orleans, who was wedded to the sister of Charles
who personallv kept aloof from, and regretted the Louis, Elizabeth Charlotte. When his claims were
Reformation, but did nothing to withstand it. He rejected Louis in revenge undertook a number of
added a number of buildings, the last of the Gothic sanguinary expeditions into the Palatinate, particu-
period, to Heidelberg Castle. His brother Frederick larly in 1688-89, and transformed it into a veritable
il (1544r-56), who for a time belonged to the Smal- desert. Heidelberg with its castle, Mannheini. Sins-
kaldic League, was more ready to give ear to innovar heim, Bretten, Bruchsal, Durlach, Pforzheim, Baden,
tions, but in many respects stiU wavered. Otto Rastatt, and others, as well as numerous villages were
Henry, a son of that Rupprecht who had laid claim to given to the flames. Peace was not restored until
Lower Bavaria, succeeded to the electoral dignity; the 1697, at Ryswick. The son of Philip William, the
"New Palatinate '\ which he now held, was given by ostentatious John William (1690-1716), resid^ at
him to his relatives of the line of ZweibrQcken. Otto DUsseldorf ; during the War of the Spanish Succession,
Henry (155&-59) enforced the Lutheran Reformation he, for a short time, a^ain obtained for his family the
in his lands resolutely and indiscriminately^ and aided Upper Palatinate. His brother Charles Philip (1716-
the new humanistic movement to victory m the Uni- 42), in consequence of friction with the Protestants of
versity of Heidelberg. He added to Heidelberg Castle Heidelberg, transferred his residence to Mannheim
the building named for him, the OUheinrichsoau, the (1720), where he erected a magnificent palace in the
most brilliant creation of the Jlenaissance on German French style.
soil. The electoral dignity and the lands passed to With lum the Palatinate-Neuburg line ended; hi»-
Frederick III (1559-76) of the Palatinate-Simmem torians averse to Catholicism have painted the reli-
line, a family who zealously championed Protestant- gious policv of these three Catholic electors in the
ism. Frederick's son John Casimir fought in France blackest colours. In reahty, if they gave Catholicism
for the Protestant cause; his yoimger brother Christo- the opportunity to expand without hindrance, and
Sher in the Netherlands, where he fell, 1574, on the reintroduced the Catholic Divine service in many
looker Heath; John Casimir's son in 1654, as Charles places, thev did nothing more than Protestant princes
X, ascended the Swedish throne, which the house of have at all times done in favour of Protestantism
Palatinate-Zweibrtlcken occupied until 1751. in their dominions, and, in accordance with the princi-
From 1545 to 1685 the ruling family of the Palati- pie then in force, Cuius regio, eivs est rdigiOf they were
nate changed its creed no less than nine times. Fred- just as much justified as Protestant rulers. The occu-
erick III was a zealous Calvinist; he made the Palati- pation of the Palatinate by the French (1688-89) was
nate Calvinistic, caused the drawing-up, in 1562, of also to the advantage of the Catholics, as the French
the Heidelberg Catechism, and sheltered French gave them complete or joint possession of a number
Huguenots. His son Louis VI (1576-83) brought of churches, and the title to the property thus ob-
about a Lutheran reaction; John Casimir, regent from tained by tne Catholics in many places was upheld
1573-92 for Louis's son Frederick IV, restored Calvin- by the Peace of Ryswick. As the non-Catholics con-
ism. Frederick IV (1592-1610) attained the leader- sidered these conditions and the introduction of simul-
ship of German Protestantism; he was the founder of taneous services in many churches a great hardship
the Evangehcal Union, 1608. Frederick V (1610-23), and made complaint to Brandenburg, the leading
the husband of the British Princess Elizabeth (daugh- Protestant power, who threatened reprisals, complete
terof James I), was a man of boundless self-confidence religious liberty was proclaimed for the three chief
and ambition, and when he took the crown of Bo- creels (Catholics, Lutherans, and Reformed), in the
hemia. offered him by the insurgents, the Thirty declaration of 1705; the joint use of the churcnes was
Years War broke out. The battle at Weissen Berg, replaced (1706) by the division of the churches into
near Prague (1620), cost Frederick not onl^ the "Win- a Catholic and a non-Catholic part. From 1686
ter Kingdom but also his electoral Palatmate, which Jesuit professors were appointed at Heidelberg; after
together with the electoral dignity and the Upper their suppression Lazarists took their places.
Peuatinate was transferred in 1623 to Maximilian of Charles Theodore (1742-99), of the Palatinate-
Bavaria. The entire burden of the war rested for dec- Sulzbach line, succeeded; he promoted the arts and
ades upon the Palatinate; the famous libranr of Heidel- sciences at great expense, so that his reign was later
berg was presented to the pope by Tilly, who had cap- regarded as the Golden Age in the Palatinate. In
tured the city in 1622. At the Peace of Westphalia 1777 Charles Theodore inherited Bavaria; the Palati-
Frederick's son, Charles Frederick (1648-80), received nate electorate thereupon became extinct. Mannheim
back the Rhenish Palatinate undiminished, but had to was given up, and Munich became the seat of the
give up the Upper Palatinate and be content with a court. In 1794 the French entered the Palatinate and
newlv-created electoral vote. In spite of his dimin- took possession of Mannheim, which they were com-
ished resources, he raised the coimtry materially and pelled to surrender to the imperial troops under
intellectually to a highly-flourishing condition. In General Wurmser in 1795, after a prolonged si^.
contrast with his predecessors he permitted the three The armistice of 1796 practically decided the cession
great creeds of Germany to exist side by side, and re- to France of that portion of the Palatinate lying oa
FALATim 417 FALKNCI4
the left bank of the Rhine, which was actually canned These various offices developed from the end of the
out by the Peace of Lune-ville in 1801 . The successor fourth oentuiy, with the fonnation of the papal house-
of Charles Theodore. Max Joseph (1799-1803) of the held. Their functions covered the whole central ad-
Palatinate-ZweibrUcken line, afterwards King of ministration of the papacy, both at Rome and in the
Bavaria, in August, 1801, formally renounced all claim outlying possessions (patrimonia) of the Roman
to the left bank of the Rhine, for which he was to re- Church. The judices wUatini were also employed as
ceive indemnity in the form of secularized church papal envoys; they also had definite duties m the
lands. Tlie Palatinate on the right bank of the Rhine solemn processions and other great church ceremonies
by the decision of the deputation of the estates, 1803, at which the pope was present in person. Their au-
was taken from Bavaria and divided between Baden thority continued down to the middle of the eleventh
and Hesse, so that the g^^ater part fell to Baden, century, when the reform of the papal administration,
After the yoke of Napoleon had been thrown off, the intiugurated after the troubles of the tenth century,
Palatinate on the left oank of the Rhine together with piaeed the cardinals in that position at the Roman
the territory of the former Bishopric of Speyer (so curia, which the judices palalini had previously oo-
f ar as this lay to the left of the Rhine) with somewhat cupied, and the latter gradually disapp^u^ed. In
modified boundaries was restored to Bavaria, 1815, later times the designation palalini has been borne (1)
and at the present time forms the administrative by certain cardinals, whose position brings them into
District of Pfalz (Palatinate), which in 1905 had constant relations with the pope, and who formerly
885,833 inhabitants (391,200 Catholics, 479,694 Pro- resided in the papal palace, and (2) by the highest prd-
testants. and 9606 Jews). The part of the former ates of the pope s personal suite, until very recent
electoral Palatinate situated on the right bank of the times the cardinalea palalini were: the cardinat-proda-
Rhine, however, in spite of the protest of Bavaria, tary, the cardinal secretary of State, the cardmal
was retained by Baden and HeSse and the Congress of secretary of Briefs^ and the cardinal secretary of
Aachen recognized, 1818, the right of succession of Memorials. Pius X has abolished the two last-men-
the Baden-£K>chberg Une, descended from the second tioned positions; the holders of the other two are
marriage of the Margraveof Baden, Charles Frederick, still called cardinales palalini, or "palatine cardinals",
with a woman below him in rank, to that part which but only the cardinal secreta^ry of State actually lives
had been added to Baden, although Louis of Ba- in the Vatican. The pradati vaioHni are: the major-
varia laid claim to these parts of Baden and main- domo imaggiardomo), the high chamberlain {maestro
tained this claim until 1827. The name Palatinate di camera), the auditor of the pope (tidi^ore«afUiMimo),
has since then Ix^n confirmed to that administrative and the pope's theolofi^an (maestro del aacro paUuzo).
district of Bavaria, which in ecclesiastical affairs The last-named is always a Dominican,
forms the Bishopric of Speyer. (See Germany, map; In the times of the Prankish kings and of the Ger-
Speyxr.) man emperors there were comites palalinif counts
PfaiM (2 vols., Heidelberg, 1844-45) ; Pyapf, Gwchichu det PfaU- In Crermany the counts palatme were entrusted, after
grafenanUea (Halle, 1847); Schmitx, QetchichU der Iothnn0i9chen OttO I (93^73), with the Supervision of the imperial
proUstantUehen Kirche der PfaU (Kaiaerelautern, 1885); Qlaa- The Court officials bearing this title, mtroduced
BCHRdDBB, UrkmuUn »ur p/Mxitehen Kirchengeschiehle im MitUl- by Charles IV (1346-78), had Various pOWers, partly
aUer (Munich and Freiang, 1903); Rott, Friedrich II von dor luHirifl.! niirflv n/1minififrAtivp i r j
«W«a»MidwiJe/orma/«m(SeideIberg, 1904);Ix)88SN^ *^?t}^tlJri<7iS^^^^^ a ^ >- j- u - ^
Kirche in der p/aU im AuMffang dee MiUekUtert (MQnater, 1907); . yA*-""™'.?" Prtrnvsa^ d% S, Sede Av^teatdt ^ yffir
Bbrinosr, KurpfaUieche Kunet und KuUur ^iburg, 1907) 'f^^^^'^^O^frtdelBotro^^
Neuea Arihiv fir QeechichU der Stadt Heiddbera und der PftH £1^^. T^**"^- P'^'^i *"* ^•?Trf5£'^ ^ff**^?
(Heidelberg. 18-); MiUeilvngen dee HUloriJien Vereine der f^an.K%rehmrpMieheAbhat^unom^ 1904);
"^ • ' Joseph Linb. JS&e^S!^ (aSSi^g^T"™* ""^ ^ ^^
J. P. KiBSCH.
Palatini rLat. palaHum, "palace"), the designa-
tion, primarily, of certain high officials of the papal Palawan, Prbfegtubb Apostolic of, in the
court. In the early Middle Ages the judices pcuaHni Philippine Islands, comprises Palawan, Cuyo, Culion,
were the highest administrative officers of the papal Twahig, and Calamines Islands. It was separated
household; with the growth of the temporal power of from the Diocese of Jaro (q. y.) on 11 April, 1910, and
the popes they acquired great importance. These ju- confided to the Augustinians. The first prefect
dices palatini were (1) the primicerius notariarum and Apostolic is Mgr. Fernando Hermand y d' Arenas^ who
(2) secundicerius notarUrrum, the two superintendents resides at Puerto Princesa. The Jesuits and Sisters
of thepapalnotorii, who superintended the preparation of St. Paul have houses on Culion where a leper
of official documents, conducted judicial investiga- settlement under government control has been estab*
tions, and also exercised jurisdiction in legal matters lished.
voluntarily submitted by the interested parties to the Caiholic Diredory (MUwankee, 191 1).
S9ipal court; they were the highest officers of the papid
hancery and of the Archives in the Lateran Palace. Palancia, Diocese of (Palbntina), comprises the
Other palalini were: (Z) the nomenculalcr, or admini- civil provinces of Palencia, Santander, Valladolid,
culalor (originally perhaps two distinct officials), who Burgos, and Leon. Palencia, the capital of the prov-
took charge of, and decided upon, petitions to the ince of that name, has a population of 15,050. F16rez
pope. (The nomenculator was superseded in the dates the origin of the diocese from the first centuries,
course of the ninth century^ by the protoscriniariusy Its bishop may have been amon|; those assembled in
or superintendent of the Roman puolic schools for the third century to depose Basilides, Bishop of As-
scribes.) (4) The arcarius and (6) sacceOarius were torga. According to Idatius the city of Palencia was
the highest financial officers, custodians of the treas- almost destroyed (457) in the wars between the Suevi
ures ofthe Lateran Palace, who had charge of the and the Visigoths. The Priscillianistic heresy origi-
receipt and payment of moneys. (6) The primicerius nated in Galicia, and spread over the Tierra de Cam-
and (7) secundtcerius dc/crworum, being superintend- pos. It was strongly opposed by St. Toribius, Bishop of
ents of the defensares, who aided and protected widows, Astorga. Maurila, an Arian bishop placed by Leovi-
orphans, captives, and other needy persons, had^ the gild in Palenda, abjured that heresy wh«i King Re-
supervision of charitable institutions. cared (587) was converted, and in 589 he assisted at the
XI.— 27 .
7U10P0US 418 PAU0P0U8
Third Counoil of Toledo. Conantius, the biographer Saltunsnca. Study be^an to flourish in Palenda and
of 9t. IldephonBua, oniHtal at the syDod held in To- men notable for thdr virtue and science came from iti
ledo in 610, and at the fourth, fifth, and sixth Toledan gchuote, among them St. Julian of Cuenca, St. Dom-
Councila. He compoeed many new ecclenastical mel- inic, and St. Peter Gonz&lei Telmo; hence the adage:
odiea and a book of prayers from the PBalma. He "En Palencia anoBH y cienda " (In Palencia anns and
ruled the see for more than thirty years, and had for science). The univeruty waa founded about 1212.
pupil St. FructuosuB ot Braga. shortly after the aforesiud victory of "Las Navaa
To defend hie new country, Alfonso I devastated (others say in 1208), and the king summoned from
the Campos G^ticos (Gothic Fields), i. e. theTierrade France and Italy noted teachers of various arts and
Campos, as far as the Duero. The Arabian authora sciences, retaining them in Palencia on large salaries.
only once cite Palencia in the division of the provincee The death of the founder in 1214, the minority of
Srevious to the Ommiad dynasty. In the Council of Henry 1, and the growth of its fortunate rival, Bala-
viedo (811) we find Abundantius, Bishop of Palen- manca, caused the decay of Palencia, many of whose
cia, but he was apparently only a titular bishop, professors and students went to Salamanca, whence
Froila, Count of Villafruela, succeeded in restoring the erroneous belief of a transfer of the university to
the see in 921, but the true restorer was Sancho the the latter place. In 1243 Archbishop Rodrigo records
Elder, of Navarre and Castile. The first prelate of the that in spite of unpropitious evente, study continued
restored see (1035) is said to have been Bernardo, who in Palencia and that the cardinal legate, Juan de Ab-
was given command over the city and iia lands, with bcville, in a Council of Valladolid (1228) had endeav-
the various castles and abbeys. Bernardo was bom in oured to revive it. Bishop Fernando obtuned from
. . ' Navarre,
and devoted himself
to the construction of
the original cathedral
built over the crypt
of St. Antoiunus (An-
toUn) , It was rebuilt
three centuries later.
Its principal treasure
was the relics of St,
Antoninus, formerly
venerated in Aqui-
tonia. Alfonso VI
oonterred many privi-
leges on Bernardo's
successor, Raimundo,
Pedro, a native of
Agen (France) and
one of the noted men
brought in by Bishop
BesMido of Toledo,
■iKieeedcd Bishop
Baimundo. For his
fidelity to Queen
Urroca, he
Urban IV (14 May,
1263) a Bull grantii«
l« the professors and
students of Palencia
all the privileges of
the University of
Pans But lack of
financial support and
the proximity of the
prosperous Univer-
sity of Salamanca
made a revival of
Palencia impossible,
and it died out be-
fore the end ot the
thirteenth century,
probably in 1284, at
which time the uni-
I definitely
Teiio who a
liahed convents of the
Fram
prisoned by Alfonso I of Aragon. Inlll3aprovincial former was famous for the striking oonvertnon of
, council was held in Palencia oy Archbishop Bernardo St. Peter Gona&les Telmo.
to quell the disorders of the epoch. On the liberation Amons the most celebrated natives of the province
of Pedro, another council was held in Palencia duricK ore the first Marquis of Santillana, Bishop Inigo L6-
the Lent of 1129, at which Raimundo, Archbishop of pes de Mendosa, the inunortal Berruguete, andDofia
Toledo, and the celebrated Archbishop of Santiago, Maria de Padilla.
Die^ Gelmlrez, assisted. The long and beneficent Palencia is famous for the great Benedictine monas-
administrationof Pedro wBssuc«eeded by that of Pedro teryof S, Zoilo, a rococo monument, the work of Juan
II, who died in Almeria and was succeeded by Rai- de Badajot. Mention has already been made of the
mundo II. Bishop Tello took part in the battle of Las hospital of S. Bamabg and S. Antolin. The conciliar
NavasdeTok>sainl212,'where thePalencianswon the seminary was founded in 15S4 by Bishop Alvaro de
right to emblaion the cross over their castle. Mendoza.
At the beginning ot the fifteenth century Bishop
. «..« - ......... n. Hitioria tmlar b telraidatUn
dt la nadad lit Palenaa: PiAhei, EipaKa Satnda, Vlll Ord sd..
Midrid. 1809): Villaua, C'rinioi smerol dt KtjnUa: Crdniai
dt la Pronncio dt Palencia (Midrid, 186^: Viciirti dk Li
FuENTE. Hitlvria da loi uninrndodu di SipaAa. I CMidrld.
]HS4): CuADRtH), Sjpote. "" tuanumettlot y arim: Paimdm
(BirMlon.. lS8i). RAUdN RuiB AMADO.
Poloopolli (Palaopoub), a titular see of A^
Sancho de Iloiaa valiantly fought the Moors of Ante-
quera, and in the Treaty ot Caspe aided the Infante
Ferdinand to secure the crown of Aragon. St. Vin-
cent Ferrer preached in Palencia, converting thousands
of Jews, with whose synagogue he founded the hospi-
tal of S. Salvador, later connected with that of S. An- , , , _ .-. .
tolin. Among the succeeding bishops of Palencia, who. Minor, suffragan of Ephcsus. The history of this city
asfeudal lords, were members of thenobl(»t families, we is unknown. In the sixth century it is mentioned by
may mention Rodrigo de Velaeco (d. 1435); Rodriao Hicroclfa (Synecdcraus, 660, 4). It is found in the
Sanchei de ArSvalo, author of a history of Spain in "Notitia Episoopatuum", as late as the thirt«enth
Lfttin (146B); the bishops Mendoia (1472-1485) and century, among the suffragan sees of Ephesus. It is
Fonseca (1505-1514) who decorated the new cathe- now the town of Baliambol in the vilayet ot Smyrna
dral; Pedro de Castilla (1440-1461); Fray Alonso de Le Quien (Oriens christianus, I, 729) mentions si
. . . _. p Palencia was founded by AI- don, 451; Eusobius at Constantinople, 536; George at
tnnso VIH at the request ot Bishop Tello TfiUei de Constantinople, 692; Gregory at Niciea,787; Peter at
Mcneses and was the first unlveraty of Sdmo. It was Constantinople, 869; Julian at Constantinople, 879.
the model upon which was pattemsd the University of ^- PsTHiDto.
CATHEDRAL, PALENCIA, AND CHOIR SCREEN
FALEOTTI
419
PAUSHMO
Faleottiy Gabriele, Cardinal, Archbishop of Bo-
logna, b. at Bologna, 4 October, 1522; d. at Rome, 22
July, 1597. Having acquired, in 1546, the title of
Doctor of Civil and Canon Law, he was appointed to
teach civil law. In 1549 he became canon of the cathe-
dral, but he did not become a priest until later. He
gave up teaching in 1555, and although he had many
times refused the episcopal dignity, he became in 1556
auditor of the Rota. Pius 1 V sent him to the Council
of Trent where he played an important r61e. His
"Diarium", or journal, on the proceedings of the
council, forms one of the most important documents
for its history. The complete text will bepublished in
the third volume of the ''Concilium Tridentinum.
Diariorum, Actorum, Epistularum, tractatuum nova
coUectio, edidit Societas Goerresiana'' (Freiburg; see
Vol. I, ed. S. Merkle, p. XXXVI. Freiburg, 1901). A
rteum^ was published by Mendnam (London, 1842)
and Theiner (''Acta Concilii Tridentini'', Agram,
1874, II, 523-580). After the council Paleotti became
one of the commission of cardinab and prelates that
served as a basis of the Congregation of the Council.
On 12 Mareh, 1565, he became cardinal, and on 13
January, 1567, was made Bishop of Bologna; he was
also the first archbishop, for in 1582 this see became an
arehdioccse. His biographers never cease praising his
zeal in introducing the Tridcntine reforms in his dio-
cese, comparing his activity at Bologna to that of
Saint Charles Borromeo at Milan. The latter held
him in high esteem. In 15S9 Paleotti became Cardi-
nal-Bishop of Albano and in 1591 of Sabina. There
also he distinguished himself by his zeal for reform. At
the conclave in 1590 which elected Gregory XIV, he ob-
tained the votes of an important minority. His prin-
cipal works are: "De nothis spuriisque fiUis liber"
(Bologna^ 1850; Frankfort, 1573; The Hague, 1655);
"De sacns et profanis imajunibus libri V" (Bologna,
1582; Ingoldstadt, 1594); " Episcopale Bononiensis ci-
vitatis" iBolo^a, 1580), and " Archiepiscopale Bono-
niensis civitatis" (Rome, 1594), remarkable works
dealing with the good administration of a diocese;
"De sacris consistorii consultationibus'' (Ingolstadt,
1594; Rome, 1596); "De bono senectutis" (Rome,
1595).
Bruni, Vita GabrMia Palaoii in Mart^nb st Durand, Veterum
Mcripiorum et monumentorum ampliaaima coUectio, VI (Paris, 1729),
1387 sq.; Ledkama, De vita et rebw gestia Gabrielia Palteoti (Do-
logna, 1647); Fantdzsi. Notitie degli acnUori Bohgnesi, VI
(Bologna, 1781-94). 242-259; Schultb, Die GeechichU der Quellen
und Litentur dee oanonitcKen Rechta, III (Stuttgart, 1880), 453-
454; Merklb. Kardinal PaUoUie liUerariseher Nachlaae in RO-
miache Quartalachrift, XI (Rome, 1897). 333-429.
A. Van Hove.
Palermo, Archdiocese of (Panormitana), in
Sicily. The city is built on an inlet of the Mediterra-
nean and is partly surrounded, to the south, by a semi-
circle of mountains and hills, of which the highest are
Catalfano to the east, and Montepellegrino to the
west. Among the churches are the Duomo, built
in 1170 by the Archbishop Gualtiero OfTamifflio on
the site of an ancient basilica which had been
changed into a mosque during the Saracen domi-
nation. The walls are decorated with frescoes and
mosaics of the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. In
the first chapel on the right are six tombs of
kings and oueens of Sicily. Other objects of interest
in the cathedral are sculptures by Gagini and by
Villareale; an Assumption by Velasquez, and other
paintings by well-known masters; the crypt with 21
tombs of archbishops of Palermo, and the iabiUariunif
or archives with interesting Latin, Greek, and Ardbic
documents. S. Domenico (1300) , restored in 1414 and
in 1640 is the largest and one of the most beautiful
churches of Palermo; it contains the tombs of many
famous Sicilians, also paintings by Anemolo, Fondulb,
Paladino, and Vito d Anna, as well as sculptures by
Gagini. In the Olivella (159S) there is a beautiful
Msuionna, said to be by Raphael or l^.Lorenxo di
Credi. S. Giorgio dei Genovesi, which represents the
most beautiful architecture of the sixteenth century in
Palermo, has paintings by Palma Vecchio, Giordano,
Paladino, and others. La Badia Nuova has paintings
by Morrealese. by whom also are the frescoes in the
vault of the church. At S. Giuseppe there are two
admirable crucifixes, one in ivory, and the other in
bronze, works of Fra Umile da Petralia, and also
paintings by Tancredi, Morrealese and Giuseppe
Velasquez. L'Annunziata, called la Martorana, was
built by George of Antioch, an admiral of Kin^ Roger
(twelfth century); it is famous for its mosaics and
for a painting, the Ascension, by Anemolo. At Santa
Maria di GeaiX there are paintings of the thirteenth
century. Other monumental churches are S. Antonio
(1220); S. Matteo (seventeenth century), which has
the ^'Sposalizio" by Novelli; S. Eulalia dei Catalani;
Santa Maria la Nuova (1339), which has a fine portico;
the church and the seminary "dei greci'', dating,
respectively, from 1540 and 1734; S. Cita, connected
with the military hospital, which has a Madonna by
C. Maratta; the church of the Cancelliere (1171), built
by Matteo d'Aiclo, chancellor of King William tlie
Crood; S. Caterina; S. Cataldo, which is in the Greco-
Norman style; Santa Maria degli Angeli; S. Giacomo
in Mazara (Norman); the parish church "dell'Alber-
gheria", which has a fine belfry; S. Giovanni deirOrig-
lione; the Badia della Magione, of the Teutonic Order,
which has a Piet4 by Gagini; S. Giacomo la Marina
(133G) ; S. Anna la Misericordia (statutes by Gagini).
Among the secular buildings is the Palazzo Reale,
built on the site of the Saracen fortress by the Norman
kings. It was a mass of halls, of silk and of wool
factories, churches, chapels, and towers; of the latter,
only one remains, that of S. Ninfa, which, sinqe 1791,
has been the seat of the astronomical observatory.
It was from this observatory that Ceres, the first
of the asteroids to be observed, was discovered by
the Theatine Padre Piazzi (1801). The Palazzo dei
Tribunali was the property of the Chiaramonte fam-
ily, but was confiscated and served as the seat of
the Inquisition. The university has a magnificent
portico, and contains the Museo Nazionale and also
a picture gallery with a Piet^ by Spagnoletto. a Holy
Family by Rubens, a Madonna with angels by Ruz-
zolone, etc. Other buildings are the Sopraintendenza
agli Archivi di Stato; the Palazzo Firenze (1578).
formerly the custom-house, now used for banks and
other institutions; the tower of Palitelli, which dates
from the Saracen period; the former college of the
Jesuits, which contains a library (now national) of
120,000 volumes and 1269 MSS.; the private palaces
Aiutamicristo, Campofranco (collection of paintings).
Trabia (art collection and Ubrary), Forcella, Butera,
and others. There are, moreover, a conservatory of
music, several educational institutes, and two other
public libraries, one of the commune, and the other
of the Oratorio di S. Filippo Neri. Outside the city,
are the cave of St. Rosalia, where her relics were
found, which has been transformed into a church;
S. Giovanni dei lebbrosi; S. Spirito, where the first
episode of the famous Sicilian Vespers took place;
I Cappuccini, with its well-known catacombs; the
ancient convent of Baida on the slopes of Mt. Aguzzo.
Palermo is a city of Phoenician origin, the nanie of
which means "surrounded by rocky cliffs". In time,
it came under the rule of the Carthaginians. In 254,
however, the Romans took possession of Palermo.
Palermo retained its form of government, but imder
Augustus b^ame a colony; and the Greek language,
which under the Carthaginians was the predominant
ton^e of the city, little by little ceded its place to the
Latin. The Saracens obtained possession of Palermo
for a time in 820, but in 835 their rule was established
permanently. In 1063, the Pisans made an unsuc-
cessful attempt to take Palermo. Finally, Roger,
abetted by the treason of the Christian soldiers in
PALEBMO
420
PALBBMO
Palermo, took the dty in 1071 , and made it the capital
of his Sicilian possessions. Under Roger II, it became
the capital of the Two Sicilies, and so remained, until
the conquest by Charles of Aniou. Under the Nor-
mans the arts and letters (Greek, Arabic, and Latin)
flourished at Palermo, and the Mohammedan reli^on
was tolerated, the kings being only too zealous imi-
tators of the customs of the caliphs. The famous
Sicilian Vespers (31 March, 1282) were the siffnal of
revolt against the Angevin domination, in favour of
Peter, King of Aragon, who was hailed as legitimate
heir of the rights otConradin; and in the new King-
dom of Sicily, Palermo again became a capital. At
the death of Martin I (1400) Sicily was united with
the Kingdom of Aragon, and at Palermo was governed
bv its own vicero3r8^ independent of those of Naples
after the conquest oi the latter state by the Aragonese.
In fact, the customs of Sicily, and especially of the
nobility, were left imchangea under Spanish rule,
which was therefore peaceful, although the conduct
of the troops of Diego Veru, returning from Tripoli
in 1511, caused a sort of Second Vespers, soon sup-
pressed, however, by the viceroy Moncada. There
was another more serious revolt, contemporaneous
with that of Masaniello at Naples; it took place in
1647, and was caused b^ a famine. The new gov-
ernor. Cardinal Trivulzio, combining severity and
clemency, re-established order. From 1713 to 1720,
Sicily was afain separated from the Kingdom of
Naples, and Vittorio Amedeo of Savoy was crowned
at P^ermo. Afterwards, the island followed the for-
tunes of Naples, under the Bourbons. In 1798, the
royal family was driven by the Revolution to seek
refuge in Sicily, and again by the French occupation
in 1806. The suppression of Sicilian autonomy was
the cause of several revolutionary movements at
Pidermo. In that of 1820-21, a governing commis-
sion was created, with Cardinal Gravina at its head;
on this occasion peace was re-established with Aus-
trian aid. In 1848 a provimonal government was
established that offered the crown of Sicily to Ferdi-
nand of Savoy, who, however, did not accept it.
General Filangieri retook Palermo fourteen months
later; and finally. Garibaldi overthrew the Bourbon
government, and substituted for it, not the autonomy
of Sicily, but the annexation of the island to the King-
dom of Italy. A last movement in favour of inde-
pendence was made in 1866, but was quelled in its
Demnning.
Christianity was preached at an early date in
Palermo. According to Prsedestinatus (I, 6), its
bishop, Theodorus, together with the Bishop of
Lilybseum, condemned the heresy of Heracieon,
Theodorus being a contemporary of Pope St. Alex-
ander (second decade of the eleventh century); his
gredecessor, it is said, was St. Philippus. The bishop,
t. Mamilianas, who is said to have suffered martyr-
dom under Diocletian, and whose relics are preserved
in the cathedral, may be identical with St. Mami-
lianus, whom the Vandals relegated to the island of
Monte Cristo in 450. Other martyrs under Diocle-
tian were Claudius, Sabinus, and Maximus. Among
the bishops were Gratianus, 503, Victor who died in
603, and Joannes, 603 (St. Gregory the Great was in
correspondence with the two last named), Felix, 649,
and Theodorus, 787. During the Saracen domina-
tion there appears to have been no bishop of Palermo:
it was in that period (828) that SS. Philaretus ana
Oliva suffered martyrdom. In 1049, Leo IX sent to
Sicily, as archbishop, the Humbertus who, later, be-
came Cardinal Bisnop of Silva Candida; but the
Normans, then enemies of the pope, prevented the
archbishop from landins. In 1065, Bishop Nicodemus
was appointed. Other bishops were Alcherius (1083) ;
Gualterius (1113), the first to bear the title of arch-
bishop, although the pallium had been sent to Joannes
(603); Stephimus (1166), compelled by his enemies
to resign; Gualiiero Offamiglio (of the MiO), an
Englishman, who died in 1191; Bartolomeo (1201),
brother of the preceding, who was sent into, exile;
Gualtiero da Poiena, who was appointed in 1201 by
Innocent III and transferred to Catania^ Parisius
being installed in his stead; Berardo di Castaca
(1214-52), a ereat diplomat and a mediator between
the popes and Frederick II; licio de CoUe (1296), a
benefactor of the cathedral; Bartolomeo da Antiochia
(1305); Francesco da Antiochia (1311); Giovanni
Orsini (1320); Matteo Orsini (1371); Nicold d'Agri-
fl^nto, O. Mm. (1383); Lodovico Bonnito (1387) and
Giliforte Riccobono (1397), both persecuted by the
Chiaramonte faction; Nicold da Tudisco (1434-1445),
a great canonist (Panormitanus) and one of the
pillars of the Council of Basle, who became a cardinal
of the antipope, Felix V; Simone Beccatclli (1445),
a generous restorer of the cathedral and of other
churches; Nicold Puxades (1466), who caused the
stalls of the choir of the cathedral to be adorned with
inlaid work; Giovanni Borghi (1467), who had b^n
a famous physician; Filippo (1474), who was a
nephew of King Ferdinand, and died under the walls
of Granada in 1488: Cardinal Pietro, C>)unt of Foix,
O. Min. (1485); Cardinal Tommaso de Vio, O.P.
(Caietanus), who was elected in 1519, but not recog-
nized by Charles V, the pope not recognizing Gio-
vanni Carandolet, the king's candidate: Ottaviano
Preconi, O. Min. (1562), zealous for the ciecoration of
the churches; Cesare Marulli (1578), who founded
the seminary; Cardinal Giannetto Doria (1609-42),
who was for a time viceroy and reformed the nuns,
and distinguished himself for his charity during the
famine of 1624; Martin de Leon y Cardenas (1650),
who donated the beautiful tabernacle of the cathedral;
Pietro Martinez Rubio (1656), who was noted for his
charity and obtuned the use of the mitre for his
canons; Cardinal Domenico Pignatelli (1802); Car-
dinal Pietro Gravina (1816); Cardinal Gaetano M.
Trigona e Parisi (1832); Cardinal Ferdinando M.
Pignatelli (1839), who had been a general of the
Theatines; Cardinal Geremia Celesia (1871-1904).
Cefalii, Mazzara, and Trapani, are the suffragans
of Palermo; the archdiocese has 50 parishes, with
444,982 inhabitants, 18 reUnous houses of men and
24 of women, 12 educational establishments for male
students and 27 for girls, and 1 Catholic daily paper.
PiBRi, Sicilia aaera (Palermo, 1735); Cappbllbtti, Le ehiM§
d^IteUia, XXI; MoNorroRB, Palermo MtUificato (Palermo, ad ed.,
1888); Di Giovanni, Topografia antica di Palermo (Palermo,
1899) ; Di Bartolo, Monografia nUla eaUedrale di Palermo (Pa-
lermo, 1903) ; Annuario deW arehidioeeei di Palermo (1906).
U. Beniqni.
University of Palbrmo — ^The Convent of St.
Dominic of Palermo may be considered the nucleus of
the future University of Palermo. In this convent in-
struction was given in theology and philosophy, not
only for the Dominicans, but also for the puoUc. In
1469 Father Tommaso Schifaldo gave lessons there in
Jjatin literature. A theological lecturer. Father Salvo
Cassetta^ had so large a following that he lectured in
the pubhc square; he was also well versed in mathe-
matics. In 1553 the commune wished to have a
medical school and called upon the famous Gianfilippo
Ingrassia. His lectures too were delivered at the
Convent of St. Dominic. In 1555 the commune also
engaged Dominican professors of philosophy, includ*
ing the historian Fazello. The chair of jurispru-
dence was founded in 1556, and the first professor was
Geo. Ant. de Contovo. At the end of the sixteenth
century nothing more was heard of the Dominican
School. From 1591, philosophy and theolo^ were
taught in the Jesuit College (founded in 1550). In
1599 the number of chairs was increased. The ool-
leee had the right of conferring de^ees in these two
sciences. The courses of the Jesuits were well at-
ioided.
PALK8TI2VB 421 FAUSTSINA
' In 1632 the Jesuit Pietio Salerno, gave his patri- ooes. In the Church of St. Rosalia (1677) there is an
mony to the university which was about to be estab- admirable Pietil, carved in the solid rock. Palestrina
fished in the college of the order. The royal conces- is the birtJiplace of the archsBologist Andrea Fulvio and
sion was obtained and furthermore a contention arose of the prince of sacred music, Giovanni Pierluigi da
between the rector of the college and the archbishop, Palestrma. The oldest Christian record of this city
each of whom desired to be chancellor ; this controversy relates to the martyrdom of St. Agapitus, patron of the
hindered the formation of the university itself, that cathedral, which took place under Aurelian; this basil-
is, of the two other faculties, law and medicine, ica was restored and enriched with costly gifts by Leo
Courses in medicine were given until 1621 in the III. Secundus, Bishop of Palestrina, was at the Coun-
Si>^ale Grande (Academy of Anatomy) through the cil of Rome (313), and the names of several other of its
initiative of Dr. Baldassare Grassia. On the failure bishops in ancient times are known. From the sixUi
of this, another similar course began in 1645, in tlie century there was a flourishing monastery on the site
house of Camillini, which course continued, sup- of Castel S. Pietro, overlookmgthe city. After the
plemented by instruction in mathematics. On the seventh century, the Bishop of Palestrina was one of
suppression of the Jesuits, their college was entrusted the hebdomadary prelates for the services of the
to secular priests. In 1777 the Senate of Palermo Lateran basilica, and was, therefore, a cardinal; he is
began to erect a complete university, which was es- the fourth, in order, of the cardinal-bishops,
tablished 1779 with three chairs in theology, four in Among the prelates of this see may be mentioned
law, six in medicine, seven in philosophy and the natu- Gregory, who m 757 consecrated the antipope Con-
ral sciences. The great professors were Spedalieri in stantine; Andreas, legate of Adrian I to King Desi-
philosophy, Cari in law, Sergio in political economy, derius, in 772; Petrus (996), the first to bear the title
Father Bernardino d'Ugria and the Benedictine Eu- of cardinal; Uberto (1073), legate of Gregorv VII to
tichio Barone in the natural sciences, MarongUa in Henry IV; Conon (1111), who embellish^ the crypt
mathematics. In 1780 new chairs were added, and of St. Affapitus; S. Stefano (1122), a Cistercian monk,
in the following year the university acquired the right praised oy St. Bernard and John of Salisbury for his
of conferring degrees. In 1805 it was enacted that piety; Guarino Guarini (1144), a Regular Canon of St.
the rectors should be taken from the Theatine Order Augustine, famous for his virtues; Manf redo (1166)
which furnished many renowned professors, e. g., the who persuaded Barbarossa to become reconciled with
astronomer Piazzi (1786). When the Jesuit Order Alexander III; Paolo Scolari (1181), later Clement
was re-established, the academy had to change its m» Blessed Guido de Pare (1196), a Cistercian; Ja-
place; but it was also in that year (1805) that the said copo Pecoraria (1231); Stefano III (1244), previously
academy took the name of universil^. Among the Archbishop of Granj Girolamo d'Asooh (1278). a
professors we may mention: Scina, Gorgone. Amari, Franciscan, later Nicholas IV; Pietro d'Anablay
Ugdulene, and the late Canizarro (1826-1910). (1306), Grand Chancellor of France; Simon de Lang-
The imiversity has the usual four faculties of ^^^^ (1376), an Englishman. During the schism, the
jurisprudence, medicine, letters, and philosophy and Pppes of Avimon, also, appointed cardinal-bishops of
sciences, besides a practical school for engineers and I'&lestrina. Thereafter, as a result of the custom that
a school of pharmacy. It has also a botanical garden, S&ve to cardinal-bishops the option of selectine an-
a cabinet of physics, including chemistry, mineralogy, other suburbicarian see, the rule of the prelates of Pal-
geology, physiology, and anatomy, an astronomical estrina was of short duration. Among those who fol-
observatory, various cfinics and an archaeological lowed were Hugues de Lusignan (1431), a brother of
museum. The number of students in 1909 was 1535; the King of C^rprus; Gugfielmo Brissonette (1507),
regular professors, 68; special professors. 111. It deposed by Juhus II for attending the conciUabule of
supports 84 chairs, and more than 123 teachers. Piaa,; I/)renzo Campeggio (1535); Gianvicenzo Carafa
Jampolo, La R. Aeeademia tUgfi Studi d% Palermo (Palermo, (1539); Giovanni M. del Monte (1543), later Jufius
1888): AuM, Svr Ptmirwfum ptMiqite en SieUe et particuliire- TTT- Louis de Bourbon ^fiSOV Fpdprinn nAai M«i«i7V
merU aur V UniveraiU de Palermo (Pm, 1872). p^.' IXJUIB ae '^""^jj^ UOOU; , r CaencO l^esi U&a?; ,
IT RiBVTrtMf GiovanmMorone (1562) ;CnstoforoMadruzzi (1564);
^ , _, „ ^ ^ MNiONi. Qj^ Antonio SerbeUoni (1578); Marcantonio Co^
Paleitina. See Geoqrapht, Bibucal. lonna (1587) ; Alessandro Medici (1602), later Leo XI ;
i>i^i««4^«i. Tkr^r^^^ ^™ /i>»-.™.««. N -.V Guido Bentivoglio (1641); Alfonso de la Queva (1644):
frlfff^fJi^Zfh^lr^^^^ ^^"i A°*<>^^ Barbefini (1661) who founded Qie seminarjJ
^T ^ ^K ^^^' f iJ^® ^f?"^^ ^1 ^^^^'^'.J^i?.^ Paiujao Altieri (1691); Girolamo Spinola (1775)
T^f^an.* f L'^rilli* o? wh^;.^*^??! ^i^^^ )?^ A^«« Rovarella (1809 , who died an exUe in Franci
Labicana the ongm of which was attnbuted by the in 1812; Diego Caraodolo (1814); Giuseppe Spini
?f?r"«^^J^^.^:J?^^K^^^^^ (1820); 'CaZccio CastracW ^egli ^AS^hniSdU
lL?„£^.?^!i???i?o^%!?J^.?"yo^^^^^ (1844).' The sanctuary of Our Lady^of Good Counsel
the Romans, who ridiculed the language and the roueh Marucchi. Guida arekeol. deU* antiea PraneeU (Rome, 1885) I
manners of its inhabitants. The modem town is buSJ Ckcoot, 5<oria A* PaZ««nna (A«soli. 1756).
on the ruins of the famous temple of Fortuna Primi- ^' Bbnioni.
??S'*- o^T"S ^e eleventh century it was a fief of the PalMtaina, Giovanni PiBRLmoi da, the greatest
Colonna, and a ref uge m theur rebelhons aeamst the composer, of Uturgical music of all time b. at Pales-
popes ,wnsequ^tly, it wsa several tim« destroyed, trina (ancient Praneste) in 1514 or 1515 according to
riZl^-'^K rt ?^ ^?{f*^ ^"^' ^^ J^J*^' >^ »^^i' Riemann, and others, according to HaberH S
Giovanm Vitelleschi, at the command of Eujgemus 1526; d. at Rome. 2 Februanr, 1594. His early history
'^A u Z^ ^^^^ ^ It?^' ^Y^J^ l^^' *"^ <^"- ^ practically unknown. Giusseppi Ottavia Pittom
Ew ^^tJ^RSiSnf ^K*'."" ^^\ ?^ ^^* ^^^*1 (1657-1743),'^in "Notizie dei imStri di cappella ^di
TOld to the Barbenm. The town contains remnants of Roma che altramontani, 1500-1700 ", a manuscript in
SSSS^ ^^ *fuJ^ ?\f a^2'*^'^'*?^* *^Pl® ^^ ^^ Vatican, relates that young Pierluigi sang in the
Fortune. The cathedral has fine pamtmgs and free- streetsof Rome while offering for sale the products of
PAUSTBINA
422
PALBSTBINA
his parents' fann and that he was heard on such an disciple, he cuned that insight into the spirit of the
occasion by the choir-maaterof Santa Maria MBKEiore, liturgy, which enabled him to set it forth in polyphonic
who, impressed by the bov'a beautiful voice antTpro- music as it had never before been done. It was bis
nouDced muaieal talent, educated him musically. As spiritual formation even more than his artistic ma-
te the identity of the choir-master, tradition gives no turity, which fitted him for the providenticil part he
ciue. Some hold that Palestrina was taught by plavcd in the refonu of church music.
Jacques Arcadelt (1514-60), choir-master and com- The task of hastening the reforms decreed by the
' " e from 1639 to 1549. The opinion, so Council of Trent was entrusted by Pius IV to a com-
' ' * mission of eight cardinals. A committee of two of
these, St. Charlee Bonomeo and Vitelloso Vitelli, was
appomled to consider certain improvements in the dis-
cipline and administration of tbe papal choir, and t^
poser
long held, that Qaude Goudimel (1505-72)
principal teacher has now been definitively abandoned.
As far as is known, he began his active musical life as
organist and choir-master in his native city in 1544; __^
his reputation increasing, in 1651 he was called to this end they associated to themselves eight of the
Rome, entrusted with the direction and musical for- choir members. Cardinal Vitelli caused the singers
mationof the choir-boys at St. Peter's, and within the to perform certain compositions in his presence, in
same year was advanced to the post of choir-master, order to determine what measures could be taken for
In 1554 he dedicated to Julius JIJ (1549-56) his first the preservation of the inte^ty and distinct declama-
for four voices, and tioD of the teitt in compoertions
compositions, a volume of
was rewuded with the uu-
pointment as a member of the
papal chapel in contravention
of the nues governing that
body. The pope had set aside
the rule requiring those who
held membership in the papal
choir to be in Holy orders,
and also used his authority to
exempt him from the usually
severe entrance examination.
These circumstances and the
further fact that his voice was
much inferior to those of the
other singers, aroused the op-
position and antagonism of
his fellow-members. The
papal singers did not appre-
ciate the object of the pope,
which was to secure for the
gifted ^oung man the neces-
sary leisure to compose.
In the course of the same
year, Palestrina published a
volume of madrigals. The
texts of some of these the com-
poser himself in later years con-
sidered too free. In the dedi-
cation of his setting of the
Canticle of Canticles to Greg-
ory XllI, he expresses not only
regret but repentance, for hav-
ing caused scandal by this inea.
publication. MarceUua II, as cardinal, had pro- The foundation of his reform is the two principles
tccted and admired Palestrina, but died after a reign legitimately deduced from the only references to
of only twenty-one days. Paul IV, shortly after his church music in the Tridentine decrees: (1) the elim-
acceasion, re-inforced tne former rules for the govern- ination of all themes reminiscent of, or resembling,
ment of the papal choir. Beades Palestrina, there scculv music; (2) the rejection of musical forms and
were two other lay married members in the choir. All elaborations tending to mutilate or obscure the litur-
were dismissed with a small pension, in spite of the gical text. Pius IV creati^d for Palestrina the office
understanding that these singers were engaged for life, of " Composer to the Papal Chapel " with an increased
The worry and hardship caused by the dismissal salary. In thisollice hehadonlyone8UCcesBor,Feli(!e
brought on a severe illness; restored, the composer Anono. When in 1571 Giovanni Annimuecia, choir-
took charge 1 October, 1665, of the choir at St. John master at St. Peter's, died, Palestrina became his euo-
Lateran, where he remained until February, 1561. cessor. thus being connected with the papal chou: and
During this period he wrote, besides IJimentations St. Peter's at the same time. An attempt of his jeal-
and Magnificats, the famous "Improperia". Their ousandintriguinaoolleaguesinthepapalcnweltohave
performance by the papal choir on Good Friday was himdismissedbyPiusVwasunBuccewful. Duringthis
ordered by Paul IV, and they have remained in ite year he wrote a number of mot«t« and taudi tpirituoli
repertoire for Holy Week ever since. This produc- for the Oratory of St. Philip Neri. Besides the duties
tion greatly increased Palestrina's fame. In 1601 he of choimnast^-r at St. Peter's, composer to the papal
which the v
Charles,
as chancellor of his uncle, Pius
IV, was the patron of Pales-
trina, increaong his pension in
1506. He celebrated a solemn
Mass in presence of the pontiff
on 19 June. 1566, at which Pal-
estrina's great "Miaaa Pa^
Marcelli" wasBung. These his-
torical data are the only dis-
coverable basis for the l^enda,
so long repeated by historians,
concerning the trial before the
cardinals and pope of the cause
of polyphonic musiCj and ils
viadication by Palestrina, in the
composition and performance
of tnree masses, the "Missa
Paps Marcelli" among them.
Haberl's studies of the archives
conoluMvely demolished these
fictions, but their continued
repetition for nearly two hun-
dred years emphasises the fact
of Palestrina B activity, in-
spired by St. Philip and en-
couraged by St. Charles, in the
reform of church music, an ac-
tivity which embraced his en-
tire career and antedated by
some years the disciplinary
I of the church author-
chapel, din
B OratoiV, he
asked the chapter of St. John Lateran for an in
in salary, in view of his growing needs and the ei.. „.._ _..
of publishing his works. Refused, he accepted a Nanini. In addition, Gregory XllI commissioned
siimlar post at Santa Maria Maggiore, which he held him to prepare a new version of the Gregorian chant.
until 1571. It is not known at what period of his His exact share in this edition, afterwards published
career Palestrina came under the influence of St. under the name of "editio Meaicsa" because printed
Philip Neri, but there is every reason to believe it was in a press belonging to Cardinal de' ^edici, and what
in early youth. As the saint's penitent and spiritual was prepared by his pupil Giovanm Guidetti, Felioe
PALST
423
PALLAMO
Ancfrio, and Francesco Suriano, has long been a matter
of controversy. The undertaking was not particularly
congenial to Palestrina and kept him from original
production, his real field of activity. His wife's oeath
m 1580 affected him profoundly. His sorrow found
expression in two compositions. Psalm cxxxvi, ''By
the waters of Babylon", and a motet on the words
"O Lord, when Thou shalt come to judge the world,
how shall I stand before the face of Thy anger, my
sins frighten me, woe to me^ O Lord''. Wiui these
he intended to close his creative activity, but with the
appointment in 1581 as director of music to Prince
Buoncompagni, nephcfw of Gregory XIII, he began
perhaps tne most brilliant period of his long life.
Besides sacred madrigals, motets, psalms, hymns in
honour of the Blessed Virgin, and masses, he produced
the work which brought him the title of '^ Prince of
Music ".twenty-nine motets on words from the " Can-
tide of Canticles". According to his own statement,
Palestrina intended to reproduce in his composition
the Divine love expressed in the Canticle, so that his
own heart might be touched by a spark thereof. For
the enthronement of Sixtus V, he wrote a five-part
motet and mass 6h the theme to the text ''Tu es pas-
tor ovium", followed a few months later by one of
his greatest productions, the mass ''Assumpta est
Mana ". Sisrtus had intended to appoint him director
of the papal choir, but the refusal of the sin^rs to be
directed by a layman, prevented the execution of his
plan. During the last years of his life Palestrina
wrote his great ''Lamentations", settings of the htur-
gical hymns, a collection of motets, the well-known
"Stabat Mater" for double chorus, litanies in honour
of the Blessed Virgin Mary, and the offertories for the
ecclesiastical year. His complete works, in thirty-
three volumes, edited by Theodore de Witt, Frans
Espagne, Franz Commer, and from the tenth volume
on, by Haberl, are published by Breitkopf and Hartel;
Mgr Haberl presented the last volume of the com-
Pleted edition to Pius X on Easter Monday. 1908.
alestrina's significance lies not so much in nis un^
precedented gifts of mind and heart, his creative and
constructive powers, as in the fact that he made them
the medium tor the expression in tones of the state of
his own soul, which, trained and formed by St. Philip,
was attuned to and felt with the Church. His cre-
atioiiB will for all time stand forth as the musical
embodiment of the spirit of the count^^reformation,
the triumphant Church.
Baiiti, Memorie atoriaxrUiehe deUa viia « ddU opere di Qiovanni
Pierluigi da PaUttritia (Rome. 1828); BIuxkeb, PalM<r»iio (Frei-
burg. 1877); KirehenmuaihaliaeKeM Jahrbueh (Ratbbon, 1886);
Felix. Palettrina et la mutique tacrie (PariB, 1897); CAPacxLA-
TBO, Life of St. Philip Neri (London, 1804) ; Habbbl, BaiuUins
fur Munkgeech (Leipiig, 1888).
Joseph Otten.
Paley, Frederick Afthorp, classical scholar, b. at
Easingwold near York, 14 Jan., 1815; d. at Bourne-
mouth, 9 Dec., 1888, son of the Rev. Edmund Paley and
S'andson of William Paley who wrote "Evidences of
hristiani ty *\ He was educated at Shrewsbury School
and St. John's College, Cambridge, whore he taught and
continued to study u)r eight years after his B. A. degree
(1838). His studies were mainly classical j but, de-
spite an incapacity for mathematics, he was interested
in mechanics and in natural science, and was an enthu-
siastic ecolesiological antiquary. ' In 1846, being well
known as a Cambridge sympathizer with the Oxford
Movement, he was expelled from residence in St.
John's College, on suspicion of having influenced one
of his pupils to become a Catholic. He was himself re-
ceived into the Church in this year. For the next four-
teen years he supported himself as a private tutor in
several Catholic families successively (Talbot, Throck-t
morton, Kenelm Digby) and by his pen. From 1860,
when Tests began to be relaxed, he again lived at Cam-
bridge until 1874: from 1874 to 1877 he was professor
of classical literature at the abortive Catholic Univer*
sity College at Kensington. From 1877 till his death
he continued to write assiduously. But the interrup-
tion of his university career, the want of a settled com-
petence, and his banishment from the place, the soci-
ety, and the learned facilities which might best have
improved his talents anc} industry, had the effect of
rendering nearly all his voluminous production ephem-
eral. His many classical editions, which had a great
and not undeserved vogue and influence in their da^.
became soon obsolete and marked no decisive epoch m
classical philology. Yet his work on Euripides and
.^schylus in particular may still be consulted with
profit, at least as a monument of protest against the
Victoria^ mock-archaic convention in translations
from Greek poetry; and it is easy to imderrate now the
merits of work which met a great demand for school
and college use, and itself did much to evoke the more
scientific scholarship which has superseded it.
His works number more than fifty volumes, besides
numerous ma^^ine articles and reviews contributed
to the ''Amencan Catholic Quarterly'', ''Edinburgh
Review", ''Journal of Philology" etc. The first of
his classical publications, and the one which estab-
lished his reputation as a scholar, was the text of
iEschvlus (1844-7); during the next forty years he
edited with the commentaries, Propertius (1853);
Ovid's "Fasti" (1854); iEschylus (1855): Euripides
(1857): Hesiod (1861); Theocritus (1863); Homer's
"lUad^' (1866); Martial (1868); Pindar (transl. with
notes) 186&; Aristophanes' "Peace" (1873); Plato's
"Philebus" (1873); "Private Orations of Demos-
thenes" (1874); Plato's "Thaetetus" (1875); Aristo-
phanes' "Acharnians" (1876); "Medicean Scholia of
iEschylus" (1878); Aristophanes' "Frogs" (1878);
Sophocles (1880). To these must be e^ded many
critical inquiries, especially on the Homeric question;
and most of his Commentaries ran through three or
four editions, of which Marindin remarks that "every
new edition was practically a new work". He found
leisure to issue books on architecture; his "Manual of
Gothic Mouldings", first published in 1845, went into
a fifth edition in 1891.
Diet. Nat. Biog., t. v.
J. S. Phillimorb.
Pall, a heavy, black cloth, spread over the coffin in
the church at a funeral, Or over the cataf alaue at other
services for the dead. In the centre of it tnere is gen*
erally a white or red cross. It must alwa3rs be black,
but its material and ornamentation may vary. Svm-
bols of death, such as skulls, cross-bones etc., forbidr
den on the altar and ministers' vestments, are aJlowed
on palls. The pall is in universal use, though not pre-
scribed. Where, however, there is no catafalque or
bier, absolution may not be given except a black cloth
be extended on the floor of the sanctuary (S. R. C,
3535, 5).
CjjrrxtDTJBt lib. II, ■. 0, o. v; Ds Hbrot, Sac Liturg. Praxii,
"'• °- ^*-' Andrew B. Mbbhan.
Pall (Chalice Cover). See Altar, sub -title
Ai/TAR-LiNENs; Chalice.
Palladio, Andrea, Italian architect, b. at Vicenza,
1508; d. at Venice, 19 Aug., 1580. There is a tradi-
tion that he was the son of a poor carpenter, with no
surname of his own, and that the famous humanistic
poet, Gian Giorgio Trissino, became his patron and
fave him the name of Palladio, in fanciful allusion to
'alias, the Greek goddess of wisdom. After a brief
apprenticeship as sculptor he travelled and studied
uie remains of classical architecture, endeavouring to
determine its principles by the aid of Vitruvius's writ-
ings. The results of these studies appear in the build-
ings which he constructed, of which the earliest known
is the Palazzo Godi at Lonedo (1540). The execution
of his design for the rebuilding of the basilica in his
native town was commenced in 1549. The colonnades
of Uufl buiHca are faia moat funoiu worii. His Arco
di Trionfo, aim at Vioensa, is even now the beet
modem imitation of a Roman triumphal arch. A fine
■ense of proportion, combined with Bcholarly refine-
ment and fertihty of invention, characteniee the
ralacee of Vicenia, where Falladio had a free hand.
He was a favourite of society in and about Vicenia,
and was therefore a most prolific deagner of villas.
Few of these were ever completed, many have been
changed or diamantled, and nearly all have lost the
environment of aardens and acceeeoriee which were a
iiiiiiiwiiiji part of the oompodtion. All are, however,
Btatelj[, spaciouA
and airy, eSeo-
disoified in de-
taj], and free
from affectation.
Two standard
types are the
Villa Capra, in
Vicenza, and the
Villa GiacomeUi
at Treviso.
Only three
sacred building
work, the small
chapel near the
last-named villa,
and the churches
of San Giorgio
(ISeS) and II
Redentore (be-
gun, 1J576, fin-
ished after his
death) at Venice. These two churches are cruciform,
with aisles, croesing-domes, and apaidal terminations
to chtHta and transepts. The intenors are cold, power-
ful, and spacious; the exteriois are franklv structural,
of inferior materials, with semi- circular, lead-covered
domes, and with no ornamentation except in the f aQades.
Falladio may be taken as the repreaentative of a
wholesome reaction agwist the decadent tendencies
of his aae, and may be said to have fixed good archi-
tectural style for many succeeding centuries. Al-
though in France a more meretricious taste prevailed,
represented by Lescaut and b^ De I'Orme in England,
through Inigo Jones, Palladio became so much the
controlling spirit that the English style of the seven-
teenth century is now known as "Palladian". Nat-
uraUv, the Georgian architecture of the United States
develops direct^ from Palladio through the later
masters who followed Inigo Jones. PaUadio's writ-
ings, particularly "Le Antichit& di Roma" and the
'^Quattro libri aell' Architettura", did more than any-
thing else to spread his influence over Europe; many
editions were published in Italy between 1554 and
1642. They were widely translated, and in England
Inigo Jones acted as editor and commentator.
SctMOUi, L'ArMlaelitn Vmtrtala (ISM): Ocrj
Aiulrmi PaOidio tnw.TmiAiaA, Vi-- ■•- •--•- -
ITTniMiLnu. Memorie dtgti Artha^
af CMmltd ArMinf OoniBB, 1896) : Maobihi. DeU' Ardiim-
., Vila di
1, Vitadi Andria Paliadil>(l7B2-
■(AiwM (1781); ~
KM (LamloB, 1896) : Maobib.
a(lU8)iBncHiuai>T,l>f>A«ui
(1887)1 BAUCHXUjk, Andrta Pailadio * la tua Scuela (1880);
OooDTUB, SoutfBna and Uakm Art (New YDrlc, ISM);
and liefUm A
io (LondoD, IQL-,.
R&LPB Adaiib Crau.
Pallftdiui, Saint, first bishop sent by Pope Celes-
tine to Ireland (431). The chronicle of uie contempo-
rary St. Prosper of Aquitaine presents two important
entriearelatiagf^ Palladiua. Under date of 429 it has
"AJ^cola, a Pelagian, eon of Severianus, a Pelagian
bishop, corrupted the churches of Britain by the in-
nnualion of his doctrine; but at the instance of the
Deacon PftUadius {ad aetumem Pattadii Diaami) Pope
!4 PALLADirre
Celevtine sends Germanus, Bishop of Atizsre, as hit
representative to root out here^ and direct the Brit-
ons to the Catholic Faith". Again under date of 431,
in the consulahip of Basua and ADtiochua: "Palladiua
was consecrated by Pope Celestine and sent to the
Scots believing in Christ, as their first bidiop" (Ad
ScotoB in Christum credentes, ordinatur a Papa Celes-
tino Palladius et primus episcopus mittitur). la hii
work against Caasian, St. Pronier compendiates both
entries: " Wherefore the Pontiff Celestine of veno^le
memory, to whom the \jotA gave many gifta of His
grace for saf^uarding the Catholic Churon, knowing
that for those who are already condemned, the remedy
to be applied is not a further judicial inquiry but (mly
repentance, gave instructions for Celestius, who aaked
for a further hearing in a matter already settled, to be
driven from the borders of all Italy . . . with no less
jealous care he dehvered Britain from the same dis-
ease, when he drove even from that hidden recess of
the ocean some enemies of Grace who were settling in
their native soil; and by ordaining a bishop for the
Irish (_Scoiii), whilst he laboured to keep the Roman
Island CathoUc, he made also the bariiarous laland
Christian," The words in the second entry of the
chronicle "to the Scots beUeving in Christ" can only
have the meaning that when the chronicle was being
written in 447, uie Irish had become a Christian
people.
Some writera with Dr. Todd regard Palladius ai
deacon of St. Germanus, but it appears more probable
that he held the high rank of Deacon of Rome; it can
hardly be supposed that a Deacon of Auxerre would
exercise such influence in Rome as that anigned to
Palladius, and it is in accordance with St. Prosper'a
usage to indicate the Roman deacon by the mmple title
diaamut. Thus in the chronicle we have frequent en-
tries such as "HilariuB Diaconus", "loannee Dia-
conus", "Leo Diaconus", which invariably refer to
the deacons of Rome, The seventh century life of St.
Patrick by Muirou Maccumacthenus in the "Book of
Armagh" expressly styles Palladius "Archidiaconus
Papffi C^lestini urbis Roma &)iscopi", repeat«d in
several of the other lives of St. Patrick, Uesher reeia-
tera the tradition long current in England thiat Fula-
dius was born in Britam and that he had combated the
Pelagian heresy there. The Bollandista are also of
theopinionthatheWBs"aBriton by birth". ThePal-
ladii, however, were reckoned among the noblest fami-
Ues of France and several of them held high rank about
this time in the Church of Gaul. These conflicting
opinions may perhaps be reconciled. Under Julian the
Apostate there was a Palladius holding prominent
nuik in the army of Gaul, who, for his fearless profes-
BiDnDftheFaith,waaexiledintoBritain. Wemayeasily
suppose that the scion of such a privileged GaJIo-Brit-
iah family would attain the pomtion of Deacon of
Rome, would take much interest in the British Church,
and, would by his familiarity with the Celtic lan-
guage, be qualified to undertake the miasion of first
bishop to the Irish. Palladius is honoured in the Scot-
tish calendar on 6 July. The Aberdeen Breviary de-
scribes him as "pontificem et fidei Catholics aposto-
lum pariter et doctorem ". In some ancient records he
is styled a martyr, probably because of the hardships
endured durii^ his missionary career in Ireland.
Palladius landed in the territory of tlie Hy-Garchon,
on the strand where the town of Wicklow now stands,
then occupied by the tribe of Cualann who have left
their mune on the beautiful valley of Glencullen, seven
miles distant from the spot where Palladius landed.
The chieftain of the district had no welcome for the
missionaries. However some of the tribe appear to have
extended a better measure of kindness to them and at
least three churches were in after times assigned as the
result of Palladius's mission. The Life of St. Patrick,
alreadv referred to, records the failure of the mis-
non: ' 'Palladius was orduned and sent to convert thit
PALLADIUS 425 PALLADZUB
island l3riDg under wintry cold, but Go<l hindered him, to PalladiuB an apostolate in Scotland of twenty-three
for no man can receive anything from earth unless it years; another makes him the tutor of St. Servanus,
be given to him from heaven; and neither did those contemporary of St. Adamnan and Brude, King of the
fierce and cruel men receive ms doctrine readily, nor Picts (a. d. 697-706)^ all of which is irreconcilable
did he himself wish to spend time in a strange land, with the Irish narratives and with the date of the
but returned to him who sent him. On his return saint's mission from St. Celestine. A German theory
hence, however, having crossed the first sea and com- has found favour with some writers in recent times, to
menced his lana journey^ he died in the territory of the the effect that the Bishop Palladius referred to in the
Britons." In the Schoha on St. Fiaoc's Hymn in the second entiy by Prosper as sent to Ireland by Celes-
ancient "Liber Hynmorum^it is stated that in the tine was none other than St. Patrick. This theory
country of the Hy-Garchon, Palladius ''founded some viewed independently of the ancient historical narra-
churches: Teach-ma^Romany or the House of the Ro- tives would have much to commend it. It would
mans, KiUr-Fine, and o^ers. Nevertheless he was not merel3r imply that the Bishop Palladius of the second
well received, but was forced to go round the coast of entry in tne chronicle was distinct from the Deacon
Ireland towards the north, until driven by a tempest Palladius of the first entrv, and that the scanty rec*
he reached the extreme part of Modhaidh towards the ords connected with Palfadius's mission to Ireland
south, where he founded the church of Fordun, and were to be referred to St. Patrick. But tlus theory
Pledi is his name there.'' The VHa Secunday life of St. is inconsistent with the unbroken series of testimonies
Patrick, in Colgan's collection, adds further interest- in the ancient lives of St. Patrick and cannot easily be
in^ details: "The most blessed Pope Celestine or- reconciled with the traditions of the Scottish Church,
darned Bishop the Archdeacon of the Roman Church, Sbkabbcan. Loea Patridana (Dublin. 1879); Stoku, Vita 7W-
named Palladius, and sent him into the Island of Hi- partaamR^SeneaaMad^ 1888); FomBs^Kalmdarti^fSait'
temia^ ^ter ha^ng comnutt^ to him the relics, of ^Hi^^S^&i^^l^^'S; ?^».^»iJ2.K
Blessed Peter and Paul and other Samts. and havmg Humter-Blaib, I ^inbuish and Londoa. 1887). Beo also Uvea
also given him the volumes of the Old and New Testa- ^ ^ Patriok by hbalt. Todd, Burt. etc.
ments. Palladius, ehtering the Umd of the Irish, ai^ Patrick Francib Cardinal Moran.
rived at the territory oftiie men of Leinster wnere
Nathi Mac Garrchon was chief, who was opposed to Palladius (IlaXXddtof), b. in Galatia, 368 ; d.
him. Others, however, whom the Divine mercy had probably before 431. llie identity of the author of
disposed towards the worship of God, having been the ''Historia Lausiaca", of the Palladius who wrote
baptized in the name of the sacred Trinity, the blessed a life of St. John Quysostom, and of the Bishop of
Palladius built three Churches in the same district; Helenopolis, long disputed, has been vindicated of
one, which is called CeUHne, in which even to the pres- late years (iSeuschen, Butler, op. cit.) and is now
ent dav, he left his books which he had received from senendly accepted. A disciple of Evamus of Pontus
St. Celestine and the box of relics of the blessed Peter (q. v.) and an admirer of Origen. he oecame^ when
and Paul and other Saints, and the tablets on which he twenty years of age, a monk on tne Mount of Olives
used to write, which in tne Irish language are called under a certain priest. Innocent. After three years
from his name Pallere, that is. the burden of Palladius, he went to Egypt to study the life of the famous
and are held in veneration. Another^ TechrnorRomany Egyptian monks (see Monabticibm), but later, fall-
and the third Domnach ArdeCf in which are buried the ing into ill-health, wandered from one colony of
holv men of the companions of Palladius, Sylvester monks to another, and made the acquaintance of
and Salonius, who are honoured there. After a short Didvmus the Blind (d. 395) who had known St.
time Palladius died in the plain of Girgin in a place Anthony. In the Nitrian desert, then inhabited by
which is called Fordun. But others say that he was thousands of monks living partly in communities and
crowned with martyrdom there.'' Another ancient partly as isolated hermits, he met Evagrius. For
document, known as the Vita QuirUa in Colgan's work, nine years he stayed among these monks, observing
repeats the particulars here given relating to the foim- their life and hearing the traditions of their founders,
dationof three churches, and adds: ''But St. Palladius, Anthony, Paul. Pachomius, Pambo, etc.; he also
seeing that he could not do much good there, wishing visited the monies and nuns of the Thebaid and Scete.
to return to Rome, migrated to the Lord in the region so that he saw all the chief monastic colonies or
of the Picts. Others, however, say that he was Egypt. On the death of Evagrius (399). Palladius
crowned with martyrdom in Ireland.'^ set out for his own country (Asia Minor) by Alex-
The three churches have been identified. Teach'fia^ andria and Palestine. At Bethlehem he met St.
Roman is Tigroney, where are the ruins of an old Jerome, whose great knowledge, he declares, was
church in the parish of Castle Mac Adam in the marred by ''envy and jealousy" (Hist. Laus., 1, Of
county of Wicklow. KUl-Fine was supposed by Fa- Possidonius). The great opponent of Origen was nat-
ther Shearman to be the same as Killeen Cormac, a re- urally not sympathetic to his viedtor. At Jerusalem
markable old churchyard, three miles south-west of Palladius saw Rufinus of Aquileia and Melania. In
Dunlavin, but more probably situated in the parish of Bith3mia he was ordained bishop (ibid., xlix. Of
Glendalough, in the townland which the Ordnance John of Lycus). St. John Chrysostom ordained him
Survey has named Lara- West, but which is still called for the See of Helenopolis. but Bardenhewer thinks
Killfinn by the people. The third church Domnach that Palladius of Helenopolis mentioned by Socrates,
Ardee is Donard which gives its name to a parish and "Hist. EccL", VII, xxxvi (Freiburg, 1894, p. 354), is
village in the west of the County Wicklow in the barony another person. From this time he becomes a zealous
of Lower Talbotstown. This parish, as Father Shear- adherent of his patriarch, whose troubles in 403 he
man writes, retains "some vestiges of its ancient im- shared. He was imprisoned for eleven months in a
portance; the sites of primeval Christian churches, dark cell (Hist. Laus., loc. cit.). Later he lived for a
large and wellHpreserved Raths and Tumuli, Crom- time in Palestine near Jericho under a famous her-
lechs, Ogham Pillars, ancient ecclesiastical Cashels, mit, Elpidius of Cappadocia (Hist. Laus.. Ix, Of
Pagan Cathairs on the surrounding hiUs, with many Elpidius). In 405 he went to Rome to plead the
other evidences of a civilized and numerous pop- cause of Chrysostom with Innocent I (401-17) and
ulation". The modem critical Scottish historians. Emperor Honorius (395-423). He came back to Con-
Bishop Forbes, Skene, and others, confess that in re- stantinople as a member of the mission sent by Honoriua
gard to the connexion of St. Palladius with Scotland, to Arcadius (395-408) in favour of the banished jmr
the Irish documents are the only reliable sources. The triarch. But there he and his colleagues were im-
traditions set forth in Fordun's chronicle and later prisoned and then banished, Palladius being sent to
writings are regarded as purely mythical. One assigns Syene in Upper Egypt, Later he went to Antinoe
PALLi^VICINO
426
PALLAVICINO
and was in Ancjrra after 412. In 417 he changed his
Diocese of Helenopolis for Aspuna in Galatia (Soc-
rates, loc. dt.)- In 420 he wrote his ''Historia Lau-
siaca" (Butler, "The Lausiac History", I, 179 sq.).
After that he disappears; but he died apparently
before 431. in which year a certain Eusebius was
Bishop of Aspuna.
His chief work is the "Historica Lausiaca*^ a
history of the monks of Egypt and Palestine in
ithe form of anecdotes and short biographies. Its
name comes from the dedication to Lausos, a
chamberlain of Theodo»us II (408^^) *H irp6s
Aav<rop Urropia and then shortly, Aav«'caic6y or AawraXxSv.
Difficulties about the text are examined and in great
part solved b^ Dom Cuthbert Butler (see bebw).
The chief difficulty is that'Palladius repeats nearlv
all the contents of Rufinus, "Historia monachorum
(written from a Greek source between 404 and 410).
The text, as it is in Migne, evidently depends on
Rufinus's source. There are also manv variant
texts. The book was popular among monks all over
the East, who appear to have added to it oon«derably
in transcribinp; it. The first edition was a Latin ver-
sion by Gentianus Hervetus (Paris, 1555), reprinted
by H. Rosweyde (" Vitae patrum", VIII, Paris, 1628).
A shorter Greek text was published by J. Meursius
(Leyden, 1616)^ and a longer one by Fronton Leduc
(''Auctarium bibliothecs Patrum'', IV, Paris, 1624),
and a still more complete one by J. Cotelerius (" Mon-
umenta eccl. grsecse , III, Paris, 1686; reprinted in
P. G., XXXIV, 995-1260). This longer version con-
tains the text of Rufinus. Butler, Preuschen, and
others think that the shorter text (of Meursius) is
Palladius's authentic work, the longer version being
interpolated! Am61ineau (op. cit.) holds that the
longer text is all Palladius's work, and that the first
thirty-seven chapters (about the monks of Lower
^Sypt) are mainly an account of what the author saw
and heard, thou^^ even here he has also used docu-
ments. But he thinks the second part (about Upper
^Kypt) is merely a conipilation from a Coptic or
Gredc document which Rufinus also used; so that
Palladius's visit to Upper Egypt must be a literary
fiction. (See also Fessler-Jungmann, op. cit.) But
the shorter text itself exists in various forms. A
Syrian monk, Anan-Isho, living in the sixth-seventh
centuries in Mesopotamia, tnmslated the ''Lausiac
History'* into Syriac with further interpolations
C'Paradisus Patrum", ed. Bedjan, ''Acta martyrum
et sanctorum", VII, Paris, 1897; tr. E. A. Wallis
Budee, "The Paradise of the Fathers", 2 vols..
London, 1907). At one time the "Lausiac History
was considered a compilation of imaginaxy legends
fsee Weingarten, "Der Ursprung des Monchtums",
Uotha, 1877, and others). Later research has very
considerably rehabilitated Palladius; the chief au-
thorities now (Butler, Preuschen) consider the "Lau-
siac History" to be in the main a serious historical
document as well as an invaluable picture of the lives
and ideas of the earliest Christian monks (cf. Preu-
schen, op. cit., 210).
Pallaoius's object is not so much to save material
for history as to provide spiritual reading; at the same
time the author has a controversial purpose as an
Origenist. Rosweyde in his edition aads to the
"Lausiac History an alphabetic list of "Sayings
of the Fathers" ( kxw^tfttara rC^w raripup, in the
"Vitse Patrum", V-VI). These are later and consist
partly of old traditions of Egyptian monks^ partly
of apocryphal additions (Butler, " The Lausiac His-
tory , I, 208-15). Under the name of Palladius there
is also a life of St. John Chrysostom (Dialogue with
: Theodore, deacon of the Roman Church, about the
life and manners of John Chrysostom). It was first
.edited in Greek with a Latin translation by E. Bigot
(Paris, 1680); it is included in de Montfaucon's
edition of Ch^sostom (XIII; Paris, 1718-38)^ and in
P. G. (XLVII, '&^2). There are difficulties about the
identification of its author with that of the "Lausiac
Historv" and the Bishop of Helenopolis, so that aU
possible combinations have been su^ested, including
that of three separate persons. The chief of these
difficulties is that the biographer distinguishes him-
self from the bishop (c. iii, " P. G.", loc. cit., 13). Bar-
denhewer ("Patrologie", 3^) and Fessler-Jungmann
(" Institutiones Patrologiaj ", II, i. 209-10) identijfy the
author of the "Lausiac History" and the bio^pher,
but distinguish from them the biehop. It is, now-
ever, now very common to identify the bishop and the
Lausiac author (Dr. Wallis Budge, "The Paradise of
the Fathers ", p. xxi), so that we come to the identity of
all three as supposed in this article. Preuschen ex-
glidns the difficulty in the Dialogue as a literary
ction (Palladius u. Rufinus, 246).
The boat modem edition of the Lautiae Hittory is Don
Cuthbert Butlkr. Pattadiutt The Lautiae Hittory; I. A ^riiiedl
disauHon: II. Th« Oruk text in TexU and Sivdie$, VI (Cambridce.
1898, 1904); Prbuschen, PaUaditu u. R^/lnu^, ein Beitng Mur
Quellenkunde de$ aite»ten MOnehlunu (Gieasen, 1897) ; Au^uinBAU,
l>e hitl. Latuieusa (Paria. 1887); Burtbr. ffomendat^r, I (Inn»>
brack, 1903), 822; FBWLBR-JuNaM^NN. Inttittiiiorut Patrologim,
ii. i (Innsbraok. 1892), 209-12.
Adrian Fortescue.
PallaTidno, Pibtro Sforza, cardinal, b. 28 Nov.,
1607; d. 5 June, 1667. Descended from the line of
Parma of the ancient and noble house of the Marchese.
Pallavicini, the first-born of his family, he renouncea
the right of primogeniture and resolved to enter the
priesthood. He obtained the doctorate in philosophy
m 1625, theolo^ in 1628 (the theses, printed in the years
mentioned, being extant) . Pope Uroan VII I ( 1 623-44)
appointed him ruferendarius ulrituque signalurtz and
member of several congregations. He was hudily es-
teemed in the hterary circles of Rome. V^^n his
friend Giovanni Ciampoli^ the secretary of briefs,
fell into disfavour, Pallavicmo's standing at the papal
court was also seriously affected. He was sent in 1632
as govematore to Jesi, Orvieto, and Camerino, where he
remained for a considerable time. In spite of his f ather^s
opposition, he entered the Society of Jesus on 21
June, 1637. After the two years' novitiate he became,
1639, professor of philosophy at the Collegium Ro-
manum. In 1643, when John de Lugo was made car-
dinal, Pallavicino became his successor in the chair
of theology, a position he occupied until 1651. At
the same time he was frequently employed by In-
nocent X in matters of importance. In this way he
became a member of the commission appointed to
examine the writings of Jansenius. He was further-
more commissioned to examine the writings of M. de
Barcos, two of which were condemned in 1647.
Before his entrance into the Jesuit order he had
published orations and poems. Of his great poem "I
fasti sacri ", which was to have been completed in four-
teen cantos, he had published one part (Rome, 1636);
but upon his entrance into the novitiate he gave up
its further publication. His first considerable literarv
work as Jesuit was a tragedy, ''Ermenegildo martire
(Rome. 1644) . In the same year there appeared " Del
bene liori quattro" (Rome 1644 and often reprinted).
He began editing the works of his former friend
Giovanni Ciampou; of these the "Rime" appeared in
Rome (1648) and the "Prose" (1667 and 1676). In
rebuttal of the numerous accusations raised against
the Society of Jesus, Pallavicino composed a circum-
stantial refutation, "Vindicationes Societatis Jesu,
quibus multorum accusationes in eius institutum,
leges, gymnasia, mores refelluntur" (Rome, 1649)
In the same year he began the publication of his great
dogmatic work in conjunction with his theologioal
lectures, "Assertiones theological". The complete
work treats the entire field of dogma in nine books.
The first five books appeared in three volumes ^Rome,
1649), the remaining four books are included m vol-
umes IV- VIII (Rome, 1650-1652). Immediately after
I
PALLIUM
427
PALLIUM
tills he began the publication of diaputa/tions on the
second part of the '^Summa theologica ** of St. Thomas,
''R. P. Sfortis Pallavicini . . . Disputationum in
lam IlflB d. Thorns tomus I" (Lyons, 1653). How-
ever, only this first volume of the work appeared, for
in the meantime Pallavicino had been directed by the
pope to write a refutation of Sarpi's History of the
Council of Trent.
The odious and hostile account of the Council of
Trent by Sarpi had appeared as early as 1619 under
a fictitious name (^'Historia del Concilio Tridentinoj
nella quale si scoprono tutti gli artifici della corte di
Roma . . . diPietroSoavePoUano'', London, 1619).
Several Catholic scholars had already begun to collect
the material for a refutation of this work, but none
had been able to finish the gigantic undertaking.
Felix Contelorio and the Jesuit, Ter. Alciati, in par-
ticular had collected a rich mass of materiaJ. The
latter, moreover, had already begun with the compila-
tion, when he died suddenly in 1651. Pallavicino by
order of the pope was now to take up the work anew.
Accordingly he resigned his professorship at the Col-
legium Romanum, to devote himself exclusively to this
prodigious task. He utilized all the available material
previously gathered by Contelorio and Alciati, and
added much that was new from Roman and non-
Roman archives. The reports of the council in the
secret archives of the Vatican were at his unrestricted
disposal Tcf. Ehses, in "Romische Quartalschrift",
1902, p. 296 sqq.). He was thus able to bring out the
work as earlv as 1656 and 1657 in two folio volumes
under the title, ''Istoria del Concilio di Trento, scritta
dal P. Sfona Pidlavicino, della Comp;. di GiesCl ove
insiemerifiutasicon aiiterevoli testimonianze un Istoria
falsa divolgata nello stesso aigomento sotto nome di
Petro Soave Polano'' (first part, Rome, 1656; second
part, Rome, 1657). The author himself was able to
nring out a new edition in three volumes (Rome, 1664) .
With the assistance of his secretarv Cataloni, he made
an abridgement in which the polemical portions are
omitt^ (Rome, 1666). Until within very recent years
PaUavicino's History of the Council of Trent was the
Erincipal work on this important ecclesiastical assem-
ly. Reprints of it have appeared frequently, and
Antonio Zaccaria published an annotated edition
(Rome, 1733, 4 vols.), which has been reprinted three
times. The work was also translated into Latin by a
Jesuit, Qiattini (Antwerp, 1670); into German by
Klitsche (Augsburg, 1835-1837) ; into French (Migne
series, Paris, 1844-1845); and into Spanish. Palla-
vicino's work is more copious, more conscientious,
and more in accordance with the truth than that of
bis adversary Sarpi. But it is an apologetic treatise,
and for that reason not free from partiality as it is
not without errors [cf. "Concilium Triaentinum,
Diariorum pars prima'', ed. Seb. Merkle (Freiburg im
Breisgau, 1901), p. xiii]. In any case, however, Palla-
vicino did not purposely falsify the history of the
council, and he has reported much that proves his
frankness and objectivity in the recital.
PaJlavicino received due recognition from his friend,
Alexander VII (1655-67). On 19 April, 1657, he was
created cardinal in petlo; on 10 Nov., 1659, his eleva-
tion to the curdinalate was published. Nevertheless
he continued his simple, pious way of living. The
g>pe often consulted him in matters of importance,
e attended to his diverse tasks with the greatest
conscientiousness. His income was in a large measure
employed in supporting scientific endeavours. His
own work in literature was likewise continued, as
b proved by the new edition of his History of the Coun-
cil pf Trent and the edition of the "Prose" of Ciam-
poli. A work of ascetic character, "Arte della per-
lezione cristiana, divisa in tre libri", appeared in
1665 (Rome). Several of his works were not printed
until later; others are still in manuscript. After
becoming cardinal, Pallavicino continued loyal
to the Jesuit Order and was its protector and
patron. He died during the vacancy ot the Holy See
in 1667.
In the ^ear after his death his former secretary,
Giambattista Galli Pavarelli, published* a collection
of his letters, "Lettere dettate dal card. Sforza Pal-
lavicino" (Rome, 1668). Other collections appeared
in Bologna (1669), in Venice (1825). in Rome (4 vols.,
1848). An opinion which he haa written on the
question whether it was most appropriate that the
pope live in Rome at St. Peter's, was printed together
with a discussion of the same question by Lucad
Holstenius, in Rome (1676). Larger collections of
various works of Pallavicino were brou^^t out as late
as the nineteenth century. The following editions of
his "Opera" are to be noted as the most important:
Rome, 1834 On 2 volumes); Rome, 1844-48 (in 33
volumes); and a collection of other works in five
volumes published at the same time by Ottavio
Gilgi.
Arrb, Bioffraphy of Pallavieino in BaceoUa di ojnueoli teien-
tifici e leUeraij di autori italiani, V (Ferrara, 1780). 1-64 fthiii ac-
count is printed with additions in the ed. of the Istoria del dm-
cilio by Zaccabia (Faensa, 1702)]; Bomiisrvoobl, BiUiolM<iue de
la Cotnpagnie de JUu»^ VI, Bibliography (new edition, Brussels,
1895). 120-143; Hurtbr. NomencJator literariw, IV (Innsbruck.
1910). 102: GioRDANi. Opera inedita dd P, S. PioMavieino in Vita
di AU$9, VII, I (Prato, 1839), 3 sqq.
J. P. KiRSCH.
Pallium. — Form and Use of the Modem PaUium, —
The modem pallium is a circular band about two
inches wide, worn about the neck, breast, and shoul-
ders, and having two pendants, one hanging down in
front and one behind. The pendants are about two
inches wide and twelve inches long, and are weighted
with smsdl pieces of lead covered with black silk.
The remainaer of the pallium is made of white wool,
part of which is supplied by two lambs presented an-
nually as a tax by the Lateran Canons Regular to the
Chapter of St. John on the feast of St. Agnes, sol-
emnly blessed on the high altar of that church after
the pontifical Mass, and then offered to the pope.
The ornamentation of the paUium consists of six
small black crosses — one eauph on the breast and back,
one on each shoulder, and one on each pendant. The
crosses on the breast, back, and left shoulder are pro-
vided with a loop for the reception of a gold pin set
with a precious stone. The pallium is worn over the
chasuble.
The use of the pallium is reserved to the pope and
archbishops, but the latter may not use it until, on
g;tition, they have received the permission of the
oly See. Bishops sometimes receive the pallium as
a mark of special favour, but it does not increase
their powers or jurisdiction, nor give them prece*
dence. The pope may use the pallium at any time.
Others, even archbishops, may use it only in their
respective dioceses, ana there only on the days and
occasions designated in the '^ Pontificate " (Christ-
mas, the Circumcision, and other specified great
feasts; during the conferring of Holy orders, the con-
secration of abbots, etc.)} unless its use is extended by
a special privilege. Worn by the pope, the pidlium
symbolizes the plenitudo pontificalia officii (i. e. the
plenitude of pontifical office) j worn by archbishops, it
typifies their participation m the supreme pastoral
power of the pope, who concedes it to them jfor their
proper church provinces. An archbbhop, therefore,
who has not received the pallium, may not exercise
any of his functions as metropolitan, nor any metro-
poutan prerogatives whatever; he is even forbidden
to perform an^ episcopal act until invested with the
pallium. Similarly, after his resignation, he may not
use the pallium; should he be transferred to another
archdiocese, he must again petition the Holy Father
for the pallium. In the case of bishops, its use is
purely ornamental. The new palliums are solemnly
blessed after the Second Vespers on the feast of Sta.
PALLIUM
428
PALLIUM
Peter and Pau!, and are then kept in a special silvei^
git cadLet near the Confessio Petri until required.
The pallium is conferred in Rome by a cardinal-
deacon, and outside of Rome by a bishop; in both
cases tne ceremony takes place after the celebration
of Mass and the administration of the oath of alle-
giance.
History and Antiquity, — ^It is impossible to indicate
exactly when the pallium was first introduced. Ac-
cording to the ''Liber Pontificalis", it was first used
in the first half of the fourth century. This book re-
lates, in the life of Pope Marcus (d. 336), that he con-
ferred the right of wearing the pallium on the Bishop
of Ostia, because the consecration of the pope apper-
tained to him. V At any rate, the wearing oi the pal-
lium was usual in the fifth century; this is indicated
bv the above-mentioned reference contained in the
life of St. Marcus, which dates from the banning of
the sixth century, as well as by the confening of the
subject of embittered controversies, the attitude of
many critics being indefensibly extreme and unjusti-
fiable.
Character and Significance, — ^As early as the sixth
century the pallium was considered a Utuiigical vest-
ment to be used only in the church, and indeed only
during Mass. unless a special privily determined
otherwise. This is proved conclusively by the cor-
respondence between Gregory the Great and John of
Ravenna concerning the use of the pallium. The
rules regulating the original use of the pallium cannot
be detennined with certainty, but its use, even before
the sixth century, seems to have had a definite liturgi-
cal character. From early times more or less exten-
sive restrictions limited the use of the i>allium to
certain days. Its indiscriminate use, permitted to
Hincmar of Reims by Leo IV (851) and to Bruno of
Cologne by Agapetus II (954), was contrary to ^n-
eral custom. In the tenth and eleventh centuries, just
Paliium
Showing development
pallium on St. CcBsarius of Aries by Pope Symmachus
m 513. Besides, in numerous other references of the
dxth century, the pallium is mentioned as a long-cus-
tomary vestment. It seems that, from the begin-
ning, the pope alone had the absolute right of wearing
the pallium. Its use by others was tolerated only in
virtue of the permission of the pope. We hear of the
pallium being conferred on others, as a mark of dis-
tinction, as early as the sixth century. The honour
was usually conferred on metropohtans, especially
those nominated vicars by the pope, but it was some-
times conferred on simple bishops (e. g. on Syagrius
of Autim, Donus of Messina, and John of Syracuse by
Pope Gregory the Great). The use of the pallium
among metropolitans did not become general until
the ninth century, when the obligation was laid upon
all metropolitans of forwarding a petition for the
pallium accompanied by a solemn profession of faith,
all consecrations being forbidden tnem before the re-
ception of the pallium. The object of thb rule was to
bnng the metropolitans into more intimate connexion
with the seat of unity and the source of all metropoli-
tan prerogatives, the Holy See, to counteract the as-
pirations of various autonomy-seeking metropolitans,
which were incompatible with the Constitution of the
Church, and to coimteract the evil influences arising
thereform: the rule was intended, not to kill, but to
revivify metropolitan jurisdiction. The oath of alle-
giance which the recipient of the pallium takes to-
day originated, apparently, in the eleventh century.
It is met with dunng the reign of Paschal II (1099-
1118), and replaced the profession of faith. It is
certain that a tribute was paid for the reception of
the pallium as early as the sixth century. This was
abrogated by Pope Gregory the Great in the Roman
Synod of 595, but was reintroduced later as partial
maintenance of the Holy See. These pallium contri-
butions have often been, since the Middle Ages, the
as to-day, the general rule was to limit the use of the
pallium to a few festivals and some other extraordi-
nary occasions. The symbolic character now attached
to the pidlium dat€» back to the time when it was
made an obligation for all metropolitans to petition
the Holy See for permission to use it. The evolution
of this character was complete about the end of the
eleventh century; thenceforth the i>allium is always
designated in the papal Bulls as the symbol of pleni-
t-udo pontificatis officii. In the sixth century the pal-
lium was the symbol of the papal office and the papal
power, and for this reason rope Felix transmitted his
gallium to his archdeacon, when, contrary to custom,
e nominated him his successor. . On the other hand,
when used by metropolitans, the pallium originally
signified simply union with the Apostolic See, and
was the symbol of the ornaments of virtue which should
adorn the life of the wearer.
Formal Development, — There is a decided difference
between the form of the modem pallium and that
in vogue in early Christian times, as portrayed in the
Ravenna mosaics. The pallium of tne sixth century
was a long, moderately wide, white band, ornamented
at its extremity with a black or red cross, and finished
off with tassels; it was draped around the neck, shoul-
ders, and breast in such a maimer that it formed a V
in front, and the ends hung down from the left shoul-
der, one in front and one benind (see illustration). In
the eighth century it became customary to let the
ends fall down, one in the middle of the breast and the
other in the middle of the back, and to fasten than
there with pins, the pallium thus becoming Y-shaped.
A further development took place during the mnth
century (according to pictonal representations, at
first outside of Rome wnere ancient traditions were
not maintained so strictly): the band, which had
hitherto been kept in place by the pins, was sewed
Y-shaped, without, however, being cut. The present
PALLIUM
429
PALLOTH
circular form originated in the tenth or eleventh cen-
tury. Two excellent early examples of this form, be-
longing respectively to Archbishop St. Heribert (1021)
and Archbishop St. Anno (d. 1075), are preserved in
SiegburK, Archdiocese of Cologne. The two vertical
bands of the circular pallium were very long until the
fifteenth century, but were later repeatedly shortened
until they now have a length of only about twelve
inches. The illustration indicates the historical de-
velopment of the pallium. At first the only decora-
tions on the pallium were two crosses near the extrem-
ities. This IS proved by the mosaics at Ravenna and
Rome. It appears that the ornamentation of the
pallium with a greater number of crosses did not be-
come customary until the ninth century, when small
crosses were sewed on the pallium, especially over the
shoulders. There was, however, during the MidcUe
Ages no definite rule regulating the number of crosses,
nor was there any precept determining their colour.
They were generally dark, but sometimes red. The
pins, which at first served to keep the pallium in place,
were retained as ornaments even after the pallium
was sewed in the proper shape, although tney no
longer had any practical object. That the insertion
of small leaden weights in the vertical ends of the
pallium was usual as early as the thirteenth century
IS proved by the discovery in 1605 of the pallium en-
veloping the body of Bomface VIII, and by the frag-
ments of thepallium found in the tomb of Clement IV.
Origin. — There are many different opinions con-
cerning the origin of the pallium. Some trace it to
an investiture by Constantine the Great (or one of his
successors); others consider it an imitation of the
Hebrew ephod, the humeral garment of the high
priest. Others again declare that its origin is trace-
able to a mantle of St. Peter, which was sjrmbolical of
his office as supreme pastor. A fourth hypothesis
finds its origin in a liturgical mantle, which, they as-
sert, was used by the early popes, and which in the
course of time was folded in tne shape of a band; a
fifth sa^s its origin dates from the custom of folding
the ordmary mantle-palliimi, an outer garment in use in
imperial times; a sixth declares that it was introduced
immediately as a papal liturgical garment, which, how-
ever, was not at first a narrow strip of cloth, but, as
the name suggests, a broad, oblong, and folded cloth.
Concerning these various hypotheses see Braun, ''Die
liturgische Gewandung im Occident und Orient,"
sect, iv, ch. iii, n. 8, where these h3rpotheses are ex-
haustively examined and appraised. To trace it to an
investiture of the emperor, to the ephod of the Jewish
high-priest, or to a fablea mantle of St Peter, is en-
tirely inadmissible. The correct view may well be that
the pallium was introduced as a liturgical badge of the
pope, and it does not seem improbable that it was
adopted in imitation of its counterpart, the pontifical
omophorion, already in vogue in the Eastern Church.
Omophorion. — The omophorion of the Greek Rite
— we may here pass over the other Oriental rites —
corresponds to the Latin pallium, with the difference
that in the Greek Rite its use is a privily not only
of archbishops, but of all bishops. It difl^rs in form
from the Roman pallium. It' is not a circular gar-
ment for the shoulders, with short pendants before
and behind, but is, like the original Roman pallium,
a broad band, ornamented with crosses and dntpea
loosely over the neck, shoulders, and breast. The only
change in the omophorion has been the augmentation
of its width. We find distinct testimony to the exist-
ence of the omophorion as a liturgical vestment of the
bishop in Isidore of Pelusium about 4O0, It was then
made of wool and was symbolical of the duties of
bishops as shepherds of theu" flocks. In the miniatures
of an Alexandrian "Chronicle of the World", written
probably during the fifth century, we already find
pictorial representation of the omophorion. ' In later
times we meet the same representation on the re-
nowned ivory tablet of Trier, depicting the translation
of some relics. Among the pictures dating from the
seventh and eighth centuries^ in which we find the
omophorion, are the lately discovered frescoes in S.
Mana Antiqua in the Roman Forum. The represen-
tation in these frescoes is essentially the same as its
present form. Concerning the origin of the omopho-
rion similar theories have been put forth as in the case
of the pallium. Attempts have been mad^ to prove
that the omophorion was simply an evolution of the
ordinary mantle or pallium, but it was most probably
derived from the civil omophorion, a shoulder gar-
ment or shawl in general use. We must suppose
either that the bishops introduced directly by a posi-
tive precept as a liturgical pontifical badge a humeral
cloth resembling the ordinary omophorion and called
by that name, or that the civil omophorion was at
first used by the bishops as a mere ornament with-
out any special significance, but in the course of time
gradually developed into a distinctively episcopal or-
nament, and finally assumed the character of an epis-
copal badge of office.
KxnNABT, Ouvraget poHhumes, II (Paris, 1724); Mabriott,
Vettiarium chriU. (London. 1808); Bock, Hi$t. of Liturg, Veat-
menu, II (Bonn, 1866) ; Qarbucci, Gloria dttta arU <Mwt., I
(Prato, 1872): DncHcaNS, Orioine du euiU ehrit, (FariB, 1903);
WiLPERT, Un capitolo delia atoria del vMliario (Rome, 1898-99) ;
Grisar, Daa rdm. PaUium in FeHMhr. turn llOO-jdhrigtn Jubildum
d. deuteken Campo Santo gu Rom (Freiburg, 1897); Thurston,
The PaUium (London, 1892); Rohault db Flburt, La m«(««,
VIII (Paris. 1889); Braun, Die pontif. Qetodnder dee Abendlande*
(Freiburs, 1898); Idsm, Die lituro. Qetvandtmo im Occident u.
Orient (Freiburg, 1907).
Joseph Braun.
Pallium (ANnPENDiuM). See Ai/tar, sub-title
Ai/far-Frgntal.
Pallotti, Vincent Mart, Venerable, founder
of the Pious Society of Missions (q. v.)^. at Rome.
21 April, 1798; d. there, 22 Jan., 1850. He lies buried
in the church of San Salvatore in Onda. He was
descended from the noble families of the Pallotti of
Norcia and the De Rossi of Rome. His early studies
were made at the Pious Schools of San Pantaleone,
whence he passed to the Roman College. At the age
of sixteen, he resolved to become a secular priest, and
on 16 May, 1820, he was ordained. He celebrated
his first Mass in the church of the Gesii in Frascati.
On 25 July he became a Doctor of Theology, and
was soon made a substitute professor of theology in
the Roman Archigymnasium. He gave promise of
being a distinguished theologian, but decided to dedi-
cate himself entirely to pastoral work.
Rome had in him a second Philip Neri. Hearing
confessions and preaching were his constant occupar
tions. From morning until night he could be seen
hturying along the streets of Rome to assist at the
bedside of the sick in the hospitals, to bring aid and
comfort to the poor in their miserable dwellings, or to
preach to the iinfortunates in prison. Once he went
so far as to disguise himself as an old woman in order
to reach the bedside of a dying young man, who
had a pistol under his pillow ready to kill the first
priest who should approach him. During the cholera
Ela^e in 1837, PaUotti constantly endangered his
fe in ministering to the stricken. After a day spent
in apostolic labour he was accustomed to pass almost
the whole night in prayer, disciplining himself even
to blood, and sleeping for a few hours on a chair or
on the Dare floor. The most distinguished repre-
sentatives of the Roman aristocracy, bishops, car-
dinals, and even Popes Gregory XVI and Pius IX
honoured him, but the only advantage he took of
their friendship was to advocate the claims of the
Cr. Even as a young man, he often returned home
Bfooted, after having given away half his clothing
in alms; and more than once was he known to have
given away his bed to the needy. Leo XIII, who
spoke from his personal observations, said he would
not hesitate to consider him a saint. Shortly after
PkTMk
his death the preparatory examinatiom for his beati- Pftbnor, Williau, b. at Mixbuiy, Oxfordahire, 12
6cation besan; in 1887 he was declared Venerable. July, 1811;d. at Roiiie,4April, lS79;theelderbn>ther
It was Venerable Pallotti who started in 1836 the of RoundcU Palmer, afterwards Lord Chancellor of
special observance at Rome of the Octave of the England and first Earl of Selbome. He hiniBelf
Epiphany. Since then the celebration has been was educated at Rugby and Oxford (Magdalen Col-
faithfully maintwned. Pallotti'a chief desire' was to lege), where he proceeded M.A. in ISSSToeinE theo
make thiB observance a means of uniting the 4issent- in deacon's orders of the Church of Inland. He was,
ing Oriental Churches witb Rome. successively, tutor at Durham Univermty (1834-37),
- "!L"^^' ''•■™^,^''*<'i<i*°don)jth™u«bi«™pbymlt.l- classical examiner at Oxford 1837-39, and tutor at
FjkTBias (Liiabijra). JOHN VoQEL.
Palma Tocohlo (Jacopo Niobbti), b. i
near Bergamo, about 1480; d. at Venice, 3~
Like Gioi^one and Lotto, he
studied under Giovanni Bel-
lini, from whom he drew the
I he visited
inspiration for his altar-piecea,
introducing, however, more
freedom of arrangement. His
works arc strong and broad
rather than graceful. Imitat-
ing Giorgjone, Polma treated
sa«red subjecta as "tableaux
de genre", wherein the some-
times exuberant strength, ani-
mation, and limpid, transparent
colouring deserve admiration
while they lack reli^ous senti-
ment. Among these produc-
tions are; the "Madonna with
St, Geoive and St. Lucy",
painted lor San Stefano, Vi-
cenia; "Saint Peter with six
aunts" (Accademia of Venice);
"Adoration of the Shepherds
(Louvre); "Meeting of Jacob
and Rachel" (Dresden Mu-
seum). His favourite aubiects
were the so-called "Holy Con-
veiBationa",i.e., the Holy Fam-
ily or the Madonna surrounded
by aiunts. Examples are to be
seen at Rome, in the Colonna
and Borgheae Galleries, at Flor-
ence, in the UfGzi and Pittt
Palaces, at Dresden, Munich,
and Vienna. One of his most
beautiful "conversations" is
that of the Holy Family with
St. John Baptist and St. Lucy,
in the Accademia of Venice.
His maslei^piece is the altai^
piece in Santa Maria Formosa,
Venice. It is a triptych repre-
senting St. Barbara between
St. Anthony the Hermit and
St. Sebastian. Polma was also
a remarkable portrait painter,
excelling especially in portraits
of women, most ol whoi
Magdalen CoU^ (1838-43). __
Russia to obtain, if posable, official „
t Seiinolta AngUcan Church as a branch of the Catholic Church;
10 July, 1528. but after a year's fruitless labour his cl^m to com-
_ .... _.. . munion was rejected by the
Metropolitan of Moscow. A
second attempt in 1842 only
resulted in theexpress rejection
by the Russian Church at
Anglican claims to Catholi-
cism. Aft4^r the Gorham Judg-
ment in 1852 he contemplated
{'oining the Russian Cnurch,
lut was deterred by the neces-
sity for rebaptism. He spent
some time in Efcypt and then
went to Rome, where he was re-
ceived into the Church, 28 Feb.,
1855, and where he spent the
n^tofbialife. His works, which
show a wide acquaintance with
both Anglican and Eastern
theology, were mainly con-
cerned with his efforts to ob-
tain intercommunion between
these bodies. Chief among these
were: "Harmony of Anglican
Doctrine with the Doctrine
of the Eastern Church" (Aber^
deen, 1846; Greek venrion,
Athens, 1851); "An appeal to
the Scottish Bishops and
Clergy" (Edinburgh, 1849);
and Dissertations on subjects
relating to the Orthodox or
Eastern Catholic Communion "
(London. 1853). After he be-
came a Catholic he devot«d
himself to archseolo^ and
wrote; "An Introduction to
Early Christian Symbolism"
(London, 1859); and "Egyp-
tian Ch ronicles^th a harmony
of sacred and Egyptian Chro-
nology" (London, 1861). He
also wrote a Latin commMitary
on the Book o( Daniel (Rome,
1874), and a number of minor
works. After hia death his
friend Cardinal Newman
edited his "Notes of a Visit
EnwiN BuBTON.
Palms Tndiki, Hi
court ladies. Worthy of note are: the "Bella", in the to the Russian Church" (London, 1882).
collection of Baron Alphonse de Rothschild; the „Kiy<vScW;!<ff«(^i, iffTj-JS7( (London. ig81-fl):Buiiii<.
vioiante ,m tne museum oi Vienna, toe inree Runct Torrv.fi.D. (London. iSM). vi;WoHD»woM»,A«M/t«/
Sisters , in the museum of Dresden. His portraits of nv uft, iSiT-iase (Ixaidon. 1893) ; Liddok. Lift o^ fSww (Urn-
men are also excellent, especially that of an unknown don, i893-t)i Bbowmj, AnaaU of Uu Tmoarian tlntmiM (Lod-
man (museum of Beriin)r«wi Wma himself (Pina. '^''- '«"'■ "<»-'■ «"• "^™™ i^'^S^ '"">
cothek, Munich). He received the surname Vecchio
, Jacopo Falma
Vasabi, Lt-wUtim' piA acdUmK nUori, sd. MlLiHItl, V (Floi-
ence. 18801,I«3-96;BuHC. Hid. d<Jpe<fU^u<bfsuluI<•SuJu.'
K™i^ ttnilintiti {Pmu, 1885-77) ; MOmti, HiU. de Tort penAitK Is
Htnaittante. Ill (Puii. 1885). fll2-14; Bktih. Did. painltri and
nHTOMr'. IV (Londun, IBO*): P<bat4, Pol^ra Vtcchia in Milt.
gin. dt Fart. sd. Micaiu IV (Puii. IBOSJ. 437-40.
Gaston Sortais.
PftImM, Lab. See Canabt Isi^ndb, The.
Paltnlarl, Douenico, theologian, b. at I^acema,
lUly, 4 July, 1829; d. in Rome, 29 May, 1909. He
stuaied in his native city, where he was ordained priest
in 1852. On 6 June, 1S52, he entered the Society of
Jesus, where he completed his studies. He taught in
several places, first rhetoric, then philosophy, theology,
and the Sacred Scriptures. In these courses, espe-
PALMISBI
431
PALMISBI
cially during the sixteen years that he was profesaor in
the Roman College, he acquired fame as a philosopher.
In this field he published: ''Animadversiones in re-
cens opus de Monte Concilii Viennensis'' (Rome,
1878); a more interesting work is his ^'Institutiones
PhilosophicsB" (3 vols., Rome, 1874-76). In this he
followea the scholastic method; but the doctrines in
many points differ from those common to the Peripar
tetic philosophers. As regards the composition of
bodies he admits the dynamic theory, and considers
the first elements of bodies to be formally simple, en-
dowed with an attractive and repulsive force, but
which he says are virtually extended. On the other
hand he does not admit the real accidents, and to ex-
Elain the permanence of the Eucharistic Species, he
as recourse to the phenomena of ether, winch persist
by Divine operation, the substance of bread and wine
ceasing to exist. He held a conception altogether his
own <M the life of plants, and assigned simple souls to
animals, which expire with their death. As regards
the oriein of the idea, he was true to -the scholastic
principles in admitting that the intellectual apprehen-
sion has its origin in the apprehension of the senses:
but to his last day would not admit the necessit]^ or
the intelligible species. His works have a very forcible
Quality of argument, which obliges one to recognize
tnc thmker, even when at variance with his mode of
thought.
In Scriptural study also he made his mark. Hav-
ing; taught the Holy Scriptures from 1880-87, and
Onentaflanguages to the scholastics of his society in
Maestricht, he published ''Ck)mmentarius in epistolam
adGalatas^' (Gulpen, 1886); and "De veritatc liisto-
rica libri Judith aliisque ss. Scripturarum locis speci-
men criticum exegeticum'' (Gulpen, 1880). Manv
others of his minor works can be placed under this head.
When Loisy's book. "L'Evangile et TEglise", ap-
peared, he was one of the first to give alarm to the
Catholic party, and to show, in a treatise in the form of
letters, the errors contained in this author's works. He
examined more minutely another work of Loisy's,
" Autourd'un Petit Livre", in his "Esame di un opus-
colo che gira intomo ad un piccolo libro ". To this dem-
onstration he joins a more complete one of certain of
the favourite errors of the new school, that is to say,
not demonstrating the Divinity of Our Lord from the
Synoptics. He does the same with another book en-
titled "Se e come i sinottici ci danno Gesii Cristo per
Dio" (Prato. 1903). Only the first part of this book, .
concerning tne Gospel of St. Matthew, was published;
but these books contain nevertheless a valid defence
of Catholic truth.
Palmieri's reputation, howcfver, rests principally on
his theology in the Roman College : (a) "Tractatus de
Romano rontifice cum prolegomeno de Ecclesia'' (3rd
ed., Prato, 1902); (b) "TractatusdePcenitentia" (2nd
ed., Prato, 1896) ; (c) "Tractatusde Matrimonio Chris-
tiano" (2nd ed., Prato, 1897); (d) "Tractatusde Gra-
tia Divina Actuali" (Gulpen, 1885) ; (e) "Tractatus
TheologicusdeNovissimis" (Prato, 1908); (f) "Trao-
tatus de Creatione et de PrsBcipuis Creaturis^' (Prato,
1910); .(g) "Tractatus de Ordine Supernatural! et de
Lapsu AMelorum" (Prato, 1910); (h) "Tractatus de
Peccato Originali et de Immaculato Beats Virginb
Deipane Conceptu " (Prato, 1904).
Tne last three treatises here noted, taken together,
form a new edition in many ]3arts perfected and re-
arranged from his former treatise on God the Creator,
printed first in Rome, 1878. The third part was pub-
lished before the other two, because the author wished
with it to render homa^se to the Immaculate Concep-
tion on the fiftieth anniversary of the proclamation of
the dogma. In his treatise on creation and the special
creatures, a posthumous work, but of which he left
the manuscnpt completed and prepared, we have to
note the change made by him regarding the union of the
Boul with the body, because while he first asserted that
the union was only natural and not substantial, now
that it is defined doctriine that the human nature
consists entirely in the synthesis of two elements, that
is to say, of the body and of the reasoning soul, he ad-,
mits that this union is substantial, although he as-
serts that it is not yet sufficiently determined how one
nature can result from these two elements.
The originality of his theological works consists
principally in the method which he followed, which
amounts to an exhaustive demonstration of the exist-
ence of the dogma, and in its scholastic exposition
and defence, so that his treatises are almost complete
from the positive, scholastic, and polemic viewpoints.
Father Antonio Ballerini lett at his death a valuable
collection of studies in moral theology. It was in the
form of a commentary on the "Manila'' of Busen-
baum , but not complete. Palmieri undertook the task
of putting in order this work and made many additions
of his own. To the acumen shown in his theological
works he here adds evidence of a sound practical judg-
ment, hereby proving himself a great moralist. For
this reason, on the election of Cardhial Steinhuber,
he was appointed to succeed him as theologian of
the S. Pcenitentiaria. in which capacity his work was
greatly appreciated oy Leo XIII and Pius X. These
labours were followed by a commentary on the Divine
Comedy of Dante Allighieri, a work undertaken by .
him at the suggestion of his mother. Giuseppina
Rocci Palmieri, aladv of high ideals ana culture. To
this he brought all the profundity of his philosophv
and theology, and produced a work wonclerf ul to all :
those who. knowing these sciences, are able to ap-
piteciate tne profound thought which is revealea,
especially in a most learned introduction and in the
scientific observations appended to the individual
cantos. Benedetto Ojbtti.
Palxnieily Luioi, physicist and meteorologist, b.
at Faicchio, Benevento, Italy, 22 April, 1807; d. in
Naples. 9 Sept., 1896. He first stumed at the semi-
nary ot CaiazzOj then took up mathematics and the
natural sciences m Naples, getting his degree in archi-
tecture from the University of Naples. He taught
successively in the secondaiy schcx)ls of Salerno, Cam-
pobasso. and Avellino, until in 1845 he became pro-
fessor 01 physics at the Royal Naval School at Naples.
In 1847 he was called to the chair of physics at the
university. He began his connection with the meteo-
rological observatory on Mount Vesuvius in 1848 and
became its director in 1854, after the death of Melloni.
The chair of meteorological ^d terrestrial physics
was created especially for him at the university.
He filled it in 1860 together with the position of
director of the physical observatory of Naples.
Member of the Royal Society of Naples (Academy
of Sciences) since 1861, he became a niember of the
Academy of the Lincei (Florence) in 1871. Among
other honours were the following: Member of the
Superior Council of Meteorology, Senator of the King- ,
dom, Grand Clommander of the Order of the Crown of
Italy, Commander of the Order of Rosa del Brazile, ;
etc. His work is chiefiy connected with the observa- '
tion of the eruptions on Mount Vesuvius and with the ^
study of earthquakes and meteorological phenomena \
in general. He watched all the volcanic disturbances
at the observatory and nearly lost his life there during
the eruption of 1872. He was very successful in the
invention and improvement of delicate apparatus.
He modified the Peltier electrometer and used it for
his investigation of atmospheric electricity during
forty years. His seismometer for the detection and
measurement of ground vibration was so sensitive that
he was able to detect very slight movements and to
predict the eruption of the volcano. A modification
of the Morse telegraph, an anemometer, and a plu-
viometer were also among his inventions. His tribute
to Galluppi has often been applied to himself; "The
PALM 432 PALM
Catholic religion was the guide of his studies during floridua, Flower-Sunday was well known in England,
life. and. supported by its inexpressible consolation, in Germany as BlumensanrUag or Blumentag, as also
he left this earth to live forever in heaven. " amons the Serbs, Croats, and Ruthenians, in the
Reports of his observation and studies at the vol- Glagoute Breviary and Missal, and among the Arme-
cano were published in the " Aunali dell' oeservatorio nians. The latter celebrate another Palm Sunday on
Vesuviano" (1869-73). Numerous memoirs also ap- the seventh Sunday after Easter to commemorate the
p^tfed in the ''Rendioonto dell' accademia deUe ''Ingressus Domim in coelum juxta visionem Gregorii
sdenze fisiche e matematiche di Napoli", and in the Illuminatoris" called Secundum floricuUus or Secunda
''Atti della R. Aco., Napoli". Among his larger poZmarum dominica (Nilles, II, 519). Since this Sun-
works were the foUowing: "Incendio Vesuviano del day is the beginning of Holy Week, during which
26 Aprile 1872" (Naples, 1872: G^r. tr., Berlin. 1872); sinners were reconciled, it was called Dominica indvl-
''II Vesuvio e la sua storia" (Milan, 1880); "Nuove gentia. comvetenHum^ and capUilavium from the prac-
lesioni di fisica sperimentale e di fisica terrestre" tice oi washing and shaving of the head as a bodily
(Naples, 1883); 'vDie Atmosph&rische Elektrisit&t" preparation for baptism. During the early centuries
(tr.j Vienna, 1884); ''Les lois et les origines de I'^leo- of the Chureh this sacrament was conferred solemnly
tricit6" (tr.j Paris, 1885). only in the night of Holy Saturday, the text of the
Pap. Se, Jft«j«ttmy, L (New York. 18M), 430;, CmftA Cat- creed had been made known to the catechumens on
^A:^a^.^I^'^fi^\^):Sif^ " *"^"^ the prececmig Palm Sundajr TWs practice was f ol-
William Fox lowed m Spam (Isidore, "De off. eccl.", I, 27), m
» , I ^-i^ <i w ,.. T ou .-.. G*^ (P- I^' LXXII, 265), and in Milan (Ambrose,
PalminChrlstianSyiiibollim.---Inpre-Christian Ep. xx). In England the day was called Olive or
times the palm was regarded as a symbol of victory Branch Sunday, Sallow or Willow, Yew or Blossom
(Aulus Gellius, "Noct. Att.", Ill, vi). It was Sunday, or Sunday of the Willow Boughs. Since the
adopted by the early Christians, and became a symbol celebration recalled the solemn entry of Christ into
of the victory of the faithful over the enemies of the Jerusalem people made use of many quaint and realis-
soul. The pahn, says Origen (In Joan., XXXI), is tic representations; thus, a figure of Christ seated
the symbol of factory in that war waged by the spuit on an ass, carved out of wood, was carried in the pro-
asainst the flesh. In this sense it was especially ap- cession and even brought into the chureh. Such
pBcable to martyrs, the victors par excelience over the figures may still be seen in the museums of Basle,
spiritual foes of mankind; hence the frequent occur- Zurich, Munich, and Nttmberg (KeUner, 50).
renoe in the Acts of the martyrs of such expresaons i^ some places in Germany and France it was cus-
as "he received the palm of martyrdom." On 10 tomary to strew flowers and green boughs about the
April, 1688 it was decided by the Congregation of cross in the churehyard. After the Passion had been
Rites that the palm when found depicted on catacomb recited at Mass blessed palms were brought and this
tombs was to be regarded as a proof that a martsrr had cross (in consequence sometimes call^^the Palm
been interred there. Subseauently this opmion was cross) was wreathed and decked with them to B3rm-
acknowledged by Mabillon, Muratori, Benedict XIV bolise Christ's victory. In Lower Bavaria boys went
and others to be untenable; further investigation about the streets sinpng the "PueriHebrseorum" and
showed that the palm was represented not only on other carols, whence they received the name of Pueribu-
tombs of the post-persecution era, but even on pagan ben ("Theologisch-pr^tische Quartalschrift", 1802,
tombs. The general sipuficance of thepalm on early gi). Sometimes an uncovered crucifix, or the gospel-
Chnstian monuments is shghtly modified according book, and often the Blessed Sacrament, was carried in
to its association with other symbols (e. g^ with the procession. In many parts of England a large and
monogram of Christ, the Pish, the Good Shepherd), beautiful tent was prepared in the churehyard. Two
On some later monuments the palm was represented priests accompanied by lights brought the Blessed
m«nely as an ornament separeting two scenes. Sacrament in a beautiful cup or pyx hung in a shrine
Kbaub, Rtal-Bneyklopadu (Fratburg, 1882-86). ■. v.j Idbm. * wnrlr tn thin t^nt A \antr^m.m nrrv^^iRfnnn
Owch. der diriatL KuntU, I (Freibura. 1896); Tybwhtpt in Diet. 01 open WOrK W) UUS teni. A long-orawn procession
o/ChruL Aruiquitiet (London, 1875-%), s. ▼. With palms and flowers came out of the church and
Mauricb M. Habsett. made four stations at the Laics' cemetery north of the
o.i««.« Q^T^^ ^- o^ a<ir.^wArn»Ta QAT^rm T>/%»i>i chuTCh, at tho south side, at the west door, and before
Palms, Synod of. See Symmachtjb, Saint, Pope. ^^^ chlireh-yard cross, which was then uncovered.
Palm Sunday, the sixth and last Simday of Lent At each of these stations Gospels were sung. After
and beginning of Holy Week, a Sunday of the highest the singing of the first Gospel the shrine with the
rank, not even a commemoration of any kind being Blessed Sacrament was borne forward. On meeting,
permitted in the Mass. In common law it fixes the all prostrated and kissed the groimd. The procession
commencement of Easter duty. The Roman Missal then continued. The door of the church was opened,
marks the station at St. John Lateran (see Stations) the priests held up on high the shrine with the Blessed
and bc£fore September, 1870, the pope performed Sacrament, so that all who went in had to go under
the ceremonies there. Ilie Greeks celeorate the this shrine, and thus the procession came back into the
day with great solemnity : Uiey^ call it Kvptaic^ or ioprii chureh. The introduction of the Blessed Sacrament
tQw potuw or io/nii fiaioipipot or also Lazarus Simday, into the Palm Sunday procession is generally ascribed
because on the day before th^ have the feast to Bl. Lanfranc who ordered the ceremony for his
of the resuscitation of Lazarus. The emperors used Abbey of Bee.
to distribute branches of palm and small presents Liturgical writers differ in assigning a time for the
among their nobles and domestics. The Latin litur- introduction of the benediction of palms and of the
g'cal books call it Dominica in Palmis, Dominica or procession. Mart^ne, "De antio. eccl. discipl.", xx,
ies Palmarum. From the cry of the people during 288, finds no mention of them before the ei^th or
the procession the dav has received the name Domin- ninth century. Peliccia, ''Christian, eccl. politia", II,
ica Hosanna or simply Hosanna (Ozanna). Because 308, is of the same opinion and mentions Amularius,
every great feast was in some way a remembrance " Dediv. off.", I, x, as the first to speak of them. Bin-
of the resurrection of Christ and was in consequence terim, V, i, 173, on the authority of Severus, Patri-
called Paachaf we find the names Pascha floridum, in arch of Antioch, and of Josue otylites, states that
French Pdque8 fleuries. in Spanish Pa8cua floridaj and Peter, Bishop of Edessa, about 397 ordered the bene-
it was from this dav ot 1512 that our State of Florida diction of the palms for all the churehes of Mesopo-
received its name (Nilles, II, 205). From the custom tamia. The ceremonies had their origin most prob-
of also blessing flowers and entwinins them among ably in Jerusalem. In the "Peregrinatio Svlvise",
the palms arose the terms Dominica Jlarida and dies undertaken between 378 and 394, they are thus de-
PALMYRA 433 PALMYRA
scribed: On the Lord's Day which begins the Paschal, death and the olive the advent of spiritual unction
or Great, Week, after all the customary exercises from through Christ. The officiating clergvman sprinkles
cock-crow till mom had taken place m the Anastasia the psdms with holy water, incenses them, and, after
and at the Cross, they went to the greater church be- anotner prayer, distributes them. During the distri-
hind the Cross on Golgotha, called the Martyrium, bution the choir sings the ''Pueri Hebneorum''. The
and here the ordinary Sunday services were held. At Hebrew children spread their garments in the way,
the seventh hour (one o'clock p. m.) all proceeded to and cried out saying, ^'Hosanna to the Son of David:
the Mount of Olives, Eleona, the cave in which Our Blessed is he that cometh in the name of the Lord.
Lord used to teach, and for two hours hymns, anthems. Then follows the procession, of the clergy and of the
and lessons were recited. About the hour of None people, canying the blessed palms, the choir in the
(three o'clock p. m.) all went, singing hymns, to the mean time singing the antiphons "Cum appropin-
Imbomon, whence Our Lord ascended mto neaven. quaref, ''Cum audissef, and others. All march out
Here two hours more were spent in devotional exer- of the church. On the return of the procession two or
oises, until about 5 o'clock, when the passage from the four chanters enter the church, close the door and sing
Giospel relating how the children carrying branches the hymn ''Gloria, laus". which is repeated by those
and palms met the Lord, saying "Blessed b He that outside. At the end of the hynm the subdeacon
cometh in the Name of the Lord'' is read. At these knocks at the door with the staff of the cross, the door
words all went back to the city, repeating " Blessed is is opened, and all enter singing " Ingrediente Domino ".
He that cometh in the Name of tne Lord." AU the Mass is celebrated, the principal feature of which is
children bore branches of palm or olive. The faithful the singing of the rassion according to St. Matthew,
passed through the city to the Anastasia, and there r&- during which all hold the palms in tneir hands,
cited Vespers. Then after a prayer in the church of Palm branches have been used by all nations as an
the Holy Cross all returned to their homes. emblem of joy and victory over enemies ; in Christianitv
In the three oldest Roman Sacramentaries no men- as a sign of victory over the flesh and the world accord-
tion is found of either the benediction of the paJms or ing to Ps. xci, 13, "Justus ut palma florebit"; hence
the procession. The earliest notice is in the "Grego- especially associated with the memory of the mart3rr8.
rianum" used in France in the ninth and tenth centu- The palms blessed on Palm Sunday were used in the
ries. In it is found among the prayers of the day one procession of the day, then taken home by the faithful
that pronounces a blessing on the bearers of the pahns and used as a sacramental. They were preserved in
und Ordines ", Munster, 1892, 202) is probably correct with blessed palms. From the blessed palms the ashes
in suspecting the first part to be an addition, and the are procured for Ash Wednesday. In places where
De pasaione Domini the original inscription. It seems palms cannot be found, branches of olive, box elder,
certain that the bearing of palms durmg services was spruce or other trees are used and the"(j8eremoniale
the earlier practice, then came the procession, and episcOporum", II, xxi, 2, suggests that in such cases at
later the benediction of the palms. least little flowers or crosses made of palm be attached
The principal ceremonies of the day are the benedio- to the olive boughs. In Rome olive oranches are dis-
tion of the paSms, the procession, the Mass, and during tributed to the people, while the clergy carry palms
it the singing of the Passion. The blessing of the frequently dried and twisted into various shapes. In
palms follows a ritual similar to that of Mass. On the parts of Bavaria large swamp willows, with their cat-
altar branches of palms are placed between the can- kins, and ornamented with flowers and ribbons, were
dlesticks instead of flowers ordinarily used. The used.
palms to be blessed are on a table at the Epistle side or cSSS^k ^2i? oi^SS ItoS' ^S^aSU^^ ''E^aSi^!l
m cathedral churches between the throne and the altar. R^vito (1908). 361; KircfUnUxiilm; ^u^mn, HeoHoloqy (tr.
The bishop performs the ceremony from the throne, London. 1908): Kbaxtb, ReaUneyklopddie; Nzllu, KdUndarium
the priest at the Epistle side of the altar. Anantiphon ^onisaU (jnnAmck, 1S97).
"Hosanna to the Son of David" is foUowed by a Francis Mbrshman.
prayer. The Epistle is read from Exodus xv, 27-xvi, 7, Palmyra, titular metropolitan see in Phoenicia Se-
narrating the murmuring of the children of Israel in cunda. Solomon (III Kingpa, ix, 18) built Palmira (A.
the desert of Sin, and sighing for the fleshpots of V. Tadmor) in the wilderness, but it is not certain that
Egypt, and gives the promise of the manna to be sent as . this means Palmyra, the Greek name of Tadmor, and
food from heaven. The Gradual contains the prophetic the reference may be to Tliamar (Ezech^ xlvii, 19).
words uttered by the high-priest Caiphas, "That it For a long time it was a market for the Romans and
waa expedient that one man should die for the peo- Parthians, as it was situated on the route of the cara-
ple": and another the prayer of Christ in the Garden vans. The city had a Greek constitution, made use
of Ofives that the chalice might pass; also his admoni- of the era of the Seleucides, the Macedonian calendar,
tion to the disciples to watch and pray. The Gospel, and a Semitic alphabet: the language was a dialect of
taken from St. Matthew, xvi, 1-9, describes the tri- Aramaic. Hadnan visited it in 129 and thenceforth
umphant entry of Christ into Jerusalem when the the town was called Hadriana Palmjrra. Its pros-
populace cut boughs from the trees and strewed them perity and monuments date from this period. The
as He passed, crying, Hosanna to the Son of David; Komans used it as a starting-point for their expedi-
blessedis he that cometh in the name of the Lord. (In tions against the Partisans. Septimius Severus and
private Masses this Gospel is read at the end of Mass Alexander Severus sojourned there. In 258 Septimus
insteadof thatof St. John.) Then follow an oration, a Odsenath. the descendant of a local dynasty, was
preface, the Sanctus, and Benedictus. Prince of Palmjrra. He proclaimed himself king in
In the five prayers which are then said the bishop or 260,' and in 264 received the title of emperor. Mter
priest asks God to bless the branches of palm or olive, his death (267) his inheritance passed under the
that they may be a protection to all places into which regency of Zenobia. She established an empire with
they may be brought, that the right hand of God may the assistance of her ministers Longinus ana Paul of
expel all adversity, bless and protect all who dwell in Samosata, Bishop of Antioch, conquered Egypt and a
them, who have been redeemed by our Lord Jesus part of Asia Minor. In 272 the Emperor Aurelian
Christ. The prayers make reference to the dove sacked Palmyra and carried off Zenobia a prisoner,
bringing back the olive branch to Noah's ark and to Diocletian established a camp there where the first
the multitude greeting Our Lord; they say that the niyrian Legion ^terwards sojourned. Justinian re-
branches of palms signify victory over the prince of stored it in the sixth century (Procopius, "De ^Edifi-
XI.— 28
PAL01T 4
cub", li). In 746 it miffered rrom the wan of the
Onuniads and AbbasBidB, in 1089 underwent an earth-
quake, and then tell completely into oblivion.
The date of the introauction of ChriBtianity into
Palmyra ie unknown. In 325 its bishop, Marinus,
as^bed at the Council of Nicsa; another, John,
signed at Cbalcedon in 451 as suffragan of Damascus;
another John was expelled as a Monophysile in 518
(Le Quien, "Oriena chriBt.", II, 845). TTie diocese
first depended on IVre in Phixoicia, then on Da-
mascus in Lebanon Phcenicia, as is shown by the
A&tioch "Notitia episcvpatuum " of the sixth cen-
tury ("Echos d'Orienl", X, 145; "Hieroclis Synec-
demus", ed. Burckhardt, 40): Geot}^ of Cjthtib,
" Descriplio orbis romaai",ed. Uelier, SO). After 761
Palmyra was a suf-
fragan of Emesa
(E^ios d'Orient, X,
96). The ruins of
PlJmyra (now Toud-
mour) are among the
most beautiful in the
4 dite Tadmor
' oj Palmyra
ilKKTia! hUovi dt'Fai-
mi.r*<P»ri., lS23)j
Whiovt, Paimifm and
Znufean {Loudoo. ISM);
LnTUHH, 9niilK /»-
•rriplumi (New York,
1904): VooOC. Sini c*<t-
... Jt d-Atii
. 2571-2828;
1. tSTT); VOH
FarHtmoH Falmyra (Berlin, 18W); Moam, Zv antiien fcfki-
anpiit dtr Paltnvrmt (Berlin. IHM); MinauillDT. Ormniiiitiafi
di itnvvt romain (Paru, 1S92), II. 360-02; Huhhi. £iHt lur U
riant dc Crmprrmr A-arilitn (Paril. l»Ot>: Recur bMiqiu, I. S33-
38; II, 117, 627-30; VI. S»2-fl7; XI, »4^; 008-618; XII. 77-80.
S. VailhA.
Palou, Francisco, Friar Minor, b. at Pfdma,
Island of Majorca, about 1722; d. in 1789 or 1790.
He entered the Franciscan order at his native pla
he voluntMrod for the American Indian missions, and
joined the missionary (!k>Ilege of San Fernando de
Mexico early in 1740. With bis friend he was also in
the same year aaaigned to the Indian missiona of the
Sierra Gorda, north of Querftaro, and laboured there
until 1759 when with Father Serra he was recalled in
order to work among the Indians in the San Sabds
n^on, Texas. For some reason the college failed to
accept those missions. Father Palou was therefore
employed in the City of MexiKO until 1767 when with
Father Serra and fourteen other FranciBcan friars he
was sent to Lower CaUfomia. In April, 1768, on
reaching Loreto, he was given charge of Mission San
Francisco Javier. In the following year, when Father
Serra proceeded to establiBh the miaaions of Upper
California, Father Palou succeeded him in the office
of preaidente or superior of the lower misMons. While
at the head of the friars in Lower California, be demon-
strated his eminent fitness for the position in a pro-
tracted struggle with the hoatile Governor, Phelipe
Barri, whom ne he1<l at ba^, and whose schemes against
the mis^onaries and Indians he defeated while in the
territory. When in 1773 the Franciscans turned the
peninsula missions over to the Dominican Fathers,
Father Palou joined his brethren in Upper California
and acted as superior until the return from Mexico
of Father Serra in 1774. In November of that year
he accompanied Captain Rivera's exploring expedition
4 PALUDANUS
to the Bay of San Francisco, and on 4 December,
Slanted the cross on Point Lobos in view of the Golden
rate and Pacific Ocean, the first priest to reach that
Doint. In June, 1776, be accompanied Lieutenant
Moraga to the same bay, and on June 28, offered up
the first holy Mass on the spot later under the Mis-
sion Dolores (q. v.) or Son Francisco, which Father
Palou founded a few weeks after. He remained in
charee until July, 17S4, when he was called to Mission
San Carlos in order to administer the last sacraments
to his fatheriy friend and superior, Father Junipero
Serra. When the latter had passed away on 2S
August, 1784, Father Palou became acting yrttidatit
of the missions. Age, ill-health, and the necessity of
having an experienced advocate near the vice-regal
court to defend the
rights of the Indians
and their spiritual
guides against the
assumptions of the
governor, induced
Father Palou to re-
tire to the College of
San Fernando in
September, 1785. In
July of the following
year he was elected
Euordian of the col-
lie, and held this
office until his death.
While in chai^ of
Misuon San Fran-
cisco he com;>iled bis
"Noticias" in four
volumes. It is the
standard history of
the California mis-
sions from 1767 to
1784. At San Carlos Mission he wrote the Life of
Father Serra which contains the history of the firat
nine miaaions, San Diego to San Buenaventura.
Palou. JVoftnat dt is AyJieua y Nuna CalifBmia. I-IV (Su
FrusiMW. 1S7S); Pilod. StlaiiSn HiiUrica dela Vidadfl Vtn.
P. Fr. /unipern Strra (Meiico, 1787); Sanla Bavbara Uitnon
Arthita: Califania ArrlliKt (Sm FruciKo); ArrAbuHop'j
rfrrAiKi (a>D FruciKa) ; Ehoeuiaiidt. Fronntani in Caiifur-
nia (Harbor Bprisgi. Mieh.. 1807); Idku. Mitiumi onJ Vuium-
oriei «/ Catifamia, I (Hui Fruewco, 1908); II (Su FruwlBO.
19Ui; BAHcaon. HuUry i^ Cali/arnia. 1 [Su FtuciKO. ISSS).
Zephtrin Enqilhardt.
PftltUl, atitularseeandsufFrBKanof Seleucia Iberia
in Syria Prima. The town was founded by a cfilon^
from Arvad or Arodus (Arrianus, A nab. II, xiii,
17). It is located in Syria by Pliny (Hist. Natur., V,
xviii) and Ptolemy (V, xiv, 2); Strabo (XV, iii, 2;
XVI, ii, 12) places it near the river Badan. When
the province of Theodoriaa was made b|^ Justinian,
the tenth century it still c
;i8tcda
and its precise hmits
CymatiuB, friend of St, Athanasius, and Patricius, his
successor; Severus (381); Sabbas at the Council of
Chalcedon (451); finally John exiled by the Mono-
?hysit«a and reinstated by Emperor Justin I (518).
'he ruins of Paltus may be seen at Belde at the eoutli
of Nohr esiSin or Nahr el-Mclek, the ancient Badan.
S. Vaiui*.
PaludEiiui, Petkr (Pbtrub db Paludb), theolo- ,
gian and archbishop, b. in the County of Bremen
Savoy, about 1275; d. at Paris, 1342. He entered the
Dominican Order at Lj;ons, completed his theological,
studies at the Univeruty of Paris, and was made a
PAMELIUS
435
PAMIEBS
Doctor and Master of Theology in 1314. Wiahinff to
devote his life to teaching anowriting. he avoidedf all
offices of honour in the order, except tnose pertaining
to the direction of studies. Twice, however, he was
sent as definitor from the Province of France to the
General Chapter. John XXII. wishing to organize a
Crusade, sent him in 1318 as legate to the Court of
Flanders, in the hope of establishing peace between
the prince and the King of France. Tne mission was
not successful, and his associates made charges to the
gope against the legate, who, however, easily cleared
imself. He was also a member of the commission
appointed by John XXII to examine the writings of
I*etrus Olivi. whose books contained some errors of
the Fraticelh (Denzinger, 484-91, interesting account
in Touron). About this time he wrote ''De causa
immediata ecclesiastics potestatis" (Paris, 1506)
against John of Poilly, whose errors were condemned
25 July, 1321 (Denzinger, 491, 495). In 1329 the
pope called him to Avignon, and consecrated him
ratriarch of Jerusalem. The same year he joumeved
into Egypt, to negotiate with the sultan for the deliv-
erance of the Holy Land. The sultan was immovable.
The accounts wmch the patriarch gave of the miser-
able condition of the Holy Land lea to the announce-
ment of another Crusade, but owing to apathy, and
dissensions among the Christian princes, the project
failed. Peter resumed his studies, composing at this
time his commentaries on the Sentences of Peter
Lombard, in which he combats Durandus. About
1332 he was appointed by the King of France to pre-
side over the deliberations of a bodv of prelates and
theologians whom Philip had convoked at Versailles
to discuss the charge made against John XXII, of
asserting that the souls of the just will not be admitted
to the beatific vision until after the general judgment.
The patriarch and his associates manifested consum-
mate prudence in dealins with this matter. In a let-
ter to the king they declared (1) their entire submis-
sion to the pope's authority, and their filial devotion
to his person; (2) their belief, based on the testimony
of trustworthy witnesses, that John XXII had not
held, much less taught, the opinion attributed to him.
but at the most, had mentioned it (recitando) ana
examined itj (3) that since the death of Christ the
souls of the just with no faults to expiate immediately
after death, and the souls of other just persons after
complete purgation, are admitted to the beatific vi-
sion, which mil endure forever. This doctrine was
defined by Benedict XII, 29 Jan., 1336 (Denzinger,
530) . Besides the works mentioned, Pahidanus wrote
commentaries on all the books of the Bible, and
"Conoordantise ad Summam S. Thomie'' (Salamanca,
1552).
Du BouLAT. Col. iUuitr. aeadmn. Hit, CAu'f. Parin, IV, ft84
(PariB, 1673) : QuAnr-EcHAKD. Serivl, Ord. Prod.. I, 603 (Paris,
1719); TouBON, Hiat. d€s homnuM iUustret de VOrdre d* 8. Dom..
II (Paria, 1746). 223; Sixtvs Ssnbnbis. Bibliol, Saneta, lib. IV
(Venice, 1666. M^ons, 1591) ; see Bsnkdict XII; Dubandub; Fba-
TicBxxi; John XXII.
D. J. Kbnnbdt.
PameiiuB (Jacqusb ds Joiont db Pamble), Bel-
dan theolo^an, b. at Bruges, Flanders, 13 May, 1536;
a. at Mons m Hainaut, 19 September 1587. He was
educated at the Cistercian Abbey of Boneffe in the
Province of Namur; studied philosophy at Louvain,
and on 27 March, 1553, he was promoted magiater
artiuTn, For the next nine years he studied theology
under the direction of Ruard Tapper and Josse Rave-
stein and after receiving the baccialaufeate he followed
the course of the Sorbonne. On 19 June, 1561, he was
made a canon of St-Donatien at Bruges, and was or-
dained priest probablv 21 February, 1562. He vis-
ited all the libraries of the Low Countries to procure
manuscripts and unedited works, and devoted him-
self to the publication of rare texts, beginning with
the ''Micrologus de er^lesiasticis observationibus"
(Antwerp, 1565). a valuable liturgical commentary
on the Roman ''Ordo'' which dates probably from
the beginning of the twelfth century. From . 1568
to 1571, Pamelius was dean of the chrStienU of Bruges.
He was appointed (1570) a member of the commission
for the examination of books bv Remi Drieux, Bishop
of Bruges, and aided in the publication of the " Index
expurgatorius'' of 1571. In 1574 he replaced George
dc Vrieze as scholar of the chapter of St-Donatien and
shared in the installation of the college of the Jesuits
at Bruges in 1575. The protection which Pamelius
extendi to the victims of Calvinistic violence at
Bruges drew upon him the hatred of the heretics and
he was obligea to withdraw to Douai. In 1581 the
chapter of St-Omer promoted him to the dignity of the
Archdiaconate of Flanders. After the death of Bishop
Jean Six (11 Oct., 1586), Philip II appointed Pamelius
his successor in the See of St-Omer, out Pamelius died
before receiving his bulls of connrmation. Besides
the '^Micrologus". he wrote ''Liturdca latinorum"
(Cologne, 1571); ''De religionibua diversis non ad-
mittendis . . . relatio'' (Antwerp, 1589) ; a catalogue
of ancient commentaries on the Bible (Antwerp, 1566);
and he edited the works of St. Cyprian (Antwerp,
1566), Tertullian (Paris, 1584), and Rnabanus Maurus
(Cologne, 1527).
Eulogy by Taklbomittb (Antwerp. 1689) ; OraiulatumM §t mug
tumtdi D, jaeobo Pamdio ab Ani. Hcio, Brug. H Frtd, Jamotio
medico (Doufti, 1587) ; Ds Schhbvbl, PameU {Jacques de Joigny
de) in Biographie nationaU . , . de Beigique, XVI (1001). 52^
542.
L. Van dsb Essbn.
Pamien, Diogesv of (Apamaa), comprising the
Department of Ari^, and suffragan of Toulouse.
The territory forming it was united to the Arch-
bishopric of Toulouse on the occasion of the Concor-
dat of 1801; the Concordat of 1817 re-established
at Pamiers a diocese which existed only in September.
1823, uniting the ancient Dioceses of Pamiers ana
Couserans^ the larger portion of the former Dioceses
of Mirepoix and Rieux and a deanery of the former
Diocese of Alet (See Carcassonne). A decree of the
Holv See 11 March, 1910, re-established the titles
of the former Sees of Couserans and Mirepoix.
A. — Diocese of Pamiers. The traditions of the dio-
cese mention as its first Apostle of Christianity, St.
Antoninus, bom at Fredelacum near Pamiers, an
apostle of the Roueigue, martyred in his native coun-
try (date uncertain). The Abbey of St. Antonin was
founded near Fredelacum about 960; in 1034 it passed
under the jurisdiction of the Bishops of Girone and
was annexed in 1060 to the Congregation of Cluny.
A castle built on the site of the abbey bv Roger II,
Count of Foix (1070-1125), was called Appamia;
hence the name of Pamiers which passed to the neigh-
bouring small town. Boniface VlII created a see at
PMniers by the Bull "Romanus Pontifex" 23 July.
1295, and made it a suffragan of Nari[)onne. He named
Bernard Saisset Abbot of St. Antonin, and by a decree
18 April, 1296, settled the boundaries of the new dio-
cese dismembered from that of Toulouse. The op-
position of Hughes Mascaron, Bishop of Toulouse,
and the conflict between Saisset and Roger Bernard
III, Count of Foix, prevented Saisset from taking im-
mediate possession of his diocese; Abb^ Vidal has
proven that it is not true, as had long been thought,
that St. Louis of Anjou, who became Bishop of Tou-
louse at the death of Mascaron, had been appointed
provisional administrator of the Diocese of Pamiers.
Saisset took possession of his see on 19 April, 1297;
having sided with Boniface VIII (1301), he was im-
prisoned by order of Philip the Fair.
After careful investigation, Clement V, 3 August,
1308, complied with certtun demands of Toulouse
concerning the decree of Boniface VIII, and the Dio-
cese of Pamiers remained, but with poorer resources
than those assigned it by Boniface VlII. However,
PABOSACHIUS 436 PAMPHILU8
when John XXII raised Toulouse to an archbishopric, dating back to the tenth century; Notre-Dame de
22 Feb., 1318, he also extended the Diocese of Pamiers Sabart, established after a victory won by Charle-
which he made suffragan of Toulouse. Saisset's sue- magne over the Saracens; Notre-Dame du Val
cessor was Jacques Foumier (1317-26), subsequently d' Amour, at Belesta; Notre-Dame de Vals; Notre-
pope under the name of Benedict XII (q. v.). Vidal Dame de Varilhes. Pilgrims are also attracted to St-
discovered in the Vatican Library the record of the Martin of Oydes by the relics of St. Anastasius, by St.
procedure of the Inquisition tribunal created at Anthony[s at^ Lezat, and by the miraculous fountain
ramiers, by Jacques Foumier in 1318, for the extirpa- of Eycheil, which according to tradition, gushed forth
tion of the remnants of Albigensianism in the Foix after St. Lazier had been praying to St. John the Bap-
region; this document b most important for the his- tist. Prior to the enforcement of the Law of 1901,
toiy of the Inc^uisition, representmg as it does, and the Diocese of Pamiers had Dominicans, Carmelite
perhaps in this instance only, that particular tribunal monks and teaching Brothers. At the beginning of
in which the monastic inquisitor and the diocesan the twentieth century, the religious congregations of
bishop had almost equal power, as decreed in 1312 by the diocese had charge of 19 day nurseries^ 2 orphan-
the Council of Vienna. In this new regime the tra- ages for girls, 4 industrial rooms, 2 sheltermg houses,
ditional procedure of the Inquisition was made 10 hospitals, 1 insane aaylum, 2 houses of nuns for the
milder by temporizing with the accused who persisted care of the sick in their own homes. In 1905 Oast
in error, by granting defendants a fair amount of lib- year of the period covered by the Concordat) the Dio-
erty, and oy improving the prison regime. Amons cese of Pamiers had a population of 210,527, with 22
the noteworthy bishops of ramiers were Cardinal puishes, 321 mission cmurches, 20 vicariates subven-
Amaud de ViUemur (1348-50); Cardinal Amanieu tioned by the State.
d'Albret (1602-06); John of Barbanoon (1550-55), ,,?£r^h'^^^\'r^o^'^^^Kl'.HJ^^^
whnhfv»AmPiiPAlvini«f-l?/>hprtof PpIW^ ?1^^7-7Q^ iJ^^>' X'^^' ^^^^^' 186-99. 267-84. tnUr., 87-180. 221-46;
wno DCCame a l^aiViniSt, ItOOeri OI relieve U0*>/ /»;, bucHBSNB, Faatea Bpiteopaux, n. 99-IOO: Vidal, Le« origines de
dunng whose episcopate the religious wars gave nse la province eeeUeiattiquede Toulouee (Anniileedu Midi. XV. 1903);
to cruel strife: protestants destroyed every church Vidal. i> tribuwa d^inquiaition de Pamiere CToulouse, 1906);
m Panuem, among them the magnificent catW of L°5S;iSiirS8l^^S'^V^^':SS^^
Notre-Dame du Camp, and three times they demol- tont ds Sentbnac. Armorial dee Mguee de Pamiera (Foix. 1902) ;
ished the episcopal palace of the Mas Saint- Antonin. LAHONDfes, AnnaUe de Pamiere (Toulouae. 1882); HAROT.^rDM-
Henry of §pon5e (1626-42) Spondanus who sum- 3;?',1S|:^«tSl?<Sr?^ ^^S^iS^SSS^
manzed and COntmued the Ecclesiastical Annals of etart9UhideC<nuerane{lA2b-l^\V)'uiRe9uedeGaecogne{\9S»);
his friend Baronius; the Jansenist Francois Etienne de S**®"?!; ^J?Sf*SiJ2*®«'!fcl*'Si.^*''*^'*^ ^^°"' ^®^^ ' CJhbvaubr,
Caulet ri644-1680^ Toi»*M, 1962. 2237-2238, 2664.
^^auiei uo^ioou;. a «i- * Georges Gotau.
B. — See of Couserana or Conaerans. — ^According to v^«vr«,u«.o v^v^^au.
St. Gregory of Tours, the first bishop was St. Va- PammaAhius, Saint, Roman senator, d. about
lier (Valerius) before the sixth century. Bishop Gly- 40Q. i^ youth he frequented the schools of rhetoric
cenus was present at the Council of Agde m 506. ^th St. Jerome. In 385 he married Paulina, second
According to Mp Duchesne he should be identified daughter of St. Paula. He was probably among the
with a certain Licerius (St. Lizier) whom the "GaUia ^ri genere optimi rdigUme prcBclari, who in 390 de-
Chnstiana" places lower in the hst of bishops: he was nounced Jovinian to Pope St. Siricius (Ambrose, Ep.
patron saint of St-Iizier, the episcopal residence of xli). When he attacked St. Jerome's book against
the bishops of Couserans, suffragans of Auch. The Jovinian for prudential reasons, Jerome wrote him two
historian Bishop Herre de Marca (1643-52) president letters (Epp. xlviii-ix. ed. Vallarsi) thanking him; the
of the ParUament of Navarre, was subsequently firgf vindicating the book, was probably intended for
Bishop of Toulouse and Archbishop of Pans. publication. On Paulina's death in 397, Pammachius
C,-—See of RieuXf erected by John XXII in 1317, became a monk, that is, put on a religious habit and
as suffraf^an to the archiepiscopal See of Toulouse, gave himself up to works of charity (Jerome, Ep. Levi;
Among Its bishops were: Cardinal de Rabastens Paulinus of Nola, Ep. xiii). In 399 Pammachius and
(1317-21); Cardinal de St-Martial (1359-72). Oceanus wrote to St. Jerome asking him to translate
D.—See of Mirepoix, erected by John XXII in Origen's "De Principiis", and repudiate the insinuar
1317 as suffragan of the Archbishop of Toulouse, tion of Rufinus that St. Jerome was of one mind with
Among its bishops were Jacques Foumier (1326- himself with regard to Origen. St. Jerome rephed
1327); David B^thon, Cardinal de Balfour (1537-46); the following year (Epp. Ixxxiii-iv). In 401 Pam-
Innooent, Cardinal de Monti (1553-1555); Jean Sua- machius was thanked by St. Augustine (Ep. Iviii)
vius. Cardinal de Mirepoix (1555-60) ; the academi- for a letter he wrote to the people of Numidia, where
cian Boyer, preceptor to the Dauphin, father of he owned property, exhorting them to abandon the
Louis XVI (1730-1736). Donatist schism. Many of St. Jerome's commen-
The Diocese of Pamiers specially honours St. Ge- taries on Scripture were dedicated to Pammachius.
rontius, martyr (date unknown) who gave his name After his wife's death Pammachius built in oonjuno-
to the city of St-Girons. The Ck)uncil of Pamiers in tion with St. Fabiola (Jerome, Epp. Ixvi, bavii), a
1212 drew up forty-nine articles concerning the police hospice at Porto, at the mouth of the Tiber, for poor
of the States of Simon de Montfort, and of the strangers. The site has been excavated, and the ex-
other seigneurs to whom had been ^ven the lands of cavations have disclosed the plan and the arrange-
the defeated Albigensian noblemen (See Albigenses). ment of this only building of its kind. Rooms and
In a coimcil held at Foix in 1226. Cardinal de Saint- halls for the sick and poor were grouped around it
Ange. Honorius Ill's legate, absolved Bernard^ Count (Frothingham. "The Monuments ofChristian Rome,"
of Foix, who had become a follower of the Albigenses, p. 49). The church of SS. John and Paul was founded
of the crime of heresy. The celebrated Guy de Levis either by Pammachius or his father. It was anciently
who had the title of "Mar^chal de la foi et des known first as the Titulus Bisantis. and then as the
croisfe". received in acknowledgement of his conduct Titulus Pammachii. The feast of Pammachius is
in the Albigensian war, the city of Mirepoix which re- kept on 30 August.
mained the propertv of the house of Levis imtil the CsiLLncR. Hist, dee aiUeura eceUa,, X. 99 sqq.: Txllbmont,
revolution Aside -from the pilgrim«me of St. An- ^^'^^-^^rd^T^^T^t/^h^i^
tomn at Pamiers, the chief pilgnmage centres are: dS5?chrU., 2sa,
Notre-Dame d'Ax les Thermes: Notre-Dame du * ' F. J. Bacchus.
Camp at Pamiers; Notre-Dame de (Delles at Celles;
Notie-Dame de I'lsard in the valley of Aran; Notre- Pamphilus of Casarea, Saint, martyred 309. Eu-
Dame du Marsan at St-LLuery pilgrimage centre sebius's life of Pamphilus is lost, but from his "Mar-
PAMPLONA 437 PAMPLONA
tyn of P^estine" we learn that PamphiluB belonged bis "De Viris illustribus" that there were two apolo*
to a noble family of Beirut (in Phcenicia), where he re- gies — one by PamphiluB and another by EusebiuB.
ceived a good education, and that he quitted his na- He discovered his mistake when Rufinus's translation
tive land after selling all his property and giving the appecu^ in the height of the Origenistic controversy,
proceeds to the poor. He attached himself to the and rushed to the conclusion that Eusebius was the
"perfect men''. From Photius (cod. 118), who took sole author. He chsoged Rufinus, among other things,
his information from Pamphilus s ''Apology for Ori- with pcdming off imder the name of the mart^ what
gen", we learn that he went to Alexandria where his was really the work of the heterodox Eusebius, and
teacher was Pierius, then the head of the famous Gate- with suppressing unorthodox passages. As to the first
chetical School. He eventually settled in Caesarea accusation there is abundant evidence that the " Apol-
where he was ordained priest, collected his famous li- ogy" was the joint work of Pamphilus and Eusebius.
braiy, and established a school for theolotdcal study Against the second may be set the negative testimony
(Eusebius, ''Hist, eccl.", VII, xxxii, 25). He devoted of Photius who had read the original; "Photius, who
himself chiefly to producinjg accurate copies of the was severe to excess towards the slij^test semblance
Holy Scriptures. Testimonies to his zeal and care in of Arianism, remarked no such taint m the Apology of
this work are to be foimd in the colophons of Biblical Origen which he had read in Greek" TCeillier). The
MSS. (for examples see Eusebius of Cssarea). St. Canons of the all^^ed Ck>uncil of the Apostles at An-
Jerome (De Vir. HI., Ixxv) says Uiat Pamphilus tran- tioch were ascribed by their compiler (late fourth oen-
Bcribed the greater part of the works of Origen with his turv) to Pamphilus (Hamack, ''Spread of Christian-
own hand '\ and that "these are still preserved in the ity", I. 86-101). The ascription to Pamphilus, by
library of Cnsaiea." He himself was a possessor of Gennaaius, of a treatise "Contra mathematicos" was
"twenty-five volumes of commentaries of Origen", ablunderduetoanusunderstandingof Rufinus'spref-
oopied out by Pamphilus, which he looked upon as a ace to the "Apology". A Summary of the Acts ot the
most precious relic of the martvr. Eusebius (Hist, eccl.. Apostles among the writings associated with Euthalius
VI, xxxii) speaks of Uie catalogue of the library con- bears in its inscription the name of Pamphilus (P. G.,
tained in his life of Pamphilus. A passage from the LXXXIX, 619 sqq.).
lost life, quoted by St. Jerome (Adv. Kufin., I, ix), de- ^ ,?t»P,";™™: QweK,d^ aUkirchL^., ll, 342 kw. : H^aot.
scribes W Pamphilus suppUed oopr scholars with the ^JS^oi^frS'eSfci.^ifSIS'Jfe^;^^^
necessanes of life, and, not merely lent, but save them Bqq.; Ruvxnttb's Tmnakuion of the Apohgy for Oriom will be
copies of the Scriptures, of ^diich he kept a laige sup- 'omwi in editions of the works of Origen.
ply. He likewise bestowed copies on women devoted F* J* Bacchus.
to study. The great treasure of the library at Csesarea
was Ongen's own copy of the Hexapla, probably the Panwlona, Diocese of (Pampilonenbis), con-
only complete copv ever made. It was consulted by prises almost all of Navarre and part of Guipuzcoa.
St. Jerome ("In Jrsalmos comm.", ed. Morin, pp. 5, This diocese is said to date from Apostolic times. It'
21 ; "In Epist. ad. Tit.'O* "^le library was certainly in is matter of tradition in the churches of Pamplona,
exutence m the sixth century, but probably did not Toledo, and Toulouse (France), that St. Satuminus,
long survive the capture of Csesarea by the Saracens in disciple of St. Peter, sent from Toulouse the priest
638 (Swete, "Introd. to O. T. in Greek** ^ 74-5). Honestus to preach to the inhabitants of Navarre, and
The Diocletian persecution began in 303. In 306 a later came m person. Finding that Honestus had
voung man named Apphianus — a disciple of Pamphi- alreadv made many converts, Satuminus left him in
lus ' ' while no one was aware ; he even concealed it from Pamplona. Honestus was the teacher of St. Firminus
us who were even in the same house" (Eusebius, (son of the senator Firmus). first Bishop of Pamplona.
"Martyrs of Palestine") — interrupted the ^vemor in Firminus went later into France, where he was mar-
the act of offering sacrifice, and paid for hi^ boldness ^^ed at Amiens. There is no note of an^ other
with a terrible martyrdom. His brother ^Edesius, also Bishop of Pamplona until 589, when Liliolus si^ed as
a disciple of Pamphilus, suffered martyrdom about the such in the Third Council of Toledo. Dunng the
same time at Alexandria imder similar circumstances seventh century other bishops are known as signatories
(ibid.). Pamphilus's turn came in November, 307. of various councils of Toledo. It was not known with
He was brought before the governor and, on refusing certainty whether the Arabs succeeded in establishing
to sacrifice, was cruelly tortured, and then relegated themselves in Pamplona (Ferreras affirms and Moret
to prison. In prison he continued cop3ring and cor- denies it) ; at all events, there is no record of a Bishop
recting MSS. (see Eusebius of C^essarea). He also of Piunplona from the Saracen invasion imtil the rei|^
composed, in collaboration with Eusebius, an " Apol- of Opilanus (829). The old cathedral had meanwhile
ogy for Origen" in five books (Eusebius afterwards fallen into ruins, and the bishops now took refuge in
added a sixth). Pamphilus and other members of his the monastery of San Salvador of Leyre (founded in
household, men "in the full vigour of mind and body", the eighth century). Inigo Arista recovered Pam-
were without further torture sentenced to be beheaded plona in 848 or 849, and restored the monastery, con-
in Feb., 309. While sentence was being given a youth verting it into a stronghold. This was for a long
named Porphyrins — " the slave of Pamphilus ", " the time the episcopal court and see, and hither Arista had
beloved disciple of Pamphilus"^ who "had been in- transferred the bodies of the holy virgins Nunilona
structed in hterature and writing" — demanded the and Alodia, martyred at Huesca in the time of
bodies of the confessors for burial. He was cruelly tor- Abd-er-Rahman II.
tured and put to death, the news of his mart}axlom It was the wish of Sancho the Elder to introduce into
being brought to Pamplulus before his own execution. Leyre the Cluniac reform, but the bishops and abbots
Of the "Apolo^ for Origen" only the first book is (e. g. in the Council of Pamplona of 1023) reedsted
extant, and tnat m a Latin version made by Rufinus. until 1090, during the reign of Sancho Ramirez. In
It begins with describing the extravagant bitterness of. the said council they resolved to restore the See of
the feeling against Orip^en. He was a man of deep hu- Pamplona, and decreed that all the bishops of Pam-
mility, of great authority in the Church of his day, and plona should be thereafter of the monastery of Leyre
honoured with the pnesthood. He was above all tike Sancho I, who then occupied the see. In 1025
things anxious to keep to the rule of faith that had the monks of Leyre were affiliated with the canons of
come down from the Apostles. The soundness of his Pamplona, and Juan II took the title of Bishop of
doctrine concerning the Trinity and the Incarnation is Pamplona and Leyre, and signed in a number oi de-
then vindicated by copious extracts from his writings, crees "Joannes, ecclesise Navarrensium rector".
Then nine charges against his teaching are confronted Until the reign of Sancho Ramires (1076-94) Leyre
with passages from his works. St. Jerome stated m remained the seat of the bishops of Pamplona. The
PANAMA 438 PANAMA
monastery held under its jurisdiction fifty-eight towns verted into barracks and hospitals, and the convent of
and seventy-two religious houses, and was besides the St. Francis into schoob. The sanctuaries of Iniatius
mausoleum of the Rings of Navarre. Theobald I Loyola and Francis Xavier belong to this £ocese.
brought Cistercian monks to Leyre. but at the end of That of Loyola contains the old house of St. Ignatius
the same century the monks of Cluny returned and enshrined m a monument constructed by Fontana
occupied it for some time. The monastery is now in under the auspices of Queen Mariana of Austria,
ruins, and its church serves as that of a rural parish, mother of Carlos II (168d-1738). The sanctuarv of
The see having been re-established in Pamplona, King St. Francis Xavier, home of the Apostle of the Indies.
Sancho Ramires (1076-94) procured the ^pointment has been restored by the generosity of the Dukes of
as Bishop of Pedro de Roda, monk of St. Pons de Villahermosa (1896-1901). The cdle^ate church of
Tomi^res, who built the new cathedral and established our Lady of Roncesvalles was founded at the begin-
a chapter of canons under the Rule of St. Augustine, ning of the ninth century as a hospice for travellers
The bishops of Pamplona^ as such, presided over the on their way to Compostela or from Spain to Rome
ecclesiastical order and tne three estates that made and Jerusalem. There are two seminaries in Pam-
up the Cortes of Navarre. The cathedral of Santa plona, a amciliar and an episcopal. There was also
Maria held the seigniory of the city, and its canons a university, first incorporated with that of Saragoesa
enjoyed the privileges of the royal family. Bishop and in 1745 with that of Alcaic It was founded in
Sancho de Larrosa consecrated the cathedral, com- 1608 by resolution of the Cortes of Navarre in the
Dieted in 1124. His predecessor, Guillermo Gaston, Doinimcan College of the Rosary, approved by Philip
nad accompanied King Alfonso to the conquest of III in 1619, and established by Gr^ry XV m 1621.
Saragossa, and there founded the Church of ''St. Urban VIII in 1623 and Philip IV in 1630 confirmed
Michael of the Navarrese''. it. In this university the well-known moralist,
In the Cathedral of Pamplona is venerated the Francisco Larraga, was a professor. It boasts of
ancient statue of ''St. Mary, the White Virgin" other famous scholars — ^jurists like Martin de Azi)il-
^arUa Maria la Blancaj Santa Maria de la Sede or del cueta, historians like the Jesuit Moret, missionaries
Sagrario)^ which was preserved in Le3rre from ver^ like Calatavud, and bishops like the Benedictine
ancient times until the eleventh century. There is Prudencio de Sandoval, historian of Charles V.
also a reliquary containing a thorn from Our Saviour's . Morbt, Anale$del Reino deNawrra (ToIom, I89p) ; Mbuda.
crown, riven W St. .Loi|, to TheobiJd II: likewise ^Sr.g^"5; 'Sl^2?; {T'lU^r^ i^SSTp-S^ -^S
the heads of the virgins Numlona and Alodia, whose Coml <U Loyola (Bilbao. 1891); db Maobazo. Btpana, •tu monu-
bodies were in Leyre. Bishop Pedro de Artaiona — mentot y artf : Na9am y Loorono (Barcelona. 1886).
known as Pedro of Paris, because it was there he had Ram6n Ruiz Amado.
received his education — obtained from Celestine III
(1191) the confirmation of all the privileges of the Panania, Republic and DiocnBSE of, in Central
'Church of Pamplona, and procured besides from the America, occupies the Isthmus of Panama, or Darien,
Bishop of Amiens a few relics of St. Firmin, whose which extends east and west between the Caribbean
feast was from this time (1186) celebrated with the Sea, on the north, and the Pacific Ocean, on the south,
same solemnity as the feasts of the Apostles. In 1 197 The republic is bounded on the east bv the Republic of
Sancho the Stroxig ceded his palace to Bishop Garcia. Colombia, and on the west by that of Costa CQca. Its
The sovereigns, Donna Juana and Philip of Evreux, extreme length is about 480 miles; its width varies
recovered it, leaving it in turn to Bishop Amaldo de from 37 to 110 miles; it has an area of 31,500 square
Barbaz^j their son, Carlos the Bad, returned it to miles and a population estimated at about 420,000.
Bi^op Miguel Sanchez de Asiun, and later to Bishop Most of the izihabitants are of mixed Aboriginal, Span-
Bemutlo Folcant. Since the union of Navarre and ish, and Negro blood: the canal works, however, nave
CastiUe, it had been occupied by the viceroys, and is attracted many Nortn American whites and some 40,-
to-dav the headciuarters of the Captaincy-Ueneral. 000 negroes, cmefly from the British West Indies. The
The bishops resided later in the "Casa del Con- country is rich in natural resources. Although only
destable" (House of the Constable, i. e^^ of the Duke about one-fourth of the soil is under cultivation, the
of Alba) until Bishop Melchor Angel Gutierrez Val- value of bananas exported from Panama annually ex-
lejo commenced the new palace, completed by Fran- ceeds $600,000 United States money; coffee, cocoa,
Cisco III If^acio Afioa y Busto. In 1317 Jimeno III, and rubber are produced in abundance, besides vege-
Garcia bemg bishop, Pamplona^ formerly a suffra- table drugs (sarsaparilla, etc.). cabinet woods, and
ean of Tarragona, became a sufitragan of Saraeossa. coco-nuts. It is sud that coal is the only common
Carlos III the Noble reconstructed tne cathedral, and mineral not found in the soil of the repubhc. Cattfe-
gave it for twelve years the fortieth part of the royal rearing is carried on to a certain extent. Other
revenues from Navarre. Bishop Martin de Zavala, minor industries are pearl-fisfalns (in the Gulf of
partisan of the antipope Pedro ae Luna, aided in the Panama) and the collection ol turtle<shells for
erection. In 1400 Emperor Manuel Palseologus gave exportation.
to the Church of Pamplona a particle of the wood of Panama, Until then a state of the Republic of Co-
the True Cross and another of the reputed blue vest- lombia, became an independent republic on 4 Novem-
ment of Our Lord; these relics are preserved in the ber, 1903. The Government of the United States,
cathedral. Toward the end of the eighteenth century having resolved to construct an inteivoceanic canal
Bishop Sancho de Oteyza completecTthe facade. from Colon, on the (Caribbean Coast, to the City of
The parish church of St. Satumioro is a verv old Panama, on the Pacific, concluded an important treatv
structure and has but one nave; not far from this is (signed, 18 Nov., 1903 : ratified, 23 Feb., 1904) with
pointed out the well where the saint baptized his first the newly constituted Republic of Panama. By this
converts. The parish church of St. Lorenzo was ren- treaty the United States acquired "the use in perpe-
ovated in the eighteenth centuiy, and enlarsed by tuity" of a tract five miles wide on each side of the
the erection of the Chapel of St. Firminus on the spot route marked out for the canal (the Canal Zone), with
where tradition says he was bom. The basilica of St. the control of all this territory for police, judicisu, san-
Ignatius of Loyola was erected in the place where itary, and other purposes; to provide for the defence
that saint was wounds when fighting against the of the canal, both the Caribbean and Pacific coast lines
French. In 1601 Viceroy Juan de Caniona had an of the Canal Zone were also ceded to the United States:
arch erected with an inscription, and later Count de lastly, while the Cities of Colon and Panama remained
Santisteban urged the Jesuits to raise the basilica, inte^al parts of the territory of the republic, jurisdic-
which was opened on 10 October, 1694. Former tion in those two cities in all matters of sanitation and
Dominican and Carmelite convents have been con- quarantine is granted to the United States. The Con-
c
PANCRATIUS
439
PAMDICTS
stitution of Panama provides for a National Legisla-
ture (AsaambUaf or Chamber of Deputies) elect^ by
the people on the basis of one deputy to every lO.OOO
inhabitants, to meet on 1 September of every alter-
nate year; a president electea for a term of four years,
and two vice-presidents. The president is assisted
by a Cabinet of five members. Jos6 Domingo de
Obaldia, elected president in 190S, to succeed Manuel
Amador Guerrero, died during his term of office (1
March, 1910) ana was succeeded by Vice-President
C. A. Mendoza.
Reliqious Conditions.— The secession of the Isth-
mus of Panama, comprising the Department and
Diocese of .Panama (see below), from the Republic
of Colombia took place when the Constitutional Gov-
ernment of that republic had a Catholic representa-
tion, and, after three years of civil war, the enemies of
religion seemed, politically, vanquished. None of the
promoters of the indei>endence of Panama seemed to
contemplat-e any religious change. But in order to
rally to the Separatist movement the forces of the
Liberal doctrinaires, so as to win oyer the great mass
of the population to the cause of independence, the
leaders had to make terms with them. Besides, some
of the chi^f promoters of the cause, being anxious to
adopt every North-American idea and custom, and
not merely those which seemed likely to be beneficial,
conceived certain erroneous notions: thus they as-
sumed as an axiomatic truth that separation of Cnurch
and State was the only means of uniting those of dif-
ferent creeds for the common puipose of self-govern-
ment and progress. In spite of the protestations
which Manuel Amador Guerrero, who led the way to
independence, had made to the bishop— to the effect
that the political transformation would lead to no
change in the relations of Panama with the Holy See,
and that the missions should receive all possible sup-
port— when the Constituent Assembly began to elab-
orate the constitution of the new nation, it was barely
admitted that a great part of the inhabitants were
Catholics. The intercourse with the Holy See, which
existed in accordance with the terms of the Colombian
Concordat of 1887, was not recognized. The obliga-
tion of paying to the Diocese of Panama a fixed sum
in compensation, or restitution, for the church prop-
erty previously confiscated by tne Colombian Govern-
ment, and now in possession of many citizens of Pan-
ama, was repudiated. The appropriation for the
Conciliar Seminary and the missions might be con-
sidered some eqmvalent, although the title of the
Church, in strict justice, to receive these contribu-
tions as the State s creditor, was ignored. Since it
was voted, this appropriation has been religiously
complied with, in spite of the efforts of certain indi-
viduals to curtail, withhold, or divert it.
The National Legislatures (Aasambleas), successors
of the Constituent Assemblv^ have continued to yield
to the Liberal majority, which has manifested anti-
Catholic tendencies. Une cemeteries have been lai-
cized (Law 29 of 1909), in virtual derogation of the
restitution made by the Republic of Colombia years
before and confirmed in the above-mentioned con-
cordat with the Holv See. This concordat had been
recognized as a law by the Colombian Republic, and
it was specially declared to be still in force — at least
so far as concerned this point — ^by the new-bom na-
tion of Panama. The cemeteries were left at the free
disposal of the municipalities. Fortunately, these
booies, representing the village communities^ are, as
a rule, composed of Christian men. There is also a
tendency to secularize education, not merely by sub-
mitting it entirely to state control or supervision, but
by introducing teachers and doctrines hostile to re-
ligion. Indeed, some of the functionaries in this
branch of the public service have not waited for legal
measures, but have attempted to impose their views
on the school eystem and on the pupils.
The DioQBse of Panama (JPanamanensis) was erected
by Leo X in 1520 (Annuaire Pont.) or in 1515. or by
Qement VII, in 1534 (Moroni, "Diz. di Enid. Storioo-
Eccl."). It was at first suffra^^an of Lima, but is now
of Cartagena. Its territory comcides with that of the
republic. The present incumbent of the see (1911),
Mgr F. X. Junguito, S. J., was b. at Bogota, 3 Dec.,
1841, and was appointed bishop. 15>April, 1901. The
bishop, residing in the City of Panama, is assisted by
his vicar-general, the priest of the most populous par-
ish, his secretary, the priest of the parish of the Sa-
grario, and two other secular priests, who, with the
assistance of a residence of the Jesuit Fathers (seven
priests), one of the Lazarists (five priests), and one of
the Discalced Augustinians (three priests and two lay
brothers), labour to supply the spiritual needs of the
30,000 inhabitants, at least two-thirds of whom are
Catholics. The community of Christian Brothers,
from whom the present government took away the
normal school, to incorporate it in the discredited In-
stituto, conducts in Panama a primary school recog-
nized by the State, and an independent college whicn
is now in jeopardy, being non-omcial. The same con-
gregation has similar schools at Colon and in each of
the six most important centres of population. The
Daughters of Charity of St. Vincent of Paul have, at
Panama, a primary school for girls, with 400 pupils,
a pension and orphanage of the Holy Family, inde-
pendent of the State, a government asylum, and an-
other institution which is supported by the ecclesiasti-
cal authority. It will be easy for them to open the
benevolent institutions which arc eagerly sohcitedof
them at two or three other places.
The religious interests of the Catholics who are
employed at the Canal Zone are cared for at Ancon,
Balboa, Culebra, Empire, Gorgona, Gatun, Cristobal,
and Colon by priests specially qualified for the work
by their knowledge of several languages. The Lazar-
ists are to establish a residence at Uorgona, to give
more attention to the natives, who avoid places where
the Americans are numerous, under the belief that the
Northern strangers look down upon them. By this
means priests are provided for every Catholic in the
Canal 2one, though there are not enough to work
the parishes properly. The Salesian Fathers of Dom
Bosco have lately come to Panama to care for a parish
in a quarter of the city which is filled with working-
men, as it contains the principal railroad station. In
this neighbourhood the}r have opened an orphan
asylum which, with astonishing rapidity, is preparing
'the way for a school of arts and manufactures destined
to educate good Christian workingmen. The Sale-
sians numb^ three priests and two brothers who act
as masters or managers of the work. They formerly
had the direction of the School of Arts and Crafts
(Escuela de Artes y Oficios) established by the Govern-
ment, and everything went prosperously until their
anti-clerical opponent forced them to resign.
For Bibliograpby see Colombia, Repubuc or. Amo, Waldo,
The Panama Canal Work and the Workera (Now York, 1007);
RoDBiQUEg, The Panama Canal (London, 1007) ; MacMahon. A
Glimpee of Panama Old and New in Caih, World, LXXIII (1001),
653 aqq.
F. X. Junguito.
PancratiiiB, Saint. See Nereub, Achilleub,
DOMITILLA, AND PaNCRATIUS, SaINTB.
Pandect! (Pandegtjs, or Digesta). — ^Thls part of
Justinian's compilation was his most important con«
tribution to jurisprudence (see Justinian I). The
language of d'Aguesseau, applied by him to pre-
Napoleonic Continental law, nas equal application to
the Common Law System. The reasons underlying
legal institutions are either historical or logical; and
every logical rule of law is capable of illumination from
the law of the Pandects. There is no other standard
of comparative jurisprudence. D'Aguesseau pithily
observes: "Justice has fully unveiled her mysteries
PAMDICTS 440 PAMDICTS
only to the Roman jurists. They are the safest inter- res vel ad actiones " (Every right which we enjoy oon-
preteiB of our own laws: they lend their spirit to our cems either persons, or things or actions) is not an
usages, their reason to oiu* customs^ and, by the prin- Aiistotelean division of law, was not so regarded by
dples they give us, serve as our guides even when we Gaius himself, and was given no importance as a canon
walk in paths that were unknown to them." Of the of classification by the compilers of the Disest.
Pandects, Prost de Royer says: " It is an immense edi- The Florenline MS, — ^The rediscovery of the Fiaan,
fice, without distribution, without proportion, with- or Florentine, MS. of the Pandects has been re^ardra
out ensemble. The pediments have disappeared, the as the critical secular event for modem civilization
columns are broken, the statues are mutilated: it is by those who associate the revival of Roman law with
no longer imposing by its gpmdeur. by the beauty of the legend of Amalfi. Charlemagne, who destroyed
its parts, by the richness of its details. After so many the Lombard monarchy (c. 800), was unable to find a
centuries, the digging goes on, as our artists still go copy of the works of Justinian. Yves de Chartres,
to seek rules and moofels among the ruins of Palmyra, three centuries later, mentions fragments, and shortly
of Athens and of Rome." after his death tne legendary narrative bei^.
Hastily compiled by Tribonian and his associates Pothier accepts it and relates the circumstances in
(in a scant three years) from the writings of thirty- which the "complete copy of the Pandects emerged
nine eminent jurisconsults, the Pandects leave much from the shadows of the tomb as by a miracle of Divine
to be desired in arrangement and abound in repeti- Providence". During the siege ot Amalfi (about 1136
tions and antinomies. The arran^ment, which fol- or 1137), the Emperor Lothair II, sustaining the cause
lows that of the Perpetual Edict, is historical or tra- of Innocent II against Roger, Count of Sicily, cham-
ditional, rather than scientific. The adjective, or pion of the anti-pope Pietro Pierleone (see Anacxxtus
remedial, element dominates the classification. Al- ll), recovered tne priceless MS. and gave it to the
though more rights were actually defined or capable Pisans as a reward (or their great service in furnishing
5XiU$lt6D.Op|]LirOOl>4STITUTlONUr('>omHe
;flu59uouxuTap.ueU(>pep^or4xsfep.
FBAamMT VBoii Gazub. nr thm Vuaaarnm MB. of tem PAMDBcn
of definition in the Roman l^al system than is even him a fleet. A Pisan historian claims to have seen the
now possible in the Common Law System, no class!* original deed of gift. The MS. was long treasured at
fication based upon rights was evolved. The thing Pisa, but at' last fell into the hands of the victorious
classified was an actual system of law, and the only Florentines, who carried it away in triumph in the
principles of arrangement were those ot tradition and early fifteenth century. It was preserved with great
convenience. Neither the jurists nor the compilers veneration in the ducal palace at Florence, as an ori-
were concerned with theoretical jurisprudence. Tlie ginal written in the time of Justinian and by him sent
materials of the Digest were not written into a contin- to Amalfi. About the time of the fabled finding at
uous text. The fragments give the name of the jurist Amalfi, a copy of the Code and a second copy of the
and the book from which they are taken. This method Pandects were unearthed at Ravenna,
was designed to perpetuate the fame of the jurists and The sacking of Amalfi (according to the tradition)
we thus enjoy a certain familiarity with them, al- led to the founding, by Imerius of the first and most
though their writings for the greater part have famous school, that of Bologna, and was the beginning
perishol. There are four hundred and thirt]r-two of the revival. Sigonius gave his authority to the
^'titles" contuned in the fifty books of the Digest, story, and it was generally credited until 17z6, when
The whole is divided into seven parts:. the first, called Grandl, a Pisan professor, seriously questioned it.
Tp&Ta^ has four books (I-IV) ; tne second, ''De judi- The revival of the study of Roman law was well under
clis", seven books (V-XI); the third, "ue rebus", way at Ravenna and at Bologna long before the alleged
eight books (XII-XIX): the fourth, ''Umbilicus", sacking of Amalfi and the immediate school of Ime-
eight books (XX-XXVlI): the fifth, "De testa- rius had reached its zenith before the year 1118. It
mentis", nine books (XXVIII-XXXVI); the sixth, is an established fact that there was a veiy ancient
with a great variety of matters, eight books (XXXVII- MS. at Pisa, that this MS. was brought to Florence
XLIV); the seventh part, six books (XLV-L). The in 1406 or 1411, and that it is still in existence. It is
sixth and seventh parts seem to have had no special however a copy, not an original, and probably dates
designation. This division into seven parts was never from about one hundred years after Justinian. Odo-
of practical importance. fredus (d. 1265) says it was brought to Pisa from Con-
The later, or occidental, arbitrary division adopted stantinople; according to Barl>oIiis (d. 1357), it had
by the glossators during the Middle Ages was probably always been at Pisa. That it ever was at Amalfi
due to the order of time in which the materials be- is improbable, and the legend is supported only by
came available for the production of a complete vul- Pisan chronicles. Laferri^re maintains that the story
gate text. The division was as follows: "Digestum is true. Savigny and Ortolan reject it. Ortolan
vetus" (bk. I -XXIV, tit. 2); the "Infortiatum" (bk. argues that if Imerius and the early glossators be-
XXIV, tit. 3,— XXXV, tit. 2, §82) ; the " Tres partes " came acquamted with it only as the result of the sack-
(bk. XXXV, tit. 2, J83— XXXVIII) ; the "Digestum ing of Amalfi, they would not have passed over so
novum" (bk. XXXIX-L). The vulgate MSS. are in momentous an event in silence,
three volumina (the "Infortiatum" with the "Tres The Vulgale.— By comparison of earlier MSS. then
partes"). The first printed editions follow this value- extant with each other and with the MS^ at Pisa, the
less division, and it was abandoned only in the seven- dossators reconstructed the generally received t^ of
teenth century. The celebrated fra^ent from Gaius fiologna, known as the Vulgate,
(a facsimile of which, as it appears in the Florentine Pandekten. — In the sixteenth century the Roman
MS., is shown in the accompanying illustration): law was received in Germany and became the positive
'< Omne jus quo utimur pertinet vel ad personas vel ad conunon law. The law of the Pandekten in the special
PANDULPH
441
PANOI
sense is Roman law, as a body of actual law, modern
Roman law "modified bv the Canon law, the cus-
tomary law of Italy and Germany, and by the statute
of the German Empire*'. The Pandekten, as part
of the legal curriculum. |dve the altered Roman law.
The pure private law or Rome, the Roman law of the
sixth century, is generally designated Inatitutumen.
The Pandekten, in the special sense, since the adoption
of the new German Civil Code, are no longer of legal
efficacy in Germany.
For modern texts of the Pandects, for translations into vei^
nacular laosuages, and seneral references, see Law, Roii an and
biblicunr^hy to that article: Obtolan, Potrisii, Sohm^ Holland
AND niadwbll, MtyHLBNBRUCR, and Other authorities there
cited.
Joseph I. Kbllt.
Pandulph, papal legate and Bishop of Norwich,
d. at Rome, 16 Sept., 1226. He is commonly but er-
roneously called Cardinid Pandulph, owing to his
bdng confused with Cardinal Pandulph Masea of
Pisa (created cardinal, 1182; d. 1201). The identi-
fication involves the supposition that the l^ate lived
more than a hundred vears after his ordination as
subdeacon. A Roman by birth, Pandulph first came
into notice as a clerk in the court of Innocent III,
where he was one of the subdeacons attached to the
gapal household. In 1211 Innocent sent him to
Indand to induce the king to receive Langton as
Arcnbi^op of Canterbury, and thus to relieve Eng-
land from the interdict which weighed so heavily on
all classes. His interview with the kin^ at North-
ampton elicited only threats from the kmg to hjuig
the archbishop if he landed in England, randulph
joined Langton and the exiled English bisliops in
Flanders and then returned to Rome. The whole
account of this mission is rejected by some writers
as resting solely on the authority of the annalist of
Burton; but lus account, confirmed by allusions in
Matthew Paris and other writers, may be accepted
as true. In 1213 Pandulph was again sent as papal
envo^r to England, as the king seemed prepared to
submit, and on 15 May took place in I>over Castle
the historic interview at which King John surrendered
his crown into Pandulph's hands and received it back
as a fief of the Holv See. The king also paid to Pan-
dulph the sum of £8000 as an instalment of the com-
pensation due for damase done to the Churoh durins
the interdict, the sum being delivered to the exiled
bishops. Pandulph now stopped the threatened
French invasion. When the papal legate, Cardinal
Nicholas of Tusculum, arrived in England, Pandulph
naturally fell into a secondary position, but he con-
tinued active, collecting money to compensate suffer-
ers troiA the interdict and mediating between the
king and the Welsh. In 1214 he was sent to Rome
to counter-check the English bishops who were appeal-
ing against the leeate; in this he failed, for the legate
was recalled, and Pandulph again returned to EnffUnd
where he remained through the struggle for Magna
Charta, in which his name occurs as one of those by
whose counsel the Charter was granted. The king,
anxious to retain his support, procured his election'
as Bishop of Norwich, though he did not yet receive
consecration. When Innocent's Bull arrived annul-
ling Magna Charta, Pandulph excommunicated the
barons who would not receive it, and suspended
Langton himself on his setting out to appeal to the
pope in person. Again superseded by the advent of
the papal legate, Pandulpn, on the death of John,
apparently returned to Rome where he held the posi-
tions of papal notary and chamberlain. On 12 Sept.,
1218, he was sent to England as papal legate. As
Henry III was a minor and the ministere who gov-
erned after the death of the regent Pembroke were
disunited, the position of the legate as representing
the pope, who was now suzerain of England, was very
powerful. fVom 1210 to 1221 Pandulph practically
acted as ruler of England. His administration was
successful; the revenue was increased, the country
{)rosperous, truces were made with France and Scot-
and| Jewish usurers suppressed, and justice was firmly
admmistered. But he encountered the opposition
of Cardinal Langton. who considered the exercise of
legatine power prejudicial to the rights of Canterbury,
and of Hubert de Burgh, who opposed the legate's
action in the government of Poitou. During a visit
to Rome, Langton procured the withdrawal of the
legate, and on 19 July, 1221, Pandulph publicly re-
signea his function as legate at Westminster. He had
hitherto at the pope's desire postponed his consecra-
tion as Bishop of Norwich to avoid coming under the
archbishop's jurisdiction, but, as this reason now no
longer held good, he was consecrated bishop by the
g>pe himself on his return to Rome (29 May, 1222).
e spent the rest of his life there engaged in diplo-
matic affairs, but after his death his body wss brought
back to England and buried in Norwich cathedral.
Matthsw Fabib, Hitt. Major, especially Sbiblbt'b introduc-
tion, Rolls Series (; 1872-83) ; AnnaU of Bvaion, givins documents
of John's submission and reconciliation in AnnaleM Moiuuticit I,
Rolls Series (1869) ; AnnaU of Thoimu Wykea {Oaney) of Maraam,
WavorUy, Woreetter, DunatabU and Tewke^niry in AnnaUi Mon-
attiei. Rolls Series (1869); BpUuAa Innocentii III in P. L..
CCXVI-VII; Buss, Calendar of Papal LeUera, I (London. 1893);
Shxrlbt, Royal LeUen of the Reign of Henry 111^ Rolls Series
(1862-6); Stubbb, Regxdrum Sacrum Anglieanum, where he is
confused with Masca (2nd ed., Oxford. 1897); Idkm, Conetitvr
tional Hiatery (Oxford. 187&-«); Idbm. Select Chartere (Oxford,
1895): Tout in Diet. Nat. Biog., s. ▼. Pandulf; Oabqust, Henry
III and the Church (London. 1905).
Edwin Burton.
Paneas. See CiSSABEA Phiuppi.
Panemotichus, a titular see of Pamphylia Secunda,
sufifragan of Perge. Panemotichus coined money dur-
ing the Roman epoch (Head, ''Historia numorum",
501). A Bishop raustus asosted at the Council of
Nicsea, 325, when the city belonged to Isauria. Later
it was part of Pamphylia Secunda. Another bishop,
Cratinus, may have assisted at the Council of Chid-
cedon. 451. Hierius signed the provincial letter to
Leo tne Wise, 458. Helladius assisted at a Council
of Constantinople m 536. (LeQuien,1, 1031). There
is record of no other bishop and the see is not men«
tioned in the "Notitis Episcopatuum". The city is
spoken of by Hierocles in the sixth century (Syneo-
aemus, 681, 3) and in the tenth by Constitntine Por-
phyrogenitus (''De thematibus". ed. Bonn, III, 38).
Kadet C'Les villes de la Pisidie , 4, reprinted from
''Revue Archtologique", Paris, 1893) identifies it with
the ruins of Badem Aghatch, soutii of Ghirme, in
the vilayet of Koniah.
S. PiTRID^B.
Pange Llngiia Qloriosi, the opening words of two
hymns celebrating r^ectively the Passion and the
Blessed Sacrament. The former, in unrhymed verse,
is generallv credited to St. Venantius Fortunatus (6
cent.), and the latter^^ rhymed accentual rhythm,
was composed by St. Thomas Aquinas (13 cent.).
I. The Htmn of Fortunatus. — The hynm has
been ascribed to Claudianus Mamertus (5 cent.) by
Gerbert in his "Musica sacra'', BH^ in his "Die
christl. Dichter," and many others. Fimont, who cites
many other authorities in his support, is especifdly
urgent in his ascription of the hynm to Mamertus,
answers at great length the critics of the ascription .
in his Note sur Fauteur du Pange . . . pneUumcerta-
minis THymnes du br^v. rom. Ill, 70-76), so that it
seems naxdly correct to say with Meams (Diet, of
Hynmol., 2nd ed., 880), that "it has been sometimes,
apparently without reason, ascribed to Claudianus
Mamertus.'' j^xcluding the closing stanza or dox-
olo^, the hymn comprises ten stanzas, which appear
in the MSS. and in some editions of the "Roman
Missal" in the form:
PANOI
442
PANQI
Pange lingua gloriod prcelium oertaminis
Et super crucb tropeeo die triumphum nobilem,
Qualiter Redemptor orbis immolatus vicerit.
The stanza is thus seen to comprise three tetrameter
trochaic catalectic verses. In the " Roman Breviary'*
the hymn is assi^ed to Passion Sunday and the fenal
Offices following it down to and including Wednesday
in Holy Week, and also to the feasts of the Finding of
the Holy Cross, the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, the
Crown of Thorns, the Five Wounds. In this breviary
use, the hymn is divided into two, the first five stanzas
being said at Matins, the second five (bednning with
the words "Lustra sex ^ui jam peregit'') at Lauds:
and each line is divided into two, forming a stanza of
six lines, e. g.:
Pange lingua gloriosi
Lauream certaminis,
Et sui)er crucis trophseo
Die triumphum nooilem:
•Qualiter Redemptor orbis
Inmiolatus vicerit.
The whole hymn is sung during the ceremony of the
Adoration of the Cross on Good Friday, immediately
tdter the Improperia or "Reproaches", but in a pecu-
liar manner, the hymn being preceded by the eighth
stanza (Crux fiddis) while the stanzas are followed
alternately by the first four and the last two lines of
the (divided) eighth stanza.
It will have been noticed that in the six-lined stanza
quoted above, "lauream" is substituted for the "prce-
hum ' ' of the three-Uned stanza. The correctors of the
Breviary under Urban VIII apparently saw a pleon-
asm in the expression "proelium certaminis". Their
substitution of "lauream" has not commended itself
to hymnologists, who declare that no pleonasm is in-
volved, since "proelium" refers to the battle and "cer-
tamen " to Uie occasion or cause of it; so that "prce-
lium oertaminis" means the battle for the souls of
men (see Kayser, " Beitr&ge zur Gesch. und Erkl&rung
der <esten Kirchenhym.", Paderborn^ 1881, p. 417).
He very aptly instances St. Cyprian (Ep. ad Ant., 4) :
"Prselium gloriosi oertaminis in persecutione ferve-
ret", and luids that "certamen" reveals the impor-
tance and length of the strife and renders salient the
master thought of the whole poem. In the hands of
the correctors the hymn suffered many emendations in
the interest of classical exactness of phrase and metre.
The corrected form is that found to-day in the Roman
Breviary. The older form, with various manuscript
readings, will be found in Mareh (Latin Hymns, 64;
with grammatical and other notes, 252), Pimont (Les
Hymnes etc., Ill, 47-70, with a note on the author-
ship. 70-76), etc. The Commission on Pliun Chant
established by order of Pius X in many cases restored
older forms of the liturgical texts. In the Gradual
^the Antiphonary has not appeared as yet) the older
form of tne "Pange lingua is now ^ven, so that it
can be compared with the form still used in our
Breviary. For the variant readinm of MSS. see "Ana-
lecta Hymnica" (Leipzig, 1907), 71-73. Dreves
ascribes the hymn to Fortunatus. See also the
"Hymnarium Sarisburiense" (London, 1851), 84.
It will be of interest to give here some specimens of
Catholic translations of some stanzas of the hjrmn.
1
Sine loud the conflict, O my tongue,
The victory that repaired our loss;
Exalt the triumph of thy song
To the bright trophy of the cross;
Tell how the Lord lidd down his life
To conquer in the glorious strife.
(J. T. Aylward, O. P.)
u
Eating of the Tree forbidden,
Man had sunk in Satan's snare, .
When his pitying Creator
Did this second Tree prepare;
Destined, many ages later,
That first evil to repair.
(Father Caswall.)
V
Thus God made Man an Infant Kes,
And in the manger weeping cries;
His sacred limbs by Mary bound.
The poorest tattered rags surround;
And God's incarnate feet and hands
Are closely bound with swathing-bands.
(Divine Office, 1763.)
vi
Soen the sweetest blossom wasting,
Droops its head and withered lies;
Early tnus to Calvary hasting.
On the cross the Saviour dies;
Freely death for all men tasting,
There behold our sacrifice.
(R. Campbell.)
ix
Bend, O Aoble Tree, thy branches;
Let thy fibres yielding be.
Let the rigid strength to softened
Which in birth was given thee,
That the limbs of my dear Jesus
May be stretched most tenderly.
(Amer. Eccl. Rev., 8191.)
The selected stanzas do not exhaust the examples
of Catholic versions, but offer some variety in n^etre
and in rhyming schemes. They represent neither
the best nor the worst woric of their auUiors in the
translation of this hyinn. In the preface to his "An-
nus Sanctus" Orby Shipley declar^ that "the love of
CathoUcs for their hsrmns is no recent . . . fancy
. . . and that the results achieved are not less wide
in extent, not less worthy in merit than attempts of
Protestant translators, facts overlooked even by
Catholic translators." His thought is worthy of
much consideration in view of the fact that the En-
glish version in the Marquess of Bute's translation of
the Roman Breviary (I, 409), in the (Bidtimore)
"Manual of Pravei«^' (614), and Tozer's "Catholic
Chureh Hymnal (p. 48), was the work of an Angli-
can, Dr. Neale.
It may well be doubted if any translator has ex-
pressed better in English verse tne strength and no-
bility of the original Latin than did the unknown
Catholic author of the version found in the Divine
Office of 1763 (given in stanza v above). Daniel gives
the following stanza (Thes. Hymnol., I, 168) :
Quando judex orbis alto vectus axe veneris,
Et crucis tusB tropseum inter astra fulserit,
O sis anxius asylum et salutis aurora.
which Neale translates (Medieval Hymns, 3rd ed., p.
5) and thinks ancient though not original; but Daniers
source is the "Corolla H3rmnorum" (Cologne, 1806).
The text reads "salutis anchora". Danididso gives
(IV, 68) four stanzas which Mone thought might be
of the seventh century; but they would add nothing
to the beauty or neat perfection of ^e hymn. For
first lines, authors, dates of translation, etc., see Ju-
lian, " Diet, of Hymnol.", 880-881, 1685. For Latin
text and translation with comment, see " Ainer. Eccles.
Review", March, 1891, 187-194, and "H. A. and M.,
Historical Edition" (London, 1909, No. 107).
II. The Htmn of St. Thomas Aquinas. — Com-
posed by the saint (see Lauda Sion) for the Office of
Corpus Christi (see (Dorpus CHRiam, Fbast op).
Including the last stanza (which borrows the words
"Genitori Genitoque" — "Procedenti ab utroque.
Compar" from the first two strophes of the second
sequence of Adam of St. Victor for Pentecost) the
hymn comprises six stanzas appearing in the MSS.
PMIOI
443
PANOI
Pange^ lingua, gloriosi cori>ori8 mysterium,
Sanguinisque pretioed quern in mundi pretium
FructUB ventru generosi Rex effudit gentium.
Written in accentual rhvthm, it imitates the triumphant
march of the hymn of Fortunatus, and like it is di-
vided in the Roman Breviary into stanzas of six lines
whose alternating triple rhyming is declared by Pi-
mont to be a new feature in medieval h vmnody.
In the Roman Breviary the hymn is assigned, to both
Vespers, but of old the Church of Salisbury placed it'
in Matins, that of TouJouse in First Vespers only, that
of Saint-Uermain-des-Prds at Second Vespers onlv,
and that of Strasburg at Compline. It is suiu; in the
procession to the repository on Holy Thursday and
also in the procession of Corpus Christ! and in that of
the Forty Hours' Adoration.
With respect to the metre, M. de Marcellus. quoted
in Migne's '^Litt^ture". remarks that the nymn is
composed in the long trocnaic verses such as are found
in Catullus, Seneca. Sophocles, and Euripides. In
addition to the felicitous rhythm chosen by St.
Thomas, critics recognize its poetical and hymnodal
values (thus Neale: ''This hymn contests the second
place among those of the Western Church with the
Vexilla Regis, the Stabat Mater, the Jesu dulcis memo-
ria, the Ad Regias Agni Dapes, the Ad Supemam,
and one or two others . . .'') and "its peculiar qual-
ities,'its logical neatness, dogmatic precision, and force
of almost argumentative statement (Duffield, "Latin
Hymns'', - 269), in which qualities "it excels all
these mentioned" by Neale.
The translations have not been many nor felicitous.
Generosi in the first stanza is not "generous" (as in
Neole's version) but "noble" (as in Caswall's). But,
as Neale truly says, "the great crux of the translator
is the fourth verse" (i. e., "Veriium caro panem
verum, etc."), so full is it of verbal and real antith-
eses. To illustrate the question of translation we
select from the specimen versions the fourth stanza,
since its very peculiar condensation of thought and
phrase, dogmatic precision and illuminating antith-
eses, have made it a bow of Ulysses to translators".
Its text is:
Verbum caro panem verum
Verbo camem efficit;
Fitque sanguis Christ i merum;
Et si sensus deficit.
Ad firmandum cor sincerum
Sola fides sufficit.
A literal translation would be: "The Word-(made)-
Flesh makes by (His) word true bread into flesh; and
wine becomes Christ's blood; and if the (unassisted)
intellect fails (to recognize all this), faith alone suffices
to assure the pm^ heart". Sensus (singular) is taken
here yo indicate the inner sense, as distinguished
from sensuum (plural) of the following stanza, where
the word directly refers to the extemu senses. Per-
haps the word has the same implication in both
stanzas. "Sincere" (in its modem meaning) may be
a better word than "pure". Taking first the old
versions found in books of Catholic devotion, we find
in the "Primer" of 1604:
The word now being flesh become.
So very bread fle3i by the word.
And wine the blood of Christ is made.
Though our sense it not afford.
But this in heart sincere to fix
Faith sufficeth to accord.
It is not in the rhythm of the Latin, and contains
but three monosyllabic rhymes instead of the six
double rhymes of the Latin. The "Primer" of 1619
makes an advance to six monosyllabic rhymes; and
the "Primer" of 1685 arranges the rhymes in coup-
lets. The "Primer" of 1706 retains the rhythm and
the rhymic scheme, but is somewhat more flowing and
lessh^vy:
The Word made flesh for love of man,
With words of bread made flesh again;
Turned wine to blood unseen of sense.
By virtue of omnipotence;
And here the faithful rest secure,
Whilst God can vouch and faith ensure.
A distinct advance in rhythmic and rhymic corre-
spondence was made in more recent times by Catho-
Uc writers like Wackerbarth, Father Caswall, and
Judge D. J. Donahoe.
At the incarnate Word's high bidding
Bread to very flesh doth turn.
Wine becometh Christ's blood-snedding;
And if sense cannot discern.
Guileless spirits never dreading
May from faith sufficient learn.
(Wackerbarth, 1842)
Word made flesh, the bread of nature
By his word to flesh he turns;
Wine into his blood he changes: —
What though sense no change discerns?
Only be the heart in earnest.
Faith her lesson quickly learns.
(Caswall, 1849)
Neale criticises the version of Wackerbarth: "Here
the antithesis is utterly lost, by the substitution of
Incarnate for made flesh, and bidding for word, to
say nothing of Blood-Shedding for Blood"; and de-
clares that Caswall "has given, as from his freedom of
rhyme might be expected, the best version". He
remarks, however, tnat Caswall has not given the
"panem verum" of St. Thomas.
By his word the bread he breaketh
To his very flesh he turns;
In the chalice which he taketh,
Man the cleansing blood discerns, —
Faith to loving bosoms maketh
Clear the mystic truth she learns.
(D. J. Donahoe, 1908)
Some of the more recent translations take Httle
account of the nice discriminations of antithesis
pointed out by Dr. Neale, who when he attempted in
his day a new version, modestly wrote that it '^claims
no other merit than an attempt to unite the best por-
tions of the four best translations with which I am
acquainted — Mr. Wackerbarth's. Dr. Pusey's, that of
the Leeds book, and Mr. Caswall's". His version is:
Word made Flesh, by Word He maketh
Veiy bread his flesh to be;
Man in wine Christ's Blood partaketh,
And if senses fail to see,
Faith alone the true heart waketh
To behold the mystery.
The present writer rendered the stanza in the " Amer.
Eccles. Review" (March, 1890), 208, as follows:
Into Flesh the true bread tumeth
By His word, the Word made Flesh;
Wine to Blood: while sense discemeth
Nought beyond the sense's mesh,
Faith an awful mystery leameth.
And must teach the soul afresn.
Neale's version is given in the Marquess of Bute's
' ' Roman Breviary ' ' . The Anglican hymnal, " Hymns
Ancient and Modem'' declares its version "based on
tr. from Latin by E. Caswall"; but, as Julian points
out, most of it is based on Neale, four of whose stanzaa
it rewrites, while a fifth is rewritten from Caswall
(i. e. the third stanza), and the fourth stanza is by the
compilers. The arran^ment found in the Anglican
hymnal is taken bodily mto the (Baltimore) "Manual
of Prayers" — & rather infelicitous procedure, as the
fourth stanza is not faithful to the original (Neale,
"Medieval Hymns and Sequences/' 181). The last
PANIQA&OLA
444
PANO
stanza and the doxolo^ form a special hymn (see
Tantum £rqo) prescribed for Benediction of the
Most Blessed Sacrament. The Vatican edition of the
Graduale gives its plainnsong melody in two forms,
both of great beauty.
JuuAN, Diet. 0/ Hymnol., 2Dd ed.. a. v., 878 and 1685, for first
lines of tranalations; Henry in Amer. Cath. Quarterly Review
(April, 1893), 288-292. for difficulties of tranalation; Idem in
Amer. Bcdea. Review (March. 1890), 206-213. for text, verae-
tranalation. comment, and notes; Pimont. Hymneadu brMaire ro-
main. III (Paris, 1884), 164-176. A list of hymns beginning with
the words "Pange lingua" is given in the Analeda Hymnioa, FV,
70; IV, 267; and mdezes patim. H. T. Henry.
Panigarola, Francesco, preacher and contro-
versialist, Bishop of Asti, b. at Milan, 6 Feb., 1548; d.
at Asti, 31 May, 1594. As a student of law at Pavia
and Bologna he led a dissipated life, until, moved by
grace, he entered the Order of Friars Minor at Florence,
15 March, 1667. At the age of twenty-three he was
sent to Rome, where his sermons attracted much at-
tention. Pius V had him sent to Paris where for two
years he studied the Fathers and the Councils, Greek
and Hebrew. Returning to Italy he preached durins
thirteen years in the principal towns. He converted
many Calvinists in France and Savoy; at Naples there
was collected, through one of his sermons, enough
mone3r to build a hospital for incurables. He also a»-
sisted in the construction of the Italian church of Ant-
werp, and of the Franciscan buildings at Genoa,
Vemce, Milan, and Turin. In 1579 Panigarola at-
tended, as custos of his province, the general chapter
at Paris. Finally in 1586 Sixtus V appointed nim
titular Bishop and Coadjutor of Ferrara, whence in
1587 he was transferred to the See of Asti. Shortly
after he was sent to France as assistant to the Papal
Legate, Cardinal Henry Cajetan. When Henry IV
had renounced Calvinism, the bishop returned to Asti.
Melchiorri (Annales Min. cont. XXIII ad a.
1594, n. 76-81) gives the most complete catalogue
of Panigarola's works. The most important are:
'^n Compendio degli Annali ecclesiastici del Padre
Cesare Baronio", Rome, 1590; 2nd ed., Venice, 1593,
comprises only the first volume of Baronius. ''B.
Petn Apostolorum Principis Gesta ... in rapsodise,
quam catenam appellant, speciem disposita , Asti,
1591. ''Lettioni sopra dogmi, dette Calviniche'',
Venice, 1584. This work, translated into Latin
(Milan, 1594), was attackea by Giacomo Picenino in
''Apologia per i Riformatori e per la Religione Rifor-
mata contro le Invettive di F. Panigarola e P. Se-
fneri", Coira, 1706. "II Predicatore di F. Francesco
^anigarola . . . overo Parafrase, comento e discorsi
intomo al libro dell' Elocutione di Demetrio Falereo
. . .", Venice, 1609. He also wrote conmientaries
(Psalms, Jeremias etc.) and many collections of ser-
mons, published in Italian and Latin.
Waddinq, ScripUrree Ord. Min. (Rome, 1806), 87-89 (Rome,
1006). 88-00; Sbabalba. Supplementum ad Script. (Rome. 1806),
176-78, (Rome, 1008), 202-04; Rodulphius Tob0xniansn8ib, Hi*-
toriarum Seraphiaz Religumie libri tree (Venice. 1586), fol. 317;
UoHBLU, Ttalta Sacra, IV (2nd ed.. Venice. 1710). 401-02; Boat-
TERi, Serie crtmolomco-^oriea de* Veecovi deUa Chieea d'Atii (Asti,
1807), 110-14; TiRABOSCHi. Storia deUa Letteratura italiana,
VII (Rome, 1785). iii, 424-20; VII (Rome, 1784). i. 366;
Melchiorri, AnnoUe* Minorum Wadd. eont., XXIII (Ancona,
1850), 157-64. ad an. 1504, n. 57-84; Marcsluno da Civsua,
Storia UnivereaU deUe Mieeioni Franceecane, VII (Prato, 1883), i,
*36-40. LrVARIUS OUGER.
Panis Angelicus. See Sacrib Solemniis.
Pannarts, Arnold, and SwEiNHsni, Konrad,
Printers; Pannartz d. about 1476. Sweinheim in 1477.
*annartz was perhaps a native ot Prague, and Swein-
heim of Eltville near Mainz. Zedler beUeves (Gu-
tenberg-Forschungen, 1901) that Sweinheim worked
at Eltville with Gutenberg in 1461-64. Whether
Pannartz had been connected with Sweinheim in
Germany is not known. It is certain that the two
brought Gutenberg's invention to Italy.
The Benedictine monastery of Suoiaco was the
cradle of Italian printing. Probably Cardinal Gio-
vanni of Turrecremata, who was Abbot in oommendam
of Subiaco, summoned the two printers there. They
came in 1464. The first book that they printed at
Subiaco was a Donatus; it has not, however, be^i
preserved. The first book printed in Italy that is
still extant was a Cicero, ''De oratore'' (now in the
Buchgewerbehaus at Leipzig), issu^ in September,
1465. It was followed by Lactantius, "De divinis
institutionibus", in October, 1465, and Augustine's
"De civitate Del" (1467). These four impressions
from Subiaco are of particular importance, because
they abandon the (jrotHic type of the earlv German
books. In Italy Roman characters were demanded.
Pannartz and Sweinheim, however, did not produce
a pure but only a "half Roman" t3rpe.
In 1467 the two printers left Subiaco and settled
at Rome^ where the brothers Pietro and Francesco
de' Massimi placed a house at their disposal. Their
proof and manuscript reader was Giovan de' Bussi.
since 1469 Bishop of Aleria. The works they printea
are given in two lists of their publications, issued in
1470 and 1472. Up to 1472 they had published twenty-
eight theological and classical volumes, viz. the Bible,
Lactantius, Cyprian, Augustine, Jerome, Leo the
Great, Thomas Aquinas. Cicero, Apuleius. Gellius,
Virjgil, Livy, Strabo, Pliny, Quintilian, Suetonius,
Ovid etc., in editions varying from 275 to 300 copies
each, in all 12,475 volumes. But the printers shared
the fate of their master, Gutenberg; they could not
sell their books, and fell into want. In 14^2 they
applied to Sixtus IV for Church benefices. From
this we know that both were ecclesiastics: Pannartz
of Cologne and Sweinheim of Mainz. The pope had
a reversion drawn up for them, a proof of his great
interest in printing. In 1474 Sweinheim was made a
canon at St. Victor at Mainz. It is not known whether
Pannartz also obtained a benefice. Perhaps the pope
also aided them; at any rate thev printed eighteen
more works in 1472 and 1473. After this they sepa-
rated. Pannartz printed by himself twelve further
volumes. Sweinheim took up engraving on metal
and executed the fine maps for the "Cosmography"
of Ptolemy, the first work of this kind, but di«i before
he had finished his task.
Burger, The Printen and Publiehere of the XV Century (Lon-
don, 1002), 523, 524, 605, 606; Fumaoalli, Dietionjiaire gioffr.
dTtiUie pour eernr d Vhietoire de Vimprimerie dant ce pave (Flor-
ence, 1005), 331-37. 405-00; LOfflxb. Stoeinheim und Pannarit
in Zeitaehrift fitr BUeherfreunde, IX (Bielefeld. 1005). 311-17:
losif. Die eraten deuteehen Drucker in Italien in Hieioriech'peH'
Heche Blotter, CXLIII (Munich 1000), 13-27.
Klemens Lofflbb.
Pannonhalxna. See Martinbbbrg.
Pane IndianBy a former important mission tribe on
the middle Ucayali River, Peru, being the principal of
a group of twenty or more closely cognate trib^ con-
stituting the Panoan linguistic stock, and holding
most of the territory of the Huallaga, Ucayali, and
Javari Rivers in north-eastern Peru, with outlying
tribes on the Jurui, Puru6, Beni, and upper waters of
the Madeira in extreme western Brazil and northern
Bolivia. Among the most impnortant of these beside
the Pano, are the Cashibo. Conibo, Mayoruna (q. v.),
Remo, Sensi, Setebo, and Shipibo, all of whom, ex-
cepting the Cashibo who are still cannibal savages,
were at one time in part connected with the famous
Jesuit missions of the "Province of Mainas" (see
Main as), of which the central headquarters was at
first San Francisco de Borja and later the Pano town
of Laguna.
The primitive culture of the Pano and cognate
tribes was very similar^ and was intermediate between
that of the Quichua tnbes of Peru and the wandering
savages of the Amazon forests. They were sedentary
and agricultural. Their villages, always close to the
water, consisted of large communal structures of oval
shape, and sometimes more than 120 feet in length.
PAN0P0LI8 445 PANOBMXTANUS
boflt of canes and thatched with palm leaves, with two when the missionaries were again scattered, most of
or more fire-places inside, and raised platforms for the missions abandoned and the others, being left
beds along the walls. The furniture consisted chiefly without support, rapidly declined, the Indians rejoin-
of clay pots of various sizes and purposes, manuf ac- ing their wild kinsmen of the forest and relapsing into
tured by the women, a wooden trough for holding the their original barbarism. The Laguna mission con-
chicha liquor, with the weapons and fishing gear of tinned, but in 1830, in consequence of dissensions be-
the men. They cultivated com, bananas, yuca, and tween the Cocama and the Pano, the former removed
a native cotton which they wove into ^rdles and to the towns of Nauta and Parinari on the Marafion,
simple fabrics. They had also bed coverings made while the Pano joined the mission of Sarayacti on the
from the inner bark of trees softened by beating. Be- lower Ucayali, founded by the Franciscan Father
sides the cultivated plants^ they subsisted largely upon Girbal in 1701. Lieutenant Smyth has given us an
fish, wild game, and the oil procured from ti^le eggs, interesting account of this mission as he found it in
which were gathered in great quantities during ^e 1835. havmg then a mixed population of 2000 Pano,
laying season in late summer. The oil or "butter" Conibo, Setebo, Shipibo, ana ^nsi, all using the Pano
w^ obtained by breaking up the em in a trough, language, which was the dominant one along the lower
pouring water over the mass, and eSunming off the Ucayah. While the Indians had accepted Christian-
grease which rose to the top after the sun's ravs had ity, taken on some of the customs of civilization, and
warmed it. This turtle oil formed a considerable showed the greatest devotion to their padre, they were
article of commerce with the tribes of the upper still greatly given to child-murder and to their beset-
Amazon as well as of the Orinoco. ting sin of dninkenness from chicha. in spite of every
Their weapons for war and hunting were the bow, effort of the missionary. It must be remembered in
the knife, the blow-gun with poisoned arrows, the esrolanation that the whole countr^r was a tropical
lance, and the wooden club, armed with deer-horn wilderness, without a single white inhabitant other
spikes and ornamented with feathers. The most than the padre himself, who laboured without salary
priz^ possession was the dug-out canoe, from thirty or ^vemment recognition, and that the mission
to forty feet long, and sometimes requiring months for Indians were in constant communication with their
completion. The men cleared the ground of trees, wild kinsmen of the woods. Of the Indians, Smjrth
with the help of their neighbours, but the cultivation says: "Their manners are frank and natural, and show
was by the women. Men and women went nearly without any disguise their affection or dislike, their
naked, but painted in various colours, with the hair pleasure or anger. They have an easy, courteous air,
flowing looselv either full length or cut off about the and seem to consider themselves on a perfect equality
shouloers. They stained their teeth a dark blue with with everybody, showing no deference to anyone but
a vegetable dye. The women wore nose pendants, the Padre, to whom they pay the greatest respect",
necklaces of various trinkets, and bracelets and ank- Sarayacti still exists, though no longer a mission town,
lets of lizard skin. In general both sexes were of but the Pano name and language are gradually yield-
medium size but well formed. Their mentality was inj5 to the Quichua influence from beyond the moun-
of a low order and they could seldom count beyond tarns. (See also Pino Indians; Sara yac^ Mission.)
four. There was practically no government or chief- ,. ^?' **»? trib~ •?? misirions of the upper Ama.on region during
x^' ^ ^^x' ^e t'__ ^r J. the Jemiitpenod: ChantrbtHehbbiu, /iMitoriodeftM Jftwtonef
ship, every man acting for himself except as common de la Compania de Jmum «n d Marafion EapaHol (Madrid. 1901);
interest brought them together. They paid special for more recent conditions: Smtth and Lowk, Journey from
reverence to the sun, fire, and the new moon, and were ^j^H.*^ ^-"T* ^^"w^i^^iAS^^wli^Sl^Si^^SSSS^JL^}
.1 J t •{ • 'J. a f XI. X V 1. J MarofHon y Amauumas (Madrid, 1684); HE,KSi>Oit, Exploratton of
m great dread of evil spuitS. Some of the tribes had a tke VaUey of the Amazon (Washington, 1853) ; Brinton, American
genesis hero who was said to have struck his foot upon Race (New York, 1801); Markham. 7Vt6e« in the VaUey of the
the ground and called them forth out of the earth. In 4*"^^ "* '^'^L "V^* ^S^-^ ^%yjv*°2°?iii^®*^" ^^^"^*
^^.J^ -r;*u « ^^A^>^^,^^A Tn^:„« ».,«4.^.« ««« ^t » ,...:- South Amertea: the Andes Regione (New York, 1894).
accord witn a widespreaa Indian custom, one of a pair Jambs Moonst
of twins was always Killed at birth, as also all deformed
children, considered the direct offspring of evil spirits. Panopolis, atitularsee, suffragan of Antinoe in The-
The dead were buried in large jars in the earth floor of bais Prima: the ancient Apu or Khimmin which the
the house. In the case of the warrior, his canoe was Greeks made Khemmis and Panopolis, capital of the
used as a coffin, all his small belongings being buried PanopoUtan "nomos" or district; one of the most im-
with him. There seems to have been no fear of the portant towns of Upper Egypt made famous by the
presence of the dead. Their ceremonies consisted of a god M!n. Herodotus (II, 91) speaks of its temple,
few simple dances to the sound of the drum and Pan- Strabo (XVII, i, 41) says the population was oom-
dean pipes, and invariablv ended in a drinking orgy, posed of weavers and stone-cutters. As bishops,*
They had few traditions^ but sometimes kept a record LeQuien mentions (Oriens christianus, II, 601-4)
of events by means of picto^phs painted upon bark Arius, friend of Saint Pachomius, who had built three
cloth. Girls were betrothed m childhood, and married convents there: Sabinus, at Ephesus in 431 ; St. Menas,
with somewhat elaborate ceremony when very young, venerated 11 February; and some other Jacobites.
In 1666 the Jesuit, Father Lorenxo Lucero, after- Recent excavations have disclosed a necropolis, nu-
ward killed by the savages, established the mission of merous tapestries, similar to Gobelin work, important
Santiago de la La^a, at the present Laguna, on the for the history of tapestiy from the second to the
east bank of the Huallaga, near its mouth in north- ninth century; numerous Christian manuscripts,
eastern Peru. Here he gathered a number of Indians among them fragments of the Book of Henoch, of the
of various tribes, Pano and Setebo of cognate stock. Gospel, and of the Apocalypse according to Peter, and '
Cocama and others of Tupian stock. In a short time the Acts of the CJouncil of Ephesus; and numerous
the settlement contained 4000 souls, ranking among Christian inscriptioDs (see AkhmIn).
the most important missions of the Mainan province. Bouriant in ifimairee pubUU jtar la Mienon orchMogique
Smallpox visitations and Portuguese slave raids (see feSf'*^*^"^"*'f>?^l!^'"5'A*5*i^5^^
M ameTuco) withm the next century greatly r«iuced ^^ii^^,^)9^^^^ ^i(^:;^r..l!^'5»J:
it, but on the expulsion of the Jesmts m 1768 it still oiogie igyptiennea, I, 214; AictuNSAn. La gtographie de VEgypte d
contained 1600 Christian Indians, ranking first among Pfpoque eojde (Paris. 1893). 1^22; LBfXBVRB, ReasMd^iiuerip-
the 33 existing Jesuit missions of the upper Ama«>n SS^^^Jg^i^^Sn'^ ^SrTl^}^kht!i;^' "*
and its branches. The missionary then m charge was S. Vailh£.
Father Adam Vidman, a Bavarian. With the other _^ . ca r% r^ a
missions it was turned over to the care of the Fran- rmormto. Bee Canons, CoLLBcnoNS of An-
ciscans, under whom it continued until the establish- cddnt; Ivo of Chabtbbs, Saint.
ment of the republican government in Peru in 1821, PanormitanuB. See Nicolo db' Tudbschi.
PANPSTCmSM
446
PANTJBNUS
Panpf|^GhiBzn (Greek rar, all; in/xv, soul) is a
philosophical theory which holds that everything in
the universe, the inorganic world as well as the or-
ganic, has some degree of consciousness. It is closely
related to the theory of hylozoism, which teaches that
all matter is endowed with life. As 8ynon3rmous
with hylozoism must be regarded the word jninbio-
ti8m, which was coined by raul Cams to distinguish
his theory from the panpsychism of Hftckel ('"Mo-
ni»t", 1892-93, III, 234-57). Between panfjsy-
chism and hylozoism there is no sharp distinction,
because the ancient hylozoists not only regarded the
spirits of the material universe and plant world as
alive, but also as more or less conscious. The Re-
naissance witnessed a revival of the ancient hylozo-
ism. The Italian philosophers of nature and the
alchemists speculated about the spirits that were
present in all things and the "feelings'' and "striv-
ings" of the "principles" of nature. The monadism
of Leibniz is evidently panpsychistic. All things are
made up of monads. £ve^ monad is conscious and
mirrors intellectually in itself the entire universe.
One monad differs from another only in the clearness
with which this mental representation is expressed.
^art from these early movements there is the
modem school of panpsychism, during the develop-
ment of which the word itself was coined. It b^an
with Fechner (1801-87) and received a new impetus
from Darwinian philosophy in Engluid and meta-
physical speculation in America.
The panpsychism of Fechner and later German
writers is most closel]^ connected with the Roiais-
sance revival of hylozoism. Both Fechner and Lotze
have much in common with the mystical speculations
of Paracelsus and van Helmont. To Fechner every-
thing is animated; the earth is tmly our mother, and a
living mother at that. The panpsychism of Lotze
(I8I7-18I) arises as a dreamy speculation, rather than
a coldlv-reasoned conclusion. " Has one half of crea-
tion, that which we comprise under the name of the
material world, no function whatever save that of
serving the other half, the realm of mind, and are we
not justified in longing to find the lustre of sense in
that also whence we always derive it?" (Micro-
cosmos, I, Book III, ch. iv, p. 353.) By making the
atom unextended Lotze thought that he had removed
the last objection to his panpsychism. Of a simi-
lar type is the panpsychism of Paulsen, and not
far removed are the speculations of H&ckel on the
pleasures and pains of the elements. With G. Hey-
mans panpsychism appears as a reasoned conclusion
from a metaphysical consideration of the relation be-
tween body and mind.
In England panpsychism was advocated by Wil-
'liam Kingdon Clifford as early as January, 1878
(Mind, 111, 57-67). He arrived at the theory as a
corollary from the doctrine of evolution. Conscious-
ness exists in man; man is evolved from inorganic
matter; therefore inorganic matter has in it the ele-
ments of consciousness. This conclusion was then
extended to the assertion that "the universe consists
entirely of mind stuff". As his forerunners in this
conception Clifford mentioned Kant and H&ckel —
and especially Wundt— of whom he wrote: "the first
statement of the doctrine in its tme connexion that I
Imow of is by Wundt" (Lectures and Essays, II, 73).
In America as early as 1885, Dr. Morton ranee
advocated the theory of panpsychism, though not
under that name. He lookea upon his theory as
a vindication of materialism, arguing that if mat-
ter is psydiical in its nature and mind is to be
interpreted as the resultant of these mental forces
of nature, such an interpretation must be mate-
rialistic; for "as long as anything is the resultant
of the forces of nature it belongs to material-
ism" (The Nature of Mind, 152). His pan-
psychism was in reality an illegitimate conversion of
the proposition: "all conscious processes are phyrical
changes" to "all physical changes are conscious pro-
cesses". This inference was supplemented bv hints
at the evolutionarv argument of Clifford. While the
panpsychism of Clifford and Prince was moie or less
empincal, that of Prof. C. A. Strong is more pro-
nouncedly metaphysical; it deals with the problem of
interaction between body and mind. Prof. Strong
proposes to solve it by diminating the essential dis-
tinction between body and soul, in holding that matter
itself is psychical rather than physical in its nature.
His work. ^* Why the Mind Has a Body" (New Yoik,
1003) called forth a lively discussion of this theory.
The first article of the eighteenth question in the
first part of the "Summa Theologica" of St. Thomas
is entitled: "Is every thing in nature alive?" It is a
discussion of the theory of hylozoism and telb us dso
the position of the S^eat scholastic on the tiuestion of
panpsychism. St. Thomas decides that tne test of
life IS to be sought in the possession of those charac-
teristics that are Pfoper to beings which are most
evidently alive. These characteristics he embraces
under what he terms the power of spontaneous move-
ment. By this he does not mean the mere capability of
moving about from place to place, but any spontaneous
tendency towards any kind of change (quacumque ae
Xnt aa motum vd operationem aliquam). As exam-
} of such motion he mentions the tendency of a
thing from a less to a more perfect state (growth),
and the sensations and understanding which constitute
the activity of animals that have already acquired
their full development. The question then becomes
one of fact. Are there any things in nature that do
not manifest the power of spontaneous movement, i. e.
growth or the activity of sensory and intellectual life?
Yes. There are things which have no spontaneous
activity of their own and do not move except by an
impulse from without, and these things are lifeless or
dead. We may see analogies in them to living things,
but they can never be said to Uve, except we are
speaking poetically and by way of metaphor. St.
Thomas therefore rejects hylozoism and panpsychism.
The only serious arguments in favor of panpsychism
are: the evolutionary one put forward by Clinord, and
the metaphysical reasoning of Prof. Strong. But until
there is evidence to show that the chemical elements
manifest some kind of mental process, we have no
right to say that they- do, no matter how much it
would aid any theory of evolution, or how easy it
mipht make our metaphysical explanation of the re-
lation between body and mind.
St. Thomas Aquinas, Summa Theolooiea^ I. Q. ziii, a. 1 : Baw-
DBN, Th6 Meaning of the Ptychioal in Phtlo$. Review, XIII (1904),
298-319; Carub, Panpeychiam and Panhiotiam in The Meniat^
III (1892-93). 234-57; CunroRD. Leetvrea and Eeeay; II; Body
and Mind in Fortniffhtly Review (Deo., 1874) ; loBif, On the NeUvre
of Tkino»-in-Themaeivea in Mind (Jan., 1878); Fschnsr, Zend
Aveeta (3rd ed.. 2 vols., Leipsig. 1906); Flournot, Sur le pan-
Snjjehieme in Arehivea de paycholooie, IV (1904-05), 129-44;
[ackel. The Riddle of the Univerae (London, 1900) ; Our Momiam in
The Moniat, II (1891-92), 481-86; Hbtmanb, ZurParalleliamua'
frage in Zeitachnft fUr Payehotogie, XVII (1898), 62-105; Lotsb,
Microcoamua, tr. Hamilton and Jones, I (Edinburgh. 1881). bk.
Ill, iv; Paulssn, Introduction to Philoaophy, tr. Trillt (New
York. 1896). bk. I. i. | 5. 87-111: Prince. The Nature of Mind
and the Human Automatiam (Philadelphia, 1885); The Identifieo'
tion of Mind and MaUer in Philoa. Review, XIII (1904). 444-51;
Strong. Why the Mind Haa a Body (New York. 1903); Idem,
Quelquea conaidirationa aur le panpaychtame in Arch, de payehoL, IV
(1904-6), 145-54.
Thomas V. Moore.
Pantanus, head of the Catechetical School of
Alexandria about 180 (Eusebius, "Hist, eccl.", V, x),
still alive in 193 (Eusebius, "Chron." Abr., 2210). A»
he was succeeded by Clement who left Alexandria
about 203, the probable date of his death would be
about 2(X). He was trained in the Stoic philosophy ; aa
a Christian missionary, he reached India (probably
South Arabia), and found there Christians possessinff
the Gospel of St. Matthew in Hebrew, which they had
receiveci from St. Bartholomew. All this is given by
PANTALBON
447
PANTHEISM
Euaeb^iB as what was "said" (Hist, eccl., V, xi).
Eusebius continues: ''In his 'Hypotyposes' he [Clem-
ent] speaks of Pantsenus by name as nis teacher. It
seems to me that he alludes to the same person also
in his * Stromata'.'' In the passage of the '^Stromata "
(I, i), which Eusebius proceeds to quote, Clement
enumerates his principal teachers, raving their na-
tionality but not their names. The last, with whom
Eusebius would identify Pantsenus, was "a Hebrew of
Palestine, greater than all the others [in ability], whom
having hunted out in his concealment in Egypt, I
found rest.'' These teachers "preserving the true
tradition of the blessed doctrine irom the Holy Apos-
tles Peter and James, John and Paul . . . came, by
God's will, even to us" etc. Against Eusebius's con-
jecture it may be suggested that a Hebrew of Pales-
tine was not likely tobe trained in Stoic philosophy.
In its favour are the facts that the teacher was met
in Egypt, and that Pantsenus endeavoured to press
the Greek philosophers into the service of Christian-
ity. It may well be that a mind like Clement's
"found rest" in this feature of his teaching.
Eusebius (VI. xiii) says again that Clement in his
"Hypotyposes' mentioned Pantsenus, and further
adds that he gave " his opinions and traditions ". The
inference commonly drawn from this statement is tl^at,
in the extant fragments of the "Hypotvposes" where
he nuotes "the elders", Clement nad Pantsenus in
mina; and one opinion or tradition in particular, as-
siffned to "the blessed elder" (Eusebius, " Hist, eccl.",
VI, xi v) , is unhesitatingly ascribed to Pantsenus. But
this is incautious, for we cannot be sure that Clement
would have reckoned Pantsenus among the elders; and
if he did so, there were other elders whom he had
known (Hist. eccL, VI, xiii). Origen, defending his
use of Greek philosophers, appeals to the example of
Pantsenus, " who benefited many before our time by his
thorough preparation in such thinra" (Hist, eccl., VI,
xix) . That Pantsenus anticipated Clement and Origen
in the study of Greek philosophv, as an aid to theolo^,
is the most important fact we know concerning him.
Photius (cod. 118) states, in his account of the "Apol-
ogy for Origen" by Pcunphilus and Eusebius (see
Pamphilus of Casarba, Saint), that they said Pan-
tsenus had been a hearer of men who had seen the
Apostles, nay, even had heard them himself. The
second statement may have been a conjecture based
upon the identification of Pantsenus with one of the
teachers described in "Stromata", I, i, and a too
literal interpretation of what is said about these
teachers denving their doctrinie direct from the Apos-
tles. The first statement may well have b^n made
by Clement; it explains why he should mention Pan-
tsenus in his " Hypotjrposes , a book appsu-ently made
up of traditions received from the elders. Pantsenus
is quoted (a) in the "Eclogse ex Prophetis" (Migne,
"Clem. Alex.", II, 723) and (b) in the "Scholia in
Greg. Theolog. " of St. Maximus Confessor. But these
quotations mav have been taken from the " Hypoty<
poses". The last named in his prologue to "Dion vs.
Areop." (ed. Corder, p. 36) speaks casually of his
writings, but he merely seems to assume he must have
written. A conjecture has been hazard^ by Li^t-
foot (Apost. Fathers, 488), and followed up by Ba-
tiffol C'L'^glise naissante", 3rd ed., 213 sqq.), that
Pantsenus was the writer of the concluding chapters of
the "Epistle to Diognetus" (see Diognetus). The
chief, though not the only ground for this suggestion,
is that Anastasius Siniuta in two passages^eoTMigne,
pp. 860, 892) singles out Pantsenus wi^ two or three
other early Fathers as interpreting the six days of
Creation smd the Garden of Eden as figuring Christ
and the Church — a line of thought pursued in the frag-
ment.
BARDBiniBWVB, Owch, d«r oUkireH. Lit., II, 13 aqq.; Harnack,
AlUkriH, Lit., 291 sqq.; Tillemont, HiH. eceUs., Ill, 170 aqq.;
CuLLUU, Hiat' «h9 ant, II, 237 aqq.; Routb, Rdiq, mc., I. 237
■'^ F. J. Bacchus.
Pantaleon, Saint, martyr, d. about 305. Aoooid-
ing to lesend he was the son of a rich pagan, Eustor-
gius of Nicomedia, and had been instructed m Chris-
tianity by his Christian mother^ Eubula. Afterwards
he becskme estranged from Christianity. . He studied
medicine and became phvsicism to the Empneror Maxi-
mianus. He was won back to Christianity by the
priest Hermolaus. Upon the death of his father he
csune into possession of a large fortune. Envious
colleagues denounced him to the emperor during the
Diocletism persecution. The emperor wished to save
him and sought to persuade him to a^^asy. Panta-
Icon, however, openly confessed his faith, and as proof
that Christ is the true God, he healea a paralvtic.
Notwithstanding this, he was condenmed to death by
the emperor, who regarded the miracle as an exhibition
of magic. According to legend. Pantaloon's fiesh was
first burned with torches; upon this Christ appeared to
all in the form of Hermolaus to strengthen smd heal
Pantaleon. The torches were extinguished. After
this, when a bath of liquid lead was prepared^ Christ
in the same form stepped into the cauldron with him,
the fire went out and the lead became cold. He was
now thrown into the sea, but the stone with which he
was loaded floated. He was thrown to the wild beasts,
but these fawned upon him and could not be forcea
away until he hsul blessed them. He was boimd on the
wheel, but the ropes snapped, and the wheel broke. An
attempt was made to behesul him, but the sword bent,
and the executioners were converted. Pantaleon im-
plored heaven to forgive them, for which reason he
also received the name of Panteleemon (the all-com-
passionate) . It was not until he himself desired it that
It was possible to behead him.
The lives containing these legendary features are all
late in date and valueless. Yet the fact of the martyr-
dom itself seems to be proved by a veneration for
which there is early testimony, among others from
Theodoret (Grsecarum affectionum curatio, Sermo
VIII, "De martyribus", in Migne, P. G., LXXXIII,
1033), Procopius of Csesarea (De cedificiis Justiniani,
I, ix; v. ix), and the " MartyroloKJum Hieronymi-
anum" (Acta SS., Nov., 11, 1, 97). Pantaleon is ven-
erated in the East as a great martyr and wonder-
worker. In the Middle Ages he came to be regarded as
the patron saint of physicians and midwives, and be-
csune one of the fourteen j^ardian martyrs.. From
early times a phial containmg some of his blood has
been preserved at Constantinople. On the feast day
of the saint the blood is said to become fluid and to
bubble. Relics of the saint are to be found at St.
Denis at Paris: his head is venerated at Lvons. His
feast day is 27 July, also 28 July, and 18 February.
Ada SS., July. VI. 307--425; Biblioth. hagioor. graea {2nd ed.,
BruMwls, 1000), 196-07; BibUoth, hag. lot., II (Bruaaela, 1900-01),
929-32 GOntkr Legenden^udien (Cologne, 1906). 22, ftuaim.
KlEMENB LdFFLER.
Pantheism (rar, all; 9e6f, god), the view according
to which God and the world are one. The name
pardheisi was introduced by John Toland (167(>-
1722) in his "Socinianism truly Stated" (1705), while
pantheism was first used by his opponent Fay in
''Defensio Religionis" (1709). Toland published his
"Pantheisticon" in 1732. The doctrine itself goes
back to the earl^ Indian philosophy; it appears durins
the course of history in a great variety of forms, and
it enters into or draws support from so many other
systems that, as Professor Flint says (''Antitheistic
Theories", 334), "there is probably no pure panthe-
ism". Taken in the strictest sense, i. e. as identify-
ing Cod and the world. Pantheism is simply Atheism.
In any of its forms it involves Monism (q. v.), but the
latter is not necessarily pantheistic. Emanationism
(q. v.) may easily take on a pantheistic meaning and.
as pointed out in the Encychcal, " Pascendi dominid
pegis", the same is true of the modem doctrine of
immanence (q. v.).
PANTHEISM 448 PANTHEISM
Vabiehes. — ^These agree in the fundamental doc- reaction due largely to the development of the natural
trine that beneath the apparent diversity and mul- sciences. But these in turn ofifer, apparently, new
tiplidty of things in the universe there is one only support to the central positions of pantheism, or at
being absolutely necessary, eternal, and infinite, any rate they point, it is claimed, to that very unity
such different earlier systems as Brahminism, Stoicism, doctrine of evolution applied to all things and all
Neo-Platonism, and Gnosticism, and in the later sys- phenomena, are readily interpreted by the pan-
temsofScotus Eriu^ena and Giordano Bruno (qa. v.). theist in favour of his own system. Even where
Spinoza's pantheism was realistic: the one oeing the ultimate reality is said to be unknowable,
of the worlcf had an objective character. But the as in Herbert Spencer's *' Synthetic Philosophy", it is
systems that developed during the nineteenth century still one and the same bein^ that manifests itself alike
went to the extreme of idealism. They are properly in evolving matter and m the consciousness that
grouped under the designation of "transcendental evolves out of lower material forms. Nor is it sur-
pantheism", as their starting-point is found in Kant's prising that writers like the late Professor Paulsen
critical philosophy. Kant Jo. v.) had distinguished should see in pantheism the final outcome of all specu-
in knowledge tne matter which comes through sensa- lation and the definitive expression which the human
tion from the outer world, and the forms, which are mind has found for the totality of things ("Einleitung
purely subjective and vet are the more important indiePhilosophie", Berlin, 1882.242).
factors. Furthermore, he had declared that we know His statement, in fact, may well serve as a summary
the appearances (phenomena) of things but not the of the pantheistic doctrine: (1) Reality is a unitary
things-m-themselves inaumena), Andf he had made being; individual things have no absolute indepen-
the ideas of the soul, the world, and God merely im- dence; they have existence in the All-One, the ens
manent, so that any attempt to demonstrate their realiseimum ei verfectissimum of which they are the
objective value must end in contradiction. This sub- more or less independent members; (2) The All-One
jectivism paved the way for the pantheistic theories manifests itself to us, so far as it has any manifesta-
of Fichte, Schellin^, and Hegel. tions, in the two sides of reality — ^nature and history;
Fichte set back into the mind all the elements of (3) The universal interaction that goes on in the physi-
knowledge, i. e. matter as well as form; phenomena cal world is the showing forth of the inner sesthetic
and indeed the whole of reality are products of the teleological necessity with which the AU-One unfolds
thinking Ego — not the individual mind but the ab- his essential being in a multitude of harmonious modi-
solute or universal self-consciousness. Through the fications, al cosmos of concrete ideas (monads, entel-
three-fold process of thesis, antithesis, and sjmthesis, echies). This internal necessity is at the same time
the Ego posits the non-Ego not only theoretically but absolute freedom or self-realization (op. cit., 239-40).
also for practical purposes, i. e. for effort and struggle, Cathouc Doctrine. — ^The Church has repeatedly
which are necessary in order to attain the hi|^st condemned the errors of pantheism. Among the
good. In the same way the Ego, free in itself, posits propositions censured in the Syllabus of Pius IX is
other free agents by whose existence its own freedom is that which declares: "There is no supreme. aU-wise
limited. Hence the law of right and all morality; but and aU-provident Divine Being distinct trom the
hence also the Divine being. The living, active, universe; God is one with nature and therefore sub-
mond order of the world, says Fichte, is itself God; ject to change; He becomes God in man and the world;
we need no other God, and can conceive of no other, all things are God and have His substance; Gk)d is
The idea of God as a distinct substance is impossible identical with the world, ^irit with matter, necessity
and contradictory. Such, at any rate, is the earlier with freedom, truth with falsity, good with evil, iu»-
form of his doctrine, though in ms later theorizing he tice with injustice" (Denzinger-Bannwart, "Ench.",
emphasizes more and more the concepts of the Abso- 1701). And the Vatican Council anathematizes those
lute as embracing all individuals within itself. who assert that the substance or essence of God and
According to Schelling, the Absolute is the of all things is one and the same, or that all things
"identity of all differences" — object and subject, evolve from God's essence (ibid., 1803 sqq.).
nature and mind, the real order and the ideal; ana Crfticism. — To our perception the world presents
the knowledge of this identity is obtained by an a multitude of beings each of which has qualities,
intellectual intuition which, abstracting from eveiy activities, and existence of its own; each is an individ-
individual thmker and every possible object of ual thing. Radical differences mark off living things
thought, contemplates the absolute reason. Out of from those that are lifeless; the conscious from the un-
this original unity all things evolve in opposite di- conscious ; human thought and volition from the activ-
rections: nature as the n^ative pole, mind or spirit ities of lower animals. And amons human beings each
as the positive pole of a vast magnet, the universe, personality appears as a self, which cannot by any
Within this totality each thing, Hke the particle of a effort become completely one with other selves. On
ma^et, has its nature or form detennined according the other hand, any adequate account of the world
as it manifests subjectivity or objectivity in greater other than downright matmalism includes the concept
degree. History is but the gradual self-revelation of of some original Being which, whether it be called
the Absolute; when its final period will come to pass First Cause, or Absolute, or God, is in its nature and
we know not; but when it does come, then God will be. existence really distinct trom the world. Only such a
The system of Hegel (q.v.) has been called ''logical Being can satisfy the demands of human Uiought,
pantheism", as it is constructed on the "dialectical" either as the source of the moral order or as the object
method; and ''panlogismus", since it describes the of religious worship. If, then, pantheism not only
entire world-process as the evolution of the Idea, merges the separate existences of the world in one ex-
Starting from the most abstract of notions, i. e. pure istence, but also identifies this one with the Divine
being, the Absolute developes first the various cate- Being, some cogent reason or motive must be alleged
gories; then it externalizes itself, and Nature is the injustification of such a procedure. Pantheists indeed
result; finally it returns upon itself , regains unity and brmg forward various arguments in support of their
self-consciousness, becomes theindividual spirit of man. several positions^ and in reply to criticism aimed at
The Absolute, therefore, is Mind ; but it attains its ful- the details of their system; but what lies back of their
ness only by a process of evolution or "becoming", reasoning and what nas prompted the construction of
the stages of wnich form the history of the universe, all pantheistic theories, both old and new, is the crav-
These idealistic constructions were followed by a ing for unity. Tlxe mind, they insist, cannot accept
PANTHEISM 449 PANTHEISM
dualum or pluralism as the final account of reality, we call the individual man \a only one of the countless
By an irresistible tendency, it seeks to substitute for fragments that make up the Divine Being; and since
the apparent multiplicity and diversity of things a the All is impersonal no single part of it can validly
unitary fpx)und or source; and. once this IS determined, claim personalitv. Futhermore, since each human
to explam aU things as somehow derived though not action is inevitably determined, the consciousness of
reaUy separated from it. freedom is simply another illusion, due, as Spinoza
That such is in fact the ideal of many philosophers says, to our ignorance of the causes that compel us to
cannot be denied; nor is it needful to challenge the act. Hence our ideas of what ''ought to oe" are
statement that reason does aim at unification on some purely subjective, and our concept ofa moral order,
basis or other. But this very lum and all endeavours with its distinctions of right and wrong, has no founda-
in view of it must likewise be kept within reasonable tion in reality. The so-called ''dictates of conscience"
bounds: a theoretical unity obtained at too great a are doubtless interesting phenomena of mind which
sacrifice is no unity at aU, out merely an abstraction the psychologist may investigate and explain, but
that quickly falls to pieces. Hence for an estimate of they have no binding force whatever; thev are just as
pantheism two questions must be considered: (1) at illusorv as the ideas of virtue and duty, of injustice to
what cost does it identify God and the world; and (2) the feUow-man and of sin against God. But again,
is the identification really accomplished or only at- since these dictates, like all our ideas, are produced in
tempted? The answer to (1) is furnished by a review .us by God, it follows that He is the source of our illu-
of tne leading concepts which enter into the pantheis- sions regarding morality — a consequence which cer-
tic ssrstem. tainly does not enhance His holiness or His knowledge.
Ood, — ^It has often been claimed that pantheism by It is not, however, clear that the term iUiLsum is jus-
teaching us to see God in everjrthing gives us an ex- Ufied; for this supposes a distinction between truth
alted idea of His wisdom, goodness, and power, while and error — a distinction which has no meaning for the
it imparts to the visible world a deeper meaning. In genuine pantheist; all our judgments being the utter-
» point of fact, however, it makes void the attributes ance of the One that thinks in us, it is impossible to
which belong essentially to the Divine nature. For discriminate the true from the false. He who rejects
the pantheist God is not a personal B>eing. He is not pantheism is no further from the truth than he who
an intelligent Cause of the world, designing creating, defends it; each but expresses a thousht of the Abso-
and governing it in accordance with the free aetermina- lute whose lai^e tolerance harbours aU contradictions,
tion of His i^sdom. If consciousness is ascribed to Logically, too, it would follow that no heed i^ould be
Him as the one Substance, extension is also said to Udcen as to veracity of statement, since all statements
be His attribute (Spinoza), or He attains to self-con- are equally warranted. The pantheist who is careful
sciousness only through a process of evolution (Hegel), to speak m accordance with nis thought simply re-
But this very process implies that God is not from frains from putting his philosophy into practice. But
eternity perfect: He is forever changing, advancing it is none the less significant that Spinoza's chief work
from one degree of perfection to another, and helpless was his "Ethics'', and that, according to one modem
to determine in what direction the advance shall take view, ethics has only to describe what men do, not to
place. Indeed, there is no warrant for 8a3ring that He prescribe what they ought to do.
"advances" or becomes more "perfect"; at most we Religion, — In forming its conception of God, pan-
can say that He, or rather It, is constantly paesine theism eliminates every characteristic that religion pre-
into other forms. Thus God is not only impersonal, supposes. An impersonal being, whatever attributes
but also changeable and finite — ^which is equivalent to it may have, cannotbe an object ot worship. An infinite
saying that He is not God. substance or a self-evolving energy may excite fear;
It is true that some pantheists, e. g. Paulsen (op. but it repels faith and love. Even the beneficent forms
cit.), while frankly denying the personality of God, of its maxuf estation call forth no gratitude, since these
pretend to exalt His being by asserting that He is result from it by a rigorous necessity. For the same
" supra-personal " . If this means that God in Himself reason, prayer of any sort is useless, atonement is viun,
is infinitely beyond any idea that we can form of Him, and ment impossible. The supernatural of course dis-
the statement is correct ; but if it means that our idea appears entirely when God and the world are identified,
of Him is radically false and not merely inadequate, Kecent advocates of pantheism have sought to ob-
that consequently we have no right to speak of infinite viate these difiiculties and to show that, apart from
intelligence and will, the statement is simply a make- particular dognias, the religious life and spirit are safe-
shift' which pantheism borrows from agnosticism, guuded in their theory. But in this attempt they
Even then the term "supra-personaL" is not consist- divest religion of its essentials, reducing it to mere feel-
ently applied to what Paulsen calls the All-One; for ing. Not action, they allege, but huimlity and trust-
this, if at all related to personality, should be described fulness constitute religion. This, however, is an arbi-
as infra-personal. trary procedure; by the same method it could be
Once the Divine personality is removed, it is evi- shown ihai religion is nothing more than existing or
dently a misnomer to speak of God as just or holy, or breathing. The pantheist quite overlooks the fact
in any sense a moral Bemg. Since God^ in the panthe- that reliidon means obedience to Divine law; and of
istic view, acts out of sheer necessity, i. e. cannot act this obecuence there can be no question in a system
otherwise, His action is no more good than it is evil, which denies the freedom of man s will. Accordmg to
To say, with Fichte,^ that God is the moral order, is an pantheism there is just as Uttle "rational service" in
open contradiction; no such order exists where nothing the so-called religious Ufe as there is in the behaviour
is free, nor could God, a non-moral Being, have estab- of any physical agent. And if men still distinguish be-
lished a moral order either for Himself or for other tween actions that are religious and those that are not,
beings. If, on the other hand, it be maintained that the distinction is but another illusion,
the moral order does exist^ that it is postulated by our * Immortality, — Belief in a future life is not only an
human judgments, the phght of pantheism is no bet- incentive to effort and a source of encouragement:
ter; for m that case all the actions of men, their crimes for the Christian at least it implies a sanction of
as well as their good deeds, must be imputed to God. Divine law, a prospect of retribution. But this sanc-
Thus the Divine Being not only loses the attribute of tion is of no meaning or efficacy unless the soul sur-
absolute holiness, but even fzdls below the level of vive as an individuiJ. If, as pantheism t^u^hes, im-
tiiose men in whom moral goodness triumphs over evil. mortaUty is absorption into the being of God, it can
Man. — ^No such claim, however, can be made in matter httle what sort of life one leads here. There
behalf of the moral order by a consistent pantheist, is no ground for discriminating between the lot of the
For him, human personality is a mere illumon: what righteous and that of the wicked, when all alike are
XI,— 29
PANVINIO
450
PANZANX
merged in the Absolute. And if by some further pro-
cess of evolution such a discrimination should come
to pass, it can signify nothing, either as reward or as
punishment, once personal consciousness has ceased.
That perfect union with God which pantheism seems
to promise, is no powerful inspiration to ri^t living
when one considers how far from holy must oe a Goa
who continually takes up into Himself the worst
of humanity alon^ with the best — ^if indeed one may
continue to think m terms that involve a distinction
between evil and good.
It is therefore quite plain that in endeavouring to
unify all things, pantheism sacrifices too much. If
God, freedom, morality, and relispon must all be re-
duced to the One and its inevitable processes, there
arises the qi^estion whether the craving for unity may
not be the source of illusions more fatal than any of
those which pantheism claims to dispel. But in fact,
no such unification is attained. The pantheist uses
his power of abstraction to set aside all differences, and
then declares that the differences are not really tnere.
Yet even for him they seem to be there, and so from the
very outset he is dealing with appearance and realitv;
and. these two he never fuses into one. He simply
hurries on to assert that the realitv is Divine and that
all the apparent things are manifestations of the in-
finite; but he does not explain why each manifestation
should be finite or why the various manifestations
should be interpreted in so many different and con-
flicting ways by human minds, each of which is a part
of one and the same God. He makes the Absolute
Eass onward from unconsciousness to consciousness
ut does not show why there should be these two
stages in evolution, or whv evolution, which certainlv
means becoming ''other . should take place at all.
It might be noted, too, that pantheism tails to unify
subject and object, and that in spite of its efforts the
world of existence remains distinct from the world
of thought. But such objections have little weight
with the thorough-going pantheist who follows Hegel,
and is willins for the sake of " unity " to declare that
Being and Nothing are identical.
There is nevertheless a fundamental unity which
Christian philosophy has always recognized, and
which has God for its centre. Not as the universal
being, nor as the formal constituent principle of things,
but as their efficient cause operating in and through
each, and as the final cause for wmch things exist,
God in a very true sense is the source of all thought
and reality (see St. Thomas, "Contra Gentes", I).
His omnipresence and action, far from eliminating
secondary causes, preserve each in the natural order
of its efficiency — ^pnysieal agents under the determina-
tion of physical law and human personality in the
exercise of intelligence and freedom, the foundation
of the moral order. The straining alter unitv in the
pantheistic sense is without warrant; the only intel-
ligible unity is that which God himself has establish^,
a unity of purpose which is manifest alike in the pro-
cesses of the material universe and in the free volition
of man, and which moves on to its fulfilment in the
union of the created spirit with the infinite Person,
the author of the moral order and the object of reli-
gious worship.
Pluiitbx, Oeneral Sketch of the Hiel. of Pantheitm (London,
1881) ; JuNDT, Hial. du PanUi. poptdairt au moyen Hgt (PariB,
1875) ; SAXSsrr. E»9ai d$ phUo; rdigiew (Paris, 1850), tr.. Modem
Pantheiem (Edinburgh. 1803) ; Mabst, Buai aw le PanthHame
(Paris, 1839); Harris, PaiUheUm in Journal of Spte. Philo»., IX
(187in : ibid., XIX (1885) ; Weissenbbro. Theitmua u. Pantheit-
mut (Vienna, 1880) ; db San, Inet. Mdavhyeica SpeeialU, I (Lou-
rain, 1881): HoNTBRm. Itui. Theod. (Freibura, 1893); Fuirr.
AfUi-TheieUe Theoriet (5th od., Edinbur^. 1894); dr Wulp.
Qmtlauee formee eontemp. du Panthtitme m Ret. Nto^eol., Iv
(1897) ^RRARD. The Old Riddle and the Newet Anewer (London,
1904) ; UHLUAifif , Die Pere&nLiehkeil QoUee u. ihrt modernen Oegner
(Fraiburg, 1906); Paulbrn. D«r modeme Pantheiemui u. die
ehntU. Welianuh. (Halle. 1906): Wolp, Modemer P. u. chrietl.
TheUmut (Stuttgart, 1906) ; see mbllog. under Ooo; MoifUM.
Edwabd a. Pacsd.
Pmyinio, Onofrio, historian and archsoloipsty
b. at Verona, 23 February, 1530; d. at Palermo, 7
April, 1568. At eleven he entered the Augustinian
Hermits. After graduating in Rome as bachelor of
arts in 1553, he instructed ue young men of his order
there for one yesTy and then taught theology in the
monastery of his order at Florence. In 1557 he ob-
tained the de^pree of doctor of theolo^, visited vari-
ous libraries m Italy, making histoneal researches,
and went to Germany in 1559. Refusing the epis-
copal dignity, he accepted the office of corrector and
reviser of the books of the Vatican Library in 1556.
He died while accompanying his friend and protector
Cardinal Famese to the Synod of Monreale. He was
recognized as one of the greatest church historians and
archseologists of his time. Paul Manutius called him
"antiquitatis helluo", and Scaliger styled him ''pater
omnia historis".
He is the author of numerous historical, theolomcal,
archffiological, and liturgical works, some of which are
posthumous publications, others are still preserved in
manuscript in the Vatican Library. Of his printed
works the following are the most important: "Fasti
et triumphi Romanorum a Romulo usque ad Carolum
V" (Venice, 1557); a revised edition of Sigonio's«
''Fasti consulaies" (Venice, 1558); "De comi^ im-
peratoriis" (Basle, 1558); "De republica Bomana"
(Venice, 1558); "Epitome Romanorum pontificum"
(Venice, 1557); a revised edition of Platina's "De
vitis pontificum" (Venice); "XXVII Pontif. Max.
elogia et imagines'^ (Rome, 1568); "De sibyllis et
carminibus sibyllinis" (Venice, 1567); "Chronicon
ecderiasticum a C. Julii (Dsesaris tempore usque ad
imp. Maximilianum II" (Oologne, 1568); "De epis-
copatibus, titulis, et diaooniis caroinalium" (Vemce,
1567); "De ritu sepeliendi mortuos apud veteres
Christianos" (Ck)logne, 1568); "De pnecipuis Urfois
Roms basilicis" (Rome, 1570. C}ologne, 1584); "De
primatu Petri et apostolics seois potestate" (Verona,
1580); "libri X de varia Romanorum pontificum
creatione" (Venice, 1501); "De bibliotheca pontificia
vaticana" (Tarragona, 1587); "Augustiniani oidinis
chronicon" (Rome, 1550).
Prrxni, Onofrio Pantinio ale me opera (Rome, 1899) ; Orlando,
Onofrio Panvinio (Palermo, 1883) ; Osbinorr, Bibliotheea Augue-
Uniana hiatorica, eritiea, at ehronologica (Ingolstadt and Augvbunt.
1768). 666-^2; TiRARoacHi. SUria daOa Latteniura Iktliana, vfl
(Modena, 1792), iii. 826-^1. A life of Panvinio by Profeeeor
ScBRORRS of Bonn ia m preparation.
Michael Ott.
Panzani, Grbgorio, Bishop of Mileto, d. early in
1662. He was a secular priest of Arezzo, having left
the (Congregation of the Oratory on account of ill-
health, when in 1634 he was chosen by Cardizial Bar-
berini for the important and delicate task of a secret
af^ency in London. He is described by the writer of
his memoirs as a man "of exp)erienced virtue, of sin-
gular address, of polite learning and in all respects
well qualified for the business''. £iis commission was
to gam first-hand information as to tJie state of En-
glish Catholics, then much divided on the question of
the oath of allegiance and the appointment of a vicar
Apostolic, to settle the differences that had arisen on
these points between the seculars and regulars, and
to establish informal relations with the Government.
Pansani himself realised that the appointment of a
bishop was necessary, and he resented the efforts of
the Jesuits to hinder this. Though he was successful
in reconciling the seculars with ^e Benedictines and
other relisious, the Jesuits were left out of the settle-
ment, and Panzani's subsequent efforts to bring them
in were fruitless. He had repeated interviews with
Windebank and Cottington, the secretaries of state,
enjoyed the confidence of the queen, and was ad-
mitted to secret audience with the kin^ He was also
in communication with the AnglicanBishop of Chi-
chester on the subject of corporate reunion. He was
recalled in 1634 wnen a sdieme of reciprocal agency
PAOU
451
PiPAOO
was QstabHshed between the pope and the king. Re-
turning to Rome he was made a canon of S. Lorenzo
in Damaso, and obtained a judicial position in the
civil courts. On 13 Aug., 1640, he was elected Bishop
of Mileto, in the Province of Catansaro. An account
of his English mission was written in Italian by some-
one who had access to his papers, and a coi>y of this
was used by Dodd, who, however, thought it impru-
dent to publish these memoirs in f-uU. But in 1793
the Rev. Joseph Berinoton published a translation of
them with an historical introduction and supplement.
Their authenticity was immediately called in question
by Father Charles Plowden, S.J. (op. cit. inf.), who
regarded them as a forgery bv Dodd. The subse-
quent researches by Tiemey, however, conclusively
proved that the ''Memoirs'' were genuine. The orig-
mal manuscript, then in the possession of Cardinal
Gualterio, was purchased by the British Museum in
1854 (Add. MSS. 15389).
Bebington, Mtmciri of Qrtgorio Panwanit ginng an aeeount
a/kit agencuin Bngland in Ute yean 1654* t6S6 and 1636 (Bir-
minsbam, 1793) ; Plowden, Remarks on a book eniUied * Memoirs
cfQreqorio Pantani* (Lidge, 1704): Anon., The Pone** Nundo or
Negoitaiion of Signor Paneani (London, 1643); FBTnne, The
PopUh Royal FavouriU (London, 1643) ; N. D., Vindicia Caroli
Regis (s. 1., 1654); Dodd, Church Hisi. (Bnmels tere Wolverhamp-
ton, 1737-42) ; Flanagan, Hist, of the Church in England (Lon-
don, 1857) ; GiLLOW, BHiL Diet, Bng, Cath., a. w. Bering^an,
Joseph, and Ptounfen. C. ^^^ BUBTON.
Paoli, Angelo, Venerable, b. at Aigigliano, Tus-
cany, 1 Sept., 1642: d. at Rome, 17 January, 1720.
The son of Angelo Paoli and Santa Morelli, he was
particularly distinguished for his charity towards the
poor. As a young man he ^nt the neater part of
nis leisure time in teaching CathoUc ooctrine to the
poor children of Argjgliano. At eighteen, he was ad-
mitted to the novitiate of the Calced CarmeUtes at
Siena. After making his vows he spent six ^ears at
his studies, was ordained priest, and appomted to
the con^munity at Pisa, where he made rapid progress
in perfection. He was subsequently trsmsferr^ to
Cupoli, Monte Catino, and Fivizzano. Specially de-
voted to the Passion, he caused wooden crosses to be
erected on the hills around Fivizzano (and afterwards
in the Coliseum at Rome) to bring the sacred tragedy
more vividly before the minds of the inhabitants.
In 1687, he was called to Rome and stationed at the
Convent of St. Martin. The remaining years of his
life were divided between the care of the sick poor in
the city hospitals and the office of Master of ^^vices.
He was called by the citizens '' the father of the poor".
Many miracles were wrought by him bo^ before and
after his death. His virtues were declared by Pius VI
in 1781 to be heroic, and the general chapter of the
order held at Rome, 1908, included his name among
those Carmelite servants of God, the cause of whose
beatification was to be at once introduced.
AnaUela ordinis Carmelitarum, faao. I-XII.
Henbt Anthony Lappin.
Paolo V«roneie. See Caliari, Paolo.
Papacy. — This term is emplo]^ed in an ecclesias-
tical and in an historical signincation. In the former
of these uses it denotes the ecclesiastical system in
which thepope as successor of St. Peter and Vicar
of Jesus Christ governs the CathoUc Church as its
taries of the Gila, in south-eastern Arizona, together
with most of the Rio del Altar, in the State of Sonora,
northern Mexico. -The name by which they are
commonly known is a derivation from the proper form,
Papah-6otam, as given by their missionary. Father
Kino, signifying ''bean people'', whence the Spanish,
Frv'oieros, and has no reference to ''baptized'', as
has sometimes been asserted. The Pdpago were and
are a semi-sedentary and a^cultural people, occupv-
ing numerous scattered villages of nouses, usuaUv
dome-shaped and grass-thatched but f requentty with
flat roofd covered with earth. Thev practise irriear
tion and cultivate com, beans, and cotton, besides
mnJcing use of the desert food plants, particularly
mesquite beans and the fruit of the saguaro or giant
cactus (Cereu9 giganteitSf Pitahaya). From the la-
goons they collect salt, which they formerly traded
to other tribes. Their women are expert basket-
makers, but their potteiy does not rank so high.
In their aboriginal condition the men went naked ex-
cepting for the G-string, while the women wore only
a short sldrt. What remains of their primitive m^nB
and ceremonies accords nearly with those of the Pima.
In temperament they were noted for their industry
and friendly dispoation towards the whites, while
carrying on ceaseless warfare with their hereditary
enemies, the predatory Apache.
Owing to the isolation due to their desert environ-
ment the P^pago remained practically unknown for
nearly a century and a hatl after the more eastern
and southern tribes had come under Spanish dominion.
Their connected histoi^ begins in 1687, when the
noted German Jesuit missionary and explorer, Father
Eusebio Francisco Kino (properly Kiihn) founded the
mission of Nuestra Sefiora ae los Dolores, about the
eastern head streams of the Rio del Altar and not
far from the present Cucurpe, Sonora. From this
headquarters station until his death in 1711 he re-
peatedly traversed the country of the Pdpago, Pima,
and Sobaipuri from the Altar to the distant Gila, for
some years alone, but later aided by other Jesuit
workers, notably Fathers Campos and Januske.
Other missions and vintds were established on both
sides of the line, the most important within the limits
of Arizona being San Xavier del Bac, originally a
Sobaipuri village of about 800 souls. It was first
visited by Father Kino in 1692, but the church was
not begun until 1699.
In 1695 the arbitrary cruelty of a local Spanish com-
mandant provoked a rising among the southern Pima
and their allies, who attacked and plundered the
missions on the Sonora side, excepting Dolores where
Father Kino was stationed, and Jdllins Father Saeta
at Caborca with the usual savage cruelties. The in-
surrection was soon put down by the energetic meas-
ures of Governor Jironza, and through the interces-
sion of the missionaries a general pardon was accorded
to the revolted tribes. In 1751 a more serious re-
bellion broke out, asain involving the three tribes,
in whose territory uiere were now eight missions,
served by nine Jesuit priests. Of these missions two
only were within the present limits of Arizona, viz..
San Xavier del Bac, already noted, and San Miguel
de Guevavi, founded in 1732 near to the present
supreme head. In the latter, it signifies the papal Nogales. For a period of more than twenty years
influence viewed as a political force in history. (See «^ter Father Kmo's death in 1711 the scarcity of
Apobtouc See; Apostolic Succession; Church;
Papal Abbitration; Pope; Unity.)
G. H. JOTCB.
^ P&pago Indians, an important tribe of Shoshonean
linguistic stock, speaking a dialect of the Pima lan-
guage and resembling that tribe in all essentials of
culture and characteristics. Their territory, which
they shared with the closely cognate and luterward
incorporated Sobaipuri, comprised the valleys of the
San Pedro and Santa Cruz rivers, southern tribu-
workers had compelled a withdrawal from the north-
em missions, with the result that many of the Indians
had relapsed into their original heathenism. The
return of the nussionaries was followed a few years
later by an influx of Spanish miners and garrison
troops, leading to trouble with the natives, which
culminated in November, 1751, in a massacre of
Spaniards and a general attack upon missions and set-
tlements alike. Nearly 120 whites lost their lives,
including Fathers Zello and Ruhn, and the missions
were again iU>andoned until peace was restored in
PAPAL 452 PAPAL
1762. They never fully recovered from this blow, val papacy directing the ooDBcience of Europe, Teg|»*
and were already on the decline when the Jesuit lating for the newly-converted peoples, drawing to
order was expelled from Mexico in 1767 and the mis- itself the representatives of each national episcopate,
sions were turned over to the Franciscans, among constituting a sacred shrine for royal pilgrimages, could
whom^ in this region, the most noted was Father not fail to impress on the Christian nations a sense of
Francisco Garc^, first Franciscan missionary at San their common faith. It was the papacy which theie-
Xavier del Bac and author of a journal of explora- fore at one and the same time, by treating each nation
tion among the tribes of the Lower Colorado River. as a separate unit, expressed in a primate with his
San Xavier had dwindled from 830 souls in 1697 suffragan bishops*, ana yet by legislating identically
to 270 in 1772, while the other missions had de- in matters of faith and morals for all the nations, ex-
clined in proportion, their former tenants, whose pounded the double thesis of nationalism and inter-
numbers were constantly diminishing by neglect and nationalism. It was a standing concrete expression
Apache raids, having scattered over the desert. In of the two principles aforesaid, vix. that the nations
1828 the revolutionary Government of Mexico con- were separate individusds, yet members of a Christian
fiscated the missions, and for many years even San brothernood, moral persons yet subject to the com-
Xavier yraa left without attention, except for oc- mon law of Christendom. Hence, owing to the cir-
casional visits by a secular priest from Sonora. In cumstances of .Western politics, papal arbitration
1864 a Catholic school was once more re-established was a necessary consequence of the very idea of
in connexion with the ancient church, and continues the papacy. In treating of papal arbitration, three
in successful operation. The Pdpago, including most points miist be set out: (A) the principles on which the
of the descendants of the Sobaipuri, number now alto- popes claimed the right to arbitrate, i. e. the papal
gether about 5500 souls, of whom all but about 1000 theory of the relationship between the Holy See and
are in Arizona, the rest being in Sonora, Mexico, the temporal powers; (B) the most important cases of
Those in Arizona are on two reservations at Gila historical arbitration by the popes; (C) the future
Bend and San Xavier, established in 1874 and 1882, opportunity for this arbitration,
or scattered in villages throughout Pima County. A. The Papal Theory, — It is evident that before
They are farmers, stock raisers, and general labourers, the conversion of Constantine there could have been
practically all civUized and Catholic. See Kino; Pima, little question of the relations between Church and
Bancroft. Hist. North Mex, Statea and Texiu (San Francisco, State. The Church was undeniably COnscious of her
1886); iDisii. Hitt. of Arwma and New Mex. (San Franciaoo. independence, but up to that date Christianity had
B.S^Jt^h. 2r^B^<iSlT7(5rUrii ^SrjH PractlcaUy none but spiritual duti* to perform, The
myarit (Mezioo, 1887); Obteoa (?}. Rudo enaayo . . . deecnpeum ApostollC WntmgS preach submission tO authority and
ueographieade ., .SoMra^ca. i7gf (St. Au«u«tine.i863j, tr. Qui- do not at all raise the problem of the adjustment of
tcraa in Am. Cath. Htst. Soc. Reeorda, V (Philadelphia, 1894); |.u^ rpJationHhin hptwM^n nonp anii Cjpflar Th*» nnn-
C0MIH8810NM of Ikdian Affairs, annual reports Cwashington) ; *'"® reiationsnip oeiween pope ana ^./^sar. 1 ne con-
cur. Co^A. Jnd. ATmc, annual reports of director (Washington), version of Constantme therefore opened up a large
James Moonet. field of speculation. This begins indeed from the as-
sembling of the General Council of NicsBa (325).
Papal Arbitration, an institution almost coeval Here, according to Rufinus (H. E., I, ii, in P. L., XXI,
with the papacy itself. The principle of arbitrar 470), the emperor himself laid the basis of all develop-
tion presupposes that the individuals or groups of ment in this direction. He declare that God had
individuals submitting to arbitrament are united in given to the priests (i. e. to the whole ecclesiastical
some common bond. As soon therefore as this com- corporation) power to judge even emperors (e/ idea
mon bond has come prominently before public opin- noa a vobis rectejudicamur).
ion, there necessarily results a tendency to settle dis- Hosius of Cordova, who had been president of that
putes by reference to it. Thus the growth of law, council, in his defence of Athanasius has the same
1. e. the gradual evolution from private revenge or thought, noting that God had given to Constantine
vendetta to the judgment of some public authority, can the empire and to the priesthood He had confided the
in the history of any known nation or tribe be traced Church (quoted by St. Athanasius, ''History of the
parallel with the awakening feeling of social solidarity. Arians ", xliv, in P. G., XXV, 717) . This entire separar-
It was just because men began to realize, however tion of the two powers, ecclesiastical and lay, is gen-
rudel^i that they were not single units but members of erally laid down with veiy definite clearness by the
a society^ that they understood how every tort or earlier writers (Lucifer of Cagliari,** Pro Athanasio",
wrong-doing disturbed not merely the individual di- in P. L., XIII, 826; St. Optatus, ** De Schismate Dona-
rectly affected, but the whole body of which he was tistarum". III, iii, in P. L., XI, 999). Not that any
a member. It was this recognition of the sociiU dis- slight is put upon the imperial dignity, for to the prince
advantages of disorder that led to compromise, to first of all is appli^ the title which subsequently be-
mutual pledges, to trials by combat, to ordeals, and comes proper to the popes alone. He is called Ficartu«
eventually to tne regulations of courts of law. This Dei (Ambrosiaster, "Qusestiones Vetoris et Novi Tes-
is most patently manifest among the Northern na- tamenti XCI'', in P. L., XXV, 2284; Sedufius Scotus,
tions in tne primitive history of the lury system. "De Rectoribus Christianis", 19 in P. L., CXII, 329).
Now this same principle was boimd to operate inter- Yet he has no jurisdiction over the spiritual functions
nationally whenever the various groupings of Europe of his subjects, "for who'\ says St. Ambrose (Ep.,
realized their soUdarity. The same undoubted ad- XXI, 4, ad Valentinum, II, in P. L., XVI, 1046),
vance would be made when men became conscious "would venture to deny that in matters of faith, it is
that the theory into which law had developed as an the bishops who sit in judgment over emperors, and
adjudication between individuals by the society, was not the emperors who sit in judgment over bishops?'';
applicable also in matters of international dispute, and the two popes who first have any promment
But this consciousness recjuired to be preceded by the teaching on the matter. Felix III (483) and Gelasiua
recognition of two principles: (1) that nations were I (492), use precisely tne same language, describing
moral persons (2) that they were united in some com- the Church and the State as two parallel powers, en-
mon organism. The first principle was too abstract tirely separate.
in its nature to be professed expUcitly at once (Figgis. "The emperor'', says Gelasius in an epigram (Ep.
"From Gerson to Grotius", yi, 177). The second XV, 95, ad JEpiscopos Orientales, in P. L., LIX), "is
would be very quickly recognized if only some con- the Church's son, not sovereign" (Filius est non prceeul
Crete symbol of it could become evident to public ecdesicB). This pope has fortunately left us two com-
opinion. This concrete svmbol was fortunately at plete treatises on this question. In his Fourth Trao-
h^id, and the result wa9 arbitration. For the medie- tate and his Eighth Letter (P. L., LIX, 41 ), he fonnu>
PAPAL 453 PAPAL
lates his views, which completely agree with this idea Epp., IV. "Epistols Varue Karoli Masni Script/\ 7
of two different orders, separate, yet in so far inter- etc.)i for ne must Kovem according to uie laws which
dependent that the^r both work towards the same pur- in turn depend on the consent of the people (Hincmar,
pose, i. e. the salvation of the souls of men. The next "De Ordine Palatii", 8, in M. G. H.: Lq;., sect. II,
step is marked by the forcible and clear doctrine of vol. II).
St. Gregory the Great (590). His relations with the Thus the compact-theory of a mutually binding en-
emperors are too well-known to need re-statement, gagement between sovereign and subjects enters the
It will be sufficient to note that, in his own words, he fulT stream of European political thought. It is per-
would go as far as possible to accept everv law and petuated in the Old English Coronation oaths (Stubbs,
statute of the imperial throne. ''If what he does is ^'Select Chartens'', O^dord, IdOO, 64 etc.). The use
according to the canons, we will follow him; if it be made of this theory by the popes will appear shortly.
Emperor Maurice prohibited public officials from en- the tenth century, tiie point was raised, at first in a
tering monasteries, Gregory promulgated the decree, perfectly academic wav, as to the relative importance
thou^ at the same time warning Maurice that it by of these two spheres of Government, as to wmch took
no means agreed with the declared will of the Divine precedence of the other. At first, the result of the con-
Omnipotence. By thus acting he sud he had per- troversy left things more or less as they had been,
formed his duty of obeying the civil power and yet The one side asserted that the priesthood was the
had kept his faith wiUi God by declanng the matter higher, because, while it was true that the priests
of that obedience unlawful (Lib. Ill, 65, in P. L., had to render obedience to kings in temporal matters
LXXVII, 663). and the kings to priests in spiritual matters, yet on
A last example of the papal doctrine of this period the priests rested the further ourden of responsibility
may be taken from the writing of this same pope, of seeing that the king performed his temporal duties
Maurice had given judgment m some matter, con- in a fitting way, i. e. that the king's actions were
trary to Uie sacred laws and canons. The Bishop of matters of duty, therefore matters of conscience, and
Nicopolis, who as Metropolitan of Corcyra happoaed therefore matters that lay under the spiritual juris-
to be concerned in the afifair, appealed to the pope diction of the Church.
against the imperial rescript. Gregory wrote admit- These arguments may be briefly summarized thus:
ting the bishop's interpretation to be correct and (a) that both powers lay within the physical paJe of
adhering to it, yet declared that he could not dare the Church; (b) that the priest was responsible for
pubhcly to censure the emperor lest he should seem seeing that the king did his duty; (c) that the priest
m any way to oppose or despise the civil power. (Lib. consecrated the king and not vice versa. Tlie others
XIV,8,inP.L.,LXXXII, 1311}. His whole idea ap- ("Tractatus Eboracensis", in M. G. H.: LibeUi de
pears to have been that the pnnce represented God. Lite, HI, 662 sq.) replied by asserting that the em-
Every action therefore of the public authority (whether peror had no less to see that the Church affairs were
it tended to the sacred ends for which Government was properly conducted (as much later Sip^smund at
founded, or was apparently destructive of ecclesiasti- Coimcif of Constance; Lodge, '^ Close of Middle Ages'',
cal hberties) was equally to be respected or at least London, 1904, 212). Thus Leo III and Leo IV had
not publicly to be flouted. This curious position submitted practically to the interference of Charle-
taken up by the popes, of excessive subservience to magne (800) and Louis II (853) ; and the concrete ex-
the civil rulers, was due to a threefold cause: ample of the Synod of Ponthiou (853), summoned by
(a) The need of correcting a certain anarchical the pope and commanded by the emperor, was a stand-
spirit noted by the Apostles (I Pet., ii, 15, 16; Gal., v, ing example of this general responsibility of each for
1 ; II Cor., iii, 17; I Thess., iv, 10, 11, v, 4). the other (M. G. H.: Leg., II, vol. II, no. 279) . It is
(b) The relation in which the protected Church interesting however to recall a distinction thrown out
stood to the first Christian emperor, represented by almost at hazard by a twelfth-century canonist (Ru-
the words of St. Optatus, "DeSchismate Donatista- finus, "Summa Decretorum", D. xxi. c. 1). (jom-
rum", IIIj iii: ^'Non enim respublica est in Ecclesia, menting on a supposed letter of Nicholas II to the
sed Ecclesia in republica est . . . Super Imperatorem people of Milan, he distinguishes the papal right to
non sit nisi solus Deus " (The state is not in the Church, mterfere in temporal matters by conceding to hmi not
but the Church is in the state . . . Let God alone &jtis administrationia but & jus jiarisdictioniSf i. e. the
be above the emperor). right of consecrating, ete.
(c) The influence of the Bibhcal language as regards The advent (1073) of Gregory VII to the papal
the theocratic kinnship of Israel. chair greatly sheeted the policy of the Holy See
The teaching of the papacy that civil authority (T^^^i ''Empire and Papacy", London. 1909, 126;
was held independently of any ecclesiastical gift was uossefin^ "Power of the Pope in the Middle Ages"),
continued even in the days of Charlemagne, whose Qut it is not so much his actions as his theories
father owed so much of his power to papal influence which are here under consideration. He took over
(Decretals, I, 6, 34). Yet even the new Ime of Caesars the old patristic teaching that all rule and govem-
daimed to hold their power of God. Their titles ment had its origin in the fall of Adam, that orig-
run "Gratia Dei Rex" or "Per misericordiam Dei inal sin caused the necessity for one man to have
rex" etc. (cf. Coronation of Charlemagne in "Jour- command over another. Consequently he had hard
nai of Theological Studies", April and July. 1901). things to say of the imperial position. Moreover he
Thus through the ninth and tenth centuries tne sepa- claimed more power than his predecessors. Both he
ration-theory of Pope Gelasius was generally taught and the emperor took extreme views of their respeo-
and admitted. Both pope and emperor claimed to tive offices. The pope wished to put himself at the
hold their power direct from God. He is the sole head of the temporal rule, exercising the power de-
source of all authority. A new theory, however, was scribed in Jeremias i, 10. The emperor spoke of his
developing. While admitting that civil rulers are of traditional ridit of appointing and deposing popes.
God, the flKxxl by (jod's £rect appointment, the Neither can be taken as representing the general
wicked by Uod's permission for the chastisement and sentiment of their time. The story of Canossa with
correction of the people's sin (Hincmar, "Ep. xv ad its legendary details is no more representative of pub-
Karolum regem ", m P. L., CXXVI^ 98), some writers lie opinion m the eleventh century than is the dra-
partially broach the idea that without justice the matic surrender of Pascal II in the twelfth. Hilde-
king is no Idng at all, but a tyrant (Mon. Germ. Hist.: brand, despite his high courage and noble character.
PAPAL 454 PAPAL
does not really cQntinue the teaching of his prede- omnism (cf. Baldus de Ubaldia, 1327-1400, in his
ceaaoTB. ''Conailia'^ 228, n. 7: Imperator est dominus toUtu
Eventually, the Conoordat of Worms (23 Sept., mundi et Deus in terra, i. e. the emperor is lord o( the
1122) took up and handed down the average me- whole world and God on earth),
dieval political practice, without satisfying the extreme Certain defenders of the Hohr See are no less ve-
representatives of papal or imperial damis. Greg- hement. They rightly foibid Obbbi to meddle with
oiy, however, developed the contractual idea of the \ matters within the spiritual sphere of life; but, not
Coronation oath. This he declared to be, as were all content^ with this, they endeavour to put the em-
other oaths, under the Church's dominion, and con- peror directly under tne pope. Augustinus Trium-
sequently could be annulled by papal authority, thus phus (De potestate eccleaastioa XXxVIII, 1, 224),
releasing subjects from obedience to their soverdgn and iGgidius Colonna (De ecclesiastica potestate, II,
(Decretum, causa xv, Q. 6, c. 2; Stephen of Toumai, 4) assert that all temporal rule comes ultunately from
''Summa Decretorum'', causa xv, Q. 6, c. 2. Auctorit. the pope, that he alone has the supreme plenitude of
iii). The next great papal ruler. Innocent III (1198- power^ and that none can be absolved from his hi^
1216), did not take the same attitude toward tem- jurisdiction. While these high claims, the inheri-
poral power, though in personal exercise of authority tance of ages of universal faith when the popes were
ne exceedea Gregory. He sa^ explicitly: ''We do really the saviours of popular liberties, were being
not exercise anv temporal jurisdiction except indi- thus set forth, the power of ^e civil authority had
reotly" (EpistouB, IV, 17, 13). He interfered, it ia de facto enormoucdy increased. The theorizing of
true, to annul the election of Philip of Suabia and to Marsilius of Padua^ Ockham. and others led to the
connrm Otto in the imperial digmty, but he was at doctrine of unrestramed royal absolutism (Poole, loc.
pains to point out that his legate was only a denun^ cit., 250). The German princes with their, territo-
datarf or declarer of worthiness, not a cogniior or rializing ideals, the French kings with their strong and
elector. The pope could not override the electoral efficient monarchy, and the English Tudor sovereigns
s3rBtem of the empire, he could only judge, confirm, no longer brooked interference from Rome even in
and, in divided elections only, decide on the candidate purely spiritual matters. The phrase of the Treaty
(Decretals, 1, 6, 34; Carlyle, "History of Medisval of Westphalia (1648) cujue regio ejue religio, i. e. the
PoUtical Thought". II, 217; Barry, "Papal Mon- religion of the prince is the religion of the land, sums
archy", XVIII, 292). up the secular reply to the ecclesiastical order.
Again in the dispute between the French and En- After the Reformation had served, even in coun-
glish Kings, Innocent III distinctly declares that he tries like France and Spain which did not adopt the
makes no claim to settle matters of fi^s {rum enim in- new reUgion, the purpose of fettering conscience even
tendimua judicare de feudo cuqus ad ipsum spectat more than before, the State had in actual practice put
judiciumf Decretals, ii, I, 13). Nor had he any in- the Church under its heel. The State continued to
tention of diminisning the royal authority. His claim^ because it exercised, the power to interfere and
whole justification rests on three grounds: (a) the rule m all matters, whether spiritual or temporal.
English king had appealed to him against his brother- The Church claimed, though it no longer freely exer-
king on the Gospel principle^ for it was a matter of cised, the right to independence, nay supremacy, in
sin, i. e. against peace; (b) Philip had himself appealed all matters affecting religion, and to be in some way
earlier against Richard I; (c) A treaty had be^i made, the fountain of all temporal dominion (St. Thomas,
confirmed by oaths, then broken. This therefore lay "Quodlibet", 12, Q. xui, a. 10, ad 2um: Regea sunt
within the pope's jurisdiction. On another occasion, vaialH Ecdema), Suarez and later theologpans oer-
he even went so far as to order the Bishop of Vercelli to tainlv moderate the vehemence of Augustmus Tri-
declare null and void any letters produced from the umphus and his companions. It is true of course
Holy See dealinjp; with matters that belonged to the that the post-tridentme writers expound what hiu
secular courts of Vercelli, as he would only int^ere been called "the indirect power" of the pope in civil
on appeal, especially since the imperial cugnity was affairs, while they cuib in various ways the srowing
at the moment vacant (Decretids, ii, 2. 10; cf. Al- civil absolutism of the times. The name of sover-
exander Ill's action in a similar case, Decretads, ii, eignty was withdrawn, but its substitute was suzer-
2, 6). Even excommunication was in his hands no ainty, which meant little less than the other (Figgis,
arbitrary power, for if it were applied imjustlv or "FromGerson toGrotius", VI, 181). Hence the un-
even unreasonably, he protested tnat it would be deniable tendency of Catholic theologians to repeat in
null and void (Decretals, v, 39, 28). He retained of clear language the cases in which rulers may lawfully
course in his own hands the rig^t to decide whether a be put to death. Hence also thdr unqualified de-
particular matter came within the cognizance of the fence of popular rights. Says Filmer ("Patriarcha",
spiritual courts or not (Ibid., iv, 17, 13). I, i, 2, 1880) concerning the power of the people to de-
After Innocent's death, the attitude of Gregory VII prive or correct the sovereign: "Cardinal Bellarmine
was revived by Boniface VIII (1294-1303) and John and Calvin both look asquint this way".
XXII (1316-34). Though some twentv years sepa- No doubt in thi^ long controversy both ecclesiasti*
rate their reigns, these two pontiffs held practiculy cal and secular writers went too often to extremes. It
the same attitude towards temporal rulers and gave is in the rights that each allows the other, that we must
rise to a larse polemical literature, which is practictdly look for the more workable h^rpothesis. Thus when
continuous for some fifty years (see Scholz and Riezler, the lay writers describe the spiritual rule of the Papacy
in/ra, bibliography). It seemed to those times that (Dante, ''De Monarchia"; Ockham, ''Octo Ques-
either pope or emperor must be supreme. The tiones''^ (). 1, c. 6, ad 2). they depict almost Uterally
writens who defend the lay side are of many shades of the position of a Leo XIII or a Pius X. prophesying
feelins: Pierre du Bois (Wailly, "Summana Brevis", the fatness of such an office. And wnen tne eccle-
1840,^''M6moires de T Academic des Inscriptions" etc., siastico-pohtical writers sketch their theory of a state
435-94); MarsiUus of Padua (Poole, "Illustrations of (Nicolas of dhisa. "Concordantia Catholica"; Schard-
the Historv of Medieval Thought", 276 et passim); ius, "Syntasma'')*, directing, ordering, educating the
William of Ockham (ibid. 260); John Wvcliff (De free lives of free citizens, they are no less prophets of a
civiU dominio, 1 cap., 17 fol., 40, c. ibid. 284). Not desirable order. Moreover Pius IX expressly de-
merely do thev protest against papal interference, but, dared that, for their execution in the temporal sphere,
as a counterblast, endeavour to make the king or the ecclesiastic^ ideals depended no less than tne lay
emperor — according as they defend PhiHp the Pair, ideals on the consent ana custom of the people, in
Edward I. or Louis of Bavaria^— take the most im- the absence of which the papacy no longer claims to
portant place in the working of the Church's internal exercise power and rights, that public law and com-
PAPAL 455 PAPA£
mon consent once accorded to the Supreme Judge of The Buccess of this led to Gregory XIII being asked to
Christendom for the common iralfare (Discorso ag)i settle the difference between Bathory of Poland and
Accademici di ReUgione Catholica, 20 July, 1871). Ivan the Terrible. Gregory between 1572 and 1583
It appears, therefore, that in the p^t all papal at- sent to Moscow the Jesuit Antonio Possevino (q. v.)t
tempts to end wars and decide between contending who arranged peace between them. Ivan ceded
riehts of disputing sovereigns, were really in the nature Polotsk ana all Livonia to the Poles (''Revue des
oiarhitraHon. Popes like Innocent III never claimed Questions Historiques/' Jan., 1885).
to be the sources of temporal rule, or that whatever (4) Perhaps the beist-remembered case is that of
they (Ud for the peace oi Europe was done by them 1885, when war was averted between Germany and
as supreme temporal rulers; but only on the invitation Spain by the arbitration of Leo XIII. It was over the
or acceptance of the princes interested. Even popes question of the Caroline Islands, which though dis-
like Gregory VII, Boniface VIII, and others, who ex- covered by Spain had been practically abandoned for
ercised most fully their spiritual prerogatives, were many years. England and Germany had presented
unable to act efficiently as peacemakers, until they a jomt note to Spain, refusing to acknowledge her
were called in by those at war. sovereigntv over the Caroline and Palao group of
B. HiHorical Ccaes of Papal Arhitratum, — ^The islands. German colonists had been established there,
various interpositions of Innocent III to allay the But the climax was reached when on 25 August, 1885,
differences in European diplomacy, such as il then both Spanish and German war vessels phmted the
was, have been already alluded to. It will be better flags of their respective countries and took solemn
to pass at once to later historical examples. possession of Yap. On 24 September, Bismarck, out
(1) The popes made frequent efforts to ne^tiate of compliment to Spain and to propitiate the pope
between the Kinm of France and England durmg the (Busch, ''life of Bismarck'', 469-70, London, 1899),
Hundred Years' War, but the most famous attempt is referred the matter to Leo XIII. The pope gave his
» that of Boniface VIII in 1297. It came just after the award on 22 October, succeeding perfectly in ad just-
controversy between Philip the Fair and the pope ing the conflicting claims of Spanish sovereignty and
concerning the Bull "Clerids laioos". EventuaUy German interests. Finally tne whole matter was
Boniface gave up many of his earlier demands, partly amicably accepted and signed at the Vatican by both
through pressure from the French king, partly b^ powers on 17 December of the same year (O'lleilly,
cause he found that he had gone too far, partly in ^'life of Leo XIII", xxxiii, 537-54).
the interests of European peace. The more fully to (5) Lastl}^, in 1897, the same pontiff arbitrated be-
achieve Uie latter purpose, he offered to arbitrate in tween Hayti and San Domingo. But the terms of his
the quarrel that hsui been further complicated by the arbitration do not appear to have been published
alliance formed between the Flemish and the English. (Darby. " Proved Practicability of International Arbi-
The Cardinal of Albano and Prsenefste was sent to tration ', London. 1904^ 19). For the celebrated case
Creil on 20 April, 1297. But the 'temper of French of Adrian IV ana his gift of Ireland to Henry II, see
thought is expressed in the protest of Kins Philip that Aobian IV.
he would submit to arbitration, as did Edward I and C. Future, — ^The increasing movement of art>itra-
the Count of Flanders, but that he looked for nothing tion, growing stronger with each fresh exercise of it,
more than arbitration, not for recourse to the pope as together with the fact that owing to the action of Italy
to a hi^er feudal court. He laid down three proposi- the popes have been excluded from the Keapie Con-
tions and completed them by a practical conclusion: ference, makes the thought suggest itself of how far
(a) The government oi France belonged solely to the the papacv is situated to-day to act as a general arbi-
king; (b) the kin^ recognized no temporal superior; trator: (1) It has ceased to hold any territorial do-
(c) he submitted his temporal affairs to no man living, minion and can therefore stand forward as an impar-
Therefore he came to the Roman Court for arbitra- tial judge unlikely to be affected bv temporal interests,
tion, not as to Boniface VIII the supreme soverdgn (2) It has interests in too many lands to be likely to
pontiff, but as to the lawyer Benedetto Gaetani. Tlie favour any one country at tine expense of others,
terms of the arbitrament are not of present interest; (3) It is wholly international, and adaptable, because
this only i^ould be noted, that Boniface placated the alive, to the various environments of temperament,
French king by deciding largely in his favour, to the customs, laws. Ullages, pohtical constitutions, so-
disgust of the Count of Flanders, but issued his award cial organisations, in whicn it finds itself. The clergy
in a Bull (Lavisse, "Hist, de France" (Paris, 1901). of each country are national in the sense of being
(2) One of the first public acts of Alexander VI patriotic; not in the sense of being separated in mat-
was to effect a settlement between Spain and Portu- ters of faith from Catholics elsewhere. (4) It is ruled
Sal. These two nations had been foremost in under- by a pontiff, ordinarily indeed ItaUan; but his group
ertaking voyages of discovery in the E^t and West, of advisers is a privy council drawn from every con-
The resmt was, that as each expedition on landing tinent, race, ana nation. So detached has he been,
annexed the new-found territories to its own home that it is precisely three Italian popes who have re-
gjovemment, there was continual friction between the fused to acknowledge the Italian spoliation of the
rival nations. In the interests of peace, Alexander VI Patrimony of St. Peter. (5) As the greatest Christian
offered to arbitrate between the two countries. He force in the modem world its whole influence must be
issued his Bull " Inter Csetera, " 14 May, 1493, fixing heavily thrown into the scale of peace. (6) It has about
the line at meridian of 100 leagues west of the Asores it a halo of past usefulness, touched about with the
and Cape Verde Islands — assumed to be practically of mellow hue of time. It has seemed to men so differ-
tibe same longitude — Spain to have the western. For- ent as Leibniz (Opera, V, 65), Voltaire (Essais, II, ix),
tugaJ the eastern division. The following year (7 AnciUon (Tableau des Revolutions, I, 79, 106, Berlin,
Jime) by the treaty of Tordesillas the imaginary line 1803), to have been set in a position not to dictate
was moved to 370 leagues west of Cape Verde. To to, but to arbitrate for, the world. And because it
this the pope as arbitrator assented, and thus averted has gone back to the older, simpler, more spiritual
war between the two countries ("(Jivilt^ Cattolioa", theories of Gelasius I^ Gre^pry I, and Innocent III
1865, I, 665-80; Winsor, "History of America", it has now opportunities which were denied it, so long
1886, I, 13, 592; "Cambridge Modem History", as it claimed the more showy rights of Gregory VII,
I, 23-24). Boniface VIII, and John XXII. Just as under Pius
(3) More curious examples are found in the invita- II the Church created the idea of a European Congress
tion given to Leo X and later to Clement VII to arbi- (Boulting, "iGneas Sylvius," 279, 350-51, London,
trate between Russia and Poland over Lithuania 1908), so it is to be hoped that under her presidency
(Rombaud, "History of Russia", London, 1885). the practice of arbitration by a permanent tribunal
^APAL
456
PAPAL
may be made more umversal, more practicable, and of
greater sanction.
Nbobo, Biamarckt il Papa tl TArbitrato InUmationdU (Asti.
1882): PoOLB. lUuatralion* of Medunal PoUtieal ThmtQhi (Lon-
don. 1884); MuRPHT. Chair of Peter (London. 1885); L6pbs. D&-
rteho V Arbitraje inUrnaeional (Paris, 1891); Richkt, Les Guarea
€l la paix (Parii, 1899) ; Qibskb, Da» deuUeke GenotsenMehafUf
rtehi. III, tr. MiaTLAND. PolUieal Theortet of the Middle Age
(Cambridce, 1900) ; Ouphant. Rome and Reform (London, 1902) ;
Barbt, Papal Monarchy (London, 1902); Carltlk, Hietory of
Mediaval Political Thought in the Weat, I (London and Edinburgh,
1903), II (London and Edinburgh, 1909); Barrt in Ihtblin Re-
tiew (Oct., 1907). 221-43; Fioois, Political Theories from Geraon to
GrotiuM (Cambridge, 1907); Oosbbun, The Power of the Pope in
the Middle Agea (New York, 1862); Scholtx, Die Publitiatik eur
Zeit Philippa dee Sehdnen (Stuttgart, 1903); Ribslbr, Die lit^-
rariaehen Wiederaaeher der Pdpet/e eur ZeU Ludwiga dee Bayera
(Leipiig. 1874) ; HbbqbnrAthbr, Chwreh and State^ etc. tr. (Lon-
don, 1872).
Bbdb Jarbxtt.
Papal Chancery. See Roman Cubia. .
Pai>al Elections. — The method of electing the pope
has varied considerably at different periods of tne
historv of the Church. As to the earnest ages. Fer-
raris (op. cit. infra) savs that St. Peter hiniusen con-
stituted a senate for the Roman Church, consisting
of twenty-four priests an4 deacons. These were the
councillors of the Bishop of Rome and the electors of
his successors. This statement is drawn from a canon
in the "Corpus Juris Canonici" (can. "Si Petrus'',
caus. 8. Q. 1). Historians and canonists, howeyer.
generally nold that the Roman bishopric was filled
on its vacancy in the same manner as other bishop-
rics, that is, the election of the new pope was made by
the neighbouring bishops and the clergy and faitb-
ful of Home. Nevertheless, some maintain that the
naming of the successor of St.. Peter was restricted to
the Roman clergy, and that the people were admitted
to a part in the elections only after the time of Syl-
vester I (fourth century). After Constantine had
given peace to the Church, the Christian Roman em-
perors often took part in the institution of a new pope
and at times their influence was very mariced. From
the fourth century onwards, therefore, a new force had
to be reckoned with. The occasion for the interfer-
ence of the Roman emperors and later of th^ kings of
Italy was afforded by disputed elections to the papal
chair. The most noted of the earlier instance was at
the election of Boniface I (418). This gave occasion
to the decree (c. 8, dist. 79) that when an election was
disputed a new candidate should be chosen.
The interference of the secular power was always
distasteful to the Roman clergy, as shown by their
unwillingness to observe decrees on the subject made
even by popes, as in ijie case of Simplicius and others.
The example of the Roman emperors was followed
by the baroarian king^ of Italy, of whom the first to
interfere was Theodoric the Ostrogoth, at the election
of Symmachus in 498. On the recovery of their in-
fluence in the Italian peninsula, the Eastern emperors
required that the choice of the electors for a new pope
must be made known to the Exarch of Ravenna, who
in turn forwarded it to Constantinople, and until the
emperor's confirmation was received, the candidate
was not to be acknowledged as Bishop of Rome. This
resulted in long vacancies of the Holy See. The cus-
tom lasted until the pontificate of Benedict II (684-
85). A similar claim was put forward by the Western
emperors in the Middle Ages, and some demanded it
owing to a concession made by Adrian I to Charle-
magne. This pretended concession is now recognized
as spurious. As to the so-called confirmation of papal
elections by the secular power, Ferraris (loc. cit. infra)
notes that it must not be so understood as to imply
that the new pope received the papal power from the
emperor. This would be heretical, tor the elected
candidate receives his power from Christ.
The confirmation of the emperor, then, was only
to ensure that the canons of the Church should be
carried out without hindrance from factious and
ditious dissenters. It must be admitted that the
Holy Roman emperors sometimes made use of their
overwhelming power unscrupulously, and more than
once candidates were elected to the papacy by direct
imperial nomination. Otto III is credited with the
nomination of Gregory V and Sylvester II, and Henry
III with the effectual naming of Clement II, Dama-
sus II, Leo IX, and Victor II. But it is obvious
that such nomination is not real election, for the ac-
ceptance of the legal electors was necessary to ratify
the choice, though undoubtedly they would naturally
be swayed by circumstances to give effect to the
imperial preference. It has sometimes been said that
in the earlier a^es popes have appointed their succes-
sors in the pontificate. Thus, St. Peter is said to have
so chosen Clement I. The authority on which the
stateipent rests is now Renerally acknowledged to be
apocrjrphal. Boniface II chose Vigilius for his suc-
cessor in 531, but later repented and publicly withdrew
the nomination. Baromus (H. E., ann. 1085, 1087)
states that Gregory VII in 1085 elected Victor III as
his successor; that Victor in like manner chose Urban
II in 1086, and Urban elected Paschal II in 1099. It
is to be noted that the canon ''Si Transitus" in the,
"Corpus Juris" (can. "Si Trans.", 10, dist. 70) seems
to imply the right of the pope to nominate his suc-
cessor, fiance its opening ^ords are: "If the death of the
pope take place so unexpectedly that he cannot make
a decree concerning the election of his successor, etc."
However, these so-called elections were never more
than nominations, for none of the persons thus named
ever presumed to declare themselves popes before the
ratification of the legal electors had be^ obtained.
It is certain at present, that, according to ecclesi-
astical law (c. "Episcopo", 3: c. "Plerique", 5; can.
"Moyses", 6, caus. 8, Q. 1), the pope cannot elect his
successor. It is commonly held also that he is pro-
hibited from doing so by Divine law, though the con-
trary has also b^n held by canonists. As to the
gradual restrictions and determinations governing
the mode of election of the pontiffs, we note that in
606 Boniface III decreed that the electors should not
meet until the third day after the pope's burial. In
769 a decree was framed in a synod of the Lateran,
that the Roman clergy were to choose as pope only
a priest or deacon, and forbade the laity to take any
part in the election. The newly-elected was, how-
ever, to receive the homage of the laity before he
was conducted to the Lateran basilica. This decree
caused widespread discontent among the influential
la3rmen, and Nicholas I in a Roman Synod held in 862
restored the right of suffrage to the Roman nobles.
John IX in 898 confirmed tne custom of having the
consecration of the new pontiff take place in the pres-
ence of the imperial amoassadors. In 963, the Em-
peror Otto I endeavoured to bind the Romans by oath
not to elect anyone as pope until he had been nomi-
nated by the emperor.
An epoch-making decree in the matter of papal
elections is that of Nicholas II in 1059. According to
this constitution, the cardinal bishops are first to meet
and discuss the candidates for the papacy, and se-
lect the names of the most worthy. They are then
to summon the other cardinals and, together with
them, proceed to an election. Finally, the assent of
the rest of the clergy and the laity to the result of the
suffrage b to be sought. The choice is to be made
from the Roman clergy, unless a fit candidate cannot
be found among them. In the election regard is to be
had for the rights of the Holy Roman emperor, who
in turn is to be requested to show similar respect for
the Apostolic See. In case the election cannot be
held in Rome, it can validly be held elsewhere. What
Uie imperial rights are is not explicitly stated in the
decree, but it seems plain from contemponury evi-
dence that they require the results of the election to be
forwarded to the emperor by letter or messengeri in
PAPAL
457
PAPIA8
order that he may assure himself of the validity of
the election. Gregory VII (1073), however, was the
last pope who asked for imperial confirmation. It
will be seen that the decree of Pope Nicholas reserves
the actual election to the cardincus, but requires the
assent (laudatio) of the lower clergy and laity.
The Tenth (Ecumenical Synod (Lateran; in 1139
restricted, however, the entire choice to the cardinals,
and in 1179, another Lateran Council under Alexander
III made the rule that the pope is to be chosen by a
two-thirds majority of the electors who are present.
This last decree did not state what was to be done in
case such a majority could not be obtained. When the
cardinals found themselves f ao& to face with this con-
tingency on the death of Clement IV in 1268, they
commissioned six cardinals as plenipotentiaries to de-
cide on a candidate. The vacancy of the Holy See had
lasted for two years and nine months. To prevent a
recurrence of this evil, the Second Coimcil of Lyons
under Gregory X (1274) decreed that ten days after
the pope's decease, the cardinals should assemble in the
palace in the city in which the pope died, and there
hold their electoral meetings, entirely shut out from
all outside influences. If they did not come to an
agreement on a candidate in three days, their victuals
were to be lessened, and after a further delay of five
da^s, the food supply was to be still further restricted.
Tms is the origin of conclaves.
The decretu of Gregory X on this subject is called
"Ubi periculum majus". For the later regulations
governing papal elections see Conclave. According
to certain ancient canons (can. ''Oportet". 3; can.
"NuUus'', 4, dist. 79), only cardinals should be chosen
pope. However, Alexander III decreed (cap. " Licet ",
6, ''De elect.") that ''he, without any exception, is to
be acknowledged as pontiff of the Universal Church
who has been elected by two-thirds of the cardinals."
As late as 1378. Urban VI was chosen, though not a
cardinal (consult, however, Constitut. 50 of »xtus V.
"Postquam", § 2). A layman may also be elected
pope, as was Celestine V (1294). Even the election of
a married man would not be invalid (c. ''Qui uxorem ",
19, cans. 33, Q. 5). Of course, ^e election of a
heretic, schismatic, or female would be null and void.
Immediately on the canonical election of a candidate
and his acceptance, he is true pope and can exercise
full and absolute jurisdiction over the whole Church.
A papal election, therefore, needs no confirmation, as
the pfontiff has no superior on earth.
Fbrbabu. Bibliolheca Canonieat VI (Rome, 1890), s. v. Papa,
art. 1; SXomOlleb, LekHnich det KirehenrtefUs (Freiburg, 1903);
Wbrnz, Jtu Deeraalium, II (Rome, 1899); SiirrH, Blementt of
Sedeaiattieal Law, I (New York. 1895).
William H. W. Fanning.
Papal Letters. See Letters, Ecclesiastical.
Papal States. See States of the Church.
Papebroch, Daniel von. See Bollandistb, The.
Paphnutius; — I. The most celebrated personage
of this name was bishop of a city in the Upper Thebaid
in the early fourth century, and one of the most in-
teresting members of the CJouncil of Nicssa (325) . He
suffered mutilation of the left knee and the loss
of his right eye for the Faith under the Emperor
Maximinus (308-13), and was subsequentlv con-
demned to the mines. At Nicsa he was greatly hon-
oured by Constantine the Great, who, according to
Socrates (H. E., I, 11), used often to send for the good
old confessor and kiss the place whence the eye had
been torn out. He took a prominent, perhaps a de-
cisive, part in the debate at the First (Ecumenical
Council on the subject of the celibacy of the clergy.
It seems that most of the bishops present were dis-
posed to follow the precedent of the Council of Elvira
(can. xxxiii) prohibiting conjugal relations to those
bishops, priests, deacons, and, according to Sosomen,
Bub-deaoons, who were married before ordination.
Paphnutius earnestly entreated his fellow-bishops not
to impose this obligation on the orders of the clergy
concerned. He proposed, in accordance ''with the
ancient tradition of the Church", that only those
who were celibates at the time of ordination should
continue to observe continence, but, on the other
hand, that "none should be separated from her, to
whom, while yet unordained, he had been united".
The great veneration in which he was held, and the
well known fact that he had himself observed the
strictest chastity all his life, gave weight to his pro«
posal, which was imanimously adopted. The coimcil
left it to the discretion of the married clergy to con«
tinue or discontinue their marital relations. Paphnu-
tius was present at the Synod of Tyre (335).
II. Paphnutius, sumamed (on account of his love
of solitude) the Buffalo, an anchorite and priest of
the Scetic desert in Egypt in the fourth century.
When Cassian (Coll., IV; 1) visited him in 305, the
Abbot Paphnutius was m his ninetieth year. He
never left nis cell save to attend church on Saturdays
and Sundays, five miles away. When in his pascmd
letter of the year 390, the Patriarch Theophilus of
Alexandria condemned anthropomorphism, Paphnu-
tius was the only monastic ruler in the Egyptian des*
ert who caused the document to be read.
III. Paphnutius, deacon of the church of Boon,
in Esypt, suffered martyrdom in the persecution ot
Diocletian, under the Prefect Culcianus.
HsnoLJC-LBCLKBCQ, Hittotre det eonciUs, I, i (Paris, 1907).
Maukice M. Hassett.
P^;>h08, titular see, suffragan of Salamis in Cyprus,
There were two towns of this name. Old Paphos which
owed its renown to the Phoenician Koddess Astarte, as
represented by a sacred stone or bsetylus, and now
identified with Kouklia, on the right bank of the Dio-
rizo; and New Paphos, located at the village of Baffo,
over nine miles distant from the former. The latter
was the see. Under the Romans it was the metropolis
of the island. In 15 b. c. it received the surname of
Augusta, and was later called Sebaste Claudia Flavia
Paphos. The proconsul Sergius Paujus resided there
when Paul and Barnabas, after having confounded the
ma^cian Elymas, converted the governor to Chris-
tianity (Acts, xiii, 6 sqq.). The first known bishop,
Cyril, assisted in 325 at the Council of Nicaea; for the
other Greek titulars see Le Quien, "Oriens chris-
tianus" (IL 1050-62); Hackett, "A History of the
Orthodox CAurch of Cyprus" (London, 1001, p. 314).
Among them was Theodore (seventh centuiy), the
biographer of St. Spiridlon, St. Nicholas, and St.
Macanus, otherwise unknown. The list of Latin
bishops from 1215 to 1507 has been compiled by Le
Quien (op. cit., Ill, 1215-20) ; Du Cange '' Les families «
d*outre-mer*' (Paris, 1860, pp. 865-68); Eubel,
"Hierarchia cathol. med. aevi" (I, 407: II, 234; HI.
287) ; Hackett (op. cit., 564-68). The last residential
bishop, Francesco Contarini, who in 1563 had assisted
at the Council of Trent, was slain in 1570 during the
siege of the town by the Turks. During the Prankish
occupation the Greek see was one of the four which
the Latins supported in 1222, but the bishop was com-
pelled to reside at Arsinoe or Chrysochou. It still
exists. Baffo is a miserable village, the larger portion
of its population living at Ktima half a league away.
In the Nliddle Ages the Latin Diocese of Paphos Was
dependent on the Archdiocese of Nicosia.
CK0NOLA, Cyprua, itt ancient eUiet^ lomba and tempieM (London,
1877). 210-13; Journal of HeUenic Studiet, IX. 158-271; PsRiiot
AND Crifibs, Hi»t. de VaH dan* ranliquM, HI (Pans). 284-275.
S. Vailh£.
P^;>iaav Saint, Bishop of Hierapolis (close to Lao-
dioea and Colossse in the valley of the Lycus in Phrv«
gia) and Apostolic Father, called by St. Irenseus a
hearer of John, and companion of Polycarp. a man of
old time'\ He wrote a work in five books, \oyl<tr
i
PAPIA8 458 PAPIA8
KvpioKibw it^rrriff of which all but some fragments is two Johns are mentioned, one'being distingulBhed hj
lost. We learn somethine of the contents from the the epithet pre8b3rter from the other who is obvioiisly
preface, part of which has been preserved by Eusebius the Apostle. The historian adds that Dionysius <»
(IIIj xxix) : "I will not hesitate to add also for vou to Alexandria said, he heard there were two tombs of
my mterpretations what I formerly learned witn care John at Ephesus. This view has been adopted by
from the JPresbyters and have carefully stored in mem- practically all Uberal critics and by such oonservsr
ory, giving assurance of its truth. For I did not take tives as Lightfoot and Westcott. But Zahn and most
pleasure as the many do in those who speak much, but Catholic writers agree that Dionysius was mistaken
m those who teach what is true, nor in those who re- about the tomb^ and that Eusebius's inteipretation of
late forei^ precepts, but in those who relate the pre- Papias's words is incorrect. For he says that Papias
eepts which were given by the Lord to the faith and frequently cited John the Presbyter; yet it is certain
came down from the Truth itself. And also if any that Irenseus, who had a great veneration for the work
follower of the Presbyters happened to come, I would of Papias, took him to mean John the Apostle: and
inquire for the sayings of the Presbyters, what An- Irenieus had personal knowledge of Asiatic traoition
drew said, or what Peter said, or what Philip or what and could not have been ignorant of the existence of
Thomas or James or what John or Matthew or anv John the presbyter, if there ever was such a person in
other of the Lord's disciples, and for the things which Asia. Again, Irenieus tells us that the Apostle lived
Aristion and the Presbyter John, the disciples of the at Ephesus until the time of Trajan, that he wrote
Lord, were saying. For I considered that I should not the Apocalypse in the last davs of I)omitian. Ire-
get BO much advantage from matter in books as from naeus had heard Polycarp relate his reminiscences of the
the voice which yet lives and remains.^' From this Apostle. Justin, who was at Ephesus about 130-5,
we learn that Papias's book consisted mainly of "in- asserts that the Apostle was the author of the Apoca-
terpretations " — ^it was a kind of commentiury on the Ivpse (and therefore the head of the Asiatic Churches).
"Ix)gia of the Lord''. The word logiay meaning But if the Apostle lived at Ephesus at so late a date,
"oracles", is frequently at the present day taken to (and it cannot be doubted with any show of reason),
refer to sayings, as opposed to narratives of Our Lord's he would naturallv be the most important of Papias's
actions (so Zahn ana many others). But Lightfoot witnesses. Yet if Eusebius is risnt. it would seem
showed long a^o (Essays on Supernatural Relidon, that John the Presbyter was his chief informant, and
171-7) that this view is imtenable. Philo used the that he had no sayings of the Apostle to relate. A^ain,
word for any part of the inspired writings of the Old "the Presbvter''^ who wrote 1 and II John has the
Testament, whether speech or narrative. St. Paul, name of Jonn in all MSS., and is identified with the
Irenseus, Clement, Origen, even Photius, have no Apostle by Irensus and Clement, and is oertainlv
other usage. St. Irensus speaks of corrupting the (bjr internal evidence) the writer of the fourth Gospel,
oracles of the Lord just as Dionysius of Corinth speidcs which is attributed to the Apostle bv Iremeus ana all
of corrupting the Scriptures of the Lord. A^m tradition. Again, Polycrates of Ephesus. in recount-
KvpuLKd in Papias, in Irenseus. in Photius, means "the ing the men who were the glories of Ada, nas no men-
divine oracles" of the Ola or New Testament or tionof John the presbyter, out of "John, who lay upon
both. Besides these " interpretations ", Papias added the Loni's breast ", undoubtedly meaning the Apostle,
oral traditions of two kinds: some he had himself The second John at Ephesus is an unludcy conjecture
heard from the Presbvters, rapi. tQp rpevpvripiaw; of Eusebius.
others he had at second hand from disciples of the A fragment is, however, attributed to Papias which
Presbyters who happened to visit him at Hierapolis. states tnat "John the theologian and James his
The Presbyters' related what the "disciples of the brother were killed by the Jews '. It is not possible
Lord" — Peter, Andrew etc. — ^used to say in old days, that Papias should really have said this, otnerwise
Other informants of Papias's visitors were still living, Ehisebius must have quoted it and Irensus could not
"Aristion and John the Presbyter, the disciples of the have been ignorant of it. There is certainly some
Lord", as is shown by the present tense, TUyowip, error in the quotation. Either something has been
We naturally assume that Papias counted them omitted, or St. John Baptist was meant. That St.
also among the direct informants whom he had John is mentioned twice in the list of Papias's author-
mentioned oefore, for as thev lived at Ephesus and ities is explained by the distinction between his earlier
Smyrna, not far off, he would surely know them per- sayings wnich the Presbyters could repeat and the last
Bonallv. However, many eminent critics — Zahn and utterances of his old age which were reported by visi-
li^tfoot, and among Catholics^ Funk, Bardenhewer, tors from Ephesus. The most important fragment
Michieb, Gutjahr, Batiffol, Lepin — identify the Pres- of Papias is that in whic^ he gives an account of St.
byters with Andrew, Peter etc., thus mi^ng them Mark from the words of the Iresbyter, obviously St.
Apostles, for they understand "what Andrew and John. It is a defence of St. Mark, attesting the per-
Peter and the rest said" as epexegetic of "the words feet accuracy with which he wrote down the teachings
of the Presbyters". This is impossible, for Papias of St. Peter, but admitting that he did notjrive a oor-
had iust spoken of what he learned directly from the rect order. It is interesting to note that (as Dr. Abbott
Presbytersj &ra ror^ rapd tQv rpwpvripvw KoKQt has shown) the fourth Gospel inserts or refers to every
iitaBov^ yet it is admitted that he could not have known incident given in St. Mark which St. Luke has passed
many apostles. Again, he seems to distinguish the over. The prologue of St. Luke is manifestly cited in
sayings of the disciples of the Lord, Aristion and John, the fragment, so that Papias and the Presbyter knew
from those of the Presbyters, as though the latter were that Gospel, which was presumably preferred to that
not disciples of the Lora. Lastly, Irensus and Euse- of Mark m-the Pauline Church of Ei^esus; hence the
bius, who had the work of Papias before them, under- need of the rehabilitation of Mark by "the Presbyter '\
stand the Presbyters to be not Apostles, but disciples who speaks with authoritv as one who knew the facts
of disciples of the Lord, or even disciples of disciples of the life of Christ as well as Peter himself. The hr
of Apostles. The same meaning is given to the word mous statement of Papias that St. Matthew wrote his
by Clement of Alexandria. We are therefore obliged logia (that is, his canonical work) in Hebrew, and each
to make "what Andrew and Peter and the rest said" interpreted (translated) it as he was able, seems to
not co-ordinate with but subordinate to "the sayings imply that when Papias wrote an accepted version was
of the Pre8b3rters", thus: "I would inquire for the ourrent-'Our present St. Matthew. His knowledge of
sayings of the Presbyters, what (they related that) St. John's Gospel is proved not merely by his mention
Andrew and Peter and ttie rest said, and for the of aloes, but by a citation of John xiv, 2, which occurs
things Aristion and John were saying". Eusebius in the curious prophecy of a miraculous vintage in the
has caused a further difficulty by pointing out that millenium which be attributed to Our Lord (IrennaSt
459 PAPm
V, xzxvi). The reference in his preface to onr Lord that those who were raised to life by Christ lived on
as ''the Truth" also implies a knowledge of the fourth until the age of Hadrian cannot he used to determine
Gospel. He cited I John and I Peter acoorcUng to his date, for it is clearly made up from the quite cred-
Eusebius, and he evidently built largel^y upon the ible statement of Quadratus (i^usebius, iv. 3) that
Apocalypse, from which he drew his chihastic views. ■ some of those cured by our Lord lived until his own
It was formerly customary amons liberal critics to time and the fact that Quadratus wrote imder Ha-
assume (for no proof was possible) uiat Papias ignored drianj the name of Papias has been substituted by the
St. Paul. It IS now recognised that a bishop who egregious excerptor. The work of Papias was evi*
lived a few miles from Colossse cannot be suspected of dently written in his old age, say between the years 1 15
opposition to St. Paul merely on the ground tiiat the and 140.
Four Gospels, the Acts, the chief Epistles of St. Paul, if«»P<wy «mw (Londonj^SSQ); on the prefaoe Meespecially
the Apocalypae and Epurtl«i of St. 5ohn. and I Pet^r. US* A'S^SSTSSl^i^S^^iS' o'fc4'^'?!rfaS2i''orfl?:
Eusebius says that Papias freauently cited tradl- John; for the view that the Apoetle was not at Ephesus but only
tions of John and narrations of Anstion. He had also **>• preabyter, Habnacx, Oeaeh, dm- dUckr, lAU^ II (1897), and
had apparently been known to Pupias. He related the 0>ot^^i ^J"3*St.*®ff ^ • Sanbay, The Critiaamo/Uu Fourth Gwh
raising to Ufe of the mother of Manalmos a)rt>bably ^'^^l^^t^'!^:) ^^l^^,fi::^
not the same as Manaen the foster-brother of Herod) ; (1903) : Chapman, Jokn the Prwi^yur xoxford. i9ii) ; on the sup-
also the drinking of poison without harm by Justus B?^i martyrdom of St. John, Da Book, N^u FragmMOe dee
Rf^raAhAA • tiA maw hn.v« mla f«H f >iia in Annno^/^n wif li "»P»M » TexU «. UnUTB,, V, II (1888) ; Dblvf, loc. eU.; Chapman,
tSarsaDas. ne may nave related tniS m connexion Wltn ^c. ««.; Schwart*. Ueber dem Tod der Sdhne Zebedm (in favour
Mark, XVI, 18, as it is the only one of the miracles of the martyrdom, Berlin. 19(M); andnst are: ARMrrAOB Robin-
promised in that passage by our Lord ^idlich is not ex- ■?». The HtetoriealChameUr of St, John'e Ooepd (London. 1908) ;
Amr)1ifiAH in Arti» TfTwoiild h« intorMtinff if ivp rtnnlrl Bmwaw) m Jneh Church Qvarterfu (Jan., 19M) ; Edwin Abbott,
empunea m ACJS. it WOUia Oe mteresung U we coma j^^^ ^ jf^ Teetament CriHeiem (London, 1906) ; for a ffeneral ao-
be sure that Papias mentioned this last section of oount of Papiaa. see Babobnhbwbr, Qeeck, der aUkireia. Liu., I
Mark, since an Armenian MS. attributes it to Aris- (FreiburE, ito). who gives ei^oientrefemioM to older booln and
tion TCniiAhiiia ravh PAntM ''nnhliafipH a nfnrv nf a- •rticlee; more m RiCHABoaoN'a Synopexf (Buffalo, ia«7). , On St.
Lion. iLUSeoiUS says rapias puousnea a story Ol a j^^ ^ Irewww, Chapman, Papitu on the Age of our Lord in Jour-
woman accused of many sins before the Lord, which is nolo/ Theol. studiea, IX (Oct., 1907), 33:.OuTiAHB, />«« Glaub"
contained in the Gospel according to the Hebrews". wOrdigkeU dee irenaieehen Zeugnieeee (Graa, 1904); Lbwm, The
Thia appea« to refer to the veHcape aduUenr, John viii. gSS^IT pKAii-'^.^«5^-^"^
The cause of the loss of this precious work of an (Freiburg. 1896); Ort, Le milUnarieme (Paria, 1904; New
Apostolic Father was the_ chiliastic view which he ^<«^* 1899). John Chapman.
the
bom
I was
Bishop
geais
i- m.v ruihrr^ K« «^f^wJH V/^^ Of Facuza until 1198, and then Bishop of Pavia until
I'^zr^z cSihtr^rt^nTs^^ ^i-i^:..5? ^ -^^^^ '!i^:2^!r^^ ^^
ffbTk'^lh thfo'^^^^ ^;?:^^rlT:;e?ti^ oT'llSffi^^^onJS;
SarS^^rT^eol^dsc'^^t ant^'cLo^n^tun^Sr^riSe^^^^^^
HatMsleiter (Theologisches Litteraturblatt^ Apnl, Qratian and also later documents. The work was
if«^^LnS^^n\^iS'Xf^^'m^^ OIH o^mpS^^tween 1187 and 1191, and was edited by
pias, ana contain tne same quotations from the Old t? •^uT.^ /«rk„:«„„« «*v»««>;i*»+;^»;^wi <i«tfi/^ii<»'' t «;»C_
'reetament. Euaebiui. was a£ opponent of oUhaatic S"*f^^ ^ ^^7. i^^l«^l^Tnt^'^dv^
It WdSsTttii rhe?.5^A%&zr^et: ^-rA:^*:5^^r^r^krrt±>si^5?
in It we liaye pernaps tne very words to wnicn iiiuse- ^i,^„ ^^ u:„ «tj,^,^„-;,,«^ «wi.o«««o«*;iit«»> V^pi^**.
ss'ii±^sii::%Bt^o^""z;;^^ts: te p^enri^s^iz" r^rKTR^tieK
Z^.S^^nS>^^J^^^i^^^^^^ 1861)- Hfe in also the author of a "Vita eanoti Lan-
pmnapoUnt, conaboroetendere . TliwpMBageprob. j ^„ .^ ^^ gg jy j^„ 520 eqq.), a "Ck)mmen-
ably preeervea the substance of what Papias said, ac- i j ;_ Tc\r_i~:I.*:!.,w« " Z.1^ » <<r<»...r^nt.>;,..
ooraiSg to the testimony of Anaetasius of Kiountsinai, J?"<5? J? .?f "teJ^^™ '' Commentanus
as to the mystical application to Christ, and the "sS^Ji^'o*. oiSfi'^Trfjin *. La. <u. ««on. Redu.. I
Church of the seven da3rs of creation. A wild and ex- (Stuttgart, 1876). 175-«2; Lauhin, IrUrod. in Corp. Jur, Canon.
traordinary legend about Judas Iscariot is attributed (Freiburg. 1889), 20, 97-106; Qmtmm^DU Lehre eon den
to Papias by a catena. It is probable that whenever Kurehenrechtequelien iRMUsbon. ism, I2th^.
St. IreniBUS quot^ "the Presbyters" or "the Presby- ^' ^^ ^°^-
ters who had seen John", he is citins the work of Pa- Paplnii Nicholas, historian, b. at San Giovanni
pias. Where he attributes to these folk)wers of John the Valdamo, between Florence and Arezso, about 1751:
assertion that our Lord sanctified all the ages of man, d. at Temi, Umbria, 16 Dec., 1834. Having entered
he is probably quoting Papias; but it does not follow the Order of the Conventuals he taught Italian liter-
that Papias had inferred that our Lord reached the age ature at Modena, was secretary of the Pro^ncial of
of fifty, as Irenseus concludes, nor need we be too ceiv Tuscany, cu«((w of the Sacred Convent of Assisi, 1800 (?)
tain that Papias explicitly cited the Presbyters in the -1803, a short time guardian of Dodici Apostoli at
passage in question. His real statement is possibly Rome, and finally named Minister General ot the Con-
preserved in a sentence of "De fabrica mimdi , ventuals 1803-09. Later on he lived at Assisi and
which implies only that our Lord reached the perfect Temi, where he is buried. His printed works are
age (between 30 and ^) after which decline begins. ''L'Etruria Francescana o vero raccolta di notisie
Of Papias's life nothing is known. If Polycarp was storiche interessanti TOrdine de FF. Minori Con-
bom in 60, his "comrade" may have been bom a few ventuali di S. Francesco in Toscana", I, Siena,
years earlier. The fragment which makes him state 1797; "Notisie sicure della morte, sepoltura, canonis-
PAR4 460
nulone e traalazlone di S. Franoesoo d'Aarim e del enoe to the hearers addressed, but with more remote
ritrovamento del di lui corpo", 2nd ed., Foligno, and recondite applications in the whole Christian
1824; "Storia del Perdono d Asosi con document! e economy to which they belone. Thus we find two
osservazioni *\ Florence, 1824 : " La Storia di S. Fran- lines of mterpretation, the first dealing with Our Lord's
cesco di Ajasisi, opera critica/^ 2 vols., Foligno, 1827. ' parables as and when they were spoken — ^let this be
Robinson, A Short ItUrodudion to Franciaean Literature (New termed critical exegesis; and the second bringing OUt
XS3&r2'iLJ^"?<5;,Sr^iS^.'S!fr HfS:^:^ ^^ ripuScance m the Ustory of the ChuwE^r e^
Nontii e Pro/ean Chierid « Laid Minori ConteniuaU (Rome, clesiastical exegesis. Both are connected and may be
1897), 278, 342; Lansi, Note e ricordi euUa Chieea di 8, Franeeaeo traced to the same root in Revelation; yet they are
in Temi in MitceOanea Franceeeafia, IX (1902) . 6-7. distinct, somewhat after the fashion of the literal and
LivABius OUGER. mystical Bcnsc in Script UTO gencraUy. We cannot lose
Para. See Bblem do Para, Archdiocksb of. «ther out of sight. The paroles of the New Testar
ment refuse to be handled like .Alsop's fables; they
Parables.— The word parable (Heb. btii, mfishfil; were intended from the first to shadow forth the
Syr. mathla, Gr. ropa^X^) signifies in general a com- ''mysteries of the Kingdom of Heaven", and their
parison, or a parallel, by which one thing is used to double purpose may be read m St. Matthew, xiii, 10-
illustrate another. It is a likeness taken from the 18, where it is attributed to Christ Himself,
sphere of real, or sensible, or earthly^ incidents, in order Modem critics ( JQlicher and Lpisy) who deny this,
affirm that the Evangelists have deflected the parables
from their oriKinal meaning in the interest of edifica-
» *** ««w xM.v«^v. *,. » ^^^^^ v***-"* —»»««*, ^* ,r— w tion, suiting tnem to the cuxsumstanoes of the primi-
rp6^rifui) , and has therefore a light and a dark side, — tive Church. In making such accusations these crit-
"dark sayings", Wis., viii, 8; Ecclus., xxxix, 3;^t is ics, following the example of Strauss, not only reject
intended to stir curiosity and calls for intelligence in liie witness of the Gospel writers, but do violence to its
the listener, " He that hath ears to hear, let him hear" text. They overlook the profoundly supernatural and
Matt.,xiii,9. Its Greek designation (from ropa/SdXXeir, prophetic idea on which all Scripture moves as its
to throw beside or ag^auist) indicates a deliberate vital form, — an idea certified to us by the usage of our
"making up " of a story m which some lesson is at once Lord whenquoting the Old Testament, and wlmitted
piven and concealed. As taking simple or common ob- equally by tne Evangelists and St. Paul. That they
jects to cast light on ethics and reUgion, it has been run counter to Catholic tradition is manifest. More-
well said of the parable that "truth embodied in a over, parables thus detached from a Christological
tale shall enter in at lowly doors." It abounds in significance would hang in the air and could claim no
lively speaking figures, and stands midway between pUce in the teaching of the Son of God. A valid exe-
the literalism of mere prose and the abstractions of gesis will therefore oe prepared to discover in liiem all
philosophy. What the Hebrew pi^li is derived from not only the relevance wnich they had for the multi-
we do not know. If connected with Assyrian mashalu, tude or the Pharisees but their truth, svh specie sacnp-
Arab, matala, etc., the root meaning is "likeness", mentis for "the Kingdom", i. e., for Christ's Church.
But it will be a likeness which contains a judgment. And on this method the Fathers have expoimded them
and so includes the "maxim", or general proposition without distinction of school, but especially among
bearing on conduct (Greek "gnomic wisdom"), of Westerns, St. Ambrose, St. Augustine, and 9t. Greg-
which the Book of Proverbs (Meshalim) is the chief ory the Great, as their commentaries prove,
inspired example. In classic Latin, the Greek word is Of the proverb not an ill definition might be that it
translated coUotio (Cicero, "De invent.", i-xxx),ima^o is a closed or contracted parable: and of the parable
(Seneca, "Ep. lix."), simUitudo (Quintil., "Inst.", that it is an expanded pqpverb. An instance, hovering
V, 7-8). Observe that rapapoXij does not occur in St. on the verge of both, occurs Matt., xi, 17: "We have
John's Gospel, nor Topoifita (proverb) in the Synoptics, piped to you, and vou have not danced; we have la-
Likeness and abstraction enter into the idea m Ian- mented. and you have not mourned." The words
guage, but may be contrasted as body and spirit, were taken from some child's game, but they are ap-
standing as the^ do in a relation at once of help and plied to St. John the Baptist and to Our Lord^ with a
opposition. Wisdom for the practice of life has among gnomic moral, "Wisdom is justified by her children."
all nations taken a fig^urative shape, passing from myth In a myth or allegory, fictitious persons, gods and men,
or fable into the contracted savmgs we term proverbs, are introduced; and the significance lies within the
and arriving in the Greek schools of philosophy at story, as in Apuleius, "Eros and Psyche.". But a
ethical systems. But system, or technical metaphys- parable looks at life as it is lived, deals in no personifi-
ics, does not appeal to the Semite; and our Sacred cations, and requires to be interpreted from without.
Books were never written with a view to it. If, how- F^le is marked by giving speech and thought to irra-
ever. system be not made the vehicle of teaching, what tionid or inanimate objects; parable as our Lord em-
shall a prophet employ as its equivalent? The image ploys it never does so. £xantp{e« or "histories with a
or comparison remains. It is primitive, interesting, moral" have at least a core of reality — ^the instances
and easily remembered; and its various applications occurring in Scripture and allowed by critics are such
ive it a continual freshness. The story came into use as Esther^ Susanna, Tobias; but a parable need not
are
with
action, may profitably be kept in mind. Neither can type consists in the significance given by prophecy
we overlook the points of resemblance which exist be- to a person or his acts; e. g., to Isaac as the lamb of
tween parables and miracles, both exhibitihg through saorince, and the symbolical deeds of Ezechiel or Jer&-
outwara shows the presence of a supematurtS doctrine mias. But the parable briiupB in no types directly or
and agency. in its immediate sense, and no determined persons.
Hence we may speak of the irony which must al- Metaphor (Lat. iranslatio) is a vague term, whick
ways be possible in devices adapted to human weak- might be applied to any short parabolic saying but
ness of understanding, where heavenly secrets are doe^ not fit the narrative of an action, such as we mean
concerned. Baconhassaidexcellently well, "parables by a parable in the New Testament. The Socratic
are serviceable as a mask and veil, and also for eluci- myth which adorns the "Gorgias", "Phsdo", and
dation and illustration" (De sap. vet.). Of Scripture "Republic", is confessedly a fable, whereas in our
parables we conclude that they illustrate and edify by synoptic Gospels whatever illustrations we meet are
xevealing some Divine principle, with immediate refer- chosen from daily occurrences.
PARABLES
461
PARABLES
The Hebrew genius, unlike that of the Hellenes/ was
not given to m3rth-making; it abhorred the personifi-
cations of nature to which we are indebted for gods of
the elements, for Nereids and Hamadryads; it seldom
pursued an allegory to any length; ana its ''realism''
in treating of landscape and visible phenomena strikes
most forcibly on the modem imagination. Theism was
the breath of its nostrils; and where for a moment it
indulges a turn for ancient folk-lore (as in Is^ xiii, 21)
it is far removed from the wild Pantheon of Greek na-
ture-worship. In the parables we never come across
enchanted stones or talkins beasts or trees with magi-
cal virtues; the world which they describe is the world
of every day: not even miracles break in upon its es-
tabli^ed order. When we consider what Oriental
fancy has made of the universe, and how it is depicted
in cosmogonies like that of Hesiod, the contrast be-
comes indescribably great. It is in the world which
all men know that Christ finds exemplified the laws of
human ethics, and the correspondences on which His
kingdom shall be carried to its Divine consummation.
Seen with purged eyes nature is already the kingdom
of God.
No language is more concrete in its presentation of
laws and principles, or more vividly figured, than that
which the Old Testament affords. But of parables
strictly taken it has onl^ a few. Jotham's apologue
of the trees choosing a king (Judges, ix, 8-15) is more
properly a fable; so is the scornful tale of the thistle
and the cedar in Lebanon which Joas of Israel sent by
messengers to Amasias, King of Juda (IV Kings, xiv,
8-10). Nathan's rebuke to David is couched in Uie
form of a parable (II Kings, xii, 1-4;) so the wise
woman of Thecua (ibid., xiv, 4); so the Prophet to
Achab (III Kings, xx, 39); and the song of the vine-
yard (Is., V, 1-8). It has been suggested that chap-
ters i-iii of Osee must be construed as a parable, and ao
not contain a real history. The denunciation of woe
on Jerusalem in Ezech., xxiv, 3-5, is expressly named
a maahalt and may be compared with the Gospel simil-
itude of the leaven. But our Lord, unlike the Proph-
ets, does not act, or describe Himself as acting, any of
the stories which He narrates. Hence we need not
take into account the Old-Testament passages, Is., xx,
2-4; Jer., xxv, 15; Ezech., iii, 24-26, etc.
That the character of Chnst's teaching to the mul-
titude was m^nly parabolic is clear from Matt., xiii,
34, and Mark, iv, 33. Perhaps we should ascrioe to
the same cause an element of the startling and para-
doxical, e. g., in His Sermon on the Mount^ wnich,
taken literally, has been misunderstood by simple or
again by fanatical minds. Moreover, that such a form
of instruction was familiar to the Jews of this period
cannot be doubted. The sayings of Hillel and Sham-
mai still extant, the visions of the Book of Enoch, the
typical values which we observe as attaching to the
stories of Judith and Tobias, the Apocalypse and the
extensive literature of which it is the flower, all be-
token a demand for something esoteric in the popular
religious preaching, and show how abundantly it was
satisfied. But if. as mystical writers hold, the highest
degree of heavenly knowledge is a clear intuition, with-
out veils or s3rmbo]s dimmmg its li^t, we see in our
Lord exactly this pure comprehension. He is never
Himself drawn as a visionaiy. The parables are not
for Him but for the crowd. When He speaks of His
relation to the Father it is in direct terms, without
metaphor. It follows that the scope of these exquisite
little moralities ought to be measured bv the audience
whom they were designed to benefit. In other words
they form part of the '' Economy" wherebv truth is
dispensed to men as they are able to bear it (Mark, iv,
33; John, xvi, 12). Since, however, it^s the Lord that
speaks, we must reverently construe His sayings in the
light of the whole Revelation which furnishes their
ground and context. The "real sense of Scripture",
as Newman points out in accord with all the Catholic
Fathers, is "the scope of the Divine intelligence", or
the scheme of Incarnation and Redemption.
Subject to this Law, the New-Testament parables
have each a definite meaning, to be ascertained from
the explanation, where Christ deigns to give one, as in
the sower; and when none such is forthcoming, from
the occasion, introduction, and appended moral. In-
terpreters have differed importantly on the question
whether everything in the parable is of its essence (the
"kernel") or anything is mere machinery and acci-
dent (the "husk"). There is an obvious negative
rule. We must not pass over as unmeaning any de-
tail without which the lesson would cease to be en-
forced. But shall we insist on a correspondence at all
points, so that we may translate the whole into spirit-
ual values, or may we neglect whatever does not seem
to coinpose a feature of the moral to be drawn? St.
John Chrysostom (In Matt., Ixiv) and the School of
Antioch, who were hteralists, prefer the latter method;
thev are sober in exposition, not imaginative or mystic;
anaTertulhan has expressions to the like purpose (De
Pudic, ix) ; St. Augustine, who holds of Ongen and the
Alexandrians, abounds in the larger sense; yet he
allows that "in prophetic narrations details are told
us which have no significance" (De Civ. Dei, XVI, ii).
St. Jerome in his earlier writings follows Orieen; but
his temper was not that of a mystic and with age he
becomes increasingly literal. Among modem com-
mentators the same difference of handling appears.
In a problem which is literajy as well as exegetical,
we must guard against applying a hard and fast rule
where taste and insight are reauired. Each of the
parables will need to be dealt with as if it were a poem;
and fulness of meaning, refinement of thought, slight
but suggestive hints and touches, characteristic of
human £|emus. will not be wanting to the method of
the Divine Teacher. In the highest criticism, as
Goethe warns us, we cannot divide as with an axe the
inward from the outward. Where all is tiving, the
metaphor of kernel and husk may be often misapplied.
The meaning lies implicit in the whole and its parts;
here as in every vital product the ruling spirit is one,
the elements take their virtue from it and separately
are of no account. As we move away from the central
idea we lose the assurance that we are not pursuing
our own fancies; and the substitution of a mechanical
J ret extravagant dogmatism for the Gospel truth has
ed Gnostics and Manichssans, or latter-day viaon-
aries like Swedenborg, into a wilderness of delusions
where the severe and tender beauty of the parables
can no longer be discerned. They are literarv crea-
tions, not merely hieratic devices; and as awakening
the mind to spiritual principles their intent is fulfilled
when it muses on the deep things of God, the laws of
life, the mission of Christ, of which it is thus made
intimately aware.
St. Thomas and all Catholic doctors maintain that
articles of faith ought to be deduced only from the lit-
eral sense of Scripture whenever it is quoted in proof of
them ; but the literal sense is often the prophetic, which
itself as a Divine truth may well be applicable to an en-
tire series of events or line of typical characters. The
Angel of the Schools declares after St. Jerome that
"spiritual interpretation should follow the order of
history". St. Jerome himself exclaiins, "never can
a parable and the dubious interpretations of riddles
avail for the establishment of do^^as" (Summa, I-I,
O. x; St. Jerome. In Matt., xiii, 33). From a par-
able alone, therefore, we do not argue categorically:
we take it in illustration of Christian verities proved
elsewhere. It was this canon of good sense which the
Gnostics, especially Valentinus, disregarded to their
own hurt, and so fell into the confusion of ideas mis-
called by them revelation. Irenffius constantly op-
poses church tradition or the rule of faith, to these
dreamers (II, xvi, agidnst the Marcosians; II, xxvii,
xzviii, against Valentinus). Tertullianinlikemannei^
PABABUS 462 PABABLI8
''Hereties draw the parables whither thev wiU, not Although, acoording to moat non-Catholic wtiters,
whither they ought'', and "Valentinus did not make Sts. Matuew and Luke are founded upon St. Maik,
up Scriptures to suit his teaching, but forced his it is natural to begin our exposition ot the parables
teachizig on the Scriptures." (See De Pudic, viii, in the first GcMspel, which has a grpup of seven oon«
ix; De iSrsscript., viii; and compare St. Anselm, "Cur secutiveiy (xiii, 3H57). The sower with its explani^
Deushomo", I, iv.) tion, introduces them; the draw net completes their
We leam what the parables signify, on this show- teaching; and we cannot refuse to see in the num-
ing, from "the school of Christ"; we interpret them ber seven (cf. St. John's Gospel) an idea of selected
on the lines of "apostolic and ecclesiastical tradition" fitness which invites us to search out the principle
(Tert., "Scorp.", xii; Vine. Lerin., xxvii; Cone. Trid., involved. Men favourable to what is known as an
Sess. IV}. The "analog of faith" determines how "historic and prophetic" system of exegesis, have ap-
far we may go in applvmg them to life and lustory. phed the seven parables to seven ages of the Church.
With Salmeron it is allowed to distinguish in them This conception is not foreign to Scripture, nor un-
a "root", the occasion and immediate purpose, a familiar in patristic writings, but it can scarcely be
"rind ", the sensible imagery or incidents, and a " mar- pressed in detail. We are not qualified to say how the
row", the Christian truth, thus conveyed. Another facts of church history correspond, except in their
way would be to consider each purable as it relates to general features, with an3rthing in these parables;
Christ himself, to the Church as His spiritual body, neither have we the means of guessing at what stage
to the individual as putting on Christ. These are not of the Divine Economy we stand. Itmaybeenou^
different, still less contrary elucidations; they flow to remark that the sower denotes the preaching of
out of that great central dogma, "The Word was made the Gospel; the tares or cockle, how it meets with
flesh". In deiding on sudi a system with any part hindrances; the mustard seed and the leaven, its
of Holy Writ we Keep wilhin Catholic bounds: we noiseless yet victorious growth. From the hidden
explain the "Verbum scriptum" by the "Verbum treasure and the pearl of price we leam that those
incamatum". To the same principle we can reduce who are called must sive up all to possess the king-
the "four senses", often reckoned as derivable from dom. Finally, the ojuw net pictures God's judg-
the sacred text. These medieval refinements are but ment on His Church, and the everlasting separation
an effort to establish on the letter, faithfully under- of good and bad.
stood, implications which in all the works of genius, From all this it appears that St. Matthew has
other than scientific, are more or less contained. The brousht the parables together for a purpose (cf .
governing sense remains, and is always the standard Mal£>natu8, 1, 443) and he distinguishes oet ween the
of reference. "multitude", to whom the first four were chiefly ad-
There are no parables in St. John's Gospel. In the dressed, and the "disciples", who were privileged to
Synoptics Mark has only one peculiar to himself, the know their prophetic signincanoe. They illustrate
seed growing secretly (iv, 26) ; he has three which are the Sermon on the Mount, which ends with a twofold
common to Matthew and Luke, the sower, mustard comparison, the house on the rock typifying Christ's
seed, and wicked husbandman. Two more are Church, and the house on the sand opposed to it.
found in the same Gospels, the leaven and the lost Nothing can be clearer, if we believe the Synoptics,
sheep. Of the rest eighteen belong to the third and than that our Lord so taught as to enlighten the elect
ten to the first Evangelist. Thus we reckon thirty- and to leave obstinate sinners (above all, the Phari-
three in all; but some have raised the number even to sees) in their darkness (Matt., xiii. 11-15; Mark, iv,
sixty, by including proverbial expressions. Anexter- 11-12; Luke, viii, 10). Observe the quotation from
nal but instructive division parts them into three Isaias (Matt., xiii, 14; Is., vi, 9, according to the
groups; those delivered about the Lake of Galilee Septuagint) intimating a judicial blindness, due to
(Matt., xiii); those on the way up to Jerusalem (Luke, Israel's backslidings and manifest in the public
x-xviii) : those uttered during the final stage of Our troubles of the nation while the evangelists were
Lord's life, given in either Crospel; or parables of the writing. Unbelievers or "Modernists", reluctant to
kingdom, the Christian's rule; the judgment on Is- perceive in the man Christ Jesus any supernatural
raeland mankind. In various ways commentators powers, look upon such sayings as prophecies i^ter
follow this arrangement, while indicating more elab- the event. But the parable of the sower contains in
orate distinctions. Westcott refers us to parables itself a warning like that of Isaias^ and was certainly
drawn from the material world, as the sower; from spokep by Christ. It opens the series of His Messianic
the relations of men to that world, as the fig tree teachings, even as that of the wicked husbandman
and lost sheep: from the dealings of men with one concludes them. From first to last the rejection of the
another, as the prodigal son; and with God, as the Jews, all except a holy "remnant", is contemplated,
hidden treasure. It is clear that we might assign Moreover, since the Prophets had constantly taken
examples from one of these classes to a different head- up this attitude, denouncing the corrupt priesthood
ing without violence. A further suggestion, not un- and dispan^ing legalism, why should we dream that
real, brinj^ out the Messianic aspect of the parables in language ofsimiliur import and contents was not
St. Matthew, and the more inoividual or ethical of heard from the lips of Jesus? And if anywhere, would
those in St. Luke. Again the later chapters of St. it not be found in His parabolic delineations of Uie
Matthew and the third Gospel tend to enlarge and give New Law? There is no solid reason why the double
more in detail; perhaps at the beginning of our Lord's edge of these moralities should be ascribed to a mere
The same story may well be recorded in different at the root of the parable when it was delivered,
shapes and with a moral adapted to the situation, Christ is "the Sower'', and the seed could not escape
as, e. g., the talents and the pounds, or the king's the divers fortunes which befell it on the soil of Juda-
Bon's marriage and the unworthy wedding guest, ism. Even from the modernist point of view our
Nor ought we to expect in the reporters a stereotyped Saviour was the last and greatest of the Prophets,
accuracy, of whicn the New Testament nowhere How then could He avoid speaking as they did of a
shows itself to be solicitious. Though we have r&- catastrophe which was to bring in the reisn of Messias?
ceived the parables only in the form of uterature, they Or how shall we suppose that He stooa alone in this
were in fact spoken, not written — and spoken in Ara- respect, isolated from the seero who went before Him
Bude, while handed down to us in Hellenistio Greek, ana the disciples who came after Him? It is certain
PABABUS
463
PiBABLU
that, for the Evangelists, ''He that hath ears to hear
let him hear" did not signify merely a ''call to atten-
tion "j we may compare it to the classic formulse,
Eleusinian and other, which it resembles, as canying
with it an intimation of some Divine mystery. The
more an esoteric meaning is put upon the Gospels as
their original scope, so much the more will it be evi-
dent that our Lonl Himself made use of it.
Dismissing the minute conjectural criticism which
would leave us hardly more than a bare outline to go
upon, and not regarding verbal differences, we can
treat the parables as coming direct from our Lord.
They teacn a lesson at once ethical and dogmatic,
with implications of prophecy reaching to the consum-
mation of all things. Their ainalogy to the sacraments,
of wluch our Lord's Incarnation is the source ana
pattern, must never be left out of view. Modem ob-
jections proceed from a. narrow ''enlightened" con-
ception as of the "reasonable man", teacldng general
truths in the abstract, and attaching no importance
to the examples bv which he enforces them. But the
Evangelists, like the Catholic Churchy have considered
that the Son of God, instructing His disciples for
all time, would commit to them heavenly mysteries,
"things hidden from the foundation of the world
(Matt., xiii. 35). So perfectly does this correspon-
dence with nistory apply to the tares^ the good Samar-
itan, the "watching" parables, to Dives and Lasarus
(whether a real incident or otherwise), and to the
wicked husbandmen, that it cannot be set aside.
In consequence, certain critics have denied that
Christ spoke some of these "allegories", but the
erounds which they allege would entitle them to re-
ject the others; that conclusion they dare not face
(cf. Loisy, "Ev. sjrnopt.", II, 318).
All orthodox writers take the sower (Matt., xiii,
3-8; Mark, iv, 3-8; Luke, viii, 5-8.) as a model both of
narrative and inter^taUon, warranted by the Divine
Master Himself. The general likeness between teach-
ing and sowing is found in Seneca. "Ep. ixxiii";
and Prudentius, the Christian poet, nas tnrown the
parable into verse, "Contra Symmachum", II, 1022.
Salmeron comes near the method suggested above by
which we get most profit from these symbols, when he
declares that Christ is " the Sower and the Seed " . We
are immediately reminded of the Greek Fathers who
call our Redeemer the seed sown in our hearts, A6yot
ffrtpfjMTiic6t, who comes forth from God that He
may be the principle of righteousness in man (Justin,
" Apol.", II, xiii; Athan.,^rat.," ii, 79: Cyril Alex.,
"In Joan.", 75; and see Newman, "Tracts", 150-
177). I Pet., i, 1-23, reads like an echo of this para-
ble. Note that our Lord does not use personifications,
but refers good and evil alike to persons; it is the
"wicked one" who plucks awav the seed, not a va^e
impersonal mischief. The rocky bottom, the burmng
wind and scorching sun. tell us of Palestinian scenery.
We find "thorny cares in Catullus (bdv, Ixxii) and m
Ovid (Metamorp., XIII, 5. 483) . Theologians warn us
not to imagine that the 'good and perfect heart" of
the receiver is by nature such; for that would be the
heresv of Pelasdus: but we may quote the axiom of
the schools, "To nim that doeth what he can God
will not deny His grace ". St. Cyprian and St. Augus-
tine (Ep. Ixix; Serm. Ixxiii) point out that free will
acceptance is the teaching of the Gospel; and so
Irenseus against the Gnostic forerunners of Luther-
anism (V, xxxix).
The tares or cockle (Matt., xiii, 24-30 alone).
Whatever be meant by t^^vut the word, found only
here in the Greek Scripture, is orig^ally Semite (Arab.
zuwan). In the Vul»te it is retained and in popular
French Wyclif renders it "darnel or cockle", and
curiously enough the name of his followers, the Lol-
lards, has been derived from a Latin equivalent,
"lolium." In the Reims New Testament we have
"cockle", for which compare Job, xxxi, 40: "Let
thistles cprow instead of wheat, and cockle instead of
barley." It is pretty well determined that the plant
in Question is " lolium temulentum," or bearded darnel;
and the mischievous practice of ' ' oversowing ' * has been
detected among Easterns, if not elsewhere. The late
weedinff of the nelds is in "substantial agreement with
Orientu custom "^ at a time when good and evil plants
can be fulW distm^ished. Christ calls Himself the
"Son of Nian"; He is the sower, good men are the
seed; the field is indifferently the Church or the world,
i. e., the visible Kingdom in which all kinds are
mingled, to be sorted out in the day of His coming.
He explains and fits in detail the lesson to the incidents
(Matt., xiii, 36-43), with an adaptation so clear to the
primitive age of Christianity that Loisy, JtUicher, and
other modem critics, refuse to consider the parable
authentic. They suppose it to be drawn out of some
brief comparison in the origiinal lost "source" of
Mark. Tiiese random guessmgs have no scientific
value. Historically, the moral which recommends
sufferance of disorders amon^ Christians when a
greater evil would follow on trymg to put them down,
has been enforced by the Church autnorities against
Novatus, and its theory developed in St. Augustine's
long disputes with those hard African Puritans, the
Donatists. St. Augustine, recognizing in Our Lord's
words as in the spiritual life a principle of growth which
demands patience, by means of it reconciles the im-
gerfect militant state of His disciples now with St.
aul's vision of a "glorious •church, not having spot
or wrinkle" (Eph., v, 27). Such is the large Cath-
olic philosophy, illustrated by the Roman Church
from early times, despite men like Tertullan: from
the medievid condenmation of the Cathari; ana from
the later resistuice to Calvin, who would have brought
in a kind of Stoic republic or "Kingdom of the Saints ' ',
with its inevitable conseouences. hypocrisy and self-
righteous Pharisaism. Yet Calvin, who separated
from the Catholic communion on this and the like
motives, calls it a dangerous temptation to sui>pose
that "there is no Church wherever perfect purity is
not apparent." (d, St. Augustine, "In Psalm. 99";
"Contra Crescon.", III. xxxiv; St. Jerome, "Adv.
Lucifer " ; and Tertull. in nis orthodox period, " Apol.",
xli: "God does n6t hasten that sifting out, which is a
condition of judgment, until the world's end.'')
If in the tares we perceive a stage of (jhrist's
teaching more advanced than in the sower, we may
take the mustard seed as announcing the outward
manifest triumph of His Kingdom, while the leaven
discloses to us tne secret of its inward working (Matt.,
xiii, 31-2; Mark, iv, 30-32; Luke, xiii, 18-^9, for the
first; Matt., xiii 33; Luke, xiii, 20-21, for the second).
Stjrange difficulties have been started by Westerns
who had neveiiset eyes on the luxuriant growth of the
mustard plant in its native home, and who demur to
the letter which calls it " the least of all seeds." But
in the Koran (Sura xxxi) this proverbial estimate is
implied; and it is an elementary rule of sound Scrip-
ture criticism not to look for scientific precision m
such popular examples, or in discourses wnich aim at
someuiing more important than mere knowledge.
The tree, salvadora persica, is said to be rare. Od-
viouslv, the point of comparison is directed to the
humble be^nnings and extraordinary development of
Christ's Kingdom. Wellhausen believes that for the
Evangelists Uie parable was an allegory typifying; the
Church's rapid growth; Loisy would infer that, if so,
it was not delivered by our Lord in ite actual form.
But here are three distinct yet cognate stories, the
mustard seed, the leaven, the seed growing secretly,
occurring in the Synoptics, contemplating a lapse ot
time, and more applicable to after-ages than to the
brief period durins which Christ was preaching. —
shall we say that He uttered none of them? Ana if
we allow these prophetic anticipations at £J1, does not
the traditional view explain them b^t? (Wellh^
PARABLI8
464
PARABUS
''Matt.", 70; Loiay, "Ev. Bjm.", Ill, 770-3.) It has
been questioned whether in the leaven we should
recognize a good influence, answering to the texts,
''you are the salt of the earth, the light of the world'
(Matt., V, 13-14), or the evil to be "purged out" ac-
cording to St. Paul (I Cor., v, 6-8). Better to take it
as the "good seed", with consequent applications, as
St. Ignatius does (Ad Mames.. x), and St. Gregorv
Naz. (Orat., xxxvi, 90). Dy tne '^ three measures '
were understood in the Gnostic system the "earthly",
"carnal", and "spiritual" classes among Christians
(Iren.. I, viii). Trench admirably describes these two
parables as setting before us the "mystery of regener-
ation " in the world and the heart of man. For the
"leaven of the Pharisees", consult authors on Matt.,
xvi, 6.
The hidden treasure (Matt., xiii, 44) ; the pearl of
price (ibid., 45). With Origen we may term these
"similitudes"; in one the object is found as if by acci-
dent (Is., Ixv, 1: Rom., x, 20: "I was found by them
that did not seek me"); in the other a man seeks and
biws it deliberately. Under such figures would be sig-
nined the calling of the Gentiles and the spiritual striv-
ings of those who. with Simeon, waited "for the con-
solation of Israel . Tliere is surely an allusion to the
joy of martyrdom in the first (Matt., x, 37) . The con-
cealed treasure is a widespread Eastern idea (Job, iii,
21; Prov., ii, 4); pearls or rubies, which may be repre-
sented by the same Hebrew word (Job, xxviii, 18;
Prov.LJii, 15, etc.) will mean the "jewel" of faith, our
Lord Himself, or everlasting life; and Christians must
make the great surrender if they would gain it. No
keeping back is possible, so far as the spirit is con-
cerned: a man must give the whole world for his
"soul , which is worth more, hence he rejoices. Here,
as elsewhere, the comparison does not Imply any judg-
ment on the morality of the persons taken by way of
figures; the casuistry of "treasure trove", the possi-
ble overreaching in business, belong to the "rind" not
the "marrow" of the stoiy and yield no lesson. St.
Jerome understands Holy Writ to be the treasure; St.
Augustine, "the two Testaments of the Law'*, but
Christ never identifies the "Kingdom" with Scrip-
ture. A strange interpretation, not warranted by the
context, looks on the Saviour as at once seeker and
finder.
The draw net (Matt., xiii, 47-50) completes the
sevenfold teaching in the first Gospel. The order was
chosen by St. Matthew; and if we accept the mystic
signification of the number "seven", i. e., "perfec-
tion", we shall perceive in this jMirable not a repeti-
tion, as Maldonatus held, of the tares, but its crown.
In tne tares separation of good and bad is put off;
here it is accomplished. St. Augustine coinposed a
kind of ballad for the people against the Donatist
schismatics which expresses the doctrine clearly, "se-
culi finis est littus, tunc est tempus separare" (see
Enarr. in Ps., bdv, 6). The net is a sweeping net, Lat.
verricidumf or a seine, which of necessity captures all
sorts, and requires to be hauled on shore and the divi-
sion made. For the Jews, in particular, the clean must
be taken and the unclean cast away. Since it is dis-
tinctly stated that within the net are both good and
bad^ this implies a visible and a mixed conj^regation
until the Lord comes with His angels to judgment
(Matt., xiii, 41: Apoc, xiv, 18). The Evangelist,
Loisy observes, nas understood this parable, like the
others quoted, allegorically, and Chnst is the Fisher
of men. Clement of Alexandria perhaps wrote the
well-known Orphic h3rmn which contains a similar ap-
pellation. The "fiery furnace", the "tears and the
gnashing of teeth", goinp; beyond the figures in the
story, belong to its meanmg and to Christian dogma.
In the conclusion "evetr scribe" (xiii, 52) points to
the duty which Gur Lord's Apostles will hand on to the
Church of bringing forth to beUevers the hidden roirit-
ual sense of tradition, "the new and the old". Speci-
fically, this does not serve as a distinction of the Testa-
ments; but we may compare, "I came not to destroy
but to fulfil", and "not one jot, or one tittle" (Matt.,
v, 17-18). Modernist critics attribute the whole idea
of a Christian "scribe" to St. Matthew and not to our
Lord. The expression "instructed " is literally, "hav-
ing been made a disciple", fMOnreuMs^ and is of rare
occurrence (Matt in loco; xxvii, 57; xxviii, 19; Acts,
xiv. 21 ) . It answers to the Hd>rew ' * Sons of thejproph-
ets and is thoroughly Oriental (IV Kings, ii, 3, etc.)
The unmerciful servant, or "serve nequam"
(Matt., xviii, 21-35), might be summed up in two
words, "Forgiven, forgive". This chapter xviii re-
sumes the parabolic teaching; Christ sets the little
child in the midst of His disciples as an example of
humility, and tells the story of the (jood Shepherd
(verses 11-13) which St. John's (jospel repeats m the
first person. Undoubtedly, Christ said "I am the
Good Shepherd", as He says here, "The Son of man is
come to save that which was lost" (11). St. Peter's
question, "How oft shall my brother sin a^nst me
and I fo^ve him?" brings out the very spint of Jew-
ish legalism, in which the Apostle was yet bound,
while it provokes a statement of the Christian ideal.
Contrast, frequmtly employed to hei^ten the effect
of our Lord's teaching, is here visible in the attitude
taken up by Peter andcorrected by His Master. " Un-
til seventy times seven times", the perfection of the
perfect, signifies of course not a number but a princi-
ple, "Be not overcome by evil, but overcome evil by
good" (Rom., xii, 21). That is the "secret of Jesus"
and constitutes His revelation. St. Jerome read a
curious variant, plainly a gloss, in the "Gospel ac-
cording to the Hebrews'* (Loisy, II, 93). The proves
bial number is perhaps taken from Lamech's song of
revenge (Gen., iv, 24) ; where however the A. V. T^tda
"seventy and sevenfold ". This parable is .the first in
which (jK)d appears and acts like a king, thou^ of
course the title is frequent in the Old Testament. As
re^rds the persons, observe that Our Lord does not
give them names, which makes the story-teUing more
difiicult. The "wicked servant" may be a satrap,
and his enormous debt would be the tribute of his
(jiovemment. Tliat he and his were sold into slavery
would seem natural to an Eastern, then or later.
"Ten thousand talents" may refer to the Ten Com-
mandments. "A hundred peaice" owed by his "fel-
low servant" graphically depicts the situation as be-
tween man and man compared with human offences
towards God. The "prison" in which torture is to
wring from the culprit all he possesses, represents what
has ever taken place imder the tyrannies of Asia,
down to recent times (compare Burke's charges agunst
Warren Hastings in reference to similar acts). "Till
he paid" might signify "never", according to a possi-
ble sense of "donee", and was taken so by St. John
Chrysostom. Later theolo^pans construe it more
mildly and adapt the words to a prison where spiritual
debts may be redeemed, i. e., to purgatory (Niatt., v,
25-^, closely corresponds). The moral has been hap-
pily termed "Chrisrs law of retaliation", announced
oy Him aforetime in the Sermon on the Mount (Matt.,
V, 38-48), and the Lord's Prayer makes it a condition
of our own forgiveness.
The labourers in the vineyard (Matt.^ xx, 1-16)
has become celebrated in modem economical discus-
sions by its pregnant phrase "To this last." Calde-
ron, the Spanish poet, renders its meaning well, "To
thy neighbour as to thee". But among. parables itia
one of the hardest to work out, and is variously ex-
pounded. In the main it is an answer to all Pharisees
and Pelagians who demand eternal life as a recom-
pense due to their works, and who murmur when "mn-
ners" or the less worthy are accepted, thoug^ coming
late to the Divine call. It might seasonably introduce
the Epistle to the Romans, which proceeds on iden-
tical Imes and teaches the same lesson. Yet no one
PARABLES
465
PARABLES
has denied its authorship to Christ. (Cf . Romans, iii,
21-27; iv, 1; ix, 20, esp. ''O man, who art thou that
repliest against God? ") The attitude of Christ towards
publicans and sinners which gave offence to the Phari-
sees (Mark, ii. 16; Luke, v, 30), affords the clearest
comment on tne parable as a whole. Some critics re-
ject the last sentence, "Many are called'', as an in-
terpolation from the parable of the marriage feast.
Early mysticfJ views imderstand the labourers to be
Israel and the heathen; Irenffius, Origen, Hilary adapt
the different hours to stages of the Old Covenant. St.
Jerome compares the i>rodigal son, for which this ma^
be St. Mattnew's equivalent lesson. Note the "evil
eye" and other references to it (Deut., xv, 0; II Kings,
xviii, 9; Prov., xxiii, 6).
The two sons (Matt., xxi, 28-32) begins in this
Gospel a series of denunciations addressed to the
Pharisees. Its drift is plain. These "hypocrites "pro-
fess to keep God's law and break it; hence their scorn
of the Baptist's preaching: whereas "publicans and
harlots" were converted; therefore they shall go into
the Kingdom before the others. But if it be accom-
modated to Jews and Gentiles, who is the elder son,
who the younger? From the text no reply can be
drawn and commentators are not agreed. In some
MSS. the order is reversed, but without foundation.
(See Luke, vii, 29-30, 37-50.)
The wicked * husbandmen (Matt., xxi, .33-45;
Mark, xii, 1-12; Luke, xx, 9-19). This remarkable
challenge to the "chief priests and Pharisees", occur-
ring in all the Synoptics, and foretelling how God's
vineyard shall be traiisferred from its present keepers,
reminds us of the good Samaritan and the prodigal
son, with which it harmonizes, though severe in its
tone as they are not. However, its extreme clearness
of application in detail has led the modernist critics to
deny that Our Lord spoke it. They call it an allegory,
not a parable. The "vineyard of the Lord of Hosts'*
is in Is., V, 1-7, and the prophecy in both cases anal-
ogous. That Jesus foresaw His rejection by the " chief
priests" cannot be doubtful. That He contemplated
the entrance into God's Kingdom of many Gentiles is
apparent from Luke, xiii, 29, as from parables already
quoted. This, indeed, was boldly pictured in the Old
Testament (Is., ii, 1-4; xix, 20-25; Mich., iv, 1-7). In
the first Gospel our Lord addresses the Pharisees: in
the third He speaks to the "people". The "tower" is
Mount Sion with its temple; the "servants" are the
Prophets; when the " beloved son" is murdered we
may think of Naboth dying for his vineyard and the
crucifixion comes into sight. Christ is the "heir of all
thin^ps" (Heb., i, 2). We must grant to Loisy that the
anticipation of vengeance is an apocalypse in brief,
while upholding the genuineness of the larger view in
Matt., xxiv, which his school woidd attnbute to a
period after the fall of Jerusalem. For the "stone
which the builders rejected" and which "is become
the head of the comer , see Ps., cxvii (Hebrew cxviii),
22, 23, and Acts, iv, 11. The reading is from the Sep-
tuagint, not the Hebrew.
The marriage of the king's son, or less accurately,
the wedding garment (Matt., xxii, 1-14). If, like
Maldonatus and Theophylact. we identify this with
the great supper in St. Luke (xiv, 16), we must allow
that the differences observable are due to the inspired
reporters who had in view "not history but doctrme".
Or we might hold that the discourse had been varied
to meet another occasion. Read St. Augustine, "De
consensu evang.", II, Ixxii, who is for distinguishing
them. The Lucan story would be earlier; the present,
spoken in wrath when all hope of Christ's acceptance
by clergy or scribes is at an end, reveals the mood of
severe sadness which overshadowed our Lord's last
days. Naturally the mythical school (Strauss and
even Keim, with recent Modernists) discovers in the
violence of the invited guests and their punishment an
apologetic tendency, due to the editon of the original
XI.-80 _
tale. "These additions ", says Loisy, " were made after
the taking of Jerusalem by Titus; and the writer had
never heard Jesus, but was manipulating a text
already settled" (Ev. synojit., II, 326). That the
reign of the Messias, following on the rejection of
Israel, was always meant in this story, is incontestable.
Catholic faith would of course allow that the "serv-
ants" maltreated were', in our Lord's mind, such as
St. John Baptist, the Apostles, the first martyrs. The
feast, in our commentates, may well be the Incarna-
tion; the wedding garment is sanctifying gtLce, "put
fe on the Lord Jesus" (Rom., xiii, 14). Thus Iren.,
V, xxxvi; Tert., "De resurrect, camis", xxvii, etc.
The ten virgins (only in Matt., xxv, 1-13) may
be considered as first of several parables declarhig that
the advent of the Kingdom will oe unexpected. These
are all comments on the text, "of that day and hour no
one knoweth. no not the angels of heaven, but the
Father alone^' (Matt., xxiv, 36). It is a "watching"
parable, and is not in praise of virginity as such, though
applied by the Fathers, as St. Gregory Martyr, to
the duties of the viridn-state. St. Augustine writes,
"souls that have the Cathohc faith and appear to have
good works" (Serm. xciii, 2); St. Jerome, "they boast
the knowledge of God and are untainted with idol-
atry". There seems to be a reminiscence of this para-
ble in Luke, xii, 36, wrought into the admonition to
men "that wait for their Lord". Wellhausen's idea
that St. Matthew composed it from St. Luke is unten-
able. In the East it is usual that the bride ^ould be
conveyed with honour to the bridegroom's house; but
there mig^t be exceptions, as here. Mystically, Christ
is the bridegroom. His parousia the event, and the
preparation by faith shining out in Christian deeds is
imaged in the burning lamps or torches. For the
"closed door" see Luke, xiii, 25. The conclusion,
" Vigilate", is a direct lesson and no part of the stoiy.
St. Methodius wrote the "Banquet of the Ten Vir-
gins", ^ rude mystery play in Greek.
The talents (Matt., xxv, 14-30) and the pounds or
the minffi (Luke, xix, 11-27). Whether we shall iden-
tify or divide these two celebrated apologues can
scarcely be determined. St. Mark (xiii, 34-36) blends
his brief allusion with a text from the ten virgins.
The circumstances in the first and third Gospels differ;
but the warning is much the same. Commentators
note that here the active life is extolled, as in the
virgins a heedful contemplation. No argument for
the lawfulness of usury can be drawn from verse 27.
The "servant" was a bondslave; all that he had or
acquired would be his master's property. "To him
that hath shall be given " is one of the "hard sayings "
which, while disclosing a law of life, seems not to har-
monise with Christian kindness. Yet the analogy of
God's dealings — not "mere" benevolence, but "wise
and just" recognition of moral effort — is hereby
maintained. If our Lord, as tradition tells, said, "Be
ye good money changers" (cf. I Thess., v, 21), the
same principle is commended. Ethically, all that we
have IS a trust of which we must give account. For
the diversity of talents, note St. Paul, I Cor., xii, 4,
and the reconciliation of that diversity in "the same
spirit". Both parables relate to Christ's second com-
ing. Hence Loisy and others attribute to the Evan-
geusts, and especially to St. Luke, an enlargement,
founded on later history, perhaps taken from Josephus,
and intended to explain the dela}^ of the Parousia (Ev.
synopt., II, 464-80) . Not accepting these premises, we
put aside the conclusion. Maldonatus (I, 493), who
treats the stories as variants, observes, "it is no new
thing that our Evangelists snould appear to differ in
circumstances of time and place, since they consider
only the general outline (aummam rei gestcB)^ not the
order or the time. Where else we find them seeming
to disagree, they wish to explain not Christ's words
but the drift of the parable as a whole".
St. Matthew, we note the one abort story
PAaABLIS 466 PABABUn
peculiar to St. Mark, of the seed growing aecretly (iv, ble. Catholics, mth Irenseus, Ambrose, Aogustine, and
26-29). We have already assigned it to the group of the church liturgy, regard it as a narrative. The mod-
the mustard tree and the leaven. Its point is con- em school rejects this view, allows that our Lord may
veyed in the Horatian line, ''Crescit occulto velut have spoken the first half of the recital (Luke, xvi, 19-
arbor svo" (Odes. I. xii, 36). The husbandman who 2d) but considers the rest to be an alle^ry which con-
"knowB not how'' the harvest springs cannot be the demns the Jews for not accepting the witness of Moses
Almishty, but is the human sower of the word. For and the Prophets to Jesus as the Messias. Inrany case
homiletic purposes we may combine this parable with our Lord's resurrection furnishes an implied reference,
its cognate, ''unless theKrain of wheat die" (John, xii, "Abraham's bosom" for the middle state after death
24) which applies it to Christ Himself and His Divine is adopted by the Fathers generally; it receives iUua-
influence. tration from IV Mach., xiu, 17. For a recent Jewish
In St. Luke the two debtors (vii, 41-43) is spoken exposition of the parable seeCxeiger in '' JudischeZeit-
by our Lord to Simon ''the lepp" (Mark, xiv, 2-9) sohr. ftir Wissenschaft", VII, 200. St. Augustine (De
on occasion of Mary Magdalene s conversion, with its (Sen. ad litt., viii, 7) doubts whether we can take lite-
touching circumstances. At least since St. Gregory the rally the description ofthe other world. Ontherelation,
Great, Catholic writers have so understood the hi»- supposed by rationalizing critics, of this Lasajtis to St.
tory . The double saying " Many sins are forgiven her, Jonn's Gospel, z, see John, Gobpbl of Saint; Lazabub.
for she loved much'^, and "to whom less is forgiven, Passing over the barren fig tree (Luke, xiii, 6-9)
he loveth less", has a perfectly clear human sense, in which gave a plain warning to Israel; and just refer-
acoordance witn facts. We cannot deduce from such rins to the lost sheep (Matt., xviii, 12-14; Luke, xv,
almost proverbial expressions a theory of justification. 8-7) and the lost groat or drachma (Luke, xv, 8-10),
The lesson concerns ^titude for mercies received, none of which ne^ detain us, we come to the great
with a strong emphasis on the hard arrogance of the supper (Luke, xiv, 15-24). That this parable con-
Pharisee over against the lowly and tender bearing of oems the calling of the Gentiles is admitted and is
the "woman who was a sinner". Thus, in e£fect, St. important, as bearins on the universal commission,
Ausustine (Serm. xdx, 4). The contrast between dead Matt., xxviii, 19. "Compel them to enter", like the
faiui and faith animated by love — ^which Maldonatus strong sayinra quoted above (importunate widow etc.),
would introduce — ^is not directly meant. And we need must be taken in the spirit of Christianitv, which
not suppose the latter portion of the story artificial or compdb by moral suasion, not by the sword (Matt.,
pieced together by St. Luke from other Gospel frag- xxvi, 52).
ments. With the problem of the four narratives The prodigal son (Luke, xv, 11-32), so called from
(Matt., xxvi: Mark, xiv; Luke, vii; John, xii) the verse 13, has a deep ethical meaning, but likewise a
present article is not concerned. dogmatic, in which the two sons are the Israelite, stay-
The good Samaritan (Luke, x, 37) is certainly au- ing at home in his father's house, and the (^entile who
thentic; it can be explained mysticidly in detail, and h£^ wandered away. As the message of pardon it de-
is therefore as much an "allegory" as a parable. If it serves to be called the very heart of Christ's gospd.
was spoken by our Lord so was the wicked husband- We have justified these parallel lines of interpretation,
men. It does not exactly reply to the question "Who for ethics and revelation, which were both visible to
is thy neighbour?" but propoimds and aqswers a the Evangelist. Tertullian's narrow use of the storv
laiiger one, "Whom in distress should I like to be is uncriti^. St. John Chiysostom and the Church
neighbour to me?" and gives an everlasting instance always have applied it to Christian, i. e., baptised
of the golden rule. At the same time it brides down penitents. The "first [or best] robe" is naturally
the fences of legalism, triumphs over national hatreds, assumed by theologians to be "original justice", and
and lifts the despised Samaritan to a place of honour, the feast of reconciliation is our Lord's atoning sacri-
In the deeper sense we discern that Christ is the (jood fice. Those who grant a strong Pauline influence in
S^aritan, human nature the man fallen among rob- St. Luke's (jospel ought not to deny it here. The
bers, i. e., under Satan's yoke; neither law nor ftoph- "jealousy of good men" towards returned prodigals,
ets can help; and the Saviour alone bears the charge which has exercised commentators, is true to life; ana
of healing our spiritual wounds. The inn is Christ's it counted for much in the diss^isions that finallv
Church; the oil and wine are His sacraments. He clove asunder the Church of Israel from the Church
will come again and will make all good. The Fathers, of Christ (I Thess., ii, 14-16). The jov over a sinner's
Sis. Ambrose, Augustine, Jerome, are agreed in this conversion unites this parable with those of the lost
general interpretation. Mere philanthropy will not sheep and the lost drachma.
satisfy the Gospel idea; we must add, "the charity of The unjust steward (Luke, xvi, 1-9) is, beyond
Christ presseth us" (II Cor., v, 14). question, the hardest of all our Lord's parables, if we
The friend at iniani{;ht (Luke, xi, 5-8) and the may argue from the number and variety of meanings
unjust judge (Luke, xviii. 1-8) need no explanation, set upon it. Verses 10-13 are no part ofthe narration
With a certain strength oi language both dwell on the but a discourse to which it nves rise. The connecting
power of continued prayer. Importunity wins, "the link between them is the difficult expression "mam-
" " >len< - - - - - -
(Paradiso, xx, 94-100). of the taxes, i. e., "publicans''. In the contrast be-
The rich fool (Luke, xii, 16-21) and Dives and tween the "children of this world" and the "children
Lazarus (xvi, 19-31) raise the question whether we of light" we find a clue to the general lesson. Mark
should interpret them as true histories or as instruo- the resemblance to St. John's Grospel in the opposition
tive fictions. Both aro directed against the chief thus brought out. There are two generations or kinds
enemy of the Gospel, riches loved and sought after, of men — ^tne worldling and the Christian; but of these
The rich fool ("Naoal". as in I Kinp, xxv) was one behaves with a perfect understanding of the order
uttered on occasion of a oispute conoermng property to which he belonss; the other often acts foolishly,
and Christ answers "Man, who hath appointed me does not put his talent to interest. How shall he pro-
judge, or divider, over you? " Not injustice, but covet- ceed in the least Christian of all occupations, which is
ousness, "the root of all evil", is here reprehended, the handling of money? He must get good out of its
Read St. Cyprian, " De opere et eleemo63ma", 13. evil, turn it to account for everlasting iSe, and this by
The story of Lazarus, which completes this lesson almsgiving, "yet that which remaineth, give alms;
by contrast, appears to have no concealed meaning, and behold, aU things are clean unto you" (Luke, xi,
and would therefore not fulfil the definition of a para- 41). The strong conclusion follows, which lies implidt
1
PABABOLANI
467
PARABOLANI
in all this, "You cannot aerve God and mammon''
(Luke, xvi, 13).
Much unwisdom has been shown by oonmientatora
who were perplexed that our Lord should derive a
moral from conduct, evidently supposed unjust, on
the steward's part; we answer, a just man's dealings
would not have afforded the contrast which points the
lesson, vi2., that Christians should make use of oijpor-
tunities, but innocently, as well as the man of business
who lets stip no chance. Some critics have gone far-
ther and connect the hidden meanins with Shake-
speare's ''soul of good in things evil', but we may
leave that aside. Catholic preachers dwell on the
special duty of helping the poor, considered as in some
sense keepers of the gates of Heaven, "everlasting
tents". St. Paul's "faithful dispenser" (I Cor., iv, 2)
may be quoted here. The "measures" written down
are enormous, beyond a private estate, which favours
the notion of "pubticani". The Revised Version
transforms "bill'' happily into "bond". It may be
doubted which is "the lord" that conunended the
imjust steward. Whether we apply it to Christ or
the rich man we shall obtiun a satiaactory sense. " In
their generation" should be "for their generation", as
the Greek text proves. St. Ambrose^ with an eye to
the dreadful scandals of lustory^sees m the steward a
wicked ruler in the Church. Tertullian (De Fu^a)
and, long afterwards, Salmeron appl]^ all to the Jewish
peoole and to the Gentiles, who were indeed debtors to
the law, but who should have been treated indulgently
and not repelled. Lastly, there seems no eround for
the widespread belief that "mammon " was tne Phoeni-
cian Plutus, or god of riches; the' word signifies
"money".
St. Luke (xvii, 7-10) gives a short apologue of the
unprofitable servants, which mav be reckoned as a
? arable, but which needs no explanation beyond St.
'aul's phrase "not of works, but of Him that calleth"
(Rom., ix, 11 — A. v.). This will be true equally as
regards Jews and Christians, in whose merits God
crowns His own gifts.
The lesson is (uiven home by contrast, once more,
between the pharisee and the publican (Luke, xviii,
^14), disclosing the true economy of grace. On the
one hand it is permissible to understand this with
Hugo of St. Victor and others as typifying the rejec-
tion of Ic^al and carnal Judaism; on the other, we may
expand its teachmg to the universal principle in St.
Jonn (iv, 23^24) when our Lord transcends the distinc-
tion of Jew and heathen, Israelite and Samaritan, in
favour of a spiritual Church or kingdom, open to all.
St. Augustine says (Enarr. in Ps. Ixxiv), "The Jewish
people boasted of their merits, the Gentiles confessed
their sins". It is asked whether those "who trusted in
themselves that they were righteous and despised
others" were in fact the pharisees or some of the dis-
ciples. From the context we cannot decide. But it
would not be impossible if, at this period, our Saviour
spoke directly to the phansees, whom He condemned
(at no time for their good works, but) for their boast-
ing and their disdain of the multitude who knew not
the law (cf. Matt., xxiii, 12, 23: John, vii, 49). The
Eharisee's attitude, "standmg', was not peculiar to
im; it has ever been the customary mode of praver
among Easterns. He says "I fast twice in a week",
not "twice on the Sabbath". "Tithes of all that I
poasess" means "all that comes to me" as revenue.
This man's confession acknowledged no sin, but
abounds in praise of himself — a form not yet extinct
where Christians approach the sacred tribunal. One
might say, "He does penance; he does not repent".
The publican is of course a Jew, Zacchsus or any
other; he cannot plead merit; but he has a "broken
heart" which Goa will accept. "Be merciful to me"
is well rendered from the Greek by the Vulgate/*' Be
Sropitious ", a sacrificial and significant word. "Went
own to his house jusUfied rather than the other" is a
Hebrew way of saving that one was and the other waa
not justified, as St. Augustine teaches. The expree-
sion is St. Paul's, iucmSbvOai^ but we are not required
to examine here the idea of justification imder the Old
Law. Mystically, the exaltation and abasement indi-
cated would refer to the coming of the Kingdom and
the Last Judgment.
It remains to observe, generally, that a "double
sense" has always been attached by the Fathers to our
Lord's miracles, and to the (jospel history as a whole.
They looked upon the facts as reported much in the
light of sacraments, or Divine events, which could not
but have a perpetual significance for the Church and
on that account were recorded. This was the method
of mystical interpretation, according to which every
incident becomes a ptu^le. But the most famous
school of German critics in the nineteenth centufy
turned that method round, seeing in the parabolic
intention of the Evangelists a force which converted
sayings into incidents, which made of doctrines alle-
gories, and of illustrations miracles, so that little or
nothing authentic would have been handed down to
us from the life of Christ. Such is the secret of the
mythical proc^ure, as exemplified in modem dealing
with the multiplication of the loaves, our Lord's walk-
ing on the sea, the resurrection of the widow's son at
Nairn, and many other Gk>spel episodes (Loisy, "Ev.
synopt.", passim).
Parable, in this view, has created seeming history;
and not only the Johanpine document but the synop-
tic narratives must be construed as made up from
supposed prophetic references, by adaptation and
Quotation of Old-Testament passages. It is for the
!atholic apologist to prove in detail that, however deep
and far-reachine the significance attributed by the
Evangelists to the facts which they relate, those facts
cannot simply be resolved into myth and legend.
Nature also is a parable; but it is real. "The blue
senitb", says Emerson admirably, "is the point in
which romance and reality meet". And again, " Nature
is the vehicle of thought ", the "symbol of spirit " ; words
and things are "emblematic". If this be so, there is
a justification for the Hebrew and Christian philos-
ophy, which sees in the world below us analogies of the
highest truths, and in the Word made flesh at once the
surest of facts and the most profound of symbols.
The varioua oommentariea on the Goopels, in oouraee of Scrip-
ture, euoh m: van StbcnkistSv Comment, in Btangel, tteundum
MaUhaum (Brum^ 1880-2); MacEvillt. Bxpontion af th» Go§'
pelt (Dublin, 18/7) ; Schans, CommerUar Hber da* Btanifel. d. h.
Lwxu (TQbingen. 1883); Maas. Comment, af Qoepel of St,
MaUhew (New York, 1808); Ross, BtangiU §eUm «. MatthUu
(Paria, 1904): Knabbnbauxb (1804); Liagrb (1880); Filuon
(1883). Myetical exegesis in Origen, Ambrose, Augustine,
Qrboort M.; literal in Chrtsost., Thbophtlactus, Jerome.
From the sixteenth century: special writers among early Protes-
tants, Calvin; later. Vitrinoa, Schri/tmOeeiqe Brktdruno (Frank-
fort, 1717); among (>iitholic8, Maloonatus, In IVevang. (Pont k
Mousson. 1507; latest ed., Barcelona. 1881-2); Salmbr6n, Ser-
monea in Parabolae (Antwerp. 16(X)). Modem Protestant writers:
— Oreswell (London, 1830); Trench (London. 1841; lasted.,
1006); Bruce. Parabolic Teaching of Christ (Edinburgh, 1882).
Critical.— Weiss, Mark and MaUhew (1872); JOlichbr (1888-
00). these in German; followed by Loisr, Lea Hanoilee eynoptiqiiiMa
(Paris, 1007-8). For Jewish parables, Lauterbach in Jewieh
Bneyc, And see lives of Christ by Maas, Fouard, Didon.
William Barry.
Parabolanii rapd/SoXot, rapkpaXdvoi the members
of a brotherhood wha in the Early Church volun-
tarily undertook the care of the sick and the burial of
the dead. It has been asserted, though without suffi-
cient proof, that the brotherhood was ^t organized
during the great plague in Alexandria in the episcopate
of Dionysius the Great (second half of third century).
They received their name from the fact that they
risked their lives (vapapdWwBai r^v ^v) in expos-
ing themselves to contagious diseases. In addition
to performing works of mercy they constituted a body-
guard for the bishop. Their number was never large.
The Codex Theodosianus of 416 (xvi, 2, 42) restricted
the enrolment in Alexandria to 500. A new law two
yaaia later increased the number to BOO. In Constui-
tinople the number waa reduced according to the
Codex JuBtinUnuB (I, 2, 4) from 1100 to 950. The
Parabolam are not mentioned after Justinian's time, will, however,
that of the father of Paracelaus. ParacelsUB (Ud not
join the ranks of the Reformers, evincing, rather, an
any form of religion "" ' " *""
TliDU^ they were chosen by the bishop and always
remiuned under his control, the Codex Theodoeianua
placed them under the supervision of the Prafeclvt
AuffatUJiU. They had neither orders nor vows, but
they were enumerated among the clergy and enjoyed
clerical privileges and immunities. Th^r presence at
Gubtic gatherings or in the theatres was forbidden hj
tw. At times they took a very active part in eccle-
uastical controversies, as at tne Robber Synod of
Epheaus.
BiHTEBIu, DenlaBtTiigkmlm dtr diritlmth. Kitdu, VI. 3. 30:
BiHaSAU. ArOi^iiiH. II. 37.
Patrick J. Hbalt.
near Eilnwedeln, in the Canton of Schwyz, 10 Nov.)
1493; d. at Saliburg, 24 Sept., 1541. He \b known
also as Theophraatua von Hohenheim, Eremita (of
Einsiedein), and Theophrastus Bombastua von Ho-
henheim. It is now established that the family
originally came from WiiH«mberg, where the noble
fainily of Bombastua waa in posaesaion of the ances-
tral caatle of Hohenheim near Stuttgart until 1409,
Paracelsus is the Latin form in common uae amoi^
the German scholars of the time. Wilhelm Bombast
von Hohenheim, physician to the monastery of Ein-
siedein and father of Theopbrastua, changed the
family residence to Villach m Carinthia (c. 1502),
where at the time of his death (8 Sept., 1534), he was
city physician.
Paracelsus mentions the following as hia earliest
teachera, hia father, Eberhard Paumgartner, Bishop
of Lavant, Matthieua von Scheidt, Bishop of Seckau,
and MatthsuB Schacht, Bishop of Freising- He was
initiated into the myateriea of alchemy by Joannes
Trithemiua (1462-1516), Abbot of Sponheim, and a
prolonged interval apent in the laboratories of Sig-
mund Fugger at Schwaz made him familiar with
metallurgy. All his Ufe restless and eager for travel,
he attended the most important universities of Ger-
many, France, and Italy, and, in 1526^ went to
Straabvirg, where, already a doctor, he joined the
guild of surgeons. The some year he was appointed,
probably tlmiu^ the influence of Joannes (Ecolam-
padiUB, the theologian, and Joannes Frobeniua, the
publisher, to the office of city phyucian of Basle, with
which was connected the pnvil^e of lecturing at the
imiversity.
His teaching, as well as his opposition to the pre-
vailing Galeno-Ai^ic system, the burning of Avi-
cenna a writings in a pubUc squaje, the polemical
tone of bis discouraes, which, contrary to all cuatom,
were dehvered in German, his dissensions with the
faculty, attacks on the greed of apothecaries, and to
a certain extent, also, his success as a practitioner —
all drew upon lum the hatred of those in authority.
In Februa^ he fled from Basle to Colmar. A typical
vagrant, his subsequent life was spent in continual
wandering, surrounded by a troop of adventurers,
with the reputatioD of a charlatan, but all the while
observing all things with remarkable zeal, and busied
with the compoaition fif hia numeroua works. In
1529 we find him at Nuremberg, soon afterwards at
Beritihausen and Ambere, in 1531 at St. Gall, later
at Innsbruck, in 1534 at Stening and Meran, in 1535
at Bad Pf&ifers, Augsburg, 1537 at Vienna, Presburg,
and Villach, and finally at Salzburg, where he died a
natural death snd, in accordance with his wish, was
buried in the cemetery of St. Sebastian. The present
tomb in the porch of St. Sebastian's Church, was
erected by some unknown person in 1752. According
to recent research the portrut on the monument is
self as a member of the Church.
Paracelsus is a phenomenon in the history of medi-
cine, a genius tardily recognised, who in his impetuouty
sought to overturn the old onler of things, ther^y
rousing bitter antagonists. He sought to substitute
something better for what seemed to him antiquated
and erroneous in therapeutics, thus faUing into the
mistake of other violent reformers, who, during the
process of rebuild-
ing, underesti-
mate the work of
their contempora-
. He n
Tbiophbutds Paracbudi
in touch with the
humanist move-
ment or with the
study of anatomy
then zealously
pursued, the most
prominent factors
m reorganization;
leaving out of coa-
sideration hia
great servicee to
special depart-
ments, he Btanda
alone and misun-
deratood. His in-
fluence was felt
specially in Wit-
tenberg, but only
in a few schools of
Germany, while he was entirely discounted through-
out Italy.
He sought the cause of pathological changes, not
in the cardinal humoura, blood, phlefpi, yellow and
black gall (humoral pathology), but m the entities,
which he divided into eta aalTomm (cosmic influences
differing with climate and country), ena venttti (toxie
matter originating in the food), the cause of conta-
gious diseases, erui nofurofe et epiriluole (defective
phyaical or mental constitution), and em deole (an
affliction sent by Providence). The diseases known
as tartaric, especially gout and hthiaaas, are caused
by the deposit of determinate toxins (tartar), are dia*
covered tmiefly by the urine test, and are cured by
means of alka£es. Like the followers of HippocratM
he prescribes the observation of nature and dietetic
directions, but attaches too great a value to experi-
ence (empLricism). In nature all substances have
two kinds of influences, helpful [esserUia) and harmful
{fienena), which are separated by means of alchemy.
It requires experience to recognize essences as such
and to employ them at the proper moment. His aim
was to discover a specific remedy (arcanum) for every
It was precisely here, however, that he fell into error,
since not infrequently he drew a conclusion as to the
avwlability of certain remedies from purely external
signs, e. g., when he taught that tJie pricking of
tiuetles cures internal inflammation. This untrust-
worthy "doctrine of signatures" was at alat«rdate de-
veloped farther by Rademacher, and \o a certain extent
also by Hahnemann. Although the theories of Para-
celsus as contrasted with the Galeno-Arabic system
indicate no advance, inasmuch as they ignore entirely
the study of anatomy, still his reputation as a re-
former of therapeutics is justified in that he broke
new paths in the science. He may be taken as the
founder of the modem materia medica, and pioneer of
Bcientifio chemistry, since before his time medical
science received no assistance from alchemy. To
PARACLITI 469 PAB4
Paracelsus is due the use of mercury for 83rphi]is as testatur Scriptura quia procedit, spirat, inhabitat,
well as a number of other metallic remedies, probably replet, glorificat. Procedendo prsdestinat; spirando
a result of his studies in Schwaz, and partly his ac- vocatquosprsBdestinavit; inhabitando justificat quos
quaintance with the quicksilver works m Idria. He vocavit; replendo accimiulat mentis quos justificavit;
was the first to point out the value of mineral waters, glorificando ditat proemiis quos accumulavit meritis".
especially the Pf&ffer water, even attempting to pro- Every salutary condition, power, and action, in fact
duce it by artificial means. He recognized the tine- the whole range of our salvation, comes within the
ture of gallnut as a reagent for the iron properties of Comforter's mission. Its extraordinary effects are
mineral water. He showed a particular preference styled gifts, fruits, beatitudes. Its ordinary working
for native herbs, from which he obtained ''essences'' is sanctification with all it entails, habitual grace,
and ''tinctures", the use of which was to replace the infused virtues, adoption, and the risht to the celestial
curious composite medicines so popular at the time, inheritance. "The charity of God", says St. Paul
Regarding hun from an ethical standpoint, his noble (Rom., v, 5), "is poured forth in our hearts by the
ideals of tne medical profession, his love for the poor. Holy Ghost who is given to us." In that passage the
and his piety deserve to be exalted. The perusal of Paraclete is both the giver and the gift; the giver of
his writings disproves the accusation of drunkenness grace (donum creaium) and the gift of the Father and
which had so often been made against him by his the Son (donum increatum). St. Paul teaches repeat-
enemies. # edly that the Holy Ghost dwells in us (Rom., viii, 9,
For the most part Paracelsus dictated his works, in Hl^I ^^-j ^j }^^'
many cases bequeathing the manuscript to friends That inawelling of the Paraclete in the justified soul
with the request to have it printed. His name, being is not to be understood as though it were the exclusive
well known, was often misappropriated, so that later work of the third Person nor as though it constituted
it became necessary to draw a fixed line between the formalia causa of our justification. The soul, in-
authentic and unauthentic writin^ps. The former wardly renovated by habitual grace, becomes the nab-
are characterized by a simple, direct, intelligible itation of the three Persons of the Blessed Trinity
stvle. Cf. Schubert-Sudhoff, "raracelsusforschungen" (John, xiv, 23), yet that indwelling is rightly appro-
(Frankfort on the Main, 1887-89); Sudhoff, "Bibli- priated to the third Person who is the Spirit of Ix)ve.
ographia Paracelsica" (Berlin, 1894) j Idem, "Versuch As to the mode and explanation of the Holy Ghost's
einerKritikderEchtheitderParacelsischenSchriften" inhabitation in the soul of the just, Cathohc theolo-
(Berlin, 1894-99). The best of the collective editions, gians are not agreed. St. Thomas (I, Q. XLIII, a. 3)
which, however, includes some unauthentic works, is proposes the rather vague and unsatisfactory simile
that of Huser (Basle, 1589-91, 10 vols.: Frankfort, sicutcosnitum in cognoscente etamatum in amante".
1603, 3 vols.; Strasburg, 1616). A detailed list of the To Oberaoffer it is an ever acting force, maintaining
authentic and unauthentic writings is to be found in and unfolding habitual grace in us. Verani takes it to
Albr. von Haller, "BibUotheca medicinsB practicse", be merely objective presence, in the sense that the
II (Basle, 1777), 2-12. Among his most important justified soul is the object of a special solicitude and
writings may be mentioned: "Opus Paramirum" choice love from. the Paraclete. Forget, and in this he
I, II, re-edited by Dr. Franz Strunz (Jena, 1904)^ pretends to bring out the true thought of St. Thomas,
which contains the system of Paracelsus; "Drei su^ests a sort of mystical and quasi-experimental
Bticher von den Franzosen" (syphilis and venereal umon of the soul with the Paraclete, differing in degree
diseases); "Grosse Wundarznei. Uber das Bad but not in kind from the intuitive vision and beatific
Pf&ffers, Uber die Pest in Sterzing '. love of the elect. In so difficult a matter^ we can only
F.B0IT80N. Bibliographia Paracehica (GiMgow. 1877); The jevert tO the WOrds of St. Paul (Rom., vhi. 15) : ''
Hermetic and AlcKemical WrUino» of Aureoltu PhiUpjnu Theo- have received the spUTlt of adoption of SOns whereby
nhrtutut Bombast; ed. Waitb (London, 1894) ; Hartmann, The we cry : Abba (Father) . " The mission of the Paraclete
Life of ParaceUxu and the Subetance of hte Teachtnge (London, Hot rftpfji nnthincr fmm tht> minoinn nf Phriaf Tn
1886): Mock, Theophratiua ParaeeUnu (WQr«bur«, 1876); aeiracts nouung irom tne misfflon oi ^nnst. in
Abbrls. Grahdenkmal. Schddel und Abbildunoen dee Theophraetue heaven Cbnst remains OUr wofidKAnrot or advocate
ParaceUue (Saliburg. 1891); Strunb. Theophraetue Paraceleue (I John, ii, 1). In thJS WOrld, He IS with US even tO
eeinLeben und Pere^uMeuiLeipMig. 1903), ^^ consummation of the world (Matt., xxviii, 20),
Leopold Senfeldbr. but He is with us through His Spirit of whom He says:
" I will send Him to you. He shall glorify me; because
Parftcl6te» Comforter (L. Consolaiar; Gr. rapd- He shall receive of mine, and shall shew it to you"
cXirrof), an appellation of the Holy Ghost. The Greek (John, xvi, 7, 14). See Holy Ghost.
word which, as a designation of the Holy Ghost at ^ ^^"^iiTff^ j?f^ ?*• V^A^ ^'J^ i^r^'^'^'K *^^^'
least, occurs only m bt. John (Xiy, 16.26, XV,26j XVl, x), inhaintatione SpirUue Saneti (Tournai, 1890); Poboet. D«
7), has been vanously translated "advocate , "mter- rhahHation du St-Beprit (PariB, 1898); Brllbtub. L'OBuvre du
cessor", "teacher", "helper", "comforter'\ This f«»'^il*P!:H /P-™- i?SU ^anning. ^^^^
1 . a^j:^^ 4^u^..»l« ^4- ■.T^'mil.wx^*^ «rUk ♦U-» «>»<.«<.,^ Holy Ohott (London, 1875); Dkvin^, A Manual of Aecetxcal The-
last rendenng, though at vwriAnce with the passive ohJv (London. 1902); Wilhrlm and Scamnrll. a Manual of
form of the Greek, is justified by Hellenistic usage, a Catholic TheoUtgy (London and New York. 1906) ; see alao Kitto»
number of ancient versions, patristic and liturgical Chbtnr, Hastinob. Vioouroux: oommentatorB on St. John,
authority, and the evident n^ of the JohaiSune Cornbi^ub A Lapidb. Filliok. Calmbb. etc
context. According •to St. John the mission of the • . o k.
Paraclete is to abide with the disciples after Jesus has Pandisa. See Tbbrbstrial Paradisb.
withdrawn His visible presence from them; to in«
wardly bring home to them the teaching externally Para du PhAnjM» Francois, writer, b. at the Cas-
Slven by Christ and thus to stand as a witness to the tie of Phanja Champsaur, Basses-Alpes, 1724; d. at
octrine and work of the Saviour. There is no reason Paris, 1797. After his admission into the Society of
for limiting to the Apostles themselves the comfortins Jesus in 1740 he taught mathematics and physics and
influence of the Paraclete as promised in the Gospel later philosophy at Besan9on. Many of his pupils be-
(Matt., X, 19; Mark, xiii, 11; Luke, xii, 11, xxi, 14) came distinguished in the sciences and in apologetics,
and described in Acts, ii. In the above declaration of He was esteemed both for his learning and for his con-
Christ, Cardinal Manning rightly sees a new dispensa- dilatory disposition. On the suppression of the Soci-
tion, that of the Spirit of God, the Sanctifier. The ety, the Archbishop of Paris and the Princess Adelaide
Paraclete comforts the Church by guaranteeing her granted him a pension. In 1791 he took the oath to
inerrancy and fostering her sanctity (see Church), the new authorities, but retracted it as soon as the
He comforts each individual soul in many ways. Says pope had spoken. Amongst his works are: '"Hi^rie
8t. Bernard (Parvi Sermones): "De Spiritu Sancto des^treesensiblee" (Qvols., Fans, 1772;4yols., Parisi
Pl&MTONIUM
470
PARAaUAT
1788); this work is both an encyclooedia of physics
and a philosophy of the sciences; ''Principes du cal-
cul" (Ist ed., Paris, 1773; 2nd ed., 1783); "Thdorie
des nouvelles d^ouvertes en physique et en chimie";
''Th6orie des 6tres insensibles'' (3 vols., Paris. 1779).
Para's eclecticism is not always too happv. He sides
with CUurke in the latter's discussion with Leibniz as
to the nature of absolute space. He keeps too close to
Condillac's theory of the origin of ideas, and is deeply
influenced by Malebranche's occasionalism. His
works, ^'Les principes de la saine philosophie concilia
avec ceux de laphilosophie, ou la philosophie de la re-
ligion", and ''Tableau hbtorique et philosophique de
la religion", proved very useful to the apologists of
the succeeding generation. The general treatment is
marked by ingenuity in answering objections and the
judicious use of his erudition.
SoMMBBvooBL. Btbl. d0 la C, de /., VI, 192; Qu4babd, La
France litUraire; Rocrab, Bio^pt^ie du Daupkini, II, 213;
CHiBiAS, Aper^ aw lee UluetraUone gapenfaieee (1849); Fbllbb,
Journal (1780), 507-23.
P. SCHKUEB.
Pamtoniuin, a titular see of Lybia Secunda or In-
ferior (i. e. Marmarica), suffragan of Damis. This
city, which some claim should be called Ammonia,
owed its celebrity to its port, whence Alexander
visited the oracle of Amun (Ammon). Mark Antony
stopped there before Actium. Justinian fortified it to
protect Eg3rpt on the west. It has since disappeared
and the port is partially covered with sand; the site,
long called bv the Arabs, Baretoun, to-day bears the
name Mirsa Berek, in the vilayet of Benghazi (Tripol-
itana) . Mention is made of tmee bishops : Titus, pres-
ent at the Ck>uncil of Nicsea, 325; Siras, an Arian; and
his successor Gains, who assisted at the Council of
Alexandria, 362 (Le Quien, "Oriens christ." II, 031).
Smith, Dictionary of Qrwk and Roman Qeog.t •. v. ; Pacho, Vow
age done la Marmariqus (PBiis, 1820), 28.
S. PiTRIDllS.
Paraguay, one of the inland republics of South
America, separated from Spain and constituted as an
independent state in 1811.
Etymology. — Historians disagree as to the true ori-
gin of the word ''Paraguay'', one of the most com-
mon versions being that it is a corruption of the term
"Payagua", the name of an Indian tribe, and^'i",
the Guanini for water or river, thus "Paragua-i",
or "river of the Payaguas". Another version, which
is accepted as more correct, is that which construes
the word as meaning "crowned river", from "Parl^•
gua" (palm-crown) and "i" (water or river).
Oeogravhy. — ^The Republic of Paraguajr, with an
area of about 196,000 square miles, occupies the cen-
tral part of South Amenca, bounded by Brazil to the
north and east, by the Argentine Republic to the
south-east and south-west, and by Bolivia to the west
and north-west. It lies between 22** 4' and 27** 30' S.
lat., and 64° 32' and 61** 20' W. long. The Paraguay
River divides its territory into two great regions, viz.:
the Oriental, which is Paraguay proper, and the Occi-
dental, commonly known as the Chaco.
PopuUUion. — The population of Paraguay is com-
posed of Indians, white Europeans, a versr small num-
ber of negroes, and the offspnng of the mixture of the
various races, amon^; whom the Spanish-Indian pre-
dominates. According to the last census (1908) the
total number of inhabitants is 805,000, of which nearly
700,0(X) are Catholics. Most of the Indian trib^
which are still uncivilized are scattered throughout
the immense territory of the Chaco, the principal ones
being the Guaranis, the Payaguas, and the Agaoes.
Languages. — ^The official and predominating lan-
guage is Spanish, and of the Indian dialecte the one
most in use is Guaranl.
History. — Originally, Paraguay comprised the en-
tire basin of the River Plate, and it was discovered in
1625 by Sebastian Cabot during his explorations along
the Upper ParanA and Paraguay Rivers. He was
followed by Juan de Ayolas and Domingo Martinei
de Irala (153((~38). It was during the first adminis-
tration of the latter (1538-^) that Christianity was
first preached, by the Franciscan Fathers, who, as in
almost every instance, were the priests accompanying
the first conquerors. In 1542 Irala was superseded
bv Alvar Nufiez Cabeza de Vaca, famous for his ex-
plorations in North America, who had been appointed
governor of the River Plate, and received among other
instructions from the king that of "propagating the
Christian religion with the greatest zeal '\ This task
was, however, beset with manv difficulties. In the
first place the priests, although picked and of high
moral character, were few in number; then they had
to preach through interpreters; -and worst of all,
the cruel treatment of the Indians by the soldiers
was itself sufficient to engender in the hearte of the
natives a keen antipathy towards the religion that
their new masters professed. Furthermore, the cor-
rupt morals of the conquerors, their insatiable thirst
for riches, their quarrels in the stru^e for power, and
their own discords and controversies could not but
render their religion suspicious to the Indians. The
new governor was well aware of all this; so his first
offidflJ act upon reaching Asunci6n (11 March, 1542)
was to call the missionaries together to convey to
them the wishes of his sovereign, impressing upon
them the kindness with which the Indians should be
treated as the necessary means of facilitating their con-
version: he made them responsible for the success of
the undertaking. He then convoked the Indians of
the surrounding counti^ and exhorted them to receive
the Faith. The administration of Alvar Nufies was
characterised bv his wisdom, tact, and spirit of
justice, no less than by his courage, energy, and per-
severance. He succeeded in subduing the Indians,
tribe after tribe, mainly through a policy of concilia-
tion, and by force when necessary. It was thus that
the march of Christianity in Paraguay was greatly
facilitated during his« short regime (1542-44). His
achievements, however, only served to increase the
jealousies of Martinez de Irala, who, never forgetting
his relejsation to a subordinate post, finally succeeded
in turning most of the officers and soldiers against the
governor. As a result of this rebellion, Nufiez was
made a prisoner and sent to Spain, where he was ac-
quitted after a trial that lasted eight years.
Irala was then left in full command of the province
(1542) until his death in 1557. His second adminis-
tration was noted for the many improvemente he
introduced, such as the estidblishment of schools,
the construction of' the Cathedral of Asunci6n
and other public buildings, the promotion of local
industries, ete. He was succeeded by Gonzalo de
Mendoza, upon whose deatii (1559) Firancisoo Ortis
de Vergara was made governor, ruling until 1565,
when he was deposed. Juan Ortiz de Zarate was
then appointed, but, having sailed for Spain
immediately thereafter in order to obtain the con-
firmation of the king, Felipe de Cioeres was left in
charse of the government, ^though Zarate se-
cured the confirmation, he did not assume command,
for he died in the same year. Juan de Garay then
took the reins of government, and upon his assassina-
tion by the Indians in 1580^ he was followed by Alonso
de Vera y Aragon, who resigned in 1587 leaving Juan
Torres de Vera in eommand.
Torres de Vera was still governing the province
when S. Francis Solanus, a Spanish Franciscan mi»-
ffionary, made his celebrated journey through the
Chaco to Paraguay, coming from Peru. In the course
of that expedition he preached to the natives in their
own tongues and converted thousands and thousands
of them (1588-89). When Torres de Vera resigned
his post, Hernando Arias de Saavedra, a native of
Asunddn, was elected governor, ruling until 1593,
PARAQUAT
471
PARAQUAT
when Diego Valdes de Ban<ia was appointed in his
stead. Upon the death of the latter, Hemandarias. as
he is also known, again took command in 1001. It
was durine this second administration of Arias (1001-
09) that Uie Jesuits obtained official recognition for
the first time in Paraguay, by virtue of an order from
Philip III (1608), approving the plan submitted by
Governor Arias for the estaolishment of missions by
the disciples of Loyola. This marked the beginning
of the flourishing period of the Church in Paraguay,
as well as that of the welfare and advancement of the
natives, just as the expulsion of the Jesuit Fathers in
1767, by order of Charles III, marked the decadence of
the Faith among the Indians of the Chaco and their
falling back into their former state of barbarism.
Paraguay was then nominally under the jurisdic-
tion of the Viceroy of Peru, but in 1776 the Viceroy-
alty of La Plata was created, including Paraguay.
Finally, when in 1811 Paraguay declared its inde-
pendence of Spain, the foundations of the Church
were finnly establii^ed, as was the case in the other
Latin-American countries.
After its emancipation, the country was ruled, more
or less despotically, by Jo66 Caspar Rodriguez de
Francia, as dictator (1811-40) j Carlos Antonio
Lopez (1841-62); Marshal Francisco Solano Lopez,
a son of the former, during whose rule (1862-70)
was fought one of the bloodiest wars in the
histoipr of South America, between Paraguay on
one side, and Brazil, Argentina, and Uruguay on
the other. The results of this struggle, provoked
by the political ambitions of Lopez, were most dis-
astrous for Paraguay. It began on 24 Nov., 1864,
and lasted until 1 March, 1870, on which date the
Paraguayan president was killed in the battle of
Cerro Cora. At the close of the war, Paraguay was
in a state of desolation, with its population decimated,
its agriculture destroyed, and its treasury completely
^chausted. After the peace was signed, a constitu-
tion was promulgated (1870), under whose shadow the
republic has recuperated within the comparatively
short term of forty years, having now entered upon an
era of prosperity, peace, and stability of government.
Relations between the Church and State, — Under the
constitution in force, promulgated 25 Nov., 1870. the
religion of the nation is the Koman Cathobc, and the
chief prelate must be a Paraguayan. Congress, how-
ever, has no power to forbid the free exercise of any
other religion within the territory of the Republic
(article 3).
By authority of paragraph 7, article 2, of the con-
stitution, the presiaent exercises the rights of national
Eatronage vested in the republic, and nominates the
ishop of the diocese, said nomination to be made upon
presentation of three names by the legislative senate,
with the advice and consent of the ecclesiastical senate
or, in default thereof, of the national clergy assembled.
It is further provided by the constitution (par. 8, art.
102) that the president may grant or refuse, with the
advice of congress, the acceptance of the decrees of the
councils and of the Bulls, Briefs, or Rescripts of the
Supreme Pontiff.
The Minister of Justice, Worship, and Public Ir*
struction is charged with the inspection of all branches
of Divine worship in so far as the national patronage
over the Church is concerned; it is also his dutv to
negotiate with the Apostolic Delegates in behalf of the
executive. The fiscal budget assigns the sum of $2,259
for the salaries of the bishop, vicar-general, and secre-
tanf of the diocese.
the Diocese. — The Diocese of Paraguay (Para-
guayenna) was created under a Bull issued by Paul
III on 1 July. 1547, eleven years after the foundation
of Asuncion by Juan de Ayolas, 15 Aug., 1536, and
is therefore the oldest see of the River Plate. The
first bishop was Father Pedro de La Torre, a Franci»-
can, who arrived at Asunei6n on the eve of Palm Sun-
day, 1555, duringthe second administration of Mar-
tinez de Irala. Directly dependent upon. Rome, its
jurisdiction extends over the whole temtory of the re-
public, which is divided into 102 parishes, 6 of them
oeing located in the capital. The present Cathe-
dral of Asunci6n was formally dedicated on 27 Oct.,
1845.
Laws Affecting the Church, — As above stated^ the
constitution provides that worship shall be free within
the territory of the republic. The incorporation of
churches and tenure of church property in Paraguay
are governed under laws similar to those in force
in the Argentine Republic, and the' same may be
said as to wills and testaments, charitable bequests,
marriage, divorce, etc., the Argentine Civil Code
having been adopted as a law of the country un-
der an act of congress dated 19 Aug., 1876. All
Catholic marriages are ipso facto valid for the purposes
of the civil law, and by an act of 27 Sept., 1887, maiv
liages performed under other rites should be recorded
in the civil register in order that they may have legal
force.
Under the Paraguayan law the deny are exempt
from militaiy and jury service, and alTacoessories of
Divine worship are admitted free of duty when im-
ported at the instance of the bishop.
Law for the Conversion of the Indian Tribes, — On 6
Sept., 1909, a law was enacted providing for the con-
version of Indians to Christianity ana civilization.
By virtue of this law, the President of the Republic
is authorized to grant public lands to individuals or
companies oif^anized for the purpose of converting the
said tribes, m parcels not exceeding 7,500 hectares
(about 18,750 acres) each, on which the concessionaire
shall establish a reduction with the necessary churches,
houses, schools, etc. Several En^^ish Episcopalian
missions have been established in the Chaco under this
law.
Education, — By law of 22 July, 1909, and in accord-
ance with the Constitution (Art. 8) primarv instruc-
tion is compulsory in the republic for all children
between 5 and 14 years of age. At the bednning of
1909 there were in Paraguay 344 primary sdiools, at-
tended by 40,605 pupils, and employing 756 teachers.
These fif^res do not mdude the private schools, which
had during the same year an attendance of from 2,000
to 3,000 pupils. The course of primary instruction
covers a period of six years. Secondary instruction
18 given in five national colleges, one of which is in
the capital, and the others in villa Concepci6n, Villa
Rica, Villa £ncamaci6n, and Villa del Pilar. There are
also two normal schools for the preparation of teachers.
Higher education is provided tor m the University of
Asunci6n, which offers a six-years' course in law, social
sciences, and medicine. Further courses in pharmacy
and other branches have reoentlv been added. There
18 besides a school of agriculture and a military
academy.
Coneuiar Seminary, — ^For the education of young
men in the ecclesiastical career there is at Asunci6n an
excellent institution known as the '^Seminario Con-
dhar'', founded in 1881 upon the initiative of Ana
Escate, who personally collected the funds necessary
for its estabhshment. During the thirty years of its
existence sixty priests have j^raduated therefrom, one
of them being the present Bishop of Paraguay, Mon-
signor Juan Sinfonano Bogarin.
Wabbbubn, HuUfry of Paraouay (Boston, 1871) ; FuNSS, iln-
•oyo ds la Hiatoria Cxvil del Paraguay. Buenot Ayru y Tueuman
(Buenoa Aires, 1816); Bovqards, Panauay, tr. (New York,
1802) ; Mabtbrman, Seten BverUful Yeart in Paraouay (London,
1870); Graham, A VanUh^d Arcadia (New York, 1001): Banco
AoRiooLA DBL Paraquat, Furoguay (Asuncidn, 1010) ; Butlsr,
Paraouay (Philadelphia, 1001) ; Yubkro, Quia General del Plsra-
guay (Asttnei6n, 1010); Butlelin of the Pan^Ameriean Union
Julian Moreno-Lacallb.
(August, 1010).
Pftraguaj, Rsductionb of. See Reductionb 07
Pabaguat.
1
P1BAH7BA
472
PA&AUPOMBNON
Parahyba, Diocese of (Parahtbenbsis), in the
State of Parahyba, Brazil, suffragan of Bahia, founded
27 July, 1892, having been separated from the Diocese
of Olinda (q. v.). It is coterminous with the State of
Parahyba, one of the smallest in Brazil, bordering on
the Atlantic Ocean, and is bounded, north by the State
of Rio Grande do Norte, south by Pemambuco, and
west by Ceari. It has an area of 28,850 square miles.
The episcopal city, which is also the state capital,
dates from a Portuguese settlement of 1579. It is situ-
ated partly on an elevated plateau and partly on the
surroundins plain, the latter(and newer) section along
the Parahyba comprising, with its port of Cobadello,
the business quarter. Sugar, cacao, rice^ and tobacco
are some of the products of this coast rc^on, while the
slopes back of the town are heavily forested. The
chief ecclesiastical buildings of the city are the cathe-
dral, Notre Dame dos Neves (Our Lady of the Snows),
and the former Jesuit Ck>llege, now occupied by the
State offices. The first and present (1911) bishop of
the diocese, Mgr de Miranda Henriques, is a native of
Parahyba. Bom 30 August, 1855, ne studied at the
Pio-Latino American College at Rome and received
there the degree of Doctor of Canon Law. Ordained
Sriest 18 S^tember, 1880, he was made canon of
lahia 14 August, 1885, and appointed bishop 2 Janu-
ary, 1894. He was consecrated on 7 January, 1894,
and assumed his duties the following March. The
diocese numbers (1911) 735,572 Catholics; 1000 Prot-
estants; 48 parishes; 52 secular, 10 regular priests; 1
college.
Unued StatM of BraMU (iasued by the Bubbau or Ambbican
Rbpubucs, Washington, 1901) ; Galanti, Compendia de Hist, do
Brazil (4 vols.. Sfto Paulo, 1896) ; Anniuxire pontifi. eath,
K. Crofton.
Paralipomexion, Thb Books of {JiapaKetwoftimp,
9^t^\ LiBRi Paralipomenon), two books of the Bible
containins a summary* of sacred history from Adam
to the endof the Captivity. The title Paralipomenon,
books ''of things passed over", which, from the Sep-
tuagint, passed into the old LiBktin Bible and thence
into the Vulgate, is commonly taken to imply that
they supplement the narrative of the Books of Kings
(otherwise known as I~II Sam. and I-II Kings) ; but
this explanation is hardly supported by the contents of
the books, and does not account for the present par-
ticiple. The view of St. Jerome^ who considers Para-
lipomenon as equivalent to ''epitome of the Old Tes-
tament'', is prooablv the true one. The title would
accordingly denote that many thin^ are passed over in
these books. The Hebrew title is DibhSri Hdyy&mtm,
"the acts of the days" or "annals". In the printed
Hebrew and the Protestant Bibles they are entitled
" Books of Chronicles".
Unity and Places in the Canon. — The two books
are really one work, and are treated as one in the He-
brew MSS. and in the Massoretic summary append^
to the second book. The division was first made in
the Septuamnt for the sake of convenience, and thence
was adopted into the Latin Bibles. The Hebrew text
was first divided in Bombers's edition of the rabbinical
Bible (Venice, 1516-7). Moreover, there is a probi^
bility that Paralipomenon originally formed part of a
larger work which included the two Books of Esdras
(E^sdras Nehemias). For not only is there similarity
of diction and style, of spirit and method, but I Esdras
begins where II Par. ends, the decree of Cyrus being
repeated and completed.
It should be remarked, however, that these facts
can be explained by simple community of authorship.
In the Septuaf^nt and Vulgate, as well as in the Ftot-
estant bibles, the Books of Paralipomenon are placed
immediately after the Books of Kings. In the printed
editions of the Hebrew Bible they stand at the end of
the third division, or KHhUbhim.
Ck)NTBNT8. — ^The first part of I Par. (i-ix), which is
a sort of introduction to the rest of the work, contains
a series of genealo^cal and statistical lists, inter-
spersed with short historical notes. It comprises: (1)
the genealogy of the patriarchs from Adam to Jacob
(i); (2) the genealogy of the twelve tribes (ii-viii)j
(3) a list of the families of Juda, Benjamin, and Levi
dwelling in Jerusalem after the Exile, with the gene-
alogy of the family of Saul repeated (ix) . The second
part of I Par. contains the history of the reign of
David preceded by the account of the death of Saul
(x-xxix). II Par. comprises the reign of Solomon (i-
ix), and the reigns of tne kings of Juda (x-xxxvi, 21).
Part of the edict of Cyrus allowing the Jews to return
and to rebuild the temple is added as a conclusion
(xxxvi, 22-23). The historical part of Paralipomenon
thus covers the same period as the last three Books of
Kings. Hence naturally much of the matter is the
same in both; often, indeed, the two narratives not
only Bigcee in the facts they relate, but describe' them
almost in the same words. The Books of Pi^alipome-
non also agree with the Books of Kings in plan and
general arrangement. But side by side with these
agreements there are many di£ferences. The Books of
Paralipomenon narrate some events more briefly, or
present them in a different manner, and omit others
altogether (e. g., the adultery of David, the violation
of Thamar, the murder of Amnon, and the rebellion of
Absalom), while thev dwell more on facts regarding
the temple, its worship and its ministersj fumishins
much imormation on these subjects which is not found
in the other books. Moreover, they ignore the north-
em kingdom except where the nistory of Juda requires
mention of it.
Object.— On comparing Paralipomenon with the
Books of Kings we are forced to the conclusion that
the writer's purpose was not to supplement the omis-
sions of these latter books. The objects of his interest
are the temple and its worship, and he intends pri-
marilv to write the religious history of Juda with the
temple as its centre, and, as intimately connected
with it, the history of the house of David. This clearly
appears when we consider what he mentions and what
he omits. Of Saul he narrates only his death as an in-
troduction to the reign of David. In the history of
David's reign he gives a full account of the translation
of the ark to Mount Sion, of the preparations for the
building of the temple, and of tne levitical families
and their offices; the wars and the other events of the
reign he either tells briefly, or passes over altogether.
Solomon's reign is almost reduced to the account of
the building and the dedication of the temple. After
the disruption of the kingdom the apostate tribes
are hardly mentioned, while the reigns of the pious
kings, Asa, Josaphat^ Joas, Ezechias, and Josias, who
brought about a revival of religion and showed ereat
seal for the temple and its wor^p, are specially dwelt
on. Again, the additions to tne narrative of the
Books of Kings in most cases refer to the temple, its
worship and its ministers. Nor is the decree of Cyrus
allowingthe rebuilding of the temple witiiout signifi-
cance. The same purpose may be noted in the genea-
logical section, where the tribes of Juda and Levi are
given special prominence and have their genealogies
continued beyond the Exile. The author, however,
writes his history with a practical object in view. He
wishes to urge the people to a faithful and exact ad-
herence to the worship of God in the restored temple,
and to impress upon them that thus only will the
community deserve Gkxi's blessings and protection.
Hence he places before them the example of the past,
especially of the pious kings who were distingu^hea
for their seal in building the temple or in promoting
the splendour of its worship. Hence, too, he takes
every occasion to show that the kings, and with them
the people, prospered or were delivered from great
calamities because of their attachment to God's wor-
ship, or experienced misfortune becauseof their unfaith-
fulness. The frequent mention of the Levitea and of
?AftALLSLI8M
473
PARALLELISM
fhdr offices was probably intended to induce them to
value their -calling and to cany out faithfully their
duties.
Author and Timb of Ck>HF08inoN. — ^The Books
of Paralipomenon were undoubtedly written after the
Restoration. For the genealonr of the house of David
is carried beyond Zorobabel (I Par., iii, 19-24), and
the very decree of Cyrus allowing the return is cited.
Moreover, the value of the sums collected by David
for the bmldins of the temple is expressed in darics (I
Par., xxix, 7, Heb.), which were not current in Pales-
tine till the time of the Persian domination. The
Eeculiarities of style and diction also point to a time
Iter than the Captivitv. The older writers generally
attributed the authorship to Esdras. Most modem
non-Catholic scholars attribute the work to an un-
known writer and place its date between 300 and 250
B. c. The main reasons for this late date are that the
descendants of Zorobabel are given to the sixth (in the
Septuagint and the Vulgate to the eleventh) genera-
tion, and that in II Esdras (xii. 10, 11, 22) the list of
the nigh-priests extends to Jedaoa, who, according to
Joeephus, held the pontificate in the time of Alexander
the Great. These fists, however, show signs of having
been brought up to date by a later hand and cannot,
therefore, be considered as decisive. On the other
hand, a writer fiving in Greek times would not be
likely to express the value of ancient money in darics.
Moreover, a work written for the purpose mentioned
above would be more in place in the time immediately
following the Restoration, while the position and
character of Esdras would point him out as its author.
Hence most Cathofic authors still adhere to Eedrine
authorship, and place the time of composition at the
end of the fifth or at the beginning of the fourth cen-
tury B. c.
HisTOBiCAL Valub. — ^The refiability of the Books
of Paralipomenon as a historical work has been se-
verely attacked by such critics as de Wette, Well-
hausen etc. The author is accused of exsggeration, of
misrepresenting facts, and even of appealing to imagi-
nary documento. Tlus harsh judgment has been con-
siderably mitigated by more recent writers of the same
sdiool, who, while admitting errors, absolve the au-
thor of intentional misrepresentation. The objections
urged against the books cannot be examined here in
detail; a few general remarks in vindication of their
truthfulness must suffice. In the first place, the books
have suffered at the hands of copyists; textual errors
in names and in numbers, which latter originally were
only indicated by letters, are especially numerous.
Gross exaggerations, such as the slaying of 7000 chaiv
ioteers (I Par., xix, 18) as against 700 m II Kin^^ (x,
18) and the impossibly large armies mentioned m II
Par. (xiii, 3), are plainlv to be attributed to this cause.
In the next place, if the sections common to Parali-
pomenon ana the Books of Kings are comp>ared, sub-
stantial agreement is found to exist between them. If
the author, then, reproduces his sources with substan-
tial accuracy in the cases where his statements can be
controlled by comparing them with those of another
writer who has used the same documents, there is no
reason to suspect that he acted differently in the case
of other sources. His custom of referring his readers
to the documents from which he has drawn his infor-
mation should leave no doubt on the subject. In the
third place, the omission of the facts not to the credit
of the pious kin^^ (e. g. the adultery of David) is due
to the object which the author has in view, and proveB
no more against his truthfulness than the omission of
the history of the northern tribes. He did not intend
to write a full history of the kings of Juda^ but a his-
tory for the purpose of edification. Hence, m speaking
of the kings whom he proposes as models, he naturally
omits details which are not edifying. Such a presen-
tation, wlule one-sided, is no more untruthful than a
panegyric in which the foibles of the subject are
passed over. The picture is correct as far as it goeSi
only it is not complete.
Gxoor, apedal Introd,, 1 (New York, 1001), 291 aqq.; Dbitbb,
Liter, of the O. T. (Edinburgh, 1900,, 616 aqq.: Curtis and Max>-
DKN, Comm. on the Books of Chromciea (ESdinburgh, 1910) ; Co»-
NKLT, Introd,t II (Paria, 1897), i, 311 aqq.; Hummxlavsb, Comm.
in Lib, I Par, (Paria, 1905) ; Kaulsn, BinUUuno (3rd ed.. Frei-
burc. 1890), 240 aqq.; Movebs, Kritieche Unterauehunoen Uber
die Inbl. Chronik (Bonn, 1834); Kkxl, Avohoetiseher Vertiteh Uber
die B. der Chronik (Berlin. 1834); Nagl. Die naehdaviduche
KOnigegeeeh, leraeU (Vienaa, 1905) ; Mamoknot in ViGOunonx,
Diet, de la Bible, a. v. Paralipomhie», Lee deux livrea de»; Klobtkb-
MANN in Reaiencyetop, fOr prat, TheoL, a. v. Chronik, Die BUeher
^' F. Becstel.
ParalleUsmi the balance of verse .with verse, an
essential and characteristic feature in Hebrew poetry.
Either by repetition or by antithesis or by some other
device, thought is set over against thought, form
balances form, in such wise as to bring the meaning
home to one strikinsly and agreeably. In the hymns
of the Assyrians and fiabvlomans parallelism is funda-
mental and essential. Schrader takes it for granted
that the Hebrews got this poetic principle from them
(Jahrbuch fQr Protestant. Theolode, i, 121) ; a com-
mon Semitic source, in days long oef ore the nu^^
tion of Abraham, is a likelier hjrpothesis. The
Syriac, Vulgate, and other ancient versions, recognised
and to a certain extent reproduced the balance of
verse with verse in the Bible. Not until the sixteenth
century did Hebraists speaJc of it as a poetical prin-
ciple, essential to the Hebrews. It was then that
Itabbi Azaria de Rossi, in his work U^y^V 1^K73
"The Light of the E>res", first divided various poetic
portions of the Bible into verses that brought out the
fact of parallelism and of a fixed number of recurrent
accents. Schdttgen ("Horse HebraicseetTalmudicse",
Dissertatio vi, Dresden, 1733, vol. I, p. 1252), though
erring in that he (jails it absurd to spieak of iambs and
hexameters in Hebrew poetry, deserves the credit of
having first drawn up the canons of parallelism, which
he calb exergasia (i^pyaaia. the working up of a sub-
ject. Polybius, X, xlv, 6). According to these canons
Biblical prose differs from Biblic^ poetry solely in
that the poet works up a subject by reiteration of the
same idea either in the same or in different words, by
omission of either the subject or the predicate, by
antithesis of contrary thoughts etc. Bishop Lowth
(De Sacra Poesi Hebrseorum, 1753; Isaiah, 1778)
based his investigations upon the studies of Schottgen
and coined the term paraUelism. He distinguished
three kinds of pM^lelism: the synonymous^ the anti-
thetical, and the synthetic. His conclusions have
been generally accepted.
I. Synonymous ParaUeliam, — The very same
thought is repeated, at times in the very same words.
The following examples, bdng close translations of
the original text, will better illustrate Hebrew paral-
lelism than does our Douai version which (in regard
to the Psalms) has reached us through the medium of
a Latin translation of the Septuaeint Greek:
(a) Up have the rivers lifted, Jahweh,
Up have the rivers lifted their voices.
Up the rivers lift their breakers.
Ps., xcii, 3 (Hebrew, xciii).
(b) Yea, in the night is Ar-Moab put down,
set at nau^t;
Yea, in the night is Kir-Moab put down,
set at naught.
Is., XV, 2.
II. AnHiheticalParaUelutm.— The thought of the first
line is expressed by an antithesis in the second; (>r
is counterbalanced by a contrast in the second. This
parallelism is very common in the Book of Proverbs:
(a) The tongue of the wise adometh knowledge,
The mouth of the fool blurteth out folly.
Prov., XV, 2.
(b) Soundness of heart is the life of the flesh,
Envy is the rot of the bones.
Pk>v., ziv> 30.
PABALUUSM
474
in. Synthetic ParaHdism, — ^The theme is worked
lap by the building of thought upon similar thought:
(a) Mightier than the voices of many waters,
Mightier than the breakers of the ocean
In the high place is Jahweh.
Ps., zcii, 4 (Hebrew, xciii).
(b) Know ye that Jahweh he is the Lord,
He hath made us; his we are;
His folk are we, yea, the flock of His pasture.
Ps., xcix, 1 (Hebrew, c).
IV. IntrooerUd Parallelism (named by Jebb, in
"Sacred Literature", sec. 4). The thought veers
from the main theme and then returns thereto.
Only in God be stiU, my soul.
From Him is my life;
Only He is my rock, my aedvation,
My fortress. I totter not.
How lon« will ye set upon a man, —
Willye dash upon him, all of vou?
Only to thrust me from my height they plan,
As from a toppling wall.
They love the lie; they bless with the lips;
And in their hearts they curse.
Only in God be still, my soul.
From Him is my fife;
Only He is my rock, my salvation.
My fortress. 1 totter not.
PS. bri, 2-7 (Hebrew, Ixii).
V. StairAike Paralklism. — ^The thousht is repeated,
in prettv much the same words, and is developed
still furtner:
Jahweh shall guard thee from all evil,
Jahweh shall guard thy soul^
Jahweh shall guard thy commg and thy going
From now for ever more.
Ps. cxx, 7-8 (Hebrew, cxxi).
VI. EmblemaHc Parallelism, — ^The building up of a
thought by use of simile:
' Jahweh. my God, early I seek Thee;
My soul doth faim for Thee;
Mv flesh doth faint for Thee;
Like a land of drought it thirsts for Thee.
Ps. bdi, 2, 3 (Hebrew, Ixiii).
Parallelism may be seen in distichs or tristichs. In
fact, scholars are now coming round to the theory that
the principle of balance and counterbalance is far
more comprehensive in Hebrew poetry than are the
above-named parallelisms. Each individual line is a
unit of sense, and combines with other such units to
form larger units of sense. Recent scholars, like Zenner.
have found an almost endless variety of balance and
counterbalance of words with words; of lines with lines,
either of the same strophe or of an antistrophe; of
strophe with antistrophe or with another strophe etc.
In lact, this wider application of the principle of
parallelism or balance m the study of Hebrew poetry
nas enabled modem scholars to go far in their efforts
to reconstruct the metres of the sacred writers.
ScHi/kiL, DtrtmttrieaveUrum H§braorum (Vienna, 1890); I>Ox#-
LBB, RhuthuMu; Metrtk und Strophik in dtr BiUUch-HtbrdUchtn
PonU (Pftderbom, 1890): Qriicmx, Orundxaoe der Hebrduehen,
AkMml-und VoeaUehre (Fnbourg, 1896); Zbnner. Dm ChorgeMno^
im Bueh dtr Paalmm (Freiburs im Br.. 1896) ; Zenneb and Wie»-
iiANH, Dm Paalmen naeh dem UrUxt (Manster, 1906) ; Kautisch,
Dm PoetU und dU poeli$ehm BUeker du Alien TettamenU (Leip-
lif, 1902); Buooa. Ptdnu (New York, 1906); Bickbll. Metrieea
KM. rM. cMrnpL ilhutrat. (Innflbruck. 1882). Carmina V. T. me-
trie* (fniisbruck, 1882); Qibtmann, De n mttriea Htbrmorum
(Freiburg im Br., 1880).
Wai/tbr Drum.
ParalleliBm, Pbtcho-Phtsical, a doctrine which
states that the relation between mental processes, on
the one hand, and physical, physiological, or cerebral
processes on the other, is one merely of invariable
concomitance: each psychical change or psychical
state, each ptychotia, involves a corresponding neural
change or neural state, neurone, and vice versa. It
denies the poaaibility of interaction between body and
mind. At most there can be a certain point^or-
point correlation such that, given any process in the
nervous system, a definite mental process is its in-
variable accompaniment; and, given any particular
process in consciousness, a corresponding brain-state
or neurosis will invariably be present.
The fundamental prmdptes of Psycho-phvsical
Parallelism are based (1) upon the fact that all psy-
chical processes presuppose as their condition eine qua
nan processes of a physical character in the nervous
organism ; (2) upon the principle of the conservation of
energy; and (3) upon the assumption that mind and
matter are so utterly unlike and so utterly opposed in
character that interaction between them is impossible.
The psychological data upon which the theory rests
we may in general ^rant. T^e modem science of psy*
chophysics (q. v.) aided by cerebral anatomy, cerebral
physiology, and pathology, proves fairly conclusively
that (1) sensation and perception are conditioned by
nervous processes in the bram and in the peripheral
end-organs of sense, depending in part at least upon
external stimuli; (2) that memory and imagination
likewise presuppose, and are conditioned by, cerebral
connexions and cerebral activity; and (3) that this is
also to some extent the case witn regard to intellect-
ual operations and rational volition.
We have so far little more than an experimental
verification of two Scholastic principles: (1) that sen-
sation is an act of the composite organism, and (2)
that intellectual activity is conditioned by phanta»-
mata. and indirectly by nervous processes, in truth
the oata scarcely warrant us in going further than
this. But the parallelist goes further. He asserts
that intellectual operations have an exact physiolog-
ical counterpart, which \b more than he can prove.
An image has doubtless its counterpart, physiologi-
callv in the brain and physically in the outside
world. The association of ideas is conditioned by,
and in a sense is the psychical parallel of, the simul-
taneous or successive activity of different parts of the
brain, between which there is a phvsical and func-
tional connexion; and without such association of
ideas intellectual operations are impossible — so long,
that is, as soul and Body are united in one being. But
that intdlectual operations proper — ^judgment, logi-
cal inference, general concepts, vast and far-reaching
as they are in their si^ficanoe, should have an exact
counterpart in the activity of brain-cells and their neu-
ronic connexions, is a hypothesis which the known facts
of psycho-physics fail to bear out, and which is also
inconceivaole. How. for instance^ can A general con-
ceptj referring as it aoes to objective reahty and em-
bracing schematically in a single act many diverse
notes, bear any resemblance to the disturbance of
nervous equilibrium that accompanies it, a disturb-
ance which has no unity at all except that it occurs in
different parts of the same brain more or less simul-
taneously? Or. how can cerebral processes of a pe-
culiarly unstable and almost haphasard type be, as
they are alleged to be, the physiological counterpart of
processes of reasoning, rigid, exact, logical, necessary?
The assertion that all psychical processes have a
Physiological '' parallel" is unwarranted, and scarcely
iss unwarranted is the assertion that all physiolo-
K'cal processes have a psychical "paraller'. This
tter point can be established only by appeal to the
fiction of ''subliminal" or ''subconscious" con-
sciousness. The existence of a "threshold of con-
sciousness", or, in other words, of a limit of intensity
which must be exceeded by the stimulus, as also
by the nervous impulse which results, before the
latter can idBfect our consciousness, has been experi-
mentally proved, and this fact cannot be accounted
for by the parallelist except on the assunaption that
there are states of oonsaousness of which we are
wholly unconscious.
I
PAEALU8 475 PABANI
Tbe BjBoond line of argument advanced in favour of and the psychical, a relation which can be proved to hold
Paralleliam is as follows: The principle of the con- so far as sensation and perception are concerned/ but
servation of energy supposes, we are told, that the which, if further generalised to the exclusion of inter-
universe is a closed mechanical system in which action^ inevitably leads to contradiction,
events, whether past or future, are calculable with the Expoatory : Bawdbn. ThePwuiumalVjfw of Uu RdationU-
««^«««««^ v^vAAiot^*; mivAn 4-liA 1r*tAnrlA^<>A rv# .«««• **«-. liMWi Mw PtychtctU and ths Phyneal in Pfulos. Review, XI, 1002,
Utmost precifflon, given the knowled^ of any one 474-84; CiOTOBD.L€dtir«tafiJ*Moy«. II (London. 1886). 31-70
stage m the development of that umverse and the Ebhabot, DU Weduelwirkuno ewiadien Leib und SeeU (Leipsiff,
laws according to which that development takes 1897);Flw»mo, GeAtmttnrf5««<«(I«p«& 1896);^
pUce. Such a i^Btem wiU brook no interference Jj^(i*",!!LSr^iSflrffi.*^^^^
whatsoever "from without. Hence mteraction be- iViraZMimtM (Basle. lOOl); RiCKBRT.PtyeAopJkvctaeAeifaiiMiiUK
tween mind and matter is impossible, and parallelism ^ peudumhyeiedur PoraUeliemtu iTmiingm, 1900); Stout,
tottje. only other alternative • "^^:S!'^^,.^SS%^'^^cK ana Cunen, Do.
This conclusion is quite illegitimate. Energy, as trinee c/ Mind and Body in HibbeH Journal, VIII (April, 1910),
understood in the law which states that its sum is in- »; S^?» ?«*^ Y!^ Kgntr, JMfr tmd SeeU (Leip««. 1903) ; Dr».
variable, is striotlv a .mw^trocted quantitv. Hence. r^y^^^Si^l^'^IS^/2:r,tr^^oi^f^;
even though this law is apphcable to the lower phe- HOvuni, Die Metapkyeieehen TheoHen von der Betiehung ewiedten
nomena of animal life, as the experiments of Atwater ^ ***"* SeOe (Vienna and Prague. 1897); JAifxa. PrindpUe oi
Md Hubner ehow, it by no m«uui disproves the in- ^f^SS^^^^^t^^y^i^^ ^>^ ^:JSt^
fluenoe of consciousness and will, for mmd could still New York, 1896}; Lom. Metapkyne, flK tr. Oxford, 1887). 6;
dtrsct material energy and the law remain intact. Mabcx, ll Matenaliafno oeieofieieo « 2a DoUrina dd Paraildiamo in
This \r admittpd bv Fprhner MArh BnltsmAnn ^«cofo^ (Napjee. 1901); Mbbcibr.Z^ Or»^ne»deteP«»c*afavM
inis IS aamililJea uy recnner, ^acn, JSOIlimann, cmdemporaine (Louvain and Paris, 1908); Pbsch. Seeleund Leib
Honer, ana von Uartmann, the latter being a deter- aU nm BeetandteiU der einen MenscheneubeUmu (Fulda. 1901);
minist. (Cf. EnEHGT, ThB Law of THB CoNSERVA- XJ'*"^ Contemporary Payehology (London and New York. 1903);
Ttfw nv ^ Wabd. Naiuraliem and Agnoatteum (2 Vols., London. 1906);
HUM ur.; i_ , X . J , * .. Wvmn^UeberpevehiteheCauealUdtunddaePrineipdeaptyeluH
Moreover, were the absolute independence of the tAutiaehen AroZIelwmiM in Philoeophieeke Studien, X (Leipiic,
physical world indeed a fact, the existence of con- iSdA)iHumanand Animal PayeKoiooy itr. London, iwn^
sciousness would become an insoluble mystery, and Lbsub J. Walkbr.
the existence of a parallelism between it and tJie physi- •» « x-x i « ^/^ ■ . «^
cal world a manifest contradiction. ' If there be no in- ^ ^S~^' * ^^^^ see, suffragan of Cabasa m iEjcfp-
teraction between mind and matter, consciousness tus Secunda. One of the seven mouths of the Nile,
ceases to be an instrument whereby 'we modify our Sebenn jrs ot Paralus ("Georgii Cyprii Descriptioorbis
Uef that we can really do something to cliange things °*®^i d® ^ P«f8® ^Pf^ ' ^' i§) ; ^^ ^^«^??V^*^^
in the outside world and so promote both our com- ^?f^^,*^^^^^^^\?'^^t^ti^' 431 (Mansi,
fort and that of our neighbour is a hopeless delusion. ^V, 1128, 1160, 1220; V, 590: VI, 874); another, Pas-
The practical utility of physical science also becomes 51®?^' ^**P^?^A ** •? Rf bber CouncU of Ephesus,
illusory, for our bocfces, wluch alone can give it effect, f^K^^^X ^^ttPSS^?%?i ^^"^""^ ^^^ 9^^^'
are decfared to be merely automata with the working X^'.^/^Vr^^ii't?^^' ^?' ^F' ^^.l ^ Quien (Onena
of which consciousness has nothing to do. ParaUS S5f"*v ^^t ^71) mentions two other Jacobite bishops,
ism is useless here, if interactionbe abolished; nay, Th® site is now caUed Burlos or BuroUos, the prom-
more, is incompatible with that very independence ?^*^f^^ ^^^°®' ^^ ancient lake of Sebennys Ba-
on account of which its existence is affirmed. Ab- J^^JiUf!??:. r.» ^ to,, t^ na^x r^
solute independence and universal concomitance are OaS^J^cJ^tf'S*^^^ "' ^' ^"""^
contradictory. If there is concomitance, directly or in- S. Vailh£.
directly, as Mill said, there must be causal connexion.
That such a causal connexion between mind and Paimn&y Diocbsb or (Paranensib), suffragan of
matter really exists the consciousness of activity. Buenos Aires, in Argentine until recently, comprised
purpose, will, and responsibility, directlv testifies; ana two civil provinces, Entre Rios and Corrientes,
in the face of this testimony to hark back to the and the civil Government of Misiones (see Map of
Cartesian doctrine of radical opposition between body South America in Vol. III). This territory belonged to
and soul, extension and thought, is futile and con- theDiocese of BuenosAires until 1854. when it became
trary to experience. a separate pro-vicariate Apostolic, to oe erected into a
Variations and developments of parallelism may in diocese by the Bull of Pius IX aated 13 June. 1859.
general be classed under two heaos: conscious auto- The area of Entre Rios is 2^,754 sq. miles; Comentes,
matism — the theorv of Huxley that the human body is 32,545 sq. miles ; Misiones, 8571 sq. miles. The respec-
a mere machine of which consciousness is the ''col- tive populations are: Entre Rios, 4(]^,000; Corrientes,
lateral product", a shadow or epiphenomenon which 322,000; Misiones, 44,0(X). Thusthediocesehasatotal
svmbohcaUjr indicates, though it in no wise influences, area of 69,870 sq. miles and a population of 774,000.
the mechanical processes which underlie it; and the The Diocese of Corrientes has recently been erected.
"Dual-aspect Theory'' which maintains that psychi- The first Bishop of Parang, Jos6 Gabriel Segura y
cal and pnjrsical phenomena between which there is a Cuvas, b. at Catamarca, Argentine Republic, 1802;
Eoint-for-point correspondence all along the line, are d. 13 October, 1862, took possession of the see 3
ut different aspects or expressions of the same com*> June, 1860. His successor, Jos(§ Marfa Gelabert
mon substance. Huxley's view emphasises the material y Crespo, b. in 1820; d. 23 November, 1897, took
at the expense of mental, curiously oblivious of the possession of the see 23 August, 1865, and was suc-
fact that all we know of the physical universe and all ceeded by Rosendo de la Lastra y Gordillo (d. 3
ihe theories that we are able to formulate about it, Julyt 1909). The present bishop (1911), Abel Bazan
originate in, and belong to, consciousness. The dual- y Bustos, b. at La Rioja, 28 August, 1867, was pre-
asi^ct view improves upon this, by giving to conscious- conized 7 February, 1910, consecrated 8 May, and took
ness a value at any rate equal to that of mechanical possession of the see 15 May, of the same year. The
movement. It is in fact a form of Monism (a. v.) akin Province of Entre Rios is divided into sixteen parishes
to that of Spinoza and involves most of the aifficulties and ten chaplaihcies (capellaniaa vicarias) ; Corrientes,
to which that system leads. But from our point of forming one vicariate forain, twent>r parishes; Mis-
view its chief error lies in its assertion that parallelism iones, one parish and three chaplaincies. The cathe-
is the only relation whidi holds between the physical dnd has a chapter of ten canons, including the five
PA&&8CIVI 4'
dlgmtaries. The "GuU Ecleeiastica deArgentioB"
for 1910 nvee the total number of clergy (parish
priests and chaplaiiu) for the diocese as 96; no men-
tion, however, is here made of priests belonginK to
religious institutes engaged in ^ucational work in
the diocese. The conciliar seminary (Calle Urquiza,
ParanA), under the direction of a rector, vice-rector,
and five profesaorB, has an aggregate of forty-three
students in all its departments. The Benedictine
Fathers have an agricultural school at Victoria, and
the Capuchins conduct a college for boys at Concordia,
both in Entre Rioe. There are nine parochial schools
in Entre Rio« and one in Corriontes. Educational
institutions for girls and charitable institutions of
various kinds are conducted by the Daushters of the
Immaculate Conception, the Religious of the Perpetual
Adoration (Adoratricee), Servants of the Holy Spirit,
Sisters of St. Francis, of St. Joseph (Lyons), and of the
Garden, Vinceotian Sist«rB, Belgian Tertiaries, Sisters
of the Poor of St. Catherine of Siena, Carmelitee
(Tarragona), Mercedarians, and Tertiaries of Charity
and of Carmel. Pious and charitable societies well
represented in the diocese are the Acci6n CatAUca, the
Apostleship of Prayer, the Confraternities (both for
men and for women) of St. Vincent of Paul, Aseocia-
Daughters of Mary, and the peculiarly national
Society of Our Lady of Itatt.
'tie Diocese of Corrientes also embraces Misionefl.
Rev. Luis A. Nielia has been appointed bishop by
the pope.
Claudio Potet.
PftTUCOTS (Or. wapatKiri) seems to have aup-
Elanted the older t«rm rptrdpfiarar, used in the trans-
ition of Judith, viii, 6, and in the title— not to be
found in Hebrew — of Ph. xcii (xciii). It became,
among Hellenistic Jews, the name for Friday, and was
adopted by Greek ecclesiastical writers after the
wriUng of "The (caching of the Twelve Apostles".
Apparently it was first applied by the Jews to the
a^moon of Friday, then to the whole day, its ety-
raolt^y pointing to the "preparations" to be made
for the %ibbath, as indicated in the King James Bible,
ready before sunset (the Sabbath be^nning on Friday
night) ; it was forbidden to undertake in the afternoon
of the sixth day any business which might extend to
the Sabbath; Augustus reUeved the Jews from certain
legal duties from the ninth hour (Joeephus, "Antiq.
Jud.", XVI, vi, 2).
Paratceve seems to have been applied also to the
eve of certain festival days of a saboatic character.
Foremost among these was the first day of the unleav-
ened bread, Nisan 15. We learn from the Mishna
(Pesach., iv, 1, 5) that the Parasceve of the Pasch,
whatever day of the week it fell on, was kept even
more reli^ously than the ordinarv Friday, in Judsa
work ceamng at noon, and in Galilee the whole day
being free. In the schools the only question discussed
regarding this particular Parasceve was when should
the rest commence: Shammtu said from the very be-
ginning of the day (evening of Nisan 13); HillelsMd
only from after sunrise (morning of Nisan 14) .
The use of the word Parasceve in the Gospels raises
the question concerning the actual day of Our Lord's
cnicifixion. All the Evangelists state that Jesus died
on the day of the Parasceve (Matt., xxvii, 62; Mark,
XV, 42; Luke, xxiii, 54; John, xix, 14, 31), and there
can be no doubt from Luke, sxiii, &4r-56 and John, xiz,
76 PABiT-LZ-lIONUL
31, that this was Friday. But on what day of the
month of Nisan did that particular Friday fall? St.
John distinctly points to Niaan 14, while the Synop-
tists, by implying that the Last Supper was the
Paschal meal, convey the impres«on that Jesus was
crucified on Nisan 15. But this is hardly reconcilable
with the following facts: When Judas left the table,
the disciples imagmed he was going to buy the things
which were needed for the feast (John, xiii, 29)— a
purchase which was impossible if the feast had begun;
after the Supper, Our Lord and his disciples left
the city, as also did the men detailed to arrest Him
— this, on Niaan 15, would have been contrary to Ex.,
xii, 22 ; the next morning the Jews had not yet eaten
the Passover; moreover, during that day the Council
convened; Simon was apparently coming from work
(Luke, xxiii, 26) ; Jesus and the two robbers were exe-
cuted and were taken down from the crosses; Joseph
of Arimathea bought line linen (Mark, xv, 4(1), wd
Nicodemus brou^t "a mixture of myrrh and aloes
about an hundred pound weight" (John, xix, 39) for
the burial; lastly the women prepared apices for the
embalming of the Saviour's body (Luke, xxiii, 55)— all
things which would have been a desecration on Nisan
16. Most commentators, whether they think the
Last Supper to have been the Paschal meal or an antic-
ipation thereof, hold that Christ, as St. John states,
was crucified on the Parasceve of the Pasch, Friday,
Nisan 14.
Livn ol Cbriit by DiDOH. FoOAKD. Lb CAinrsstc.; FLmuuai,
Tht Ooipti aaonline lo St. John, appendu A ICBmbridic, 1B05I;
WEsnxRT. inlrodudiim to 111 Study of Hit Ootprti, nnic on Tlu
Dav <•/ D^ CruciAnm (Nsw York, ISTfil, 33S-t2: FxTmiii. Dt
SuitfWtu, III. dua. L (Rome. lS£2--63); Cauiu, i.'iinivi[e Hfoil
Saint-Jam (Puu, 1004) ; BtArna. La Palatini ou («»» di Anu-
Cikrul {pHi., i. d.).
CharijEB L. Sodvat.
Pftnv-ls-Honlal, a town of five thousand in-
habitants in the Department of Sltone-Loire, Diocese
of Autun, France. It is indisputable that Paray
■ TiSITATIOH. PAaAT-La-MOHIAL
(faredum; Parodiwn) existed before the monks who
gave it its surname of Le Monial, for when Count
Lambert of Chalon, together with his wife Adelaide
and his friend Mayeul de Cluny, founded there in 973
the celebrated Benedictine priory, the borouah had
ateady been constituted, with its adilea and com-
munal privileges. At that time an ancient temple was
dedicated to the Mother of God (Charter of Paray).
The Cluny monks were, 999-1789, lords of the town.
Protestantism made many proselytes here; but in
1018 the Jesuits were summoned, and aft«r a century
there remained only a few Protestant families, who
have long since disappeared. In order to complete
the work, PSre Paul de Bany, the author of "Penaes-
y-bien", in 1678 brought thither the Visitandines.
Patay-le-Monial has become a much-frequented
place of pilgrimage dnce 1873, as many as 100,000
pilgrims arriving yearly from all parts of Eun»)e
and America. The most venerated spot is tAe
Chapel vf the Visitation, where most of the appari-
PABDns 4'
tione.to BlcBBed Margaret Mary AUcoque (q, v.)
took place. Neict comes the Basilica (d the Sa-
cred Heart, ia charge of secular chapluns. for-
merly the church of the monks, which is one
of the meet beautiful monumeatB of Cluniac archi-
tecture (tenth or eleventh centui?). The Hotel da
Ville, in Renaissance style, the facade of which is
adorned with a large statue of the Blessed Virgin, ia
also one of the historical monumente. HlgrimaRe is
^Ho made to the Hieron or temple-palace, erected oy a
layman in hooour of the Eucharistic King, where
there is a very curious collection of pictures and ob-
jects of art bearing on. the Holy Eucharist. Despite
the difficulties of the present rehgious situation in
France, Paray still posaessea a number of commu-
nities or monastenrs which justify its surname.
Moreover, with this town are connected the asiwcia-
tiona the object of which is the cult of the i^red
Heart, such as the Apoetleship of Prayer, the Arch-
oonfratemity of the Holy Hour (estabhshed at Paray
itself in 1829 by Pftre Robert Debrosse), and the
Communion of Reparation, organized in 1854 by
Pfire Victor Drevon. The latter maintains its head-
quarters at Paray,
From a secular point of view the town is 'unim-
portant, but its religious glory is abundant. It is
more than enou|h for its- honour that it should be, as
Leo XIII said in his Brief of Coronation of Notre
Dame de Romay (25 July, 1896), "Calo gratiesimum
appidum", "a town very dear to heaven".
Chetalieh. Carlulairt iu Parav-U- Miiial (Puis. 1890):
Saciuh, CluniaxcnJitT, I (INS2). 241 sq.; II (1S»4). Vh9i.
Joseph Zelle.
Pardlei, Ionace-Gabton, French scientist, b. at
Pauj 5 Sept., 1636; d. of fever contracted whilst
miniatering to the prisoners of Bicfitrc, near Paris, 22
April, 1673. He entered the Society of Jesus 17
Nov., 1652 and for a time taught classical literature;
during this period he composed a number of short
Latin worlu, in prose and verse, which are prused for
College of I/>uis-le-Grand in Paris. His esrly death
cut short a life of unusual activity in the sciencee.
His.earliest work ia the "Horologium Thaumanticum
Duplex" (Paris, 1662), in which ia described an in-
strument he hod invented for constructing various
kinds of sun-diala. Three years later appeared his
"Dissertatio de Motu et Natura Cometarum", pub-
7 PABDONS
«u>d modem French pardotmer — eigniSes in Brittany
the feaat of the patron sunt of a church or chapel, at
which an indulgence is granted. Hence the origin of
the word "Pardon" as used in Brittany. The Par-
dons do not extend farther east in Brittany than Guin-
Kamp, the date of whose celebration occura on the
first Sunday in July. There are five distinct kinds of
Pardons in Brittany: St. Yves at Tr^guier— the Par-
don of the poor; Our Lady of Rumengol — the Pardon
of the singers: St. Jean-du-Doigt — the Pardon of fire;
St. Rooan — the Pardon of the mountain; and St, Anne
de la Palude— the Pardon of the sea. The Pardons
begin in March and end in October, but the majority
of themare between Easter and Michaelmas. Two
Alfred Qi
1970), "Ia Statique" (Paris, 1673), and the
script "TraiW complet d'Optinue", in which he fol-
lowed the undulatory theory, form part of a general
work on physics which he had planned. He opposed
Newton's theory of refraction and his letters to-
gether with Newton's replica (which so satisfied Par-
dies that he withdrew his objections) are found in
the "Philosophical Transactions" for 1672 and 1673.
HJa "Discours de laConnaiflsancc dea Be8t<a" (Paria,
1672) combatt«d Descartes's theories on the subject
80 feebly that many looked on It as a covert defence
rather than a refutation, an impression which
Pardies himself afterwards endeavoured to destroy.
His " Eldmens de G&jmitrie" (Paris, 1671) was trans-
lated into Latin and English. He left in manuscript
a work entitled "Art de la Guerre" and a celestial
atlas comprising aix charts, published after his death
(Paris, 1673-74). His collecUid mathematical and
^ysical works were published in French (The
Hague, 1691) and in Latin (Amsterdam, 1694).
eoiunvoaEL. Bibl, delaC.diJ. (BrusMli. 1885).
Edward C. Pbillifb.
Pardoiu of BiittKn^.— Pardon, from the Latin
pcrdnnnrc,— assimilated m form to donum a gift,
middle English, to the old French perdun and pardun^
Morlaix, and that of Ste-Anne d'Auray in Morbihan.
The former occurs on 24 June, and that of Ste Anne
d'Auray on 24 July, the anniversary of the finding
of the statue of Ste Anne by the peasant Nicolazic.
The latter is regarded as the most, famous pilgrimage
in all Brittany, and attracts pilgrims from Tr^miier,
lAinnais, Comouaillc, and especially from Morbihan.
Enrh diocese and ])arish ia known by its costume.
To these Breton Pardons come pilgrims from every
side, clod in their beat costumes which are only to be
seen there and at a wedding. It is a pilgrimage of
devotion and piety. The grealer part of the day is
spent in prayer and the Pardon begins with early M
at 4 A.M. Its observance, however, has actually c<
menced earlier, for the preceding evening is devoted to
confession, and the rosary ia generally recited by the
pilgrims, the whole way to the place of the Pardon.
After the religious service, the (?reat procession takes
place around (he church. This ia the moat pictur-
estjue part of the Pardon and may be regarded as its
mt're CTi tchie. At St*-Anne d'Auray, this procession
ia especially striking and impressive. In the proces-
sion join aU those whom the interceswon of Ste Anne
has saved from peril and danger. The s^lora are
there with fragments of the vessel, upon which they
escaped in the shipwreck; the lame are there earning
on ibai shoulders the crutches, for which they have
PABX 4;
no longer need; and thoee rescued from fire ore also in
tjie procession, carryiDg the rope or ladder, by means
of which they e«cai>Bd from the flamea. The Pardon
in Brittany nae practically remuned unchanged for
over two hundred yean. It is not a pretext for feast-
ing or revel, but a reverent and reGgioua gathering
where ^oung and old commune with God and His
Blunts in prayer. There is indeed a social side to the
Breton Pardon, but it is purely incidental. Its true
Weld. A YaaUiim i* BriUaav (Londoa, ISM); E
Oduld, a Boot <a BnUany, V (Loadoti. 1901)1 Qoirm
Britmt at Honu.h and III (Chieigo, l»Oe): Li Bui. A
ia Pariont, trmnglsted W OoaTUNO {New York, ieO«)( f
Thohas O'Haoan.
Pkrt, AuBROiBG, French surgeon, b. at Bourg-
Hersent, near Laval, department of Maine, 1517; a.
20 Dec., 1590. He was apprenticed to a barber at an
early age, became barber-BUrgeon at the Hfltel-
Dieu, Pans, surgeon in the army of Francis I (1636-
38), re-enlisted on
the reopening of
boBtihties (1642-
44), and in 1545
began the study of
anatomy at Paris,
under Frangoia-
Jacques Dubois
(Sylvius). He
was appointed
field-BUigeon by
Marshal Rohan,
and (1652) became
surgeon to King
Hennr II, in 1654
memberof the Col-
lege de St-Cosme,
exempt from tax-
ation, and in 1563,
after the si^e of
Rouen, first sur-
aeon and cham-
berlain to King
Charles IX. A CathoUc throuRhout his Ufe, Tal has
^ven documentary refutation of the legend that Par6
was a Huguenot and was spared during the Massacre
of St. Bartholomew's Day (1572) by direct command
of the king. On account of his humanitarian activity
he was held in special regard among soldieis. His
motto, as inscribfKl above nis chair in the Coll^ de
St-Cosme, read: "Je le paneay et Dieu le guariet."
A monument was erected to him at I^val.
Park's pioneer work was chiefly in the department
of miUtai^ surgery. His importance in the devetop-
ment of modem surgery may be compared with that
of hia contemporary, Andreas Vwalius, in the de-
velopment of modem anatomy. The chief services
rendered by Pari ore a reform in the treatment of
gunshot wounds, and the revival of the practice of
noting arteries aft«r amputation. From the time of
Giovanni Vigo (□. 1460-1520), surgeon-in-ordinaiy to
Pope Julius II, gunshot wounds were classified as
contused, burned, and poisoned, and the last-named,
on the supposition that all gunshot wounds were
poisoned by )>owder, were caut«riied with red-hot
iron or hot oil. On one occasion, after a battle,
Par£, not having sufficient oil, applied ointment and
bandaged the wounds, and observed that the healii^
process proceeded more favourably under this treat-
ment. Hia observations, published in 1545, gave the
impetus to a rational reform of the whole system of
deaUng with wounds, and did awa^ with the theory
of poisoned gunshot wounds, despite the fact that
the Italians, Alfonso Fern (1552), and Giovanni Fran-
cesco Rota (1555'
Vascular ligation
igaUng t_. .
iniised^ This discovery, which be pub-
lished in 15fi2, he speaks of as an inspiration which
came to him through Divine grace. In caaee <tf
strangulated hernia of the groin he performed the
operation known as herniotomy, while bwetofore
physicians feared to operate in auch cases, leaving the
C'ent to die miserably. In obstetrics we owe to
the revival of foot-presentation, but he was al-
ways averse to the Cesarean operation (aeeiio co-
ttirea). In all departments of surgery we find Far6 an
independent observer and thinker; but his advanced
nations encountered much opposition on the part of
tjie Paris faculty of medicine. Thus at the time of
his enrolment in the faculty of the Coll^ de 8t-
Coemc, in 1554, the faculty made his ignorance of
Latin a ground of objection against him. Nor could
it ever foi^ve him for rendennjc ludicrous supposed
panaceas, the so-called i^taiia {mumia, eeratum hu-
.).
The beat sditioD oC PabA'b irocki, irl
.. Pari* 1940
biogTulH
tEuirn d-Ambrnut Pari (3
I: uey wm sin sdited by Le FiuunEi.
■ii di >u»i«ui docummU (P>ri(. 1885).
^uirudi JU. Ambr. Part (Puii, tS7S, eleTn
-- '"1; tr.. London, 1618; Dutch.
iportmlBditior--'-'- ^--'-
__r iiol iLenL,.-
u de cAimrvM (Puil. 1S72), hia DMMI-
-aicitr Ut jriavt faiiia par Jkacqiufrytet tt
de ceiUt qui tffTU faieia par fitdtea, fietdariM
-'■'--^Mopciahm^fd faietv porta potA'
t. Itny.LamtttaiiaitatiMAu
liiw (P»ru, 1561); Brieftt oMtt-
(Pwia, 1550. 1581). a' —
„,. „ . Drk; Diertmridtlamamte.da
tenim.Jt la Uanu tt dtlapaU (Vara, 1532): lUrliqut ila rtt-
poTue fyitU carlm •on dwouri de la lieonu (Pana. 1584). Sm
TiEUNa in Tkt Mmilh (March. 1B03).
Lkopold Senfblder.
Fanjai Francisco, missionaryj probably b. at
Aufion in the Diocese of Toledo, Spain, date unknown;
d. in Mexico, 25 January, l(i2S. He waa sent to Florida
with eleven other Franciscans, and arrived at St.
Augustine in 1593 or early in 1594. He laboured as a
ntissionary among the savages of the peninsula, not-
ably at San Juan on the coast, ana then became
guiurdian of the monastery of the Immaculat« Con-
ception, at St. Augustine, He is also styled "cus-
tos", and must have held the office before 1613, when
the custody was elevated to the rank of a province
under the patronage of St. Helena. Subsequently,
he joined the province of the Holy Gospel in Mexico.
Father Pareja is noted for having published the first
books in the language of an Indian tribe within the
United States, the Timuquanan, and may for that
purpose have gone to Mexico. His varioua works
are: "Catecismo en len^a castell&na y tiniuquana"
i Mexico, 1612) ; " Catecismo y breve exposici6n de la
Dctrina cristiana" (Mexico, 1612); "Confesionario
en lengua caatellana y timuc|uana (Mexico, 1613):
"Gramatica de la lengua timuquana de Florida
(Menco, 1614); "Catecismo de la doctrina cristiana
lengua timuauona" (Mexico, 1617): "Catecismo
para los que comulgan, en lengua castd-
m y timuquana" (Mexico, 1827).
Uacii. Biuayo CnmMaicn (Madiid, 1TZ3): VsTAKcrm.
ainatoffio tMenca, ISBT); ToBaDiHxDA. Monarauia ItuUam
(Madrid. 1^231; Shea. CalhoUt CAwcA ifi Colimvd Davi (Nav
York. 1886) ; Idw, CaDuHc itierum (New York. 1B54) ; PitUHO,
florih American Lin^uliei (Waahin^Km^ 1884) : 8*bih, Dittim-
WaahmcKm, 1884) : 8*bih
U Rtlalina m Amtriai. V (New York. 1884).
Zbphbtin Engblhabdt.
Pannta (Lat. parere, to beget). — I. Durtss or
Parents towards their Children. — In the old
pagan world, with due allowance for the operation of
the nat'iral law, love and reverence were replaced by
authority and fear. The Roman jurisprudence dur-
ing a time at least exonerated the paternal power to
the point of ownership, but it did not empbasiie any
duties that be had (o perform. His dominion otoT
PARENTS 479 PABBHTS
bis children waa not less complete than that over his ployed to encounter suecessf ully whatever risks there
slaves. He possessed an undisputed right of life and are, is, in the United States, the bishop of each diocese,
death; he might sell them into slavery and dispose of The attendance at non-Catholic schools by Catholic
any property they had acquired. Compatible with children is something which, for weighty motives and
this general idea, abortion, infanticide, and exposi- with due safeguards, can be tolerated, not approved,
tion were widespread. The laws seemed to contem- In any case parents must ciuefully provide for the
plate these crimes as venial offences and to have been child's religious instruction,
laigely inoperative in such cases. As to higher education, parents have a clear dutv to
In consequence the filial observance implied in the see that the faith of their children is not imperilled by
ancient pietas could not alwasrs be translated as af- their going to non-CatJiolic universities and colleges,
fee tion. This earlier condition was modified by de- In the lack of positive legislation before parents can
crees of the later emperors. Alexander Severus dis- assent to their children attending non-Catholic uni-
tinguished the rifldjit of a father to put an adult child versities or colleges there must be a commensuratelv
to death, whilst Diocletian made it illegal for fathers grave cause, andsuch danffers as may threaten faith
to sell their children. or morals are to be rendered remote by suitable
Under Christianity parents were not merely the re- remedies. The last-named requirement is obviously
positories of rights and duties whose affirmation ni^ the more important. Failure to fall in with the first,
ture demandeo, but they were to be regarded as the provided that means had been taken faithfully to
representatives of God Himself, from wnom ''all pa- comply with the second, would not oblige the con-
temity is named'', and found in this capacity the fessor to refuse absolution to such parents. There is
way to mingle love and 'reverence, as weU as the an undoubted and under ordinary circumstances in-
strongest motive for a cheerful obedience on the part alienable authority to be exercised by parents. The
of the children. extent of this is a matter to be determined by positive
The first duty of parents towards their children is to law. In the instances in which it becomes necessary
love them. Nature inculcates this clearly, and it is to decide upon one of the parents rather than the
customary to describe parents who lack thiB affection other as custodian of the children, the rule of legal
as unnatural. Here the offence is against a distinct preference in the United States is that the children
virtue which the theologians call pietas, concerned are confided to the charge of the father. There is,
with the demeanour reciprocally of parents and chil- however, a growing disposition to favour the mother,
dren. Hence the circumstance of this close relation- Parents have the n^t to administer chastisement to
ship must be made known in confession when there delinquent children. Their omission to punish suit-
is question of sins of this sort. In the case of serious ably may be a serious offense before God.
damage done b>[ parents to their children, besides the 11. Dunss of Children tow abbs Parents. —
sin against justice there is contracted the quite dif- Children have a threefold obligation of love, rever-
ferent malice derived from this propinquity. This ence^ and obedience toward their parents. This is
virtue, interpreting the precept of tne natural law, enjomed b}r the virtue which St. Thomas calls pietaa,
also requires parents diligently to care for the proper and for which the nearest English equivalent phrase
rearing of their children, that is, to provide for their is ''dutiful observance". As religion makes it oblig-
bodily, mental, and spiritual well-being. This is so atory for us to worship God, so there is a virtue dis-
even in the supposition that the children are illegit- tinct from all the others which inculcates the attitude
imate. Parents are guilty of grievous sin who treat we ought to hold towards parents, in so far as they in a
their children with such cruelty as to indicate that secondary sense are the principles of our being and of
their conduct is inspired by hatred, or who, with full its regulation. The violation of this obligation there-
intent, curse them or ^diibit a notM>le and unreason- fore is reputed a grievous sin unless the smallness of
able preference for one child rather than another, the matter involved make the offence a venial one. Of
Parents are bound to support their children in a man- the obligations refenred to, love and reverence are in
ner commensurate with their social condition until force during the parents' lifetime. Obedience ceases
these latter can support themselves. The mother is when the children pass from under the parental au-
bound to do nothing to prejudice the life or proper thoritv. Tlie duty of love of parents, strongly inti-
development of her unborn infant, and after birth matea to the conscience by the natural law. is ex-
she must under pain of venial sin nurse it herself un- pi'essly emphaojsed by the positive law of Goa. The
less there is some adequate excuse. Fourth Commandment, "Honour thy father and thy
A father who is idle or unthrifty so that his family mother", is universally interpreted to mean not only
is left without fitting muntenance is gmlty of griev- respect and submismon, but also the entertaining and
ous sin. Parents must see that their chilcfren obtam manifestation of affection they deserve at the hands
at least an elementary education. They are bound of their children.
with special emphasis to watch over the spiritual Those chUdren are guilty of grievous sin who hab-
welfare of their children, to afford them gooa exam- itually esdiibit towanu their parents a heartless de-
ple, and to correct the erring. The teaching of the meanour, or who fail to succour them in serious need,
Church is that the right and duty to educate their either bodily or spiritual, or who neglect to carry out
own offspring abides nativel}r and primarily with the the proviaons of their last will and testament in so
parents. It is their most important taeuc; indeed far as the amount devised will permit. It is not
understood in its full sense it is ranked by no obliga- merely the external bearing which has to be governed,
tion. In so far as it means instruction m the more The mwaid sentiment of affection must be deep-
elementary branches of human knowledge it is in seated. The Christian concept of parents as being
most cases identical with the obligation of bestowing the delegates of God carries with it tne inference that
care in the selection of a school for the chUdren. they are to be treated with peculiar respect. Chil-
Hence, in general, parents may not with a safe con- dren incur the guilt of ^evous sin who strike their
science send their cnildren to non-Catholic schools, parents, or even raise their hands to do so, or who give
whether these be sectarian or secularist. This state- them well-founded reason for great sorrow. The same
ment admits of exception in the instance where there is to be said of those who put their parents in a violent
are grave reasons for permitting Catholic children to rage, who curse them or revile them, or refuse to
frequent these schools, and where such dangers as recognize them.
may exist for their faith or morals are by fittinp^ means Besides the parental relationship and di^ty ao-
either neutralist or rendered remote. The judge in count is to be taken of their authority. Children, so
such cases, both of the sufficiency of the reasons al- lonj; as they remain under its yoke, are bound to obey.
leged as well as of the kind of measure to be em- This does not mean, according to the teaching of St.
PABIMZO-POLA 480 PABI8
Thomas (II-II, Q. civ, a. 2, ad lum)^ that they must Parlni, Gitrssppe, Italian poet, b. at Bosisio, 28
intend to do what is commanded precisely because it May, 1729; d. at MUan, 15 Aug., 1799. Parini was
is enjoined; it is enough that they be mmded to do early taken to Milan. He was an apt pupil and
what is prescribed. This obligation covers all those showed that he possessed marked abiUty for teaching,
matters and those only which make for the proper which was to be the work of the greater part of his
rearing of the oflfspring. Parents have no power to life. His poetic talent also evinced itself at an early
order their children to do what is sinful, nor can they date and secured his entrance into several of the
impose upon them agidnst their will any particular Accademie, especially into the ''Arcadia''. Taking
calling in life. . Theologians find their criterion for Holy orders in 1754, he served as tutor in sevenu
determining the grievousness of the sin of disobe- noble families and gained that knowledge of fashion-
dience by scrutinizing the conmiand given as well as able hfe which he was to put to gocM use in his
the matter with which it is concerned. They say that ''Giomo". From 1773 on he was professor of fine
the offence is then to be rated as mortal when the arts in the Brera at Milan. When the Cisalpine
conmiunication of the parental will takes the form Republic was established with its capital at Milan,
of a real precept given in earnest and not merely a Bonaparte made him a member of the municipal
counsel or exhortation. They further require that government; this position he lost on account of his
this behest should have to do with something im- hberal utterances. The latter part of his life was
portant. • passed in rather straitened circumstances. The poet-
There is no hard and fast rule to gauge the gravity ical fame of Parini depends upon his ''Odi" and Uie
of the matter in which an infraction of the duty of "Giomo", particularly upon the latter. The "Odi"
obedience will become a mortal sin. Moralists declare (1st ed., Milan, 1791) are in the conventional manner
that this valuation must be made by the good sense of of the eighteenth century Arcadian compositions:
thoughtful persons. They add that in general when some of them deal with matters of moral and social
an act of disobedience is calculated to work serious speculation. The ''Giomo'', upon which he had be-
harm to the parents, or interfere seriously with domes- gun to work about 1760, is a satire upon the Ufe of the
tic discipline, or put in jeopardy the temporal or young man of fashion of the time. In the four parts
spiritual welfare of the children themselves, it is to be of it — the "Mattino", the "Mezzopomo", ^e
accounted a mortal sin. When the thing for whose per- " Vespro ", and the " Notte " — he passes m review the
formance or omission the parent's command is issued futile daily occupations of a typical society beau, all
is already binding under pain of grievous sin, either by the while ridiculing the effeminate and corrupt cus-
the natural or positive law, the setting at naught of toms of the youth of the age. The interest of ihe
the parental injunction does not involve a distinct sin composition is diversified by the introduction of
of disobedience requiring a separate accusation in con- pleasing episodes. The verse form is that of un-
fession. The reason is that the motive of the command rhymed decasyllables. Some occasional verses, a
is assumed to remain the same in both cases. An cantata ("La figlia di Jefte")> a dramatic work
example in point would be the defiance of an order C'Ascanio in Alba"), and a few minor compositions
given by a parent to a child to assist at Mass on in prose constitute the rest of his literary produo-
unday, something which the latter is already bound tions.
to do ^^ ^^ biography by Rbina prefixed to Parini'b Open
Children are released from parental control when '^i^J^'W^ini^'di^a^ipe^lp^^^^
they attam their majonty, or are legally emanci- auo, Odi (Bologna, 1882).
pated. In the United States this latter may be done J* D. M. Fobd.
either by a written instrument or by means of ceiv « _j * ,« \ .
tain facts which the statutes construe as sufficiently l*^*™» Archdiocbsb op (Pambibnsis), comprises
manifesting the consent of the parents.* **^® Department of the beine. It was re-estabhshed
8lat«r. Manual of Moral Thedogy (New York. 1908) ; Leckt, ^y ^« Concordat of 1802 with much nanwer liinitfl
Hittorv of Buropean Morah (New York. 1910); Spirago. The than it had pnor to the Revolution, when, besides the
c^e^im Explained (NewYprk. 1899); Dkvab, Key to the city of Paris and its suburbs, it comprised the arch-
^ir^^^AirA B'?2iS^rS^i'*teSi K; deanery of Jos« (including the deaneriee of Ch4t««.-
(Prato, 1899); &t. Thomas. Sumtna Theohgiea. fort and Montlhdry) and the archdeanery of Bne (in-
JoBBPH F. Delant. eluding the deaneries of Lagny and Vieux-Corbeil).
The deanery of Champeaux, enclosed within the
Parenzo-Pola (Pabentina-Polbnsib), Diocese territory of the Diocese of Sens, was also dependent
OF. — ^The Uttle town of Parenzo is picturesquely sit- on the Archdiocese of Paris, which had then 492
uated on a promontory extending into a creek of the parishes. The Concordat gave to the dioceses of
Adriatic. At the head of this promontory, close to Versailles and Meaux the archdeaneries of Joeas and
the water, rises the cathedral, the pride of Parenzo. Brie, which had nearly 350 parishes, and reduced the
Built by the first bishop, Euphrasius, in the time of Archdiocese of Paris to 42 urban and 76 suburban
Justinian, under whom Byzantine architecture first parishes. According to the Concordat it had eight
reached the shores of the Adriatic, it is the best pre- suffragans: Amiens, Arras, Cambrai, Orleans, Meaux,
served monument of that epoch in Austria. More- Soissons, Troves, and Versailles. The re-establish-
over, archsBologists have proved that it beans witness ment under the Hestoration of the Archdioceses at
to the antiquity of Christianity in Parenzo, as it is Reims and Sexis removed the Dioceses of Troyes,
the most recent of three churches, the second of Amiens, and Soissons from the jurisdiction of Pans,
which belongs to the time of Constantine the Great, but the Dioceses of Blois and Chartres, created in
while the oldest antedates that epoch. Parenzo was 1B82, were attached to the Province of Paris. In
a separate diocese from the time of Euphrasius until 1841 Cambrai, having become a metropohtan see,
in 1827 it was united with Pola, whose first bishop, ceased to be a suffragan of Paris, Airas bdng made
Venerius, died about 520. At present Parenzo-Pola its suffraRan.
is under the jurisdiction of G6rz and numbers The Roman Lutbtia. — The Gaul Camulogenus
132,000 Catholics, including 135 secular priests, one burnt Lutetia in 52 B. C, while defending against
monastery with 21 monks, and 6 (or 8) convents con- Csesar the tribe of the Pariaii, whose capital it was.
taining 132 nuns. The Romans erected a new city on the left slope of
Codiee diplomatieo Tatriano, 3 vols, appearing as supplement to Mt. LucotiUus (later Mont Ste-Genevi^ve) . That the
^^^'^^^'^^liSiVt^a^^TH^'i'S^?^ Romanization of Paris was very quicWyaccompfisbBd
(TriMt, 1849). IS proved: (1) by the altar (discovered m 1710 under
C. WoLffKZBUBiiB. . the choir of Notre- Dame) raised to Jupiter vr4K
I the Roman
pantheon; (2) by the rem^ru of a pedestaJ (found ia
1871 on the site of the oW HAtel-Dieu), which doubt-
less supported a statue of Genoanicus, and on which is
represented Jonut Quadrifrom, the Roman symbol of
peace. At, the end of the third century Lutetia was
destroyed by the barbarianB, but an importsnt mili-
tary camp was at once installed in this district. Cssar
Julian, later emperor and known as Julian the Apos-
tate, defended Lut«tia asainst fresh invasions from
the north over the road from Senlis to Orleans.
There, in 360, he was proclaimed Auoustua by his
eoldiera, and Valentian I also sojourned there. The
ruins found in the garden of the Musfe de Cluny have,
since the twelfth century, been regarded as the niina
of the Thenrttr:, but in 1903-04 other therma were
discovered a little distance away, which must be either
those of the palace of Julian the Apostate, or, accord-
ing to M. Julian, those of the communal house of the
Nauta Parimaci. Ruins have also been discovered
of an arena capable
of holdit^ from 8000
U> 9000 persons.
BEoiNMNoa OF
Christianity at
Paris. — Paris was a
Christian centre at
an early date, its first
apostles being St,
Denis and his com-
panions, Sts. Rusti-
CUB and Eleutherius.
Until the Revolution
the ancient tradition
of the Parisian
Church commemo-
rated the seven sta-
tions of St. Denis, the
stages of his aposto-
lat« and martyrdom :
(t) the ancient mon-
astery of Notre-
Dame - des - Champ*
of which the crypt, it
was sud, had been
dedicated to the
Blessed Virgin by St
(2) the Church of SUEtienne-des-Grto {i
peored), which stood on the site of an oraioiy
erected by St. Denis to St. Stephen; (3) the Church
of 8t-Benott (disappeared), where St. Denis had
erected an oratory to the Trinity {Devs Benedic-
twt); (4) the chapel of St-Denis-du-Pas near Notre-
Dame (dioappeared), on the site of the tribunal of the
prefect Sicinnius, who tried St. Denis; (5) the Church
of St-Denis-de-Ia-Chfttre the crypt of which was re-
garded as the swnt'e cell (now vanished); (6) Montr
martre, where, according to the chronicle written in
836 by Abbot Hilduin, St. Denis was eiecuted; (7) the
basilica of St-Dcnis (see below). The memorials of
the swnt'a activity in Paris have thus survived, but
even the date of his apostolate is a matter of contro-
versy. The legend stating St. Denis came to Gaul in
thetimeofSt.Clement, dates only from the end of the
eighth century. It is found in the "Passio Dionisii",
written about 800, and in the "Gesta Da^berti",
written at the Ablwy of St^Denis at the beginning of
the ninth century. Still later than the formation of
thia legend Abbot Hilduin identified St. Denis of Paris
with Denis the Areopagite (see Dionybicb thb
Psbui>o-Abeopaqitb), out this identification is no
longer admitted, and history is inclined to accept the
Opinion of St. Gregory of Tours, who declares St.
Denis one of the seven bishops sent by Pope Fabian
about 260. It is certain that the Christian commu-
nity of Paris was of some importance in the third cen-
XI.— 31
il PARIS
tury. Recent discoveries seem to prove that the cata-
combs of the Gobelins and of St. Marcellus on the left
bank were the oldest necropolis of Paris; here have
been found nearly 500 tombs, of which the oldest date
from the end of the third century. Doubtless in this
Siarter was situated the church spoken of by St,
regory of Tours as the oldest in the city; here was
the sarcophagus of the virgin Crescentia, granted that
our hypothesis agrees with a legend referring to this
region the foundation of the chapel under the patron-
age of Pope St. Clement, in whicn Bishop St. Marcel-
lus was buried in the fifth century. This bishop, who
was a native of Paris, governed the Church of Paris
about 430; he is celebrated in popular tradition for his
victory over a dragon, and his life was written by For- •
tunatus.
Merovingian Paris. — Paris was preserved from
the invasion of Attila through the prayers and activ-
ity of St. Genevieve (q. v,)j who prevailed on the
Parisians not to abandon their city. Clovis, King of
the Franks, was received there in 497 after his convei^
sion to Christianity,
and made it his cap-
ital. The coming of
the Pranks brought
about its great reli-
gious development.
At the summit of the
hill on the left bank
Clovis founded, in
a basilica to which
the tomb of St. Gene-
vieve drew numbers
of the faithful, and
in which St. Clotilde,
who died at Toura,
was buried. On the
right bank were built
as early as the fifth
century two churches
consecrated to St.
Martin of Tours —
one near the present
Nol
:-Da)
, the
Cbubcb or «■ MADaLmn. Puus ^^j^^^ farther 11 _,
his arrival in Paris; country, in the place where the Church of St-Martin-
disap- des-Champs now stands. Childebert (d. 558), son of
Clovis, having become King of Paris in 511, added to
the religious prestige of the city. After his campaign
in Spain, he made peace with the inhabitants of Sara-
gossa on condition that they would deliver to him the
sacred vessels and the stole of St, Vincent, and on bis
return, at the instance of St. Germain (q. v.), built a
church in honour of St. Vincent, which later took the
name of Germain himself. The present church of St-
Germain-des-Prfe still prcservps some columns from
the triforium, which must date from the first building.
After the death of Caribert, son of Clotaire I (567),
Paris was not divided among the other sons of Clo-
ture, but formed a sort of municipal republic under
the direction of St, Geniiain. Owing to this excep-
tional situation Paris escaped almost entirely the con-
sequences of the civil wars with which the sons of
Clotaire, and later Fredegundc and Brunhilde, dis- ■
turbed Merovingian France. Mgr Duchesne concedes
a certain authority to an ancient catalogue of the
bishops of Paris, preserved in a sacramentary dating
from the end of the ninth or the beginning of the tenth
century. After St. Germain other bishops of the
Merovingian period wen-: St. C*ran (Ceraunus, 905-
21), who collected and compiled the Acts of the Mar-
tyrs, and during whose episcopate a council of seventy-
mne bishops (the first national council of France) was
held at the basilica of Sts. Peter and Paul ; St. Landry
(660-6), who founded under the patronage of St.
PARIS 482 PARIS
Christopher the first charity hospital (Hdtel^Dieu) of and Magloire^ which was celebrated at the beginning
Paris, and who caused the monk Marculf to compile, of the Capetian period, and was dependent on the
under the name of ^'Recueil de Formules'', the first Abbey of Marmoutiers (see Tours). But a still more
French and Parisian code, which is a real monument of famous monastic establishment was the Abb^ of St-
the legislation of the seventh century: St. Agilbert Germain-des-Pr^. Its estates of Issy and of Celle-St-
(666-S)), who was the brother of St. Theodechilde, Cloud were vast possessions, and the pol3i>tych (rec-
first Abbess of Jouarre, and who had, during his youth ord of the monastic possessions), driawn up at the
in England, instructed in Christianity the King of the beginning of the ninth centurv under the direction of
Saxons; St. Hugues (722-30), nephew of Charles Mar- Ablx>t Irminon, shows how these estates, which ex-
tel, previously Archbishop of Rouen and Abbot of tended into Indre and Normandy, were administered
Fontenelle. and cultivated. The first Capetians generally resided
Paris under the Carlo vingians. — The Carloving- at Paris. Louis the Fat quarrelled with Bishop Etienne
ian period opened with the episcopate of D^odefroi de Senlis (1124-42). The bishop placed the ro^al do-
(757-75), who received Pope Stephen at Paris. Spe- main under interdict, whereupon the king connscated
cial mention must be made of Mneaa (appointed the temporalities of the diocese, but the intervention of
bishop in 853 or 858; d. 870). who wrote against Pho- the pope and of St. Bernard put an end to the difi'er-
tius, under the title ^'Libellus adversus Graecos", a ence. and to seal the reconciliation, the king invited
collection of texts from the Fathers on the Holy the oishop to the coronation of his son, Louis VIL
Ghost, fasting, and the Roman primacy. As the Caj- The episcopal court of Peter Lombard (1157 or 11 59 to
lovingians m^ frequently resicfed on the banks of the 1160 or 1164) contributed to the scholarly reputation
Meuse or the Rhine, the bishops of Paris greatly in- of the Church of Paris. The Utiiversity of Paris did
creased their political influence, though confronted by not yet exist, but, from the b^inning of the twelfth
counts who represented the absent sovereigns. The century, the monastic schools ofNotre-Dame were al-
bishops were masters of most of the lie de la CiU and ready famous, and the teaching of Peter Lombard,
of a considerable portion of the right bank, near St- known as the Master of the Sentences, added to their
Germain-rAuxerrois. As early as the ninth century lustre. Louis VI declared in a diploma that he had
the property of the chapter of Notre-Dame, estab- passed ''his childhood in the schools of Notre-Dame as
lished (775-95) by Bishop Erchenrade, was distinct m the maternal bosom''. At Notre-Dame William of
from that of the diocese, while the cloister and the resi- Champeaux (q. v.) had taught dialectics, been a pro-
dences of the canons were quite independent of the fessor^ and become an archdeacon, and had Abelaitl as
royal power. Notre-Dame and the Abbey of St-Ger- a disciple before he founded the school of St- Victor in
main-des-Pr6s were then two great economic powers 1108. Until about 1127 the students of Notre-Dame
which sent through the kingdom their agents (misai resided within the chapter enclosure. By a command
negociarUes)^ charged with making purchases. When of Alexander III the principle of gratuitous instruction
the Normans entered Paris in 845 or 846. the body was asserted. Inaletterwrittenbetween 1154 and 1182
of St. Germain was hurriedly removed. They estab- Philippe de Harvengt says: "There is at Paris such
lished themselves in the abbey, but left on payment of an assemblage and abundance of clerics that they
7000 livres, whereupon the saint's body was brought threatened to outnumber the laity. Happ^ city,
back with great pomp. Another Norman invasion in where the Holy Books are So assiduously -studied ana
850 or 856 again occasioned the removal of St. Ger- their mysteries so well expounded, where such dili-
main's body, which was restored in 863. Other gence reigns among the students, and where there is
alarms came in 865 and 876, but the worst attack such a knowledge of Scripture that it may be called
took place on 24 Nov., 885, when Paris was defended the city of letters!" At the same period Peter of
by its bishop, the celebrated Gozlin, a Benedictine and Blois says that all who wish the settlement of
former Abbot of St-Germain-des-Pr6s, and by Count any question should apply to Paris, where the most
Eudes of Paris, later King of France. The siege tangled knots are untied. In his letter to Archbishop
lasted a year, of which an account in Latin verse was William of Sens (1169), St. Thomas k Becket de-
written by the monk Abbo Cemuus. Gozlin died in clares himself ready to submit his difference with
the breach on 16 April, 886. His nephew Ebles, Abbot the King of England to the judgment of the scholars
of St-Germain, was ^so among the valiant defend- at Paris.
ers of the city. The Parisians called upon Emperor The long episcopate of Maurice de Sully (1160-96),
Charles the Fat to assist them, and he paid the Nor- the son of a simple serf, was marked by the consecra-
mans a ransom, and even gave them permission to as- tion of the Cathedral of Notre-Dame (see below) and
cend the Seine through the city to pillage Burgundy; the journey to Paris of Pope Alexander III (1163).
the Parisians refused to let them pass, however, and the Hughes de Monceaux, Abbot of St-Germain , requested
Normans had to drag their boats around the walls, the pope to consecratie the monastery church. Mau-
After the deposition of Charles the Fat, Eudes, who rice de Sully, Bishop of Paris, havins accompanied
had defended Paris against the Normans, became the pope to the ceremony, was invited by the abbot
king, and repelled another Norman attack, assisted by to withdraw, and Alexander III declu^ in a sermon,
Gozlin's successor, Bishop Anscheric (886-91). After afterwards confirmed by a Bull, thenceforth the
the death of Eudes the Parisians recognized his brother Church of St-Germain-des-Prds was dependent on^
Robert, Count of Paris and Duke of France, and then on the Roman pontiff, and subsequently conferred
Hugh the Great. Hugh Capet, son of Hugh the on the abbot a number of episcopcd prerogatives.
Great, prevented Paris from falling into the hands of In time the Abbey of St-Germam became the centre of
the troops of Emperor Otto II m 978; in 987 he abourg, the inhabitants of which were granted munid-
founded the Capetian dynasty. pal fr^dom by Abbot Hughes de Monceaux about
Paris under thb Capetians. — "To form a concep- 1170. Eudes de Sully (1197-1208), the successor of
tion of Paris in the tenth and eleventh centuries , Maurice, courageously opposed King Philip II, when
writes M. Marcel Po<He, "we must picture to our- he wished to repudiate Ingeburge and wed Agnes de
selves a network of churches and monasteries sur- M^ran. Philip II was a benefactor of Paris, and the
rounded by cultivated farm-lands on the present site university was founded during his reign (1215). (See
of Paris." Take, for example, the monastery of St. Paris, University of.) The thirteenth century, and
Martin-des-Champs, which in 1079 was attached to especially the reign of St. Louis, was a period of great
the Order of Cluny ; about this monastery and its hos- industrial and commercial prosperity for Paris, as is
pice was grouped a real agricultural colony, while all shown by the " Ldvre des Mestiers" of Etienne Boileau
trades were practised in the monastic school. The and the invectives of Petrarch. Bishop Guillaume
CBune was true of the monastery of Sts, Barth^lemy d'Auvergne (1227-49) received from St. Louis the
TAMSS 4i
Crown of Thorns, which wu borne in proccsrion
to Paris on 18 August, 1239. Under St. Louie the
Puliiunent was pemuuiently eotobliehed at Paris
and the Bishop of Paris decl&red a conteilier-'Tii.
Under Tbilip the Fair occurred at Paris the trial of
the Templars (q. v.) which ended (1314) with the
PABI8
T Babtbolohiiw'b Dat;
Archbishop of Rouen and cardinal. After the Battle
of Poitiers (1356), at which John II was taken pris-
oner, the dauphin Charlee (afterwards Charles V)
convoked at Paris the Slates General of 1356, 1357,
and 1358. At these assemblies the provoet of mer-
chants, Etienne Marcel, and Robert Le Coq, Bishop
of Laon, were the leaders of a violent opposition to the
royal party. The result of
the assassination of Etienne
Marcel was the dauphin's
victory. Having become
king OB Charles V, the
latter made himself a mag-
nificent reddepce at the
Hfltel St-Paul, rebuilt the
Louvre, and beKan the con-
struction of tne Bastille.
Durinc hie reign the cardi-
nahtial purple was first oven
to the bishops of Paris.
Etienne de Pane (1363-8)
and Aimeri de Maienao
(1368-84) received it in
turn. The revolt of the
Maillotins (1381) and the
wan between the Burgun-
dians and Armagnacs dur-
ing the first twenty years of
the fifteenth century filled
Paris with blood. After the
Treaty of Troyes (1420)
Paris received an EnRlish
garrison. Because of hla
5|rmpathy with Charles VI,
ohn Courtecuiese, a theo-
l<»iBn of Gallican tendencies
who became bishop in 1420,
was compelled to go Into
exile at Geneva, where he
died in 1423. The attack: of Joan of Arc on Paris
in 1430 was unsuccessful. The Treaty of Arras
between Philip the Good^ Duke of Burgundy, and
Charles VII, restored Pans under the dominion of
the kings of France. Louis XI (q. v.), successor
of Charles VII, was much beloved b^ the citiicns of
Paris. The poet Jean du Bellay, friend of Francis
I and several times ambassador, was Bishop of Paris
from 1532 to 1551, and was made cardinal in 1535.
With him the Renaissance was established in the
diocese, and it was at hie persuasion that Francis I
founded for the teaching of languages and philology
the Coll^ Royal, which later became the College de
France (1529). In 1533 du Ballay n^otiated be-
tween Henry VIU and Clement VII in an attempt to
prevent England's break with the Holy See, and,
when in 1536 the troops of Charles V threatened
Picardy and Champagne, he received from Francis I
the title of Lieutenant-General of the Kingdom and
placed Paris in a state of defence. Du Bellay was a
typical prelate of the Renaissance, and was celebrated
for his ttiree books of Latin poetry and his magnificent
Latin discourses. For a time he had for hie secretary,
"" ' ' ' I, whom he is said to have inspired to write
•i". He was di^^raced under Henry II,
g bishopric in 1551, and went to Rome,
where he died. The consequences of the rise ol
ProteetontJsm and of the wars of reli^on in r^ard to
Paris are treated under Sai
Leaocb, Tax; Fbance.
Paris Under the Boukbons. — With Cardinal
Pierre de Gondi (d. 1598), who occupied the See of
Paris from 1568, b^an the Gondi dynasty which
occupied the see for a century. As ambassador to
Pius V, Gregory XIII, and Sixtue V, Pierre de Gondi
olw^s oppcwed the League and favoured the accession
of Henry of Navarre. After the episcopate of his
nephew CanUnal Henri de Oondi (1598^1622), Paris
become an archiepiscopal see, and was given to Jean
Fransois de Gon<fi. As early as 1376 Charles V had
sought the erection of Paris to archiepiscopal rank,
but, out of regard for the archbishops of Sens, the
Holy See had then refused to grant the petition.
Louis XIII was more successful, and by a Bull of
October, 1622, Paris was made a metropoLtan see
with Chortres, Meaux, and
Orleans as euGFranuiB. Jean
Francois de Gondi did much
to further the development
of religious congregations
(see BftROiXE, PiEsst: db;
Oratoht, French CoNanr-
Jban-Jacqcbs: St^ulpicb,
SocicTT or; Vincent db
Patji;, Saint), and, during
the civil disturbances of the
Fronde, laboured for the re-
lief of the euSering nopu-
lace, whose tireless bene-
factor wss St. Vincent de
Paul. The archbishop's
coadjutor was his nephew
Jean Francois Faulde Gon-
omst Pierre de M area, earUer
ArchbishopofToulouse. He
was succeeded by Hardouin
de Pir^fixe de Beaumont
(1662-71), during whose
episcopate b^^ the sharp
conflicts evoked by Jan-
senism. He had been tutor to Louis XIV and
was the biographer of Henry IV. Harlay de
Champvollon (1671-95) is the subject of a separate
article. Louis Antoine de Noailles (1695-1729),
made cardinal in 1700. played an important part
in the disputes concerning Quietism and Jansenism.
After an attempt to reconcile Bossuet and Finelon
he took ndes against the latter, successively ap-
proved and condemned Queenel's book, and did
not Bubscribe to the Bull Unigenitus" until 1728.
In the eighteenth century the See of Paris was
made illustrious by Christophe de Beaumont (1746-
81), earlier Bishop of Bayonne and Archbishop of
Vienne, who succeeded in putting an end to the op-
position lingcoing among some M the clergy to the
Bull "Unigenitus". The parliamentarians protested
against the denial of the sacraments to impenitent
Janaenists, and Louie XV, after having at first for-
bidden the Parliament to concern itself with this ques-
tion, turned against the archbishop, exiled him, and
then endeavoured to secure his resignation by offer-
ing him tempting dignities. But it was especially
against the phiUMOphet that this prelate waged war;
pamphlets were wntten against him, among them the
''Lettre de Jean Jacques Rousseau & monsewneur
I'arch^v^ue de Paris . Antoine Le Clerc de Juignd
(d. 1811). who succeeded Beaumont in 1781, was presi-
deat of the clergy at the States General of 1789. He
PABI8
484
PABIS
went into exile during the RevolutioB, and at the
Concordat resigned his see at the pope's request.
Paris During the Rbvolutign. — Within the
present boundaries of the archdiocese the number of
priests forming the active clergj)^ at the time of the
Revolution was about 1000, of whom 600 were in
Parisian parishes, 150 in those of the suburbs, and 250
were chaplains. There were 921 religious, belonging
to 21 rehgious families divided among 38 convents.
Immediately after the adoption of* the Civil Constitu-
tion of the clergy 8 new parishes were created in
Paris and 27 were suppressed. Out of 50 Parisian
pastors 26 refused to take the oath; out of 69 first or
second curates 36 refused; of the 399 other priests hav-
ing spiritual powers. 216 refused. On the other hand
among the pnests wno, not exercising parochial duties,
were not called upon to swear, 196 declared that they
would take the oath and 14 refused. On 13 March,
1791, Gobel (b, 1727), Bishop of Lydda, Coadjutor
Bishop of Basle, and a member of the Constitutional
Assembly, was elected bishop by 500 votes. Lom^nie
de Brienne, Archbishop of Sens, and Jarente^ Bishop
of Orleans, thou^ both had accepted the civil con-
stitution of the clergv, refused to give Gobel canoni-
cal institution, and ne received it from the famous
Talle3rrand, Bishop of Autun. Gobel surrounded
himself with married clerics, such as Louis de Saint
Martin^ Colombart, and Aubert, and through the
Marquis of Spinola, Minister of the Republic of
Genoa, endeavoured to obtain from the Holy See a
sum of money in exchange for his submission. At
the beginning of 1793 he was at the head of about 600
"sworn" priests, about 500 of whom were employed
in parishes. On 7 November, 1793^ he solenmly
declared before the Convention that his subordinate
and he renounced the duties of ministers of Catho-
lic worship, whereupon the Convention congratulat<Mi
him on having ''sacrificed the grotesque baubles of
superstition". On the same day Notre-Dame was
d^cated to the worship of Reason, Citizeness Au-
bry, a com4dienney impersonating that goddess and
Gobel presiding at the ceremonv. Finally, the Com-
mune of Paris decided that all churches should be
closed, and that whosoever requested that they be
reopened should be regarded as a suspect. In March,
17^. Gobel was condemned to death as an atheist
by tne followers of Robespierre, and was executed
futer lengthy spiritual interviews with the Sulpician
Emery and after he had addressed to Abb^ Lothnnger
a letter in which he declared his repentance. In the
absence of Juign^, the legitimate bishop, the Catholic
faithful continued to obey a council formed of the
Abbds de Malaret, Emery, and Espinasse, under the
leadership of the former vicar-general, Charles Henri
du Valk de Dampierre, who was in hiding. Public
worship was restored by the Law of Ventose, Year
III, and by the law of 2 Prairial, Year III (30 March,
1795), fifteen churches were reopened. As early as
1796 about fifty places of worship had been reopened
in Paris; sixteen or seventeen, of which eleven were
parochial churches, were administered by priests
who had accepted the Constitution. More than thirty
others, of which three were parochial churches, were
administered by priests who were in secret obedience
to the legitimate archbishop, and the number of Con-
stitutional priests had fallen from 600 to 150.
Paris in the Nineteenth Century. — The Arch-
diocese of Paris became more and more important
in France during the nineteenth century. Jean
Baptiste de Belloy. former Bishop of Marseilles, who
was appointed arcnbishop in 1802, was then ninety-
three years old. On 18 April, 1802, he presided at
Notre-Dame over the ceremony at which the Con-
cordat was solemnly published. Despite his great age
he reorganized worship in Paris, and re-established
religious life in its forty-two parishes. In a concilia-
tory spirit he appointed to about twelve of these
parishes priests who had taken the oath during the
Revolution. He became cardinal in 1803 and died
in 1808. The conflict between Napoleon and Pius
VII was then at its height. Napoleon attempted to
make Fesch accept the See of Paris, while the latter
wished to retain that of Lyons. Cardinal Maury
(1746-1817), formerly a royalist deputy to the Consti-
tutional Assemblv, also ambassador to the Holy See
from the Count of Provence, but who went over to the
Empire in 1806 and in 1810 became chapliun to King
Jerome, was named Archbishop of Paris by Napoleon
on 14 Oct., 1810. The chapter at once conferred on
him the powers of vicar-capitular, until he should be
preconized bv the pope, but, when it became known
that Pius Vll, by a Brief of 6 November, 1810, re-
fused to recognize the nomination, Maury was actively
opposed by a section of the chapter and the clergy.
The emperor took his revenge by striking at the vicar-
capitular, Astros (q. v.). At the fall of Napoleon,
despite his zeal in persuading it to adhere to the de-
position of the emperor, Maury was deprived of his
faculties bv the chapter. In agreement with Rome,
Louis XVIII named as Archbishop of Paris (1 Aug.,
1817) Alexandre Ang^lique de Tallevrand-P^rigord
(1736-1821), who, despite the Concordat, chose to re-
tain his title of Archbishop of Reims until 1816 and
who was -created cardinal on 28 July, 1817. Talley-
rand-P6rigord did not take possession of his see until
Oct., 1819. He divided the diocese into three arch-
deaneries, which division is still in force.
On the death of Talleyrand-P^rigord in 1821, his
coadjutor Hyacinthe Louis de Qu^len (1778-1840),
court chapltun, succeeded him. A member of the
Chamber of Peers under the Restoration, Qu^len,
as president of the commission for the investigation of
the school situation, vainly endeavoured to prevent
the promulgation of the Martignac ordinances against
the Jesuits m June. 1828. His friendly relations with
Louis XVIII and Charles X drew upon him in 1830 the
hostility of the populace; his palace was twice sacked,
and the Monarchy of July regarded him with sus-
picion, but the devotion he showed during a terrible
cholera epidemic won many hearts to him. Assisted
by Dupanloup he converted the famous Talleyrand,
nephew of his predecessor, on his death-bed in 1838.
Qu^len died 8 Jan., 1840, and was succeeded by Denis-
Auguste Affre, (q. v., 1793-1848), who was slain at
the barricades in 1848. Marie-Dominique-Auguste
Sibour (1792-1862), formerly Bishop of iDigne, suc-
ceeded Affre; among the prelates consulted by Pius
IX with regard to the opportuneness of defining the
Immaculate Conception, ne was one of the few who
opposed it. He was Killed in the church of St-
£tienne-du-Mont on 3 Jan., 1857, bv a suspended
priest. After the short episcopate of Cardinal Morlot
(1857-62) the see was occupied from 1862 to 1872
by Georges Darboy (q. v.), who was slain during the
Commune. Joseph-Hippolyte Guibert (1802-86),
greviouslv Bishop of Viviers and Archbishop of Tours,
ecame Archbishop of Paris on 27 Oct., 1871. His
episcopate was made notable by the erection of the
basilica of Montmartre (see below), and the creation
of the Catholic University, at the head of which he
placed M^ d'Hulst. His successor was Fran9ois-
Marie-Benjamin Richard (1819-1907), former Bishop
of Belley, who had been coadjutor of Paris since July,
1875, became cardinal 24 May, 1889, and was active
in the defence of the religious congregations. Mgr
Lton Amette (b. at Douville, in the Diocese of Evreux,
1850), coadjutor to Cardinal Richard since February,
1906, succeeded him in the See of Paris, on 28 Jan.,
1908.
Notrb-Dame-de-Parib. — On the site now occupied
by the courtyards of Notre-Dame de Paris there was
as early as the sixth century a church of Notre-Dame,
which had as patrons the Blessed Virgin, St. Stephen,
and St. Germain. It was built by Childebert about
iavanona defltroyed Notre-Dame, but St-Etienne re-
muned stEmding, and for a time nerved as the cathe-
dral. At the end of the ninth century Notre-Dame
w«fl rebuilt, and the two churches continued to enat
nde by nde until the eleventh century when St-Etienne
(dl to niin. Maurice de Sully resolved to erect a
magnificent cathedral on the ruins of St-Etienne and
Uie ute of Notre-Dame. Surrounded by twelve cardi-
Btia, Alexander III, who sojourned at Paris from 24
Mardi to 25 April, 1163, laid the corner-stone. Henri
de Ch&teau-MarQay, papal legate, consecrated the hi^
altar in 1182; Hierarchus, Patriarch of Jerusalem, offi-
ciated in 1185 in the completed choir; the fagade was
finidied in 121S, the towers in 1236. Jean and Pierre
de Cbelles completed the work, and, at the twinning
of the fourteenth century, the cathedral was as it is
now. The following are among the noteworthy events
which took place at Notre-Dame: the depositing by
St. Louis (10 Aug., 1239) of the Crown of Thorns, a
portion of the True Cross, and a nail of the Passion;
the obsequies of St. Louis (21 May, 1271): the assem-
bling of the first States-General (10 Apnl, 1302) ; the
coronation of Henry VI of England as King of France
(17 Nov., 1431); tW coronation of Mary Stuart (4
April, 1560): the funeral oration of the Due de Mer-
CCEur by St. Francis de Sales (27 April, 1602) ; the vow
of Louis XIII, making the Assumption a feast of the
kingdom (10 Feb., 1638) ; the abjuration of the Mar^
duJ de Turenne (23 Oct., 1668) ; the funeral oration of
the Prince de Cbodf by Bossuet (10 March,^ 1687),
During the French Revolution, in the period fol-
lowing 1790, the treasury was despoiled of' many of
its precious objectSjWhich were sent to the mint to
be melted down. The Crown of Thorns was taken
to the cabinet of antiquities of the Biblioth^ue
Natkinale and thus escaped destruction. The stat-
ues of the kings, which adorned the porch, were
destroyed in October, 1793, by order of the Paris
Commune. The feast of Reason was celebrated in
Notre-Dame in November, 1793; in December of the
same year Saint-Simon, the future founder of the
Saint-Simonian religion, was about to purchase the
church and destroy it. From 1798 it contained the
offices of the Constitutional clei^, and from 5 Mareh
to 28 May, 1798, it was also the meeting-place of the
Theophilanthropista, Catholic worship was resumed
on IS April, 1802, and the coronation of Napoleon
took place there on 2 December, 1804. By the pref-
ace of his novel "Notre Dame de Paris" (1832) Victor
Hugo aroused a strong public sentiment in favour of
th^ cathedral. In April, 1844, the Government en-
trusted LasauB and Viollet le Due with a complete
restoration, which was completed in 1864. On 31
May, 1864, Arehbishop Darboy dedicated the re-
stored cathedral. The marriage of Napoleon III
&0 January 1853), the funeral services of President
Camot (1 July, 1894), the obsequies of President
Filix Faure (23 Feb., 1899), took place at Notre-
Dame. Notre-Dame has been a minor basibca dnce
Z7 Feb., 1805. As early as the be^nning of the
thirteenth century at least two churches were copied
entirely from the cathedral of Paris, viz. the collegiate
chureh of Mantes (Seine-et-Oise) and the cathedral
of Nicoma in the Island of Cyprus, the bishop of which
was a brother of the cantor of Notre-Dame. The
lU dt la CiU, where Notre-Dame stands, also con-
tains the Sainte-Chapelle, in the Palais de la Justice,
one of the most beautiful reli^ous buildings in Paris.
it was built (1212-47) under St. Louis by Pierre de
Montereau, with the exception of the spire. Its
stained-glass windowi are admirable. In former
times the king, from an ogival baldachin, displayed
to the people the relics of the Passion.
Principal Chubchbb on tbe Riobt Bans or the
3einb. — The Church of St-Germain-l'Auxerroie was
J5 PARIS
built between the thirteenth and the sixteenth century
on the wte of a. baptistery built by St. Germain, where
baptism was administered on fixed dates. At other
times the piscina was dry, and the catechumens came
and seated themselves on the steps while catechetical
classes were held. Three trapc recollections are con-
nected with this chureh. On 24 August, 1572, its
bells gave the signal for the Massacre of St. Bartholo-
mew; in 1617, thebodyof Concini, Marshal d'Ancre,
which had been buried there, was disinterred by the
mob and mutilated; on 14 Feb., 1831, the people sacked
the chureh under the pretext that an anniveisary
Mass was being celebrated for the soul of the Due de
Berry. The Church of St-Eustache, built between
1532 and 1637, was the scene of the First Communion
of Louis XIV (1649), the funeral oration of Turenne
preached by Fishier (1676), and Maesillon's sermon
^^f '4%]
.■ft , v ^
■" f
« ;]
i:
1 u 'I Jli
on the small numba of Ute deot (1704). MasoUoD
preached the Lenten sermons in the church of St-Leu
(fourteenth centuiy), and the conspirator Georges
Cadoudal hid in its crypt from the police of Bonapart«.
In the Church of St-Gervais (early sixteenth-century),
where the League was established, Boesuet preached
the funeral sermon of Chancellor Michel Le Teltier.
Its doorway, of which Louis XIll laid the first stone
in 1616, is a very beautiful work of Salomon de Brosae.
Blessed Marie de I'lncamation was baptised at Stunt-
Merry (1520-1612). In Sain t-I^uia-en-1' lie (rebuilt
1664-1726) St. Vincent de Paul presided over the
meetings at which the charity bureaux were organized.
Charles VI, Charles VII, and Olier were baptiied
in the Chureh of St-I'aul, destroyed during tbe Revo-
lution, The Church of St-Louis (seventeenth-cen-
tury), former chapel of the Jesuit professed house,
where Bourdaloue preached the funeral sermon of
Condf and where he was buried, was chosen at the
Concordat to replace the parish of St-Paul, and took
the name of St-Paul-St-Louis. The Madeleine (begun
1764 and finished '824), of which Napoleon I widied
to make a Temple of Glory, had within less than a
century two pastois, who were martyred, Le Ber,
butchered in 1792, and Deguerry, shot in 1871. '^"
The
visited by St. Vincent de Paul, who lived
1 the©
PABI8 486 PABI8
▼ent of St-Lazare within the confines of the parish, of learning, and Luc d' Ach^ry, Mabillon, and Mont-
Here was buried Venerable Madame Le Gras, foun- fauoon rendered it illustrious. Abb^ Provost, author
dress of the Sisters of Charity. During the Revolu- of the famous romance ''Manon Lescaut", was for a
tion it was given to the Theopnilanthropists who made time a Benedictine at St-Germain-de&-Pr6s, where he
of it the "Temple of Hymen and Fidelity''. With worked on ''Gallia Christiana". John Casimir, fint a
regard to Notre-Dame-des-Victoires see below under Jesuit and later King of Poland, died as Abbot of St-
Famous Pilgrimages. St-Densrs-de-la-Chapelle Germain-de&-Pr6a in 1672. The i^bey prison was the
(thirteenth-century) stands where St. Genevieve and scene of the September massacres in 1792.
her companions rested, when they were making a The ori^n ox the Abbey of St- Victor was a hermit-
Silgrimage from Paris to the tomb of St. Denis. Bl. age, to which William of Champeaux (q. v.) retired in
oan of Arc, who had come to besiege Paris, stopped 11(6. The abbey was founded by a royal charter in
here to pray. 1113, and had as first abbot Gilduin, confessor of
Principal Churches on the Left Bank. — St- Louis the Fat. The abbey governed the priories of
Nicholas-du-Chardonnet (1656-1758) is famous for Corbeil, Ch&teau-Laudon, Etampes, Mantes, Poissy,
the seminary which Bourdoise founded in the vicinity, Dreux, and even the cathedral of S6ez. During the
for the Forty Hours preached there by St. Francis de first centuiy it was rendered illustrious by Richard (A
Sales, and for the funeral oration of Lamoignon St-Victor, Hu^ of St-Victor, and the liturgical ix)et,
preached there by F16chier. St-Sulpice (1646-1745) Adam of St-Victor. Grave abuses having crept into
IS famous for its pastor Olier (q. v.); in 1793 it was a the Congre(|ation of the Canons of St. Genevieve,
temple of Victory, under the Directory it was used Pope Eugemus III and Suger in 1148 introduced the
by the Theophilanthropists, and there Pius VII con- Canons Kegular of St. Augustine from the Abbey of
secratdl the oishops of La Rochelle and Poitiers. To St-Victor. From the thirteenth to the fifteenth cen-
the architectural importance of St-Germain-des-Prds turv the abbey passed throush a period of decadence,
was added in the nineteenth century the attrac- and in 1498 two strange momu, John Standonck, rec-
tion of Flandrin-'s frescoes. St-M^aid (fifteenth- tor of the College of Montaigu, and John Nfonbaer of
sixteenth-century) became celebrated in the eight- Windesheim near ZwoUe, spent nine months at the
eenth century owing to the sensation caused by the abbey to efifect its reform. With the sixteenth century
Jansenists with reeard to the wonders wrought at began a series of commendatory abbots, one of whom,
the tomb of the deacon Paris. St-S^verin (four- Antonio Caracciolo, became a Protestant. The canons
teenth-fifteenth-century), one of the most remarkable of St-Victor took a very important part in the League.
Gothic edifices of Paris, replaced an older church in The first half of the seventeenth century was chaxao-
which Foulques de Nemlly preached the fourth cm- terized by a conflict between Jean de Toulouse, prior
Bade in 1199; St. Vincent de Paul, Bossuet, Massillon, of St-Victor, and the Genov^fains: a decision of the
F16chier, Lacordaire, and Ravignan preached in this official (28 June, 1645) declared St- Victor autonomous,
church. Originally dedicated to St. Severinus, a Jansenism found its way into St-Victor, and was corn-
Parisian hermit, who was buried there in 555, it was batted by Simon Gourdan, who was persecuted. In the
dedic.ilcd to St. Severinus of Agaune from the fifteenth eighteenth century its library was celebrated, and was
to the eighteenth century, and since 1753 has had open to the public three times a week. The hbrarian
both these saints as patrons. Ste-Clotilde (1846-61) Mulot. who was also grand prior^ublished a transla-
was made a minor basilica on 19 April, 1897, at the tion of "Daphnis andChloe''. Tne abbey's end was
time of the fourteenth centenary of Clovis. St- sad. When the Revolutionary commissaries ques-
Lambert-de-Vaugirard had as pastor Olier, who tioned the twenty-one religious present, only one,
founded the Society of St-Sulpice, and St. John aged 81, affirmed his desire to remain: nine did not re-
Baptist de la Salle opened his first school in this ply. eleven left the monastery ^ and the librarian Mu-
parish; its name of Vauginurd (Vailis Gerardi) recalls lot became a deputy of the Legislative Assembly. The
the charitable Abbot of St-Germain-des-Pr68, Gerard abbey was destroyed in November, 1798.
de Moret, who built dwellings for sick religious in the The early history of the Abbey of Saint-Denia, near
locahty. The chim;h of the Sorbonne, where religious Paris, is very obscure. In the second half of the fifth
services are no longer held, was begun in 1635. century the cleigy of Paris erected at the instance of
Richelieu la3ring its foundation stone, and completed St. Genevieve in the village of Catulliacus where the
in 1646. Richelieu's tomb in this chim;h was vio- saint was buried, a basilica, administered by a com-
lated during the Revolution; the cardinal's head, munity of monks. Pilgrims flocked thither, and, as
which was taken away on this occasion, was restored early as 625, a charter of Clotaire II authorised the
to this church in 1866. The chapel of Val-de-GrAce. abbot to receive a legacy. Nevertheless, tradition re-
a very beautifid specimen of the Jesuit style and gards Dagobert I (628-38) as the real founder. Ac-
famous for its cupma wherein Mignard has depicted cording to Mabillon, F^libien, and M^ Lton Levillain,
the glory of the bleraed, was built in fulfillment of a he merely decorated and embellished the already exist-
vow made by Anne of Austria, ^f ansart was its first ing basilica; according to Julian Havet, this early basil-
architect, and the comer-stone was laid in 1645 by ica stood at the place caUed Sunt-Denis-de-l' Entr^,
Louis XIV at the age of seven. Here was buried west of the present church, and between 623 and 625
Henrietta of France, wife of Charles I of England, Dagobert founded the new abb^ church, to which the
and here Bossuet preached the Lenten sermons of relics were removed in 626. Whatever the solution
1663, It is now the chapel of the Paris military ho&- of this problem, with which scholars have occupied
pital. The chapel of St-Louis-des-Invalides contains themselves since the seventeenth century, Dagobert
tibe tomb of Napoleon I. In the crypt of the Church was the abbey's signal benefactor: the altar oma-
of St-Joseph-des-Carmes, built by the Carmelites ments, the tomb containing the body of St. Deni^
between 1613 and 1625 and now the church of Uie the golden cross set with precious stones which stood
Institut Catholique, are the tomb of Ozanam and the behind the hi^ altar were the work of the gold-
remains of the 120 priests massacred in this church on smith, St. Eligius (Eloi), the king's friend. Dagobert
2 Sept., 1792, after fifteen days of captivity. In this himself desired to be buried at Saint-Denis. At the
crypt Lacordaire remained attached to a cross for instance of Abbot Fulrad (d. 784) Pepin the Short had
three hours. the abbey rebuilt, and here on 28 July, 754, Pope
Principal Abbeys. — The Benedictine Abbey of St- Stephen II solemnly administered the royal anoint-
Germain-des-Pr^, the foundation and medieval splen- ment to Pepin, Queen Bertha, and their two sons, and
dour of which have been described above, was long consecrated an altar. The new edifice was dedicated
famous for the fair which it held. During the seven- on 24 Feb., 775, in the presence of Charlemaraie. Hil-
teenth century its important hbrary made it a centre duin, who became abbot in 814, wrote the life of St.
PAXIS 487 PA&IS
Denis, and identifier him wiUi 9t. Denis the Areopa- order by Jean Chariier, who eompleteil them with the
_!. . rL._^__ .!._ _-_^i. _._. — .■__ .1 1 jjig^jfy of Charles VII and published them in 1476,
this being the earliest boot known to have been
priDt«d in Paris,
From 1529 St-Denia had commendatory abbots, the
first of whom was Louis Cardinal de Bourbon. Tlie
Religious Wbjb were a disastrous period for the abbey.
In 1562 and 1567 tombs were destroyed, the archives
ravaged, and the reliquaries of the saints stripped of
their plates of gold and silver. Catherine de' Medici
Flanned to erect beside the church a chapel for Henry
I and herself ; Francis Primatice, Jean Bullant, and
Androuet de Cerceau in turn supervised the work on
this great mausoleum, which, owing to the civil dis-
turbances, was never finished and was deiDolished in
1719. The troubles of the League brought about frah
During the siege of Paris in 886, the monks sought
refuge with Archbishop Foulques of Reims, taking
with them the body of St. Denis. After these disas-
ters the abbey was restored and perhaps, as some
scholars maintain, entirejy rebuilt. St, Gerard, of a
noble family of the Low Countries, was a monk at St-
Dotis previously to founding the Abbey of Broglie in
1030. In 1106 Paschal 11 visited the abbey, and for a
time Abelard was a monk there, Suger, minister of
Louis VI and Louia VII, who became Abbot of St-
Denis in 1122, wished to erect a sumptuous new church'
his architectural work is known to us throu^ two of
his writings, the "Book of his Administration" and
the "Treatise on the Consecration of the Church of St.
Denis". St^Denis then attracted numerous pilgrims,
whom Suger describes as crowdthg to the doois,
"squeeied as in a press". By a charter of 15 March,
1 125, Suger released from mortmain the people of St-
Denis, wno in gratitude gave him the money for tiie
reconstruction of the church. The work began doubt-
lees about 1132; the choir wag consecrated on 11 June,
1144, in the presence of Louis VII, five archbidiops,
and fourteen bishops, and the translation of the reUcs
took place the same day. The alliance of the Cape-
tians with the monastery of St. Denis was thenceforth
sealed. Odo of Deuil, Suger's successor as id}bot, was
chi^Uin to Louis VII during the second crusade, of
which he wrote a chronicle. The Abbey of St-Denis
was the repository of the royal insignia — the crown,
Boeptre, main de justice, and the garments and orna-
ments used at the coronation of the kings. For each
ooron&tion the abbot brought them to Rdms, The
oriflsmme (q, v.) was also kept there, and thither re-
paired Bl. Joan of Arc after the coronation of Charles
Vll at Reims.
The new Church of St-Denis has an extreme impor-
tance for the history of medieval architecture. It was
the earliest important building in which the pointed
arch (cToUfe d'ogise) was used in the chapels of the
deambulatorv, thus inauguratimr this wonderful in-
ventjon of the Gothic style. The church exercised
also a great influence on the development of the indus-
trial arts: the products of the goldsmith's and cnamel-
ler's art ordered by Suger formed one of the most
beautiful treasures of Christianity, some remnants of
which are still preserved in the Gallery of Apollo
at the Louvre. As regards monuments] sculpture
M, Andr* Michel, the art historian, writes that
"the grand chantry of St-Denis was the decisive
studio in the elaboration and, if we may so
speak, the proclamation of the new style." In 1231
toe rehgious of St-Denis resolved to reconstruct the
basilica, and the chronicler Guillaume de Nangis, a
monk at the abbey, says that St. Louis, a friend of
thrir abbot Mathieu de Vendftme, advised them to do
BO. It may be that portions of the edifice built by
Suger had fallen to rum, or perhaps St. Louie's plan l«
erect tombs to his predecessors was the origin of the
plan. Of Suger's building the western facade, the
deambulatorv, the chapels of the apse, and the crypt
were retained, the remainder being rebuilt. The work
was directed by the architect Pierre de Montereau,
thanks to whose genius the nave and transept form a
glorious example of the splendid Gothic fut; of the
thirteenth century. St-Denis was the historical labora-
to^ of the old French monarchy; the abbot selected a
relikious who followed the court as histori<^rapher to
the king, and, on the death of each king, the history of
bis reign, after having been submitt«a to the chapter,
was incorporated in trie "Grandes Chroniquea". Es-
pecially important, as historical sources, are the works
of the monk Rigord on Philip Augustus and that of
Guillaume de Nangis on St. Louis, On the invention
of printing the "Qrandes Chrouiques" were put in
pillaaee. Here on 25 July, 1593, Renaud de Beaune,
Archiiishop of Bourgee, received the abjuration of
Henry IV. In 1633 the Benedictinee of the Congrega-
tion of St, Maur reformed the abbey, and for a time
the celebrated Mabillon (1633-1707) -was guardian of
the treasury. In 1686 Louis XIV transferred the ab-
iippreased, and thenceforth the abbey was directed by
grand priors, dependent on the superior-general of the
congregation who resided at the Aobey of St-Germain-
de»-Pr&, These grand priors were of right vicars-
general of the archbishops of Paris. In 1706 the monk
F^libien (1666-1719) pubhshed the history of the ab-
bey. In the eighteenth century the abb^ buildings
were entirely rebuilt by the monks, and they were
about to change completely the Gothic appearance of
the church itself when the Revolution broKe oat. St-
Denis was then called Pranciaiie, the church becams
first a temple of Reason, and then a maritet-house. In
August, 1703, the Convention, on the recommenda-
tion of Harare, ordered the destruction of the tombs
of the kin^. Immediately most of the Gothic
tombs were destroyed, and between 14 and 250ct.,
1793, the ashes of the Bourbons were scattered to
the winds. In 1795 Alexander Lenoir had all tbt
tombs that had been spared removed to the Museuix
PARIS 488 PAftIS
of French Monuments. Napoleon (20 Feb., 1805) de- than 4,000,000 of which were distribuied throughout
oided that the church should be restored, re-estab- the world within four years. In 1838 Desgenettesi
lished worship there, and decreed that thenceforth St- pastor of Notre-Dame-des-Victoires, organised in that
Denis should be the burial-place of the emperors. At church the Association in honour of the Holv and Im-
the Restoration the tombs which had been removed to maculate Heart of Mary, which Gregory Xvl made a
the Museum of French Monuments were restored to confraternity on 24 April, 1838, and the badge of
St-Denis, but in such a disorderly fashion that Mon- which was the miraculous medal. In virtue of another
talembert, in a discourse of 1847, called the Church of indult of Gregory XVI (7 Dec., 1838) the Diooese of
St. Denis " a museum of bric-^brac " . A truly artistic Paris received the right to transfer to the second Sun-
restoration was accomplished finally (1847-79) by day of Advent the solemnity of the feast of the Im-
Viollet le Due. maculate C3onception. On 10 July, 1894, Leo XIII
Of the thirty-two Capetian kings from Hugh Capet granted to the Lazarists, and to the dioceses that
to Louis XV only three were buried elsewhere than in should request it, the faculty of celebrating yearly on
St-Denis. The series of authentic portraits of the 27 November the manifestation of the Biased Virgin
kings of France at St-Denis opens witn the sepulchral through the miraculous medal. This feast was first
statue of Philip III the Bold (d. 1285). Until the six- celebrated at Paris in the chapel of Rue du Bac on 25,
tenth century the royal tombs at St-Denis maintained 26, and 27 November, 1894. On 27 July, 1897, the
modest proportions, but in that century the church statue of the Blessed Virgin in this chapel was sol-
was filled with works of art. The monument of the enmly crowned in* virtue of a Brief of Leo XIII (2
Dukes of Orleans, erected bv Louis XII, was the work March, 1897). In 1899 the number of Masses cele-
of four (jenoese sculptors: that of Louis XII (d. 1515) brated by foreign priests at Notre-Dame-des-Victoires
and Anne of Brittany (a. 1514), is the work of the was 3031; the numb(^ of Communions, 110,000; in-
Juste family, Italian sculptors residing at Tours: the tentions 1,305,980, or an average of 3578 per day.
magnificent monument of Francis I and Claude of (3) MonUnartre. — Prior to the ninth century there
fVance is the work of the ^;eat architect Philibert were two chiux^hes on the hill of Montmartre — one,
Delorme and of the sculptor Pierre Bontemps; that of half way up, stood on the traditional site of the mar-
Heniy II and Catherine de' Medici, executed under trydom of St. Denis, while the other, on the summit,
the direction of Primatice, is admired for the sculp- was said to replace a temple dedicated to Mars. In
tures of Germain Pilon. The only monument repre- 1095 these two churches oecame the property of a
senting the art of the seventeenth century is that of monastery occupied first (1005-1134) by the monks of
Turenne. The episcopal chapter of St-Denis, created St-Martin-des-Champs, and from 1034 to the Revolu-
by Napoleon I to care for the basilica, was composed of tion by the Benedictmes. The church on the sunmiit
ten canons whose head was the grand almoner. The was rebuilt in the twelfth century, and consecrated
canons had to be former bishops more than fifty years on 21 Aprils 1147, by Pope Eugenius III with St. Ber-
of age. The Restoration created canons of a second nard of Clau^aux as deacon, and Peter the Venerable,
order, who were not chosen from among the bishops, Abbot of Climy, as subdeacon. Alexander III visited
and tne grand almoner received the title of primider it in 1162: St. Thomas k Becket in 1170; St. Thomas
(dean) of the chapter. The empire and the Restora- Aquinas, Bl. Joan of Arc, St. Ignatius, St. Francis
tion claimed that this chapter, which Napoleon had Xavier, St. Vincent de Paul, Olier, and Blessed John
created without taking counsel with Rome, should not Eudes prayed there. During the war of 1870-71 MM.
be subject to the jurisdiction of the ordinary. This Legentil and Rohault de Fleury issued from Poitiers
was the cause of conflict imtil 1846, when the pope is- an appeal in behalf of the erection at Paris of a sane-
sued a Bull placing the chapter of St-Germain under tuary to the Sacred Heart to obtain the release of the
the direct supervision of the Holy See; the primate re- pope and the salvation of France. On 23 July, 1873,
tained episcopal authority over the church and the the National Assembly passed a law declaring the con-,
house of the Legion of Honour annexed to the church, struction of this sanctuary a matter of pubhc utility.,
and the Archbishop of Paris had no spiritual jursidic- After a meeting in which seventy architects took part,
tion over either of these buildings. The budget for the Abadie was charged with its construction, in Bysan-
chapter of St-Denis was suppressed by the State in tine style. Cardinal Guibert laid the corner-stone*
1888. The theologian Maret, famous for his writings on 16 June, 1875, and said the first Mass in the crypt
against the opportuneness of the definition of infam- on 21 Apnl, 1881. Cardinal Richard blessed the
buity, was the last primate. church on 5 June, 1891, and on 17 October 1899^
Famous Pilgrimages. — (1) Tomb ofSL Genevieve, — blessed the cross surmounting the main dome.
St. Genevieve is the patroness of Paris, but after the (4) Pilgrimage totheChimSiof St.Francisinh€iMWlr
conver8ion of the church into a Pantheon of France's of the famous Miracle des BiUetles in 1290, when blood
great men the saint had no church in Paris. Since flowed from a Host which had been profaned by a Jew
1803 her tomb has been at St-Etienne-du-Mont (built and Christ appeared above the receptacle where the
1517-1620), the burial-place of Racine and Pascal. Jew had thrown the Host.
There Pius VII went to pray on 10 January. 1805, and (5) Pilgrimage to the chapel of the Piepus in honour
it was the scene of the assassination of Archbishop of the statue of Notre-Dame^e-Paix wluch the fa-
Sibour on 3 January, 1857. The veneration of St. mous Capuchin Joyeuse, knowil as P^w Ange, gave to
Genevieve is expressed in two feasts: (1) on her feast his convent (sixteenth eentUry).
proper (3 January) and the following eight days a (6) Pilgrimage of Notre*Dame-des-VertU8 at the
solemn novena takes place at St-Etienne-du-Mont church of Aub^rvilUers (dating from 1336), whither
and at the church of Nanterre, birthplace of St. Gene- Louis XIIL B%^ Ignatius, Blessed John Eudes, St.
vieve, whither Clotaire II, St. Louis^ Blanche of Cas- Franci« de Sa)^ St. Vincent de Paul, St. John Bap-
tile, Louis XIII, and Anne of Austna went to vener- tiftt de )» Salle, uid Bossuet went to pray,
ate her memory: (2) on 26 November, anniversary of (7) Pilgrimage of Notre-Dame-des-Miracles at
the miracle whereby, in 1130, a procession of ^he relics Saint-Maur, dating from the erection of a chapel of
of St. Genevieve cured manv Parisiaiks of the vnii de9 the Blessed Virgin by the Abbot St. Babolein about .
arderUs {Miracle dee ardenu). 640. The future Pope Martin IV, Phihp Augustus,,
(2) JVo^e-Da»w-<fcfl^-.yu^'^-.-^Ift eonaequence of St, Louis, Emperor Charles IV of Germany, and Olier.-
the ^Wsio^ granted tQ Cf^therine L^bourd (who six prayed there.
mohtns previo\ialy had become a ineraber of the Sisters (o) Pilgrimage in honour of St. Vincent de Paul tot
pf Charity), M . Aladel, assistant of the Lasarists, with the puish church of Clichy, built by the saint,
^he approv-al of MgF de Qu^len, hf^l struck the * * mirao- Saints of Paris. — A number of saints are especliitjr
\Uou8^ medal'* pf Mf^ Conceived without Sin, more connected with the history of the Diocese of Pam^Sltt.
pABn 4:
Agoard and Aglibert, martyred at Cretil; St. Lucan,
maityred at Paris; St. EugeDe, who according to the
Iwead was sent by Saint Denis to Spain, founded the
Church of Toledo, and was martyred at Deuil; St.
Yon, a disciple of St. Denis; St. Lucian, companion of
St. Denis, martyred at Beauvais (third century); St.
Rieul, founder (c. 300) of the Church of Senlia, visited
and encouraged the Christian community of Paris; St.
Martin (316-^00), Bishop of Tours, while at Paris,
cured a leper by embracing him; Sts. Alda (Aude) and
Cilinie, companions of St. Genevieve; the nun St.
Aurea, disciple of St. Genevieve (fifth century); St.
Germain (380-448), Bishop of Auxerre, whose name is
linked with the history of St. Genevieve; St. Siverin,
Abbot of Agaune (d. 508), who was summoned to
Paris to cure Clovis of a serious illness' Queen St. Clo-
tilde (d. M5) ; St. Leonard, a noble of Clovis's court,
who became a hermit in Limousin and died about 559;
St. ColumbanuB (540-615),
who performed a miracle dur-
ing his stay in Paris; St. Cloud
(d. 560), grandson of St. Clo-
tilde, who was made a monk
by St. S^verin; St. Radegund
(519-87), wife of Clotaire I;
St. Eloi (Eligius, 583-659),
founder of the convent of St.
Martial, minister of Clotaire
II and of Dagobert; St. Ba-
thilde. Queen of France (d.
680); St. E>omnolus (sixth
century). Abbot of St-Lau-
rent, Paris, prior to becoming
Bishop of Le Mans; St. Ber-
techramnus (Bertrond, 553-
623), Archdeacon of Paris,
later Bishop of Le Mane; St.
was a friend of St. Eligius and
died Archbishop of Rouen;
St. Sulpice (seventh century),
chaplain of Clot^r* II, died
as Archbishop of Bouiges; St.
Doctrovfie (seventh century),
first Abbot of St. Vincent; St
Leu, Bishop of Sens (seventh
century) , who on his way through Paris released a num-
ber of prisoners; St. John of Matha (1160-1213), who
was a student of the Umversity of Paris, and, while
saying his first Mass in the chapel of the Bi^op of
Paris, had the vision which induced him to found the
l^nitarians; St. William, canon of Paris, who died
in 1209 as Archbishop of Boui^es; Bl. Reidnald (1 160-
1220}, professor of canon law at the University of
Paris; St. Bonaventure (1221-74), student and wter-
wards professor at the Univeraityof Paris; St. Thomas
Aquinas (1227-74), succeBsively student, prof easor,
andpreacherat the Universitv of Paris; BI.Gr^oryX
(pope 1271-6), doctor of the University of Paris;
St. Yves (1253-1303), who studied law at the Uni-
versity of Pan^ Bl. Innocent V (pope 1276), who
succeeded St. Thomas Aquinas as professor of thc-
o\ogy at the University of Paris; St. Louis (1215-70),
andhia nster Bl. Isabelle (1224-70), foundress of the
Abbey of Poor Clares of Longchampe, who later called
themselves Urbanists because their rule was confirmed
by Urban V ; Bl. Peter of Luxemburg (1369-87), canon
of Paris before becoming Bishop of Mets; Blessed
Urban V (pope 1382-70), sometime professor of canon
law at the University of Paris; Bl. Jeanne-Marie de
M^llo (1332-1414). who came to Paris to make known
ciades; St. Ignatius Loyola (1401-1556); St. Franel*
Xavier (1506-52), who studied at the CoU^ de 8t-
Barbe and made hie vows as a Jesuit at Montmartre;
Mme Acarie, venerated as Bl. Marie de I'lncamation
(1565-1618), a Pariwan by birth, who, under the pro-
tection of the Duchesse de Longueville, established
at Paris the Carmelites of the Fauboui^ SlrJacques:
St. Francis de Sales (1567-1622), who was educated
at the Coll^ de Clermont, Paris, and later preached
there on two occasions; St. Vincent de Paid (1576-
1660), who, having received from Jean-Francoie de
Gondi the Collie dee Bona Enfanls, founded there
the Congregation of the Mission; Bi. Louis Grignion
de Montfort (seventeenth century), who studied at
St-Sulpice and preached several times at Paris.
Special Features of Ecclesiabticai, Paris. —
The feast of the Immaculate Conception was cele-
brated at Paris as early as the thirteenth century by
the students of the Englidi
and Norman nations in the
Church of St-S^verin, and a
confraternity was established
there in honour of the lm>
maculate Conception in tb«
fourteenth centuiy. Even in
the last quarter of the twelfth
century the poet Adam, canon
regular of St-Victor, seems
to have accepted this dogma.
The Univeraity of Paris op-
posed it until the arrival of
Duns Scotus, who came to de-
bate the question with the
Dominican doctors at Paris.
The belief spread during the
fourteenth century, and the
Dominican Jean de Montson,
having maintained in 1387
that the theory was contraiy
to faith, was excommuni-
cated. The doctors of the
university were among those
most eager to hasten at the
Council of Basle the investi-
jAcquBS, Paws .. , . . ■
achismatical, promulgated m
1439. At last, on 9 March, U97, the umversity issued a
decree obliging all its membeis to promise on oath to
profess and defend the doctrine of the Immaculate
Conception, and declaring the contrary opinion false,
imptoiu, and erroneous. In 1575 it took issue with
the famous Jesuit Maldonatus, who still regarded it as
an optional opinion, but it refrained from formally
branding as Heretics those vho did not admit the
doctrine, as laid down by Benedict XIV in his treatise,
"De festis". The procession in honour of the As-
sumption was inaugurated at Paris in 1638, when
Louis XIII placed ms kingdom under the protection
of the Bleaaed Virgin. Devotion to the departed
souls is perhaps the most deeply rooted form of Pa-
risian piety. Even in the eighteenth centur^r the
eioeheUws of the dead traversed the streets at night,
ringing their bells and calling:
lUveillei vous, geits qui dormei,
I^ei Dieu pour les trfpaae^.
The Association of Our Lady of Suffrage for the Dead,
founded in 1838 at the Church of St. Merry by Arch-,
bishop Qu^len and rused to an archconfratemity io^
1857 by Pius IX, is still flourishing. Sexeral; ex-
piatory chapels exist in Paris:, (i) in memory of Lbuidl
XVI and the memberB.Qf[l)ift ffwnily who fellviptims^
to the Terror; (2)<in'mmioru of tbe 1300 persons ber
headed at tiio'barrier of 'the Place du Trdne (including,
the. liB; ^^i^ndltes^ of Compiigne) and buried in tfae
PiJtlS
490
PABI8
oemetery of Picpus; (3) in memory of the Due d'Or-
]6aiia, who was Killed in 1842 in a carriage accident;
(4) in memory of the victims of the dreadful fire at
the Charity Bazar (4 May, 1897).
Reugioub CoNGBEGATioNS. — Prior to the applicn^
tion of the Law of Associations of 1001, there was
a large number of religious congregations in Paris.
Among those having; their mother-house in the city
were: the Asmmiptionists, who preserved in their
chapel a statue of Notre-Dame-de-Salut which, ac-
cormng to tradition^ smiled on Duns Scotus in 1304
when he was about to preach on the Immaculate
Conception; the Eudists (q. v.); the Missionary
Priests of Mercy (founded in 1808 by P6re Rauzau),
who were the founders of the French parish in New
York: the Oblates of Mary Immaculate (founded in
1816 oy Eugene de Mazenod), the apostles of Upper
and Lower Canada, New Brittany, Oregon, British
Columbia^ Texas, and Mexico: the Oratorians,
founded m 1611 oy Pierre de Bdrulle (q. v): the
Priests of Picpus (founded in 1805 by Abb^ Couorin),
the founders of missions in Oceania — ^four of its mem-
bers were martyred imder the Commune (1871), Pdres
Radique, Tuffier, Rouchouse, and Tardieu: the Fa-
thers of the Blessed Sacrament, founded by P^re Ey-
mard: the Brothers of ^he Christian Schools (q. v.),
founaed bv St. John Baptist de la SaUe; the Mananist
Brothers founded at Bordeaux in 1817 for the educa-
tion of the yoimg; the Nuns of the Assumption,
founded in 1839 under the patronage of Archbishop
Affre for the education of young girls; the Sisters of
Charitable Instruction of the Child Jesus (of St.
Maur) for nimdng and teaching, which was founded in
1666 by P^re Ban^ O. Minim., and has missions in
Japan, Siam, and Malacca; the sisters of Mary Help,
f oimded in 1854 for the care of yoimg working-women :
the Sisters of Our Lad^ of Charity of the Refuse (of
St. Michael), founded m 1641 by Venerable Eudes to
receive voluntary penitents; {he Religious of the
Mother of God, a teaching order founded by Oiler
in 1648; the Religious of the Cenacle founded at
Paris in 1826; the Religious of the Sacred Heart,
founded in the beginning of the nineteenth century
by Madame Barat (a. v.); the Sisters of Picpus, a
teaching and contemplative order founded at Poitiers
and removed to Paris in 1804; the Sisters of Our Lady
of Sion, a teaching order founded by P^re Ratisbonne.
Prior to 1901 there were also at Paris: Carmelites;
Dominicans, several of whom were martyred during
the Commune (martyrs of Arcueil); Franciscans;
Jesuits, five of whom were martyred during the
Commune (viz. Pftres Olivaint, Clerc, de Ben^, Du-
coudray, and Caubert); Marists; Priests of Mercy;
Missionaries of the Sacred Heart; and Redemptorists.
Important educational works brought to an end by
the law of 1901 were the boardingnschools of the Ab-
baye aux Bois. Oiseaux, and Roule, conducted by the
Canons R^^lar of St. Augustine, a congregation
founded at the end of the sixteenth century bv St.
Peter Fourier. The same law also terminated the
existence of two great Carmetite convents — the one,
founded in 1604 in the Faubourg St-Jacques by Marie
de r Incarnation, had witnessed the Lenten preaching
of Bossuet in 1661, the vows of Mme de la Vallidre in
1675, and the funeral oration of the Princess Palatine
in 1685; the other, founded in 1664 and established
in the Avenue de Saxe in 1854. possessed a miraculous
crucifix, rescued intact from tne flames at the capture
of Besan^on by Louis XIV. Paris still possesses two
Visitation monasteries, which date respectively from
1619 and 1626. They were founded by St. Francis
de Sales and St. Jane-Frances de Chantal, and in the
middle of the nineteenth century one of them had as
superior Venerable Marie de Sales Chappuis. The
Sisters of Charity, instituted in 1629 by St. Vincent
de Paul and Venerable Mme Le Gras (nSe Louise de
Marillac) and having their mother-bouse at Paris,
still have the right to exercise their niireing activity,
but are legally bound to discontinue gradually their
work as teachers. Among the still existing congre-
^tions of women are: the Congregation of Adora-
tion of Reparation, founded in 1848 by MoUier
Marie-Th^rlse of the Heart of Jesus; the HelpetB of
the Souls in Purgatory, founded in 1856; the Helpers
of the Immaculate Conc«>tion, founded in 1850 by
the Abb^ Largentier for tne care of the sick in their
homes; the Benedictine Sisters of the Blessed Sacra-
ment, founded in 1653 by Catherine de Bar — ^a second
house was founded in 1816 by the Princess Louise de
Bourbon-Cond^ (Mother Marie-Joseph de la Mis^-
oorde).
Seminabies. — ^The Seminary of St-Sulpice^ founded
by Olier in 1642^ had been supplemented smce 1814
by the house at Issy, in the suburbs of Paris, reserved
for the teaching of i>hiloeophy. The Paris seminary
was seised by the State in vutue of the r^ent laws,
and 'the present theological school of the Parisian
clergy is located at Issy. The seminaiy of Foreign
Missions was founded in 1663. Twenty-eight houses
were confided to It by the Holy See. This seminarv
belongs to the Society of Foreign Missions and is stiU
authorised by the State, as also is the Seminaiy of the
Holy Ghost, located in the mother-house of the Con-
gregations of the Holy Ghost and the Immaculate
Heart of Mary — the former was founded in 1703 by
Poullard Desplace. the latter in 1841 by Venerable
Francis-Mary-Paul Libermann, and the two were
merged in 1848. This seminary provides priests for
the evangeUzaUon of the negroes in Africa and the
colonies. Neither has the State disturbed the Con-
Kregations of the Mission of St-Lasarus (Lasarists),
founded by St. Vincent de Paul, with its mother-house
at Paris. They devote themselves to the evangelisa-
tion of the poor by means of missions and to the for-
eign missions. For a long time their chapel held the
bmly of St. Vincent de Paul, now removed to Bel^um.
The Lazarist Blessed Jean-Gabriel Perboyre. mar-
tyred in China, is venerated here. With regard to the
Iridi Colle^ in Paris see Irish Collbgim.
Other Religions. — As early as 1512 Lef^vre
d'Etaples, at the College du Cardinal Lemoine, and
Bri^onnet, Abbot of St-Germain-des-Prds and shortly
afterwards Bishop of Meaux, spread at Paris certain
theological ideas which prepared the way for Prot-
estantism. In 1521 Luther's book, ''The Babylonian
Captivity", was condemned by the. Sorbonne. In
1524 Jacques Pavannes (or Pauvert), a disciple of
Lef^vre, underwent capital punishment for having
attacked the veneration of the Blessed Virgin^ punsa-
tory, and holy water; the same penalty was mflicted
on Louis de Berquin in 1529. until 1555 the Prot-
estants of Paris had no pastor, but in that year they
assembled at the house of one of their number, named
La Ferri^re. As he had a child to baptise, the gather-
ing elected as pastor Jean le Ma^n, a young man of
twenty-two years, who had studied law. He exer-
cised his ministry at Paris until 1562, when he took
up his residence as pastor at Angers. The first general
synod of the Reformed Church of France was held at
Paris from 26 to 28 May, 1558, and drew up a con-
fession of faith — later called the Confession of La
Rochelle, because it only received its final form at the
eighteenth national sjrnod convened at La Rochelle in
1607. In 1560 a number of Protestants perished at
Paris, among them the magistrate Anneidu Bour^.
It is estimated that the Reformed Chureh of Pans
had 40,000 members in 1564. In 1572 took place
the massacre of St. Bartholomew. The Edict of
July, 1573, having authorised the Protestants of Paris
to assemble at a mstance of two leagues from the city.
they held their meetings at Noisy le Sec. In 1606
Henry IV permitted them to build a church at Charen-
ton. Dunng the seventeenth century the Reformed
Church of Paris was administered by the pastors
- „ ^ At
the revoca^on of the Edict of Nantes (16S5)
Claude was compelled to leave Paria; Pantora Maliac,
Giraud, and Givry, who eDdeavoured despite the re-
vocation to maint^n a Protestant church at Paris,
were impriaODed in 1692. During the eighteenth
oeoturj the chaplains attached to the embaaaies of
Protestant princes gave spiritual aaaiBtaiice to the
ProteoUuitB of the city. Marran, chaplun at the
Dutch embassy, become pastor in Paris when Louis
XVI promulgated the edict of toleraUon (1787). A
decree of 1802 gave over to the Protestant sect the old
. church of the Visitandiuee in the Rue St^Ant«ine
(builtby Man8art);oneof 1811 gave them the church
of the Oratorians in the Rue St-Honor6, while tbe July
Monarchy gave them the old Church of Notre-Dam^
de-Pent«mont, which under the old rfwme had bo-
longed to tbe Auguatinian Sisters of tiie Incarnate
Word of tbe BlewM Sacrament. At prMent the R«-
formed Cburch poseesees nineteen places of worship in
Paris and seventeen in the subuiTis; the Lutherans,
eleven places of worship in Paris and eight in the sub-
urbs: the Protestant Free Churches, Tour places of
worship; the Baptists, four churches in Paris and one
in the suburbs. The American Episcopal, Anglican,
Scotch, CoDgregationalist, and Westeyan Churchea
conduct services in English. There are in Paris about
50,000 Jews.
PuBuc AssisTANCB AMD PuBLic Charitt. — Under
the old r^me, what is now called ' ' Public Assistance "
included several distintt departments: (1) that of the
HAtel-Dieu, one of the oldest hospitals in Europe,
doubtless founded by the Bishop St, Landry after tbe
epidemic of 651. It was at first directed by the can-
ons of Notre-Dame, and after 1505 by a commission
of citiiens with whom Louis XIV associated, together
with the Archbishop of Paris, several representatives
of the Government and of the chief judiciary bodies.
This department undertook the administration of the
Hospital for Incurables, the Hospital of St. Loui^, and
that of St. Anne; (2) department of the General Hos-
pital, created by Louie XlV in 1656 for the sick, the
aged, children, and beggars, and with wluch were con-
nected the infirmaries mPiti^, Bicitre, the Salpfetriire,
Vau^rard, the foundling hospital, and that of the
Holy Gboat; (3) several independent hospitals, e. g.
Cochin Hospital, founded in 1680 by the Abb« Cochin,
pastor of St^acques, and tbe Necker Hospital, es-
tablished in 177g at the initiative of Mme Necker; (4)
pauFTM), established under Francis I for the relief
of the indigent. It was presided over and directed by
the procuTeuT ginirai o! the Parlemcnt and levied a
yearly "alms tax" on all the Inhabitants of Paris. It
adniini8t«red the infirmary of Petites Maisons.
The Revolution effected a radical change in this
system. The central Bureau de» Pauvres was at first
replaced by forty-eight beneficent committees {eomiUt
de bieT\faiaance) ; theae were replaced in 1816 by twelve
bureaux of charity, which in 1830 took the name of
bureaux d«bier^aisance and number twenty since 1S60.
While in the communes of France all the hospital de-
partments are under an administration distinct from
that of the bureau of beneficence, at Paris, in virtue
of the law of 10 Jan., 1849, the General Administra-
tion of Public Assistaiice directs both the hospitals
and the departments for reUef at home. At present
the Department of Public Assistance directs 31 hospi-
tals, 14 being general hospitals, 7 special, 9 children's
hospitals, and 1 insane asylum. At the laiciiation
<rf tne hospitals, the hospittU of St. Joseph, conducted
Inr the Slstera of St, Vincent de Paul, was opened in
18S4 under the patronage of the Archbishop of Paris ;
that of Notre- Dame-de-Bon-Secoun, in care of the
Aucustinee, was founded by Abb£ Carton, pastor of
St- rierre-de-Montrouge and bequeathed by him in
)1 PABI8
1887 to the Archbishop of Paris, The hospital of
Notre-Dam^de-PerpStuel-Secours at Lavalloia is con-
ducted by the Dominican Sislere. The St-Jacques,
Hahnemann, St- Francis, and St-Michel hospitals are
also in the hands of congregations. The ViUepinte
Institution, in charge of the oistere of Marie Auxilia-
trice, cares for children and young women suffering
from tuberculoaia. The Marie-Th^riae infirmary was
founded for ased or infirm priests by the wife of
Ch&teaubrianiT The little listers of the Poor have
nine houses in the diocese. The Brothers of St.
John of God maintiun a private hospital and an asy-
lum for incurable young men. The Institution of the
La(Uee of Calvarv, founded at L^ons in 1842 by Mme
Gamier and established at Paris in 1874, is conducted
by widows for the care of the cancerous, and receives
into its infirmaries patients whom no other hospital
will admit; it also has houses at Lyons, Marseilles, St.
Etienne, and Rouen. The Little Sisters of the As-
sumption, nurses of the poor, who have nine houses in
the diocese, stay night and day without pay in the
houses of the siclc poor. The same is done by the Sis-
ters of Notre-Dame of the Rue Cassini in the homes
of poor women in their confinement. Other orders
for the care of the sick in their homes are the Francis-
can nursing sisters (7 houses) and the Sisters Servants
of the Poor (4 houses).
Among the institutions now dependent on the State,
the foundation of which was formerly the glory of the
Church, must be mentioned that of Quime Vinyls
for the blind. As early as the eleventh century there
was a confraternity for the blind; St. Louie built for
it a house and a church, gave it a perpetual revenue,
and decreed that the number of the Quirue Vingis (300
bbnd) should be maintained complete. When the
king was canonised in 1297 the blind took him as thor
patron (see Education o? the Blind). The Catholic
institutions of Paris for the relief of the poor and the
uplifting of the labouring classes are very numerous.
For the Society of St, Vincent de Paul see Mission,
CoNOBBOATioN ov Priebts OF THi. The Philan-
thropic Society, founded in 1780 under the protection
of Louis XVI, establiahed dispensaries, eoonamical
PABIS
492
PABIS
kitchens, ni^t shelters, and settlement houses.
The Central Office of Charitable Institutions investi-
gates the condition of workmen and the poor, and
conducts employment and restoration bureaux. The
Association of Ladies of Charity, estabUshed (1629)
in the parish of St-Sauveur by St. Vincent de Paul
for the visitation of the sick poor and reconsti-
tuted in 1840, has given rise to the Society for the
Sick Poor, the Society for the Sick Poor in the Sub-
urbs, and the Society for the Visitation of the Poor
in the Ho«>itals. Most parishes have their organisa-
tions of charitable women who, under the pastor's
supervision, distribute clothing and visit the poor.
The SocUU de ChariU MatemeUe, which dates from
1784, when it was patronized by Marie Antoinette,
assists married women in their confinement without
regard to creed. In each (quarter of Paris women
visitors determine the famihes deserving assistance.
In 1898 the society assisted 2797 women and 2853
children. The AMociation des Mhres de Families
founded in 1836 bv Mme Badenier, assists at child-
birth women who do not meet the conditions required
by the SocUU de ChariU MatemeUe or who are num-
bered among the disreputable poor. The (Eiwre des
FavbourgSf through a number of women, visits 2000
families and 8000 children in the Paris suburbs. The
CEvvre de la Mis&ricarde (Work of Mercy), founded in
1822, assists the disreputable poor. An organization
founded in 1841 by Mgr Christophe, later Bishop of
Soissons, helps convalescent lunatics. The objects
of the (Eiwre de VHoepiUdiU du TraoaU are to offer a
free temporary shelter without distinction of 6reed or
nationahty to every homeless woman or girl who has
determined to work for an honourable livelihood, to
employ its clients at useful tasks, to endeavour to re-
vive the habit of working in those who have lost it,
and to assist them in securing honourable employment
which will also enable them to provide for the future.
This organization, founded in 1881 under the direction
of Sister St. Antoine, a member of the Order of Cal-
vary, between 1881 and 1903 gave shelter to 70,240
women. In 1894 Sister St. Antoine annexed to it the
(Euvre du Travail d DamicUe pour lee Mbres de FamiUe
(Association for procuring home-work for mothers of
families) which between 1892 and 1902 assisted 7449
mothers. The Maison de Travail for men, founded
in 1892 by M. de Laubespin, performs the same ser-
vice for unemployed and homeless men, and is also
in charge of the Sisters of Calvary.
The CathoUcs of Paris have taken part in the sjrndi-
cate movement by the creation in 1887 of the syn-
dicate of commercial and industrial employees, by the
organization of the Aiguille (a professional associa-
tion of patronesses and women enoployees and workers
on clotning), and by the Union Centrales made up of
five professional syndicates of working-girls, business
employees, seamstresses, servant girls, and nurses,
with "La Ruche syndicale" as their organ. The
great Society of St. NichoUis^ founded in 1827 by Mgr
ae Bervanger and Count Victor de Noailles and di-
rected by a staff of Catholic laymen, has four houses
(Paris, Issy, Igny, and Buzenval). where it gives a
professional education to boys wnom it adopts as
early as their eighth year. The Society of the Friends
of Childhood, founded in 1828, is concerned with the
education and apprenticeship of poor boys. The
Ecole commerciale de Francs BourgeoiSy created in 1843
by the Brothers of the Christian Schools, prepares
pupils for commercial, industrial, and administrative
professions. Numerous homes and restaurants for
young working girls have been foimded by Catholics.
The Charitable Society of St. Francis Regis was
founded in 1826 by M. Gassin to facilitate Uie reli-
gious and civil marriage of the poor of the diocese and
the legitimatization of their natural children. The
day-nurseries, which care for children from 15 days
to 3 years of age while their mothers are employed,
date from M. Marbeau's foundation in 1844. The
Sisters of St. Paul have founded in the parishes of St-
Vincent>-de-Paul and St-S^verin a society for the relief
of mothers who wish their children to remain at
home. The (Euore de V Adoption was founded in 1859
by Abb4 Maitrias to gather as many orphans as pos-
sible. Out of so many other associations, the following
must be mentioned: the Association des Jeunes £co-
nomes which, under the direction of the Sisters of St.
Vincent de Paul, uses the generous donations of a large
number of young women for the apprenticing and
employment of poor girls; the Society of St. Anne,
founded in 1824; the Society for Abandoned Children,
founded in 1803; the Society for the Adoption of
Abandoned Little Girls, foimded in 1879 (idl con-
cerned with finding homes for orphans); the Society
of the Child Jesus, which shelters during their con-
valescence poor girls who have been discharged from
hom)itals.
There is a recent tendency towards the complete
reorganization of Catholic charity in a single quarter
by the centralization of all charitable departments for
the development and protection of family life. For
example the Fresh Air Society for Mothers and Chil-
dren, founded by Mile Chaptal in 1901, includes: (1)
a department for the investigation of home conditions;
(2) one for free consultations for poor mothers and their
nursing children; (3) one for assisting mothers whose
confinement takes place at home; (4) one for the dis-
tribution of tickets for meat, ceiesil, or farinaceous
food for women who have been confined; (6) the fresh
ur department, which sends a number of the women
of the district into the country. The Society of
Ste-RosaUe also combines a number of admirable
works which perpetuate the memory of the good done
in the Faubourg St-Marcel during the July Monarchy
by Sister Rosalie Rendu, who worked in collabora-
tion with Vicomte Armand de M^lim. The Working
Women's Society of Our Lady of the Rosary was the
nucleus of a flourishing parish in a district previously
deprived of all religious help. The Union Familiale,
founded at Charonne by Mile Gah6ry in 1899^ has
completely transformed the district; it has established
a Frobelian nursery for the small children, and re-
ceives children after school hours; since 1904 it as-
sembles families in a family educational cirele; it or-
ganizes sroups of ''little mothers," little girls of ten,
who every Thursday take care of 3 or 4 children; it has
gardening classes and a department for trousseaux,
and since 1900 it has had vacation colonies, known as
fresh air societies. The original congregation of the
Blind Sisters of St. Paul, founded in 1851 by Abb^
Juge and Anne Bergunion, looks after blind young
women.
According to the report of the Abb^ Fonaagrives to
the Diocesan Congress of 1908, the Archdiocese of
Paris has 356 Catholic patranaaeSf of which 63 are
for male pupils of the free schools, 79 for male pupils
of the lay schools, 101 for female pupils of the tree
schools, 113 for female pupils of the lay schools. At
that date lay patronages were only 245. The Society
for the Patronage of Y oung Workm^ Girls, founded in
1851, receives young girls after their First Commun-
ion. The Sisters of the Presentation of Tours conduct
the association and society for mutual relief for young
business women; the Sisters Servants of Mary and
Sisters of the Cross secure situations for servants.
The Sisters of St. Vincent de Paul have societies caOed
"patronages internes'', which shdter working-^ls
wno are orphans or who live at a distance from their
families. The (Euvre des PetUes Priservies et le Vesti-
aire des Petits PrisonnierSf founded in 1892 by the
Comtesse de Biron, looks after the preservation of
young f^rls discharged from prison. The Catholic
International Society for the Protection of Young
Women, organized at Freiburg in 1897 after the Oi^
ganization of the Protestant IntenmtioniU Union of
PABI8 4!
the Priendfl of Young Women, in lOOfi alone gave
■helter to 11,919 young ^rte in Paris.
There u *t present a great renewal in Catholic
methods of charity &nd relief at Paris, the spirit of
which is shown in the report concerning Catholic
relief societies read (Aug., 1910) at the International
Congress of Public and Private Relief held at Copen-
hagen under the presidency of President Louoet:
"The great originality of Cathobc relief work in re-
cent years consists m the multiplication of works
for social education. This arises more and more from
the 'patriarehal' conception of these undertakings.
The modem wish and tendency is to give him who
■uSetBaahare in his own relief, to give him a collabora-
tive or directing part in the effort which is being made
to assist and uplift him. Henceforth the favourite
works of charity among Catholics will be those known
as preventive. To prevent mis»y by an hygienic,
domestic, professional education is the object of the
founders of modem works of relief. They are con-
cerned not only with the strife against the conse-
quences of misery but with that against its' production.
Without neglecting individual alms, Catholic charity
aims eepecitdly at social reUef; it prefers to precede
misery to prevent it, rather than to follow it to relieve
it; it prefers to uplift families rather than assist them,
to help them when they are stumbling rather than to
raise them up when tney have fallen; it prefers to
help them actively t^i better working coDditions^ than
to relieve pasuvely the results of these evil conditions.
All instruction imparted in organisations for Catholic
youth and in the Catholic ■paironagex of Paris is im-
pregnated with this apparently new spirit which on
closer view is seen to be merely a return to the Chris-
tian solidarity of the Middle Ages."
Reuoious Renewal ofthb Twbntibtb Centcby.
— Id 1905 at the end of the concordafsry period the
Diocese of Paris had 3,599,870 inhabitants, 38 par-
ishes, 104 tvexniTsales, 7 vicariates, formerly remuner-
ated by the State, Since the separation of Church
and State, the reli^ous character of Paris shows ai^
of renewal. Statistics of the religious and civil
burials from 1883 to 1903, drawn up by the Abbe
Rafhn, afford a, very exact idea of the religious condi-
tion of Paris at the end of the nineteenth century.
The largest proportion of civil burials, 23 per cent,
was reached m 1884. At the end of the nineteenth
century the proportion of civil burials hod fallen to
18 per cent; from 1901 to 1903, they showed a ten-
dency to rise to 20 per cent. Civil funerals take place
chiefly among the poor. For example in 1888 in the
five most costly classes of burials the number of
civil burials did not exceed 4-6 per cent; on the other
hand, the ninth class, which is the cheapest, and the
freeclaHsshow25to30percent. At present among the
wealthy classes there is a slight increase in the num-
ber of civil funerals, and a slight decrease among the
working classes, but the fact remans that, despite the
gratuitousDees of religious assistance in the case of the
poor, the average number of 10,000 civil funerals
which take place yearly at Paris consists chiefly of
funerals of the poor. One reason for this is the in-
sufficiency of religious assistance in the hospitals.
Although more than a third of the Parisians die in
hospitals, there are only about tlmly hospital chapr
Uiiis, and these the manaAement does not permit to
approach the sick unless they are summoned. An-
other reason lies in the excessive size of suburban
parishes and in the difficulty of reaching an immense
fluctuating population. At the beginning of the
' twentieth century Notre-Dame-de-M^nilmontanthad
70,000, St-Pierre^e-MoDtrouge 83,000, Notre-Damif
de-CUgnancourt 120;'000 inhabitants. For n Rng
time these enormous parishes had no more priests than
the smaller ones in the centre of Paris. At St-Am-
broise there were 8 to 10 priests for 80,000 souls, while
St-Thomas-d'Aquin had 8 priests for 14,000, and St-
3 PARIS
Sulpice 17 for 38,000 (see the report of M. Thureau
Dangin, permanent secretary of the French Academy,
concerning the (Eutire des chapelUa de secoura). M.
Thureau Dangin calculated in 1905 that Paris, with
its 522 pastors or curates, had an average of 37,000
or 38,000 souls to a parish, while at Lyons there was 1
priest for every 3000 souls, at Antwerp 1 for every
500, at New York 1 for every 1500.
The realization of this dearth and its dangers
caused the organization of the (Euvre deg Siminaire*
as early as 1882 to increase and facilitate vocations,
and in 1905 Cardinal Richard point^ out the urgent
necessity erf the creation of about thirty new parishes
or of ehapellta de Mcours. At present the ^ocesan
administration is moat actively engaged in the organ-
iEatJon of these ehapelUt de tteoun. Every year a
dignitary of the French Academy or of the Institute
presents a report pf the progress made, MM. Fran9ois
Copp^, Thureau Donfpn, de Mun, d'Haussonville.
Georges Picot, and Etienne Lamy having been he&ri
in turn. The Christian Doctrine Society {(Euvre des
CaUchiimea) founded in 1885 by Cardinal Richard was
erected into a confraternity. by Leo XIII on 30 May,
1893, with which all the catechetical societies of
France may be afliliated. This society is formed of
voluntoi^ catechists and promoters paying dues.
In addition to the multiplication of places of worship,
special religious services have been organized for cer-
tain classes of persons. For example, the missionary
work among young seamBtresses (MidinetUt) has
developed greatly between 190S and 1910; it consists
of short instructions between 12.35 and 12.50 p. m., so
that the young women may return punctuallv to work.
More than 6O0O working girla have profitea by these
missions. The Society of Diocesan Missions, founded
in 1836 by Cardinal Richard, supports from IS to 20
missionaneS) who according to the report of thdr su-
perior, the Abb^Gibergues, made to the Diocesan Con-
gress of l^K^, h^ve brought bock to the Church more
than 40,000 persons in less than a quarter of a centuiy.
Lastly, the Archdiocese of Paris has assumed the
direction of the Catholic social movement. In 1910
a social secretariat was organized, as a bureau of infor-
mation and beadquarteni for social undertakings, and
PABIS
494
PARIS
the archbiflhop has interested himself actively in the
abolition of the ni^t-work of bakers, addressing a
letter to the parochial committees to arouse Catholic
sentiment in favour of the claims of these workmen,
and on 21 December, 1908, presiding at the meeting
organized by the Jeunesse ealholique frangaise for the
suppression of this work.
An interesting organization from the social point of
view is that of the provincial associations, formed at
Paris under Cathohc auspices to bring together the
immigrants from each province, to assist them to
maintain close ties among themselves, and to procure
spiritual help in the loneliness of the great city. In
18d2 was founded the society La Bretagne. and in
1895 the Union aveyrannaise. The latter, which had
1600 members in 1908. supports eight sisters who, in
1908 alone, spent 2641 days or nights with sick Avey-
ronnais. In imitation of this association were founded
successively the Union loz^rienne, the AasocieUion des
Dames limousines el creusoiseSy the Union lyonnaise
et forisiennef the Union pyrinienney the Alliance
caUiolique savoisienney and many others. There is a
special society for the Bretons residing at Paris,
which provides sermons and lectures in the Breton
tongue. All the provincial unions are federated im-
der the presidency of the Catholic economist, M.
Henri Joly, a member of the Institut. A list of these
associations has been affixed in recent times to the
doors of aU the. churches in Paris. All these imder-
takings for the development of Christian Ufe in Paris
are studied and developed by the Diocesan Commit-
tee organized on 1 March, 1905, with a double aim:
(1) ''to sustain, promote, and unite under the arch-
bishop's authority all movements concerning the
religious, moral, social, and even material welfare of
the diocese;" (2) "to promote the formation of
parochial committees modelled on and connected
with itself. It is divided into five commissions,
dealing respectively with works of religion and piety,
instruction and education, perseverance and patron-
age, charitable and social works, and with the press
ana propaganda. At the beginning of 1910 there were
67 parochial committees, nearly half the parishes
being already provided with them. Since 1905 dioc-
esan congresses have taken place yearly. That of
1909 was especially concerned with the labour of
women, with or^imzations for instruction of youth,
provincial and journalistic organizations. That of
1910 dealt exclusively with liberty of teaching, the
formation and recruiting of teachers, and with school
books.
Catholic Instruction in Pahib in the Twen-
TiBTH Century. — ^The suppression of the teaching
congregations and the gradual but rapid closing of the
establishments directed by them was a serious blow
to the prosperity of the mdependent schools in the
Archdiocese of Paris. 'In October, 1904, Cardinal
Richard instituted a diocesan committee of "free in-
struction", which erhorted all the male and female
teachers in private institutions to form separate dioc-
esan associations. Mutual-aid societies were estab-
lished in 1909 to provide for the future of these
teachers, male and female, and in 1910 the diocese
promulgated a regulation fixing the conditions of
their promotion and granting certain guarantees for
their professional future. On 8 December, 1906, ar-
rangements were made for the supervision of reli-
gious instruction in the schools not imder the pubUc
authorities, and in June, 1908, a board for the direc-
tion of secondary and primary diocesan instruction
was created. From 1879 to 1910 the expenditure
for the foundation and maintenance of the inde-
pendent schools was $8,000,000, for which appeal
was made to the charity of individuals. Their annual
support costs about $600,000. Most of the schools
are supported by a special committee by means of
collections, subscriptions, ete.; some belong to civil
societies which rent them to the committees, while
others are wholly at the expense of the pastor. At the
beginning of 1910 there were in the 162 parishes of
Paris and its suburbs 217 independent schools, of
which only 36 are still in the hands of congr^ations,
and these also in virtue of the Associations Law are
destined after a short time to be under the supervision
of lay Catholics. The number of pupils frequenting
these schools is estimated to be about 42,000. The
"Jeunesse pr^voyante du dioo^ de Paris", estab-
lished in 1902, constitutes a flourishing school mutual-
aid society. A district union g^ups together thirty-
five associations of former pupils of the independent
schools (caUed AmicaUs), and is a bond among 4500
members. The initiative in domestic economy in
Paris was taken by Catholics. Even before the
pubUc authorities had made sacrifices for this end,
the Comtesse de Diesbach had established (15 June,
1902) a first course in domestic economy, lasting a
month. It was succeeded by nine other courses in
1903-05, attended by 110 pupils, 60 of them reUgious
from 14 orders. In 1905 was opened the Normiu In-
stitute of Domestic Economy which in its three first
years gave to the independent schools 150 teachers of
dome^c economy. Higher Catholic education at
Paris is assured by a number of institutions conducted
by ecclesiastics, and by the Boesuet, Fen^lon^ Gerson,
and Massillon schools, which send their pupils to the
state lycies.
For the Institut Catholique, see Paris, Univer-
sity OF.
A. SouRCBS. — Barroux, BM9ai de hibliogr. eritioue det ginfndi'
tit de rhiH. de Parte (Paris, 1908). enential; Potrs, Lee eourcee
de rhxH. deP.etlee hiet4friene deP.in Revue Bleue (18 and 25 Nov..
1905); Touiursnx, Bibliogr. de rhitt. de P. vendani la Riedidum
franoaiee (4 vola.. Paris, 1890-1906). espMially III; BvlL de la
Soe. de Fhtei. de P. et de t lie de France (1874—) ; BuU. du ComnU
d'hiei. et d'arehSoL du dice, de P. (1883-5); BihUUMquu d^hiaL de
P. (1909—).
B. General. — Lebeut, Hiet. de la eiUe et de Unii te dioe. de P.
(15 vols., Paris. 1754-58) , new ed. by Auoibr (5 vols.) ; Tablee (1
vol., Paris. 1884); BonRNON, Redifieatitme et Additione d FAbbi
Lebeuf (4 fascicles, Paris, 1890-1901) ; Idem, P. hiet., monumenU,
adminietration (Paris, 1888) ; Idem. P. Atlae (Paris, 1900) ; Cain,
Promenadee dane P., Pierree de P., Coine de P. (4 vols., Paris,
1905-10); Davis. AbmU P. (New York, 1895); Hare, P. (Lon>
don, 1896); Mbmpes, P. (London, 1907); Oxet, P. a$td Ue Story
(London, 1904); Frankun, La tie pritie ^autre/oie. Arte et
nUHere, modee, nuntre, ueaoee dee Pariei^u du XII* au X VII*
eikele (27 vols., Paris. 1887-1902); Harrison, MemarahU P.
Houeee with illuetrativet eritioa/, and anecdoltU notieee (London,
1893).
C. EccLESiAmcAL.— Gattia ehriet., VII (1744), 1-219; Ineirw
menta, 1-192; Fisqubt, La Prance pontifieale (2 vols.. Pans, 1864-
6) ; LoNONON, L'ancien dioe. de P. et eee eubdivieione in BulL du
ComiU d'hiet. et d'archM. du dioe. de P., I (1883), pp. 10-19;
Bernard, Lee originee de Vigliee de P., Uablieeement du ehrietia'
nieme dane lee Gaulee:eaint Denye de P. (Paris, 1870) : Crartier,
L'ancien ehapiire de Notre-Dame-de-P. et ea maUriee (Paris. 1897) ;
Jaitnat. Hiet. dee M(tuee et areheeiguee de P. (Paris. 1884) ; De-
POiN. Beeai eur la ehronologie dee ieSguee de P. de 768 d ttS8 in
BulL hiHor. et philoL (1906) ; FiRBT. L'abbaye de Ste-Ceneeiiee et
la eongrtgaHon de Prance (Paris. 1883) ; Bonnard. Hiet. de fabhape
royale de Vordre dee ehanoinee riguliere de St- Victor (2 vols., Paris,
1908); Brouilxbt, Lee iglieee paroieeiaUe de P. (monographs,
Lyons, 1897-1904) ; Loneroan, Hietorie Churchee c/ P. (London,
1896); MoRTET, Stude histor. et archM, eur la eatktdrale et le
palate ipieeopal de P. au VP et XIP eikeU (Paris, 1888) ; Aubrrt,
La cathidrale N.-D.-do-P. (Paris, 1909); Hiatt, N.-D.-d^P., a
Short Hietorv and Deeeription of the Cathedral (London. 1902);
DuPLESST, P. religieux (Paris, 1900); D'Atiac, Hiet. de falfbaye
de St'Deni* en France (2 vols., Paris, 1860-1) ; Havet. Lee originee
de St'Deni* (Paris. 1890) ; Paris, Lee grandee ehroniquee de France,
eelon gu'eUee eont eoneervUe en Vigliee de St-Denie (6 vols.. Paris.
1830-9) : VrrRT and Bri jSre, L *igliee abbatiale de St^Denie (Paris,
1908); LEstTRE, UlmmacuUe Conception et VBe^ise de Parie
(Paris. 1904); Doumrrove, Parie proteelant au XVP tOeie in
Bull, de la Soc du proteetarUieme frangaie (1896); Dourn. La
Revocation de FidU de NanteeA P. (3 vols.. Paris. 1894); Dboop-
PET, P. prote^ant (Paris, 1876) ; Robinet, Le tnottvewunt religieux
d P. pendant la RHolution, 178^1801 (2 vols., Paris, 1896);
Dblarc, L'Sglise de P. pendant Im Revolution fran^iee, 1789-1801
(3 vols., Pans, 1895-8) ; Grbntb. Le cuUe catholique d P. de la
Terreur au Concordat (Paris, 1903) ; Pibani. VigUee de P. eoue
la Rivolution (3 vols., Paris. 1909-10) ; De Lansac de Laborir.
P. eoue NapolSon, especially IV (Paris. 1907).
D. C?HAJaTiES.^!;HEVAUER. VhdlelrDieude P. etleeSemreAw
gueHneemo d 1810) (Paris. 1901): Brvnbt. La chariU paroieeiaU
dP.auX VIP eiide d*aprhe lee rSglememte dee eompagniee de dtariU
(Caen, 1906) ; Cahen. Le grand bureau dee pauvree de P. au miUeu
du 18' siide (Paris. 1904) ; Maxims du Camp, La ehariti privSe d
P. (Paris, 1885); Idem. P. bienfaieant (Paris, 1888); du Tni^
I
PARIS ' 495 PARIS
■' . .1
iSSa^J^a^iTiCii SJ^ ^^"S? P*"«- ^ professor of medicine is mentioned in this
liahed by the Central Office of Charitable iMtitSSttTcsM ecU ^^^V ** this time, namely Hu^o, "physicus exceliens
Parie, IwM); J/aniMl de» (Euwret (new ed.» Paris. 1911). supplies QUI quadnvium docmt , and it 18 tO be assumed that
the most recent information and a detaUed description concerning this science was included in his teachins.
all French Catholic ohantable works, especially those of Paris. i2«^« *u« «:„u* a^ * u "^"r?^*""©'
Gbobgbs GotIS!^ '^ ^""^3^ "^^ *^ ^T*"' t^"" ^^"^ ^®^ necessary.
knowledge and appomtment. Knowledge was proved
Paris, Univbrsity of. — Origin and Early Organir by examination, the appointment came from the
zaHon, — ^Three schools were especially famous at examiner himself, who was the head of the school,
Paris, the palatine or palace scnool, the school of and was known as scholasticus, capiscoL and even-
Notre-Dame. and that of Sainte-Genevidve. The d&- tually as ''chancellor". This was called the licence
cline of royalty inevitably brought about the decline or faculty to teach. Without this authorization there
of the first, llie other two, which were very old, like was danger of the chairs being occupied by ignorant
those of the cathedrals and the abbeys, are only faintly persons, whom John of Salisbury aepicts as ''chil-
outlined during the early centuries 01 their existence, dren yesterdav, masters to-day; yesterdav receiving
The glory of the palatme school doubtless eclipsed strokesof the ferrule, to-day teaching in a long eown^
theirs, until in the course of time it completely gave (Metalogicus, I, xxv in init.). The licence had to be
way to them. These two centres were much fre- granted gratuitously. Without it no one could teach;
ouented and many of their masters were esteemed for on the other hand, it could not be refused when the
thdr learning. It is not until the tenth century, how- applicant deserved it.
ever, that we meet with a professor of renown in the The school of St-Victor, which shared the obliga*
school of Ste-Genevidve. This was Hubold, who, not tions as well as the immunities of the abbey, conferred
content with the courses at Li^ee, came to continue the licence in its own right; the school of Notre-Dame
his studies at Paris, entered or aSied himself with the depended on the diocese, that of Ste-Genevidve on the
chapter of Ste-Genevidve, and by his teaching at- abbey or chapter. It was the diocese and the ai>bey
tracted many pupils. Recalled bv his bishop to Bel- or chapter which through their chancellor gave pro-
giuuL he soon profited by a second journey to Paris to fessorial investiture in their respective territories, 1. e.
give lessons with no less success. As to the school of the diocese in the city intra pontes and other places
Notre-Dame, while many of its masters are mentioned subject to the ordinary, the aobejy or chapter on the
simply as having been professors at Paris, in its later left bank of the river as far as its jurisdiction reached.
Germany; Anselm of Laon. These two schools, at- schools", to ''license after study those who sought to
tracting scholars from every country, produced many be masters and regents" (op. cit., 585). Besides
founder of the Abbey of Fontevrault etc. The honour might open a school where he pleased, provided it was
of having formed similar pupils is indiscriminately not in the vicinity of a principal school". Thus a
ascribed to Notre-Dame and to Ste-Genevidve, as du certain Adam, who was of English origin, kept his
Molinet has justly remarked (Bibl. Sainte-Genevi^ve, ''near the Petit Pont"; another Adam, Parisian by
MS.H. fr. 21, in fol., p. 576). Humanistic instruction birth, "taught at the Grand Pont which is called the
comprised grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, Pont-au-Change " (Hist. derUnivers.de Paris, I, 272).
geometry, music,; and astronomy (trivium and quadri- The number of students in the schools of the capital
vium). To the higher instruction belonged dogmatic prew constantly, so that eventually the lodgings were
and moral theology, whose source was the Scnptures insufficient. Among the French students there were
and the Fathers, and which was completed by the princes of the blood, sons of the nobility, and the most
study of canon law. Three men were to add a new distinguished youths of the kingdom. The courses
splendour to the schools of Notre-Dame and Ste- at Pans were considered so necessary as a completion
Genevieve, namely William of Champeaux, Abelard, of studies that many foreigners nocked to them,
and Peter Lon^bard. A new school arose which ri- Popes Celestine II and Adrian IV had stiidied at Paris,
vailed those of Notre-Dame and Ste-Genevi^ve. It Alexander III sent his nephews there, and, under the
owed its foundation to the same William of Champeaux name of Lothaire, a scion of the noble family of Seigny ,
when he withdrew to the Ablx^ of St-Victor and it who was later to rule the Church as Innocent III, be-
took the name of that abbev. Two men shed special longed to the student body. Otto of Freisingen, Car-
radiance on this school, Hu^ and Richard, who added dinal Conrad, Archbishop of Mains, St. Thomas of
to their own names that ofthe abbey at which they Canterbury^ and John of Salisbury were among the
were religious and professors. r - most illustrious sons of Germany and England in the
The plan of studies expanded in the schools of Paris schools of Paris; while Ste-Genevi^ve became practi-
as it did elsewhere. The great work of a monk of Bo- cally the seminary for Denmark. The chroniclers of
logna, known as the "Decretum Gratiani", brought the time call Paris the city of letters par excellencCf
together under the same professor. But this vast and all branches of learning, and there the seven arts
collection necessitated a special course^ which was were studied and held in such esteem ss they never
naturally undertaken first at Bologna, where Roman were at Athens, Egypt, Rome, or elsewhere in the
law was taught. In France, first Orleans and then world" ("liCS gestes de Philippe-Auguste"). Poets
Paris erectedf chairs of canon law, which/ except at said the same thing in their verses, and they compared
Paris were usually also chairs of civil la^v. The capi- it to all that was greatest, noblest, and most valuable
tal of the kingdom might thus boast of this new pro- in the world.
fessorate, that of the 'Decretum Gratiant", to which To maintain order among the students and define
before the end of the twelfth century were added the the relations of the professors, organization was neces^
Decretals of Geiiuxl (or Girard) La Pucelle, Mathieu sary. It had its beginnings, and it developed as cir-
d' Angers, and Anselm (or Anselle) of Paris, but civil cumstances permitt^ or required. Three features in
law was not included. In the course of the twelfth this organization may be noted: first, the professors
century also medicine began to be publicly taught at formed an association, for according to Mattnew Paris,
PABI8 496 PABI8
John of Cellesi twenty-first Abbot of St. Albans, Eng- three years were at the same time devoted to spedkl
land, was admitted as a member of the teaching corps courses of lectures in preparation for the mastmhip.
of Paris after he had followed the courses (Vita Joan- These studies had to be made in the local schools and
nis I, XXI| abbat. S. Alban). Again, the masters as under the direction of a master, for at Paris one was
well as the students were divided according to prov- not regarded as a scholar unless he had a particular
inces, for as the same historian states, Hemv II, master. Lastly, purit)r of morals was not less requisite
King of England, in his difficulties with St. Thomas than learning. Priscian's ''Grammar", Aristotle's
of Canterbury, wished to submit his cause to a tribunal ''Dialectics'', mathematics, astronomy, music, certain
composed of professors of Paris, chosen from various books of rhetoric and philosophy were the subjects
provinces (Hist, major, Henry II, to end of 1169). taught in the arts course; to these might be added the
This was probably the germ of that division according Ethics of the Stagsrrite and the fourth book of the
to ''nations^' which was later to play an important Topics. But it was forbidden to read the books of
part in the university. Lastly, mention must be made Anstotle on Metaphysics and Physics, or abbreviations
of the privileges then enjoyed by the professors and of them. The licence was granted, according to custom,
students. In virtue of a decision of Celestine III, they gratuitously, without oath or condition. Masters and
were amenable only to the ecclesiastical courts. Other students were permitted to unite, even by oath, in
decisions dispensed them from residence in case they d^ence of their rights, when they could not otherwise
possessed benefices and permitted them to receive obtain justice in serious matters. No mention is made
their revenues. either of law or of medicine, probably because these
These three schools of Notre-Dame, Ste-Genevi^ve, sciences were less prominoit.
and 8t-Victor may be regarded as the triple cradle of A denial of justice by the queen brought about in
the UniversUas scholarium, which included masters 1229 a suspension of the courses. Appeal was taken
and students; hence the name University. Such is to the pope who intervened in the same year by a Bull
the common and more probable opinion. Denifle which oegan with a eulogy of the university. ''^Paris'',
and some others hold that this honour must be said Gr^ory IX, "mother of the sciences, is another
reserved to the school of Notre-Dame (Chartula- Cariath-Sepher, city of letters". He compared it to a
rium Universitatis Parisiensis), but the reasons do li^ratory in which wisdom tested the metals which
not seem convincing. He excludes St-Victor because, she found liiere, ^Id and silver to adorn the Spouse
at the request of the abbot and the religious of St- of Jesus Christ, iron to fashion the spiritual sword
Victor, Gregory IX in 1237 authorized them to re- which should smite the inimical powers. He oommis-
Bume the interrupted teaching of theology. But the sioned the Bishops of Le Mans and Sei^ and the
university was in large part founded i^ut 1208, as is Archdeacon of ChAlons to negotiate with the French
shown by a Bull of innocent III. Consequently Court for the restoration of the university. The year
the schools of St-Victor might well have furnished 1230 came to an end without any result, and Gregory
their contingent towards its formation. Secondly, IX took the matter directly in hand by a Bull of 1231
Denifle excludes the schools of Ste-Genevi^ve because addressed tq the masters and scholars of Paris. Not
there had been no interruption in the teaching of content with settling the dispute and giving guaran-
the liberal arts. Now this is far from proved, and tees for the future, ne sanctioned and developed the
moreover, it seems incontestable that theology also concessions of Robert de Cour^on by empowering the
had nevet ceased to be taught, which is sufficient for university to frame statutes concerning the discipline
our point. Besides, the r61e of the chancellor of Ste- of the schools, the method of instruction, the d^nce
Genevieve in the university cannot be explained by of theses, the costume of the professors, and the obse-
the new opinion; he continued to give degrees in arts, quies of masters and students. What was chi^y
a function which would have ceased for him when the important was that the pope recognized in the univei^
university was organized if his abbey had no share in its sity or granted it the right, in case justice were denied
organization. And while the name UniversUas scho- it, to suspend its courses until it should receive full
(anum is quite intelligible on the basis of the common satisfaction. It must be borne in mind that in the
opinion, it is incompatible with the recent (Denifle's) schools of Paris not only was the granting of licence
view, according to which there would have been gratuitous but instruction also was free. This was the
schools outside the university. general rule: however, it was often necessary to depart
Organization in the Thirteenth Century, — As com- from it. Thus Pierre Le Mangeur was authoriBed by
^leting the work of organization the diploma of Philip the pope to levy a moderate fee for the conferring of
• ^ , . ^ _ ... aujted for the first
scholars were taxed
^ commonfund.
it from the year 1200 the students were subject only The university was organized as follows: at the
to ecclesiastical jurisdiction. Hence the provost and head of the teaching body was a rector. The office
other officers were forbidden to arrest a student for was elective and of short duration. At ^first it was
any offence, and if in exceptional cases this was done limited to four or mx weeks. Simon de Brion, legate
it was only to hand over the culprit to ecclesiastical of the Holy See in France, ri^tly judging that such
authority, for in the event of grave crime royal justice frequent changes caused senous inconvenience, de-
was limited to taking cognizance of the procedure and cided that the rectorate should last three months, and
the verdict. In no case could the king's officers lay this nlle was observed for three years. Then the term
hands on the head of the schools or even on a simple was lengthened to one, two, and sometimes three
regent, this being allowed only in virtue of a mandate years. The right of election-belonged to the procurar
proceeding from ecclesiastical authority. The statutes tors of the four nations. The "Nations" appeared in
of the Apostolic legate are later by some years, bearing the second half of the twelfth century; tfiey were
the date 1215. They had for their object the moral or mentioned in the Bull of Honorius III in 1222 and in
intellectual part of the instruction. They dealt with another of Gregory IX in 1231; later they formed a
three principal points, the conditions of the professor- distinct body. In 1249 the four nations existed with
ate, the matter to be treated, and the granting 6f the their procurators, their rights (more or l«ite well-
licence. To teach the arts it was necessary to have defined), and their keen rivalries; and in 125C, in the
reached the age of twenty-one, after having studied heat of the controversy between the university and
these arts at least six years, and to take an engagement the mendicant orders, a letter was addressed to the
as professor for at least two years. For a chair in pope bearing the seals of the four nations. These were
theolo^ the candidate had to be thirty years of age the French, English, Normans, and Picards. After
with eight years of theological studies, of which the last the Hundred Years' War the Enghsh nation was
PARIS 497 PARIS
plafi^d by the Germanic or German. The four nations way of dissipation. These colleges were not usually
constituted the faculty of arts or letters. The expres- centres of instruction, but simple boarcting-houses for
sion faculty, though of ancient usage, did not have in the students, who went from them to uie schools,
the beginmng its present meaning; it then indicated a Each had a special object, being established for stu-
branch of ii^ruction. It is especiaUy in a Bull of dents of the same nationality or the same science.
Gregory IX that it is used to designate the professional Four colleges appear in the twelfth century; they be-
body, and it may have had the same meanins in a came more numerous in the thirteenth, and among
university Act of 1221 (cf. "Hist. Universitatis Parisi- them may be mentioned Harcourt and the Sorbonne.
ensLs " j III, 106). Thus the University of Paris, which in general was the
If the natural division of the schools of Paris into tvpe of the other universities, had already assumed
nations arose from the native countries of the students, the form which it afterwards retained. It was com-
the classification of knowledge must quite as naturally posed of seven groups, the four nations of the faculty
have introduced the division into facilities. Professors of arts, and the three superior faculties of Geology,
of the same science were brought into closer contact; law, and medicine. EcclesiasticaJ dignities, even
community of rights and inter^ts cemented the union abroad, seemed reserved for the masters and students
and made of them distinct groups, which at the same of Paris. This preference became a general rule, and
time remained integral parts of the teaching bodv. eventually a right, that of eligibitity to benefices.
Thus the faculties gradually arose and consequently Such was the origin and early organization of the
no precise account of their origin can be given. The University of Paris which misht even then, in virtue
faculty of medicine would seem to be the last in point of their protection, call itself the daughter of kinos,
of time. But the four faculties were already formally but which was in reality the daughter of the Church,
designated in a letter addressed in Feb., 1254, by the St. Louis, in the diploma which he granted to the
university to the prelates of Christendom, wherein Carthusians for their establishment near Paris, speaks
mention is made of ''theology, jurisprudence, medi- of this city, where ''flow the most abundant waters of
cine, and rational, natural, and moral philosophy", wholesome doctrine, so that they become a great river
In the celebrated Bull "Quasi Lignum'' (April, 1255). which after refreshing the city itself irrigates the Uni-
Alexander IV speaks of "the faculties of theology versal Church". Clement I V uses a noless charming
of other "faculties", namely those of canonists, physi- comparison: "the noble and renowned city, the city
cians, and artists. If the masters in theology set the which is the source of learning and sheds over the
example in this special organization, those in decretals world a light which seems an image of the celestial
and medicine hastened to follow it. This is proved by splendour; those who are taught there shine bril'
the seals which the last-named adopted some years hantly, and those who teach there will shine with the
later, as the masters in arts had already done. stars for all eternity" (cf. du Boulay, "Hist. Univers.
The faculties of theolopy, or canon law, and medi- Paris", III, 360-71).
cine, were called "superior faculties". The title of Later History. — Abuses crept in; to correct these
"dean" as designating the head of a faculty, was not and to introduce various needed modifications in Uie
in use until the second half of the thirteenth century, work of the university was the purpose of the reform
In this matter the faculties of decretals and medicine carried out in the fifteenth century oy Cardinal d'Eft-
seem to have taken the lead, which the faculty of touteville, ApostoUc legate in France. As a whole it
theoloKy followed, for in authentic acts of 1268 we was less an innovation than a recall to the better ob-
read oithe deans of decretals and medicine, while the servance of the ancient statutes. The reform of 1600,
dean of theology is not mentioned until 1296. It undertaken by the royal government, was of the same
would seem that at first the deans were the oldest character with regard to the three superior faculties,
masters. The faculty of arts continued to have four As to the faculty of arts, the study of Greek was added
procurators of its four nations and its head was the to that of Latin, only the best classical authors were
rector. As the faculties became more fully organized, recommended; the French poets and orators were
the division into four nations i^rtially disappeared for used along with Hesiod, Plato. Demosthenes, Cicero,
theology, decretals and medicine, while it continued Virgil, and Sallust. The prohibition to teach civil law
in arts. Eventually the superior faculties were to was never well observed at Paris. But in 1679 Louis
include only doctors, leaving the bachelors to the XIV authorized the teaching of civil law in the faculty
nations. At this period, therefore, the university had of decretals. As a logical consequence the name
two principal degrees, the baccalaureate and the "facultyoflaw"replaced that of "faculty of decretals",
doctorate. It was not until much later that the licen- The colleges meantime had multiplied; those of
tiate, while retaining its early character, became an Cardinal Le-Moine and Navarre were founded in the
intermediate degree. Besides, the university num- fourteenth century. The Hundred Years' War was
bered among its members besulles and messengers, fatal to these establishments, but the university set
who also performed the duties of clerks. about remedying the injury.
The scattered condition of the scholars in Paris Remarkableforitsteachmg,theUniver3ity of Paris
often made the question of lodging diflficult. Recourse played an important part: in the Church, during the
was had to the townsfolk, who exacted high rates GreatSchism;in the councils, in dealing with heresies
while the students demanded lower. Hence arose and deplorable divisions; in the State, during national
friction and quarrels, which, as the scholars were very crises; and if under the domination of England it dis-
numerous, would have developed into a sort of civil honoured itself in the trial of Joan of Arc, it re-
war if a remedy had not been found. The remedy habilitated itself by rehabilitating the heroine herself,
sought was taxation. This right of taxation, included Proud of its rights and privileges, it fought energetic-
in the regulation of Robert de Courgon, had passed on ally to maintain them. Hence the long struggle
to the university. It was upheld in the Bull of Greg- against the mendicant orders on academic as well as
ory IX of 1231, but with an important modification, on religious grounds. Hence also the conflict, shorter
for its exercise was to be shared with the citizens, but al^ memorable, against the Jesuits, who claimed
These circumstances had long shown the need of new by word and action a share in its teacmng. It made
arrangements. The aim was to offer the students a hoeral use of its right to decide administralively ac-
shelt^ where they would fear neither annoyance from cording to occasion and necessity. In some instances
the owners nor the dangers of the world. The result it opemy e;ndorsed the censures of the faculty of the-
was the foundation of the colleges {c4>Uigere, to assem- ology and in its own name pronounced condemnation,
ble). This measure also furthered the progress of as in the case of the Flagellants,
studies by a better employment of time, under the Its patriotism was especially manifested on two oc-
guidance sometimes of resident masters and out of the caaions. During the captivity of King John, when
XI.— 32
PABI8
498
PARIS
Paris was given over to factions, the university soueht
energetically to restore peace; and under Louis XI V,
when the Spaniards had crossed the Somme and
threatened the capital, it placed two hundred men at
the king's disposal and offered the Master of Arts
degree gratuitously to scholars who should present
certificates of service in the army (Jourdain, ''Hist,
de rUnivers. de Paris au XVIP et XVIIPsi^le",
132-34; ''Archiv. du minist^re de Tinstruction pub-
Uque").
The ancient university was to disappear with an-
cient France under the Revolution. On 15 Sept., 1793,
petitioned by the Department of Paris iand several de-
partmental groups, the National Convention decided
that independently of the primary schools, already the
objects of its solicitude, ''there should be estabhshed
in the Republic three progressive degrees of instruc-
tion; the first for the knowledge indispensable to ar-
tisans and workmen of all kinds; the second for further
knowledge neceasary to those intending to embrace
the other professions of society; and the tnird for those
branches of instruction the study of which is not
within the reach of all men". Measures were to be
taken immediately: "For means of execution the de-
partment and the municipality of Paris are authorized
to consult wiUi the Committee of Public Instruction of
the National Convention^ in order that these establish-
ments shall be put in action by 1 November next, and
consequently colleges now in operatioii and the facul-
ties ol theologv, medicine, arts^ and law are sup-
pressed throughout the Repubhc". This was the
aeath-«entence of the university. It was not to be re-
stored after the Revolution had subsided, any more
than those of the provinces. All were replaced by a
single centre, viz., the University of France. The
lapse of a century brought the recognition that
the new system was less favourable to study, and it
was sought to restore the old system, but without the
faculty of theology.
Rasbdall, Uniweraitiu of Europe in the Middle Age9, 1 (Oxford,
1895); Deniflb, Die Univerattaten . . . (Berlin. 1885); Deni-
FLE AND Chatelain, Ckartulartum Unit, Parit (Paris, 1889-97) ;
DU BouLAT. HiM. Univ. Ptaria (Paris, 1665-73); Cbbvibb,' HiU.
de V Univ. de P. (Paris, 1761) ; Thubot, De Vorganiealian de Ven-
eeianement dane V Univ. de P. (Paris, 1850) ; Jourdain, Hiei. de
rUniv. de P. au 17* et au 18' eiicie (Paris. 1866); Ralbioh. The
Univ. of Paria (Oxford, 1873); Ferbt, La FacuiU de thiol, et eee
doeleure lee plus eiUbree (Paris. 1894-1909). See also bibliography
under Univebsitt. P, FeRET.
Parii, Alexis-Pauun, philologist, .b. at Avenay,
Mame, France, 25 March, 1800; d. 13 Feb., 1881. Hav-
ing finished his classical studies at Reims, he was sent
bv his father to Paris to study law, but aevoted most
of his time to literature. In 1824 he published
''Apologie de TEcole Romantique", in which he ad-
vocated the imitation of Byron and the study of
medieval art. Besides contnbuting articles to vari-
ous literary reviews, he translated Byron's complete
works (13 vols., Paris. 1827-32). In 1828 he ob-
tained a clerkship in tne manuscript department of
the Kinff's Library (now known as the Biblioth^ue
Nationale), and was afterwards promoted to the rank
of assistant librarian. He took advantage of his
position to pursue his research work on medieval
literature, and publish a few old epics. ''Berte aux
Grans Pids" (Paris, 1831), "Garm le Loherain"
(1835), and a collection of popular songs under the
title of "Romancero Frangais" (Paris, 1833). He
then turned to historical writing, publishing in 1833
"Mdmoire sur la Relation Origmale cles Voyages de
Marco Polo", and from 1836 to 18ft, the "Grandes
Chroniques ae Saint Denis''. His most importaiit
work as a librarian, was his book on ''Les Manuscrits
Fran^ais de la Biblioth^que du Roi" (Paris, 1836;48),
which is not a mere catalogue, but a lengthv disser-
tation on the authors and contents of the MSS.
In recognition of his achievements, he was elect-ed
to the Academy of Inscriptions and Belles-lettres in
1837 and soon after was made a member of the com-
mittee entrusted with the task of continuing the
''Histoire littdraire de la France", a most valuable
Sublication, begun in the eighteenth century by the
Benedictines. In 1853 a chair of medieval hterature
was created for him in the Collie de France, and for
nineteen years he lectured in a most scholarlv manner
on the origins of the French language, the old French
^ics or ** Chansons de Geste ", the novels of the Round
Table, and the early French theatre. Medieval
literature appealed to him, because he found in it a
naive but strong expression of his relidous faith.
Busy as he was with tne preparation of his lectures, he
found time to publish, witn dissertations and anno-
tations, such works as "Historiettes de Tallemand des
R6aux^' (9 vols., Paris. 1860), "A ventures de Maftre
Renart et d'Ysengrin'' (Paris, 1861), "Recueil com-
plet des Po^mes de St-Pavin" (1861), "Romans de la
Table Ronde" (1868^^7), "Le Uyre du Voir Dit",
by Guillaume de Machault (1867). He resigned his
cnair in the Colldge de France in 1872.
Pabib. Paulin Pane et Id Kttirature firaneaiee du nuyen doe in
Romania, XI (1882).
LotJiB N. Dbi«amarrb.
Parii, Gabton-Bruno-Pauu^i, a French philolo-
gist, son of PauUni b. at Avenay (Mame), 0 August,
1839 ; d. at Cannes, 6 March, 1903. After paduating
from the CoU^ Rollin, Paris, he studied at the
Universities of Uottinffen and ^nn, where he was a
pupil of the celebrated philologist Dies. On his re-
tum^ while takiii|; courses at the Ecole des Chartes, he
studied law and hterature at the University of Paris,
obtaining the degree of doctor in literature in 1865.
He tau^t for a while French grammar in a private
school, and was appointed professor of languages
at the Eoole Pratique des Hautes Etudes, and soon
after was made director of that section of the school,
a position he retained till his death. In 1872, he suc-
ceeded his father as professor of medieval literature at
the Coll^ de France and was made director of the
college in 1895. A year later, he was elected to the
French Academy, taking the seat made vacant by the
death of Alexandre Dumas, Jr. For more than thirty
years he was regarded as the highest authority in France
on philqlogy of the Romance languages. By his vast
erudition^ his scientific methods, and his patient re-
searches m that new field, he made his name famous
throughout Europe. His lectures were attended by
enthusiastic crowds gathered from all parts of the
world. His salon, where he used to receive every
Sunday his friends, pupils, and distinguished forei^
scholars, was one of the most celebrated in Pans.
Because of his sojourn in Protestant universities and
the influence of Renan, he lost for a time his religious
faith, but towards the end of his life he returned to the
sentiments of his childhood and was buried in the
Church. Among his numerous publications, without
mentioning his contributions to the ''Revue critique"
and "Romania'', which he founded, the former in
1865, the latter in 1872, the chief to be cited are:
"Etude sur le r61e de I'accent latin dans la langue
fran9aise" (Paris, 1862); "De Pseudo-Turpino"
(Paris, 1865), a Latin thesis for the doctorate; Hia-
toire po<^tique de Charlemagne" (Paris, 1866); "La
vie de saint Alexis" (texts of the eleventh, twelfth,
thirteenth, and fourteenth centuries): "Dissertation
critique sur le po^me latin Ligurius' (Paris, 1873);
"Le petit Poucet, la grande Ourse" (Paris, 1875);
"Les contes orientaux dans la litt^rature du moyen
Age" (Paris, 1875); ''LesmiradesdeNotre-Damepar
Personnages" (Paris. 1877); "Le myst^re de la Pas-
sion par Amoul Gr^oan" (1878); "Deux Redactions
du roman des sept sages de Rome" (Paris, 1879);
"Aucassin et Nicolette" (Paris, 1878); "Pontes et
Penseurs" (Paris, 1893) etc.
Mamon, Discoure de rletption d TAcadhnie fran^iee (PBria,
1904); Romania (April. 1903); Todd. Gaeton Plant in Modern
PARIS 499 PARISH
Umagn Atmatum PubHaawru (Baltimore. 1899) ; Roques h 479). But we may refit content with the verdict of
AND B>D»«. Btbl. tfe. «.«-« de Cotton Ptom (Pam. 1905). ^ ^^^ ^^^^ writer, open to no suspicion of reUgiouB
Louifl N. Delamarre. bjag, "Matthew", says Professor Tout, "was a man
of strong views, and his sympathies and tiis prejudices
Pariit Matthew. Benedictine monk and chroni- colour every line he wrote. His standpoint is that of a
der, b. about 1200; a. 1259. There seems no reason to patriotic Englishman, indignant at the alien invasions,
infer from the name by which he was commonly known at the misgovemment of the King, the greed of the
that this famous English historian was directly con- curiaUsts and the Poitevins, and with a professional
nected with Paris either by birth or education. He bias aeainst the mendicant friars" (Poht. Hist, of
became a monk at St. Albans on 21 January, 1217, and Eng., Ill, -152).
St. Albans remained his home until his death. We The prineipid souroes of information resaniinf Matthew Pari.
know, however, that on occasion he moved about have ah been gathered up in the prefaces of Dr. Luard to hia
freely, visiting London and the Court, and one mem- ^OS"™®!?*** ^**9° ^^ the Chronica Majora in the RolU Strie*
o«b!e epiaode of Wb life took him m viator yrith fuU iiJJS^f^wil.S'd SlTiSu^ ^tSfe'M'aS«??«Si^
powers to the Abbey of St. Benet Holm m Norway to the Histaria Minor in RolU Series C3 vols.. 1866-69) and with
where he remained nearly a year. Simple monk as he Sir T. Duffua-Hardjr's preface to hi« Catalogue of BntiehHietory,
was, Matthew seems always to have been treated as a J^'h^^'S^SSSS'lZl^tS^r ^^!^S^. fS^T^!^;
Cersonase of consideration. In his journey to Norway Tour in Political History of Bnaland, III (London, 1905) . 451-«3 :
e was the bearer of letters from St. Louis of France to Oabqvvt, Henry HI and <Xe Ckwck (London, 1906) ; Bbrobb, A.
1J»«1..^» TV :n,.:f:n* *\x^ xr^..«r4%«*;on u;««<» ♦** ;^;t ^k^ Lou%e et Innocent IV (Pans, 1894); Idkm, in hia prefaoe to the
Haakon IV, inviting the Norwegian king to join the Rtgeeta InnocenHi Papa Quarti,
crusade. Haakon subsequently became his personal Herbert Thub«k>n.
friend and we have much evidence in Matthew's own
writings of the intimate terms upon which he stood Parish (L. parcuia. parochia, Gk. rapoarfa, a group
with the English king, Henry III, and with his brother of neighbouring dwelUngs). I. General Notions, — A
Richard, Earl of Cornwall. From them and from the parish is a portion of a diocese under the authority of a
members of their household the chronicler must have priest legitimately appointed to secure in virtue of his
derived that wide, if not always quite accurate, ac- office for the faithful dwelling therein, the helps of reli-
quaintance with tne details of foreign contemporary gion. The faithful are called parishioners, the priest
mstory in which Matthew Paris stands unnvaUed parocAtM, curate, parish priest, pastor (q. v.). To
among medieval historians. His gifts were not merely form a parish there must be (1) a certain body of the
those of the student and man of letters. He was faithful over whom pastoral authority is exercised;
famed as an artist and an expert in writing and he the ordinary maimer of determining them is by aadgn-
probabty executed with his own hand many of the ing a territory subject to the exclusive jurisdiction of
telling httle drawings which illustrate the margins of the parish priest. Uncertainty of parish boundaries
his manuscripts. may work harm and the Council of Trent (Sess.
As an historian Matthew holds the first place among XXlV, e. xiii, de ref.) orders the boundaries of par-
English chroniclers. For his ease of style, range of ishes to be denned. The faithful become parishioners
interest and information, vivid though prolix elab- by acquiring a domicile or a quasi-nlomicile (see Domi-
oration of detail, he is much more readable than cile) within the territory, or by simply living in it for
any of those monastic scholars who wrote either be- a month (Decree, ''Ne temere'', on marriage, 2 Au-
fore or after him. His great work, the "Chronica gust, 1907). Travellers, however, may address them-
Majora'', extends from the creation until 1259, the selves to the parish priest of the locality, though with-
year of his death. Down to 1235 this is simply an ex- out detriment to the rights of their own pastor. The
pansion and embellishment of the chronicle of his f el- exclusive attribution of a territory to a parish and its
low-monk, Roger of Wendover, but "he re-edited pastor is not absolutely necessazy; certain parishes
Wendovers work with a patriotic and anti-curialist coexist with others in the same temtory, the respective
bias quite alien to the spirit of the earlier writer'' parishes being distinguished by rite or nationality, e; g.
(Tout, 451). From 1235 to 1259 Paris is a first-hand m the Orient or in large American cities. There are
authority and by far the most copious souree of infor- even rare instances of parishes formed solely of f ami-
mation we possess. The '^ Chronica Majora ** has been lies, without regard to territory. (2) A special priest,
admirably edited, with prefaces and supplements, in having in virtue of his title a mission and authority to
seven volumes by Dr. Luard. A compendium of this cive religious succour to the parishioners, is required,
work from 1067 to 1253 was also prepared by Paris. Iq. strict law, the care of souls in a single parish must
It is known as the ''Historia Minor" and it bears evi- devolve on several priests, and in fact, such was for-
dence of a certain mitigation of previous judgments merly the case in most chapters (q. v.) ; but the Coun-
which in his later years he deemed over severe. This cil of Trent (Sees. ^OCIV, c. xiii, de ref.) commands
work has been edited by Sir F. Madden. Other minor bishops to assign to each parish its own individual
works connected especially with St. Albans, and a rector. If the care of souls is entrusted to a moral
short ''life of Stephen Langton'' (printed by Lieber- body, like a chapter, it must be exercised by a vicar,
mann in 1870) are also attributed to Paris. perpetual as far as possible, who is called the " actual
With regard to his trustworthiness as a souree of curate^ the chapter remaining the "habitual" curate,
history there seems to be a tendency amonmt most without right of interfering in any way in the parochial
English writers, notably for example J. R. Green or ministry (Sess. VII, c. vii).
Dr. Luard, to glorify him as a sort of national asset The parish priest may have assistants, but the lat-
and to regard his shortcomings with partisan eyes, ter exercise their ministry in dependence on him and
There can be no question that Matthew's allegations in his name. If the priest, even when alone, does not
against the friars and his denunciations of the avarice exereise his office in his own name, if he is only the
and tyranical interference of the Roman Court should delegate of a higher authority^ he is not really a parish
be received with extreme caution. Lingard perhaps prie^ and his district is not a true parish. Tnat ia
goes too far when, in speaking of his ''censorious dia- why there are no real parishes (as there are no real dio-
position", he declares, "It may appear invidious to ceses) but only stations in vicariates Apostolic and
speak harshly of this famous historian, but this I may missionary countries. The same may occur in dio-
say, that when I could confront his pages with authen- ceses during the provisional period which precedes the
tic records or contemporary writers, I have in most erection of certain districts into parishes. But the
instances found the discrepancy between them so parish exists, when the priest exereises the ministry in
great as to give his narrative the appearance of a ro- nis own name, whether his title be perpetual or he be
mance rather than a history " (Lingard, " History ", removable at the will of the bishop. From this results
PARISH 500 PARISH
(3) parochial law, 1. e., the reciprocal lij^ts and duties here dealt with as crimes, but solelv as obstacles to a
of the parish priest and parishioners. Tiiis constitutes useful parochial ministry; hence the parish priest on
the care of souls (cura animarum)^ an essential and being removed is to be provided for. This adminis-
constitutive element of a parish, distmsuishing a paro- trative procedure adequately secures the right of initi-
chial benefice from all others. Finally there is re- ative necessary for the bishop, and at the same time
Quired (4^ a suitable church which must have besides safeguards the interests of the parish priest. It com-
tne liturgical equipment necessary for Divine worship, prises three stages: the bishop who thmks that a par-
a baptismal font (exception is occasionally made m ish priest is no longer working faithfully among his
favour of a cathedral or a mother-church; hence in the flock, is bound to select as counsellors two of the sjm-
Middle Ages parish churches were often called bap- odal or pro-synodal examiners, in order of their nomina-
tismal churches), a confessional, and a cemetery. Reo- tion, and explain the situation to them. If the major-
ords of the baptisms, marriages, and burials must be ity decides to remove the parish priest, the bishop
kept, while the entire parish is the object of a liber must first officially request mm to resign within ten
status animarunif prescribed by the Ritual. Finally, days under threat of pronouncing a decree of removal,
the parish has fixed or occasional contributions The priest may reply to the reasons alleged against
for Divine service, the building, liturgical furniture, him, and his answer is examined by this council; if the
parochial works, and all that implies an administra- reply is deemed unsatisfactory, the bishop issues the
tion. Local laws determine the share of the parish- decree and notifies the priest. Properly speaking the
loners or their representatives in this administration, latter cannot appeal from the decree, but he may
The parish must likewise furnish the parish priest present his case to a new council, composed of the
with nis presbytery or dwelling. bishop and two parish priests as consultors, who
II. The Parish as a Benefice. — The canonical legisla- examine whether the reasons given for the removal
tipn relative to parishes is part of the legislation con- have been proved and whether Uie formalities de-
cerning benefices (q. v.). To the care of souls is manded by the decree have been observed; a ma-
annex^ by common law a benefice, by its purpose jority vote decides (see Council of Trent, Sess. XXI,
distinct from anv other. All parishes are benefices, at c. vi, de ref .) .
least in the wiae acceptation of the term; according (3) The same zeal for the welfare of souls inspires
to canon law, every church should have a stable in- special legislation for the erection and division of par-
come, especially land revenues, sufficient to insure not ishes. The erection of a parish takes place by creation
only the Divine service but also the support of its cler^. when the district and the faithful assigned to the new
Every parish priest ought to have a fixed beneficial parish did not belong previously to any priest. This
revenue, his conaruaf the minimum of which is fixed case is extremely rare, as usually the territory of each
by the Council of Trent (Sess. XXIV, c. xiii, de diocese is divided into parishes more or less exten-
ref.), at one hundred ducats (about one hundred and sive. A parish is created when a centre of religious
forty-two dolhurs), a sum insufficient to-da^^; the amr activity becomes canonically recognised as a parish,
oma may be replaced by contributions from the pub- as when a vicariate Apostolic is erected into a diocese,
lie treasurv, in certain countries, paid in return for The erection of parishes usually tidies place by dis-
former ecclesiastical property now confiscated. Par- memberment or division. While in theory the divi-
ishes without fixed incomes are nevertheless benefices sion of benefices is looked on unfavorably by^ the law
in a broad sense of the term, since they insure a Uving (c. 8 de Prsebendis), it is authorized and even necessi-
for their parish priests by gifts and offering, either tated by the welfare of the faithful in the case of par-
voluntaxy or payable on the occasion of certain acts of ishes. The Council of Trent (Sess. XXI, c. iv, de ref.),
the curial ministry, according to rates approved by referring expressly to the Decree ''Ad audientiam" of
the bishop. Parishes, like other benefices, may be di- Alexander III (lib. Ill, tit. 48, c. 3), desires bishops, if
vided into several classes. Most parishes are ''free'', necessary as delegates of the Apostolic See, to estab-
i. e. the bishop himself selects the incumbent; but lish new parishes, in spite of the parish priest's oppo-
others are subject to the right of patronage; the pa- si tion, wherever distance or difficulty of communica-
trons present to the bishop their candidate. Most tion does not allow the faithful to frequent the church,
parishes are independent, but some are united to other In cities an excessive increase of population neoessi-
ecclesiastical bodies: chapters, dignities (high eccle- tates the multiplication of parishes. The Council in
siasticai offices), monastenes. By common law they such a case desires bishops to oblige the parish priests
are served by the secular clergy and ar^ hence called to have sufficient number of assistants; but if the pop-
secular parishes; but some, united to houses of reli- ulation is too Great for the parish priest "to know ms
gious orders, are served by religious and are conse- sheep" (Sess. AXI, c. i), the erection of a new pariah
quently termed regular. Those confided to religious is obligatory and the Congregation of the Council has
in virtue of a personal title, are not properly speak- seversJ times reco^zed this as a legitimate reason,
ingregular. The legal formalities for the erection of a new pariah
The care of souls places parochial benefices in a further require the request either of the parish priest
special category, and has led to regulations peculiar to whose pansh is to be divided, or of othier interested
tnem alone. (1) Parishes, to be "free", i. e., freely persons, if there be any such; the consent of the chap-
collated, should be conferred by the bishop within six ter, unless custom has ruled otherwise; finaUy the
months like other benefices; but his choice is limited guarantee of a sufficient income for the new parish,
by the concursus (q. v.) ordered by the Council of either by a partition of the property of the dismem-
Trent (Sess. XXIV, c. xviii, de ref.). (2) By common bered parish or parishes, or at least by the contribu-
law, a parochial benefice, like other benefices, is per- tions of the inhabitants of the new one. The erection
petual, and the beneficiary irremovable (see Irre- is effected by an episcopal decree. As a rule a special
movabilitt; Decree, "Maxima cura", 20 August, kinship exists between the old and the hew parishes;
1910). According to this Decree parish priests who the old being called the "mother" and the new the
were heretofore removable are now withdrawn from "filial" parish, the latter being bound to make cer-
purely administrative transference. Irremovable tain offerings to the former, generally honorary, e. g..
parish priests may have their faculties withdrawn, the annual gift of a candle. Special "foundations" or
without any trial properly so called, when the good of the old parish, created for the benefit, not of the clergy,
souls demands it. The nine reasons dven in the afore- but of the faithful (alms for the poor) are divided pro
said Decree as grounds for this witndrawal of facul- rata. Finally, the same procedure is observed for the
ties relate to corporal or spirituaJ defects, criminal extinction or suppression of a parish, by its union with
induct, serious and prolonged neglect of duty, per- another, when the number of the faithful has decreased
sistent disobedience; these reasons, however, are not soasnolongertowarrantthepresenceof a parish priest.
PARISH 501 PARISH
ni. HiMory. — The first Christian oommunittes were rate urban parishes began; even then ihere were liml-
founded in cities and the entire Divine service was tations. e. g. baptism was to be conferred in the cathe-
carriedonby the bishop and his clergy; the few faith- dral; the territories, moreover, were badly defin»i.
ful outside the cities went to the city or were visited The chapters turned over to the clergy of the churches
from time to time by clerics from the presbyteries, the parochial ministry, while the corporations (guilds)
In the fourth centurv we find in the villages groups insisted especially on the granting of parochial rights
sufficiently large to be served by a resident cler^. to the churches which they founded and supported.
Canon 77 of Elvira (about a. D. 300) speaks of a dea- All manuals of canon law have a chapter on the parish and the
con in dmrge of the people (dtoomu. re»en« pUbem). gTSSl.t'YS; '.StT^'.iSgSlii.'SfelSS',!'^* S^SJH
In the East at a very early period the churches of the alimia jmroehiani*; Bouix, De paroeho (Paris. 1867) ; Fkbbaris,
cities and of the country districts were organized; the f^?"?*? ^^***^*«*vJP- T- ^**!:SSi^'.?Ji?*^'^' i**»*M«* <*«■
Ponnml nf NArM*JMArPA nhniit 320 (oaxx 1 %\ AnAalrn nf i^b' Kxrchenreehia (Freiburg. 1909), (( 68, 100; Thomabsin, P. I.
Y^UnCll OI iNeoCfiesarea, aOOUt a^ ^can. l^;, SOeaKS OI ^ ^ ^ 21 sq.; Imbarti>s la Tour. Les paroUtea ruraUt du IV' au
COUntrypnestsandblshopSof Villages, the'* chorepiS- VI» aiMe (Paris. 1900); LxaiTRS, La Paroiwe (Paris. 1908);
copi ". who had a subordinate clergy. Such churches Taunton, Law ofiU Chwck (London, 1906), s. ▼.
and their clergy were originally under the direct ad- -A.. Boxtdinhon.
ministration oithe bishop ; but soon they had their own
i^sources and a distinct administration (Council of In English-speaking Countries. — In the United
Chalcedon, 451, can. 4, 6, 17). The same change took States and English-speaking lands generally (with
place in the Wcast, but more slowly. In proportion as the exception of Ireland, Canada, and possibly
the countiy districts were evangehzed (fourth to sixth California), it has not been found advisable as vet to
centuries), churches were erected, at first in the t^ erect canonical parishes. The districts confided to
(hamlets or villages), afterwaids on church lands or priests having the cure of souls are technically desig-
on the property of private individuals, and at least one nated as missions or quasi-parishes, though in common
priest was appointed to each church. The clergy and parlance the word parish is employed. The establish-
property depended at first directly on the bishop and ment of canonical parishes in these countries was not
the cathedral; the churches did not yet correspond to found possible, owing either to the devastation
very definite territorial circuqiscriptions: the centre wrought in the so-called Reformation period or to the
was better marked than the boundaries. Such was fact that^ as new lands were slowly evangelized and
the church which the councils of the sixth and settled, circumstances did not allow the establishment
seventh century call ecclena rusiicanaj parochitana, of 4;he Church's parochial system as prescribed in her
often dioBcesiSf and finally varochia. By that time canon law.
most of these churches had become independent: the A. The Missions •or Quasi^ Parishes, — Certain
priest administered the property assigned to him by churches are designated bv the bishop which are to be
the bishop, and also the property given directly to the regarded as parish churches (ad instar parcedarum).
church by the pious faithful; from that moment the Over these churches are placed priests provided with
priest became a beneficiary and had his title. More the necessary faculties. They are designated mission-
plentiful resources required and permitted a more nu- aiy rectors, or quasi-parish priests, though familiarly
merous clergy. The devotion of the faithful, espe- referred to as pastors or parish priests. A certain dis-
cially towaras relics, led to the erection of numerous trict around each church is then more or less definitely
secondary chapels, oratorUij hasiliccBf mariyriaf which marked out by the bishop, within the limits of whicn
also had their clergy. But these tittdi minores were the pastor is to exercise jurisdiction over the faithful
not parishes; they depended on the principal church sind have care of ecclesiastical buildings. Within the
of the vicus, and on the archpriest so often mentioned limits of such missions or quasi-parishes, the bishop
in the councils of the sixth and seventh centuries, may institute new ecclesiastical divisions when sucn
who had authority over his own clergy and those of action becomes advisable. If the parish be held by
the oratories. members of a religious order, the bisnop is not thereby
These secondary churches emphasize the parochial constrained to entrust the newly-formed district to
character of the baptismal churches, as the faithful regulars. The institution of new quasi-parishes in
had to receive the sacraments and pay their tithes in English-speaking countries proceeds generally along
the latter. The monasteries in turn ministered to the the same lines as those prescribed by Church law for
people grouped around them. From the eighth cen- the erection of canonical parishes. Consequently, the
tury parochial centres multiplied on the lands of the bishop can erect a new parish by way of creation,
churches and the monasteries, and the viUa or union, or divimon. If the territory in question has not
great estates of the kings and nobles. Then the yet been assigneii to any parish church, the institution
villa were subdivided and the parish served a cer^ is said to be by way of creation. There cannot be the
tain number of villcB or rural districts, and thus the slightest doubt that the bishop can proceed to such
parish church became the centre of the religious and action in virtue of his powers as ordinary of the diocese,
even the civil life of the villages. This conaition, es- In creating such new parish, he is bound to provide as
tablished in the eleventh ana twelfth centuries, has far as possible for the proper support of the new in-
scarcely varied since, as far as concerns the parochial cumbent. In Englidi-speakin^ countries there is no
service. As benefices, however, parishes have under- necessity of recurring to the civil power for the crea-
gone many vicissitudes, owing to their union with tion of a new parish. When the bishop establishes
monasteries or chapters, and on account of the inex- new ouasi-parishes by way of division, ne is not re-
tricable complications of the feudal order. Parish quirea to observe all the formalities prescribed by law
churches had ordinarily attached to them schools and for the dismemberment of canonical parishes. He
charitable works, especially for the poor enrolled on must, nevertheless, act on the advice of nis consultors,
the mairiada^ or list of those attached to the and after hearing the opinion of the pastor whose ter-
Church. In the episcopal and other cities the division ritory is to be divided. It is obvious that a division
into parishes took place much more slowly, the cathe- which would cripple or impoverish the church would
dral or the archipresbyteral church being for a long not be in the best interests of religion, yet the bishop
time the only parochial church. However numerous can proceed to such dismembering even against the
the city churches, all depended on it and, properly will and advice of the pastor. In that caae, however,
speaking, had no flock of their own. At Rome, as an appeal against the decree of the ordinary can be
early as the fourth century, there was a quasi-paro- lodged with the metropolitan or the Holy See. It is to
chial service in the 'Hitles and cemeterial churches be noted that, while very specific reasons are laid
(Innocent I to Decentius, c. 5, an. 416). It is only down in canon law according to which a bishop may
towarde the close of the eleventh century that sepa- divide parishes, yet our bishops are not limited to such
PARISH 502 PARISH
reaaonfl. Leo XIII lays down explicitly in his Consti- movable, it is not in the power of the ordinaiy to
tution " Romanofl Pontifices ** that our missions may reduce it to the status of a removable rectorship. This
be divided by the ordinaries for a greater number of is plain from the Third Council of Baltimore (No. 34),
reasons and for less important ones than those speci- as well as from the general law of the Church, which
fied in the common law of the Church. forbids ecclesiasticiu superiors to lower the status^or
When a parish committed to re^lars is to be di- condition of churches. When a parish is declared an
vided^ the bishop must hear the opimon of the religious irremovable rectorship, the appointment of the first
superior before taking action. A right of appeal rector lies with the bisnop after hearing the diocesan
against the dismemberment of the mission is allowed consultors. For instituting all other irremovable reo-
both to seculars and regulars. In case of the former, tors, it is necessary that a written examination or con-
generally, the appeal is to be made to tlie metropoli- cursus be held, at which the same questions must be
tan, as the bishop acts in virtue of his ordinary juris- * proposed to all the candidates. From among those
diction : in case of the latter, the appeal is to be laid whom the examiners shall deem worthy after a con-
before tne Holy See as the bisnop is generally using his sideration of their answers and testimonials, the bidiop
powers of papal delegation. No appeal, however, can selects one on whom he confers the parish. Tliis rule
effect a suspension of the bishop's mandate but onlv as to a concursus does not hold, however, in all En^-
subject it to reconsideration by the higher tribuniu. lish-speaking countries. An appeal to a higher tn-
It is possible^ however, for the ordinarv to act as dele- bunal is not stopped by a concursus, for a dissatisfied
gate of the Holy See for seculars as well aa for regulars, candidate may lay his complaint before the metro-
exempt and non-exempt." In that case the appeal politan, either on account of the improper judgment
must always be made to Rome. Parishes are some- of the examiners or of the unreasonable selection made
times formed by way of union, that is, when several by the ordinar^r.
parishes are joined together so as to form, either No examination is required for the appointment of
strictly or loosely, one new parish. The united par- pastors to removable rectorships. When a rector has
ishes are simpler governed by one pastor without any once acquired the privilege of permanency, he cann< t
further change in their status (unto ceque principalis) ; be removed a^nist his will except for causes laid
we have frequently a similar arrangement in English- down by ecclesiastical decrees or in such cases as fall
speaking countries, where two or more churehes or imder the new Constitution of Pius X, ''Maxima
missions are served by one priest, though otherwise Cura'' (20 Aus[., 1910). Removable rectors, though
independent of each other. With us, however, such they are appointed at the will of the bishop, can-
union is preparatory to a division as soon as the rev- not be removed except for grave cause, if such re-
enues of the churches or the number of priests allows moval would affect tneir character or their emolu-
of it. As to union by subjection, the usual form this ments, and in case of grievance they may have
takes among us is when small mission stations are recourse to the Holy See. The First Synod of West-
made (for the most part temporarily) dependent on minster (D. 25) warns priests that the appointment to
some parish church. The power possessed by the permanent rectorships rests with the bishop, and that
bishop of disuniting parishes formerly joined together no right of preferment is acquired by serving as assist-
is frec[uently exereised in these countries in the above ant priest on a mission or even administering it
mentioned cases. As a right of patronage does not temporarily. On appointment to a parish, an irre-
exist in the United States, the making of new parishes movable rector must make a profession of faith,
is never complicated by tne necessity of consulting an Whether the same obligation rests on removable reo-
ecclesiasticai patron. The counsel, which the bisnop tots is disputed by canonists. The profession of faith
must take to ensure validity in the formation of new is explicitly demanded of all rectors by the First
parishes, must be with his diocesan consultors, where Council of Westminster, but there has been no such
such a body is established, or with the cathedral chap- pronouncement for the United States. The Decree
ter, when the diocese possesses such a bod^, as in the of Pius X "Sacrorum Antistitum" (1 Septi, 1910) is,
British Isles. The regulations of ecclesiastical law by of course, binding everywhere. All priests having
which a new parish or church must pay a certain tril>- cure of souls are bound to reside in their parishes, and
ute as a sign of dependence and respect to the chureh the statutes of some dioceses require the bishop's con-
from which it was separated (the relation of the Mia to sent for one week's absence. As our rectors are not
the ecclesia matrix, or mother-church) is generally un- canonical parish priests, they are not bound to offer
known in missionary countries. up the Mass gratuitously for their people on Sundajra
B. Pastors or Rectors of Churches. — ^The rectors of and holy dajys of obligation. In Ireland and Canada,
missions are not canonical parish priests, though they however, this obligation rests on parish priests, thoug^
have been invested with nearly all the privileges of dispensations are commonlv given from offering this
canonical incumbents by particular synods or decrees Mass on suppressed holy days,
of Roman congregations. These rectors are of two The duty of instructing the young in catechism is
kinds, removable and irremovable. The common law insisted on by the synods of Baltimore, and, especially
of the Church requires that every parish should have in places where there are no parochial schools, this
an irremovable rector, but in countries where the instruction is to be carried on by means of Sunday
Chureh is not canonically established, this is not al- schools. Pastors are obliged to establish parochial
ways feasible, and therefore the Holy See permits the schools where possible, and they are exhorted to visit
appointment of pastors who are removable at the will them frequently and see to their efficient management,
of the ordinary (adntUumepiscovi), Priests belonging They are also obliged to preach to their people and
to religious orders, who are in charge of parishes, may give them facility for approaching the sacraments,
be removed either by their superior or by the bishop. The Westminster Synod exhorts pastors to provide
without either being constrained to give the reason for missions and spiritual retreats for their flocks. As
his action to the other. On the removal of a regular, our rectors are quasi-parish priests, they have juris-
his religious superior nominates his successor. It is diction similar to that of canonical parish priests con-
the expressed desire of the Holy See, that all rectors of ferred on them bjr various councils. As regards the
parishes should, as far as possible, be endowed with sacraments, baptism should be conferred only in the
the quality of perpetuity in their pastoral charge and, parish to which the person belongs, and the contrary
where this is impossible, that at least a certain number practice is strictly prohibited (II Balt.^ No. 227) ;
of the rectors of parishes be declared irremovable, penance cannot be aaministered, even to his parishion-
The proportion of one out of every ten was determined ers, outside the diocese to which the rector belongs,
on as tne minimum number in American dioceses, thoueh this would be a prerogative of a canonical
When a certain rectorship has once been declared irre- pariw priest; the Paschal Communion may be made
PARISH 503 PARK
in any public chapel or church, unless there be special two honest persons. Let these know that they are
le^slation a^idnst it; Mass may be celebrated twice a taken onJy to prevent the money from any peril- of
day, with episcopal permission, when otherwise a con- loss and that they must not interfere in the admin-
sicvmble number of persons would be deprived of istration. If one fail from any cause the two who
Mass on Sundays and holy days; matrimony is to be remain shall take care to have another elected by the
administered by one's own pastor for ticeity; and when bishop to supply the place. The administrator
the contracting parties are of different parishes, it should never keep for longer than ten days on hand
is usual for the bishop to designate the parish of the more than 201. of money belonging to the mission
bride as the proper place for the ceremony. These . . . but he should diligently place it in the bank."
requirements, however, do not affect the validity of "All buildings belonging to a mission should be in-
the sacrament. As regards funeral rights of pastors, sured against fire by an annual payment to some
there is no special legislation for the United States, society tor this purpose." ''As soon as any priest
but the common law of the Church is usually followed, enters on his mission let him receive an inventory of
The administration of the Viaticum and extreme all things belonging to the mission from the vicar
unction are rights reserved to the pastor, and these foran or from some one deputed by the bishop. He
rights may not oe infringed without penalty. Rectors is bound to keep the furniture and buildings in good
of parishes are required to keep registers of baptisms, repair, yea, rather to improve them, that he may
marriases, confirmations, and interments. Th^ are deliver to his successors as much, at least, as he re-
also exhorted to keep a liber status animarum as far as ceived himself." ''In every mission, the money con-
circumstances permit it. In some dioceses, the ac- tributed by the faithful (for seat rents, offertories,
ceptance of a perpetual foundation for a daihr or house to house collections and special collections) ... is
anniversary Mass is subject to the approval of the to be accounted church property and not as rafts gjven
ohlinary, who is to decide on the adequacy of the to the priest." — By the Constitution ''Romanos
endowment. Pontifices"*, regulars administerinff missions must
C. Rectors and tiie Parochial Tempondities. — Pas- render an account to the bishop of all money given to
tors are the administrators of the parochial property, them with a view to the mission.
but their rights in this regard are subordinated to the ^ Smith, EUmmO* of Bode^iaUu^ Law, I (New York. 1896);
A*v:<.<^««al Ai«fl«/>«.;4^«r f^f T\^^ #>«vi;n<i«>v lo iliA aimvAmA Taunton, 7A«I^wo/M« CAurdk (London. 1906), s.vv. JIfMnotM;
episcopal authonty , for the ordinanr is the supreme ^^^j^,. ^^ ^^ Ucentu giTes the aynoda of £ncliah-«peakinc
admimstrator and guardian of the ecclesiastical countries.
temporalities of his diocese. A financial statement of Wiujam H. W. Fanning.
the condition of the parochial property must con- i»««4.v ■oj.^^ q_ i>»«-wx-
sequently be made by the rector to the bishop when- ^»™^ "*•»*• See Pastor.
ever he requires it. Generally, an annual statement Pariuin» titular see, suffragan of Cyzicusin the Hel-
ls to be made. Whatever regulations are laid down lespontus. The Acts of the martyr St. Onesiphorus
by the ordinary for the better administration of the prove that there was a Christian community there be-
temporalities are binding on the pastors. When lay fore 180. Other saints worthy of mention are: Menig-
trustees are appointed to assist in the management of nus, martyred under Decius and venerated on 22
the parochial property, the rectors must obtain the Novemben; Theogenes, bishop and martyr, whose
episcopal consent for such appointment. In the feastisobservedon3 January; Basil, bishop and mar-
United States, no outlay exceeding three hundred tyr in the ninth century, venerated on 12 April. Le
dollars majr be made by the trustees without the Quien (Oriens christ., I, 787-90) mentions 14 bish-
bishop's written authorization, if such outlay is for ops, the last of whom lived in the middle of the four-
special objects other than the ordinary expenditures, teenth century. An anonymous Latin bishop is men-
The pastors must see that lay ti:ustees clearly under- tioned in 1209 bv Innocent III (Le Quien, op. cit., Ill,
stand that they are in no sense owners of ecclesiastical 945) and a titular bishop in 1410 by Euoel (Hier.
property and that appropriation of it for their own Cathol. med. ssvi, I, 410). At first a suffragan of
use entails excommunication. Alienation of all ec- Cyzicus, Parium was an autocephalous archdiocese as
desiastical property, movable and immovable, is early as 640 (Gelzer^ "Ungedruckte . . . Texte",
unlawful witnout the permission of the Apostolic See, 535) and remained so till the end of the thirteenth cen-
when such property is of conmderable value. In cases tury. Then the Emperor Andronicus II made it a
involving a sum of not more than five thousand dollars metropolis under the title of Uijywy koI Uaptov, In 1354
only the bishop's consent is necessary, provided he Pegae and Parium were suppressed, the metropotitan
has the special faculties usually granted to American receiving in exchange the See of Sozopolis in Thrace
bishops to that effect. The penalty for unlawful (Miklosich and Muller," Acta patriarcnatusConstan-
alienation is excommunication t'TMo/octo. The pastor tinopolitani", I, 109, 111, 132, 300, 330). This was
should make a careful inventory of all the parochial the end of this episcopal see. The ruins of Parium are
property, and file one copy in the parish archives and at the Greek village of Kamares (the vaults), on the
send another to the bishop. In cases where the civil small cape Tersana-Boumou in the caza and sandjak
law would vest the title to church property in lay of Bigha.
trustees, it may be necessary that the bishop should ^ Tmm, Am J«n«jr« (Paria. 1862), 174: WicHT«R.^«r F«r-
hold the temporaUties in his own name in fee simple. ^ fSw^g^""" *" KUvna^n »m xiv Jahrhundert (Leip-
It is very unaesirable that the same should be done by * • • g Vailh£.
the pastors. As the rectors are the immediate custo-
dians of the parochial property, it is their duty to keep Park, Abbey of the, half a mile south of Louvain,
it in proper repair. The Westminster Synods lay Belgium, founded in 1129 by Duke Godfrey, sur-
down clear and detuled rules in regard to the duty of named "Barbatus", who possessed an immense park
rectors concerning chureh property . — " Whoever is set near Louvain and had invited the Norbertines to take
over the administration ofa mission . . . should keep a possession of a small church he had built there. Wal-
day-book of all the receipts and expenses of the mis- ter. Abbot of St. Nf artin's, Laon, brou^t a colony of
sion, both of which should be entered most accurately his canons and acted as their supenor for nearly
every day in their proper order. He should also keep three years. The canons, now in sufficient number,
a ledger to which he will transfer, every month or elected Simon, a canon of Laon, as their abbot. The
three months, all the entries in the other book ar^ canons performed the general work of the ministry in
ranged in order, according to the heads under which the district of Louvain, bringing back those seduced
each sum received or expended ought to be placed." bv the errors of Tanchelin (see Premonstratenbian
"Every administrator should keep an open account Canons). In 1137 the abbot was able to found
in some bank in his own name and in tne names of the Abbey of Our Lady and S8. Cornelius and
PABKnreoN 504 pablatobi
C^rian at Ninove. Godfrey made the Abbot of with an appendix concerning the TCngliah Nuns of the
the Park and his successors his arch-chaplains. Order of St. Clare, London, 1726, in 4^. There are
Simon fd. 30 March, 1142) was succeeded by Philip also extant some unedited manuscripts.
whose leaminir and holiness may be judged from ,«3^^?"^«^i* FraruMemu in Bngiand ieoa-i8SO (London,
his correspondSice with St. Hildegard (q. v.) in the ^^\Uli ^i ^^ "* ^- ^^- ^^- ^ ^- ^^^^^ <^
archive of the Pw-k Abbey. Philip and his succcs- ' ' Livarius Olioer.
Bors enlarged the buildings and prepared the land for
agriculture. 'At the time there was living at the ab- ©--i-i- « f;*.,!.. „^ ^t -m^A- a * a x-
biy a canon. Blessed Rabado, whose devStion to the J^^^J ^!t^JSLJ iF^^""' S??^^ ?' ^J?"
i>™:^« „' -♦♦^♦^^ K„ ^L»^\^ AKk^* fi^^^ och. As a Roman colony it was called Juha Aueusta
SiZcSSl^n'SSiX't^ ^^'^^^ ,Th« "Notiti« Episcopatuum" mention
K^t 5 ^«^E^«^^rn^^';s?^i^f£^;t«^^^ ^^ see as late as the thirteenth century under the
bot van den Berghe (1543-58) mjm^ged the contnbu- „^„^ PoJ.^ p««.1o^ .«^ «„^« p«,iii^- t?
J^n- roJ^^S i^ «,r.Ai;r^f tC puk^n Tli^W^ «^*™« Pa^laos, Paralaoe, and even PariUos. Four
^^nf^^hTr^?J^rt.n^n ^^nf **^^^^«*"^ bishops are knowni Patiicius, at the CouncU of Ck)n-
P^^^^K^" .^,?.15^ri?i5 S. .K. w.«. irtantffople, 381; Ubanius,_at Chalcedon, 451 (in the
l^Irn W .««l ^nT nlJo^+inn Z.^h ^l^i^n^ Acadcmius who assistcd at the Council of Ni<5aa, 325,
ll8^,^vaStii^l1r5^K^ TZ^'^^^Ti''^^^^^^^^
(q. v.), Maes (1635-1647), De.Pap^ (1648^1682), (Onens chnstianuB. 1, 1067). Qp^,„>.
van Tuycum (168^1702). They aU favoured higher ^- nsTRiDBs.
education at the University of Louvain, and studies
were in a flourishing state in the abbey, tinder Joseph Parlatore, Fiuppo, Italian botanist, b. at Pa-
ll, Emperor of Germany, the abbey was confiscated, lermo, 8 Aug., 1816: d. at Florence, 9 Sept.^ 1877,
because Abbot Wauters (d. 23 Nov., 1792) refused a devout and faithful Catholic. He studied medicine at
to send his religious to the general seminary erected by Palermo, but practised only for a short time, his chief
the emperor at Louvain. A revolution against the activity being during the cholera epidemic of 1837. Al-
emperor's injustices being successful, the religious re- though at that time ne had been an assistant professor
turned to their abbey. Wauters was succeeded bv of anatomy, a subject on which he had tdready written
Melchior Nysmans (1793-1810). Under the French (Treatise on the human retina), he soon gave up all
Republic the abbey was confiscated again on 1 Feb., other interests to devote his entire attention to botany .
1797. At the request of the people the church was He first made a study of the flora of Sicily, publish-
declared to be a parish church and was thus saved, ing in 1838 ''Flora panormitana'' (Palermo); he also
The abbey was oought by a friendly layman who dealt with the Sicihan flora in later works. In 1840
wished to preserve it for the religious, in better times, he left home to begin his extended botanical e^rpedi-
One of the canons, in the capacity of parish priest, tions. He traveUed all through Italy, then into Swit-
remained in or near the abbey. When Belgium was zerland (where he remained for a time at Geneva with
made a kingdom and religious freedom restored, the DecandoUe), to France (where he was at Paris with
surviving religious resumed the community life and Webb, the Englishman) and to England, his longest
elected Peter Ottoy, then rural dean of Diest, as stay being at Kew. His part in the Thira Congress of
their superior. Italian naturalists held at Florence in 1841 was of sig-
In 1897 the abbey undertook the foundation of a nificance for him and for the development of botanical
priory in Brazil. It counts at present (Jan., 1911) 48 studies in Italy. At this con^-ess, in his celebrated
religious; 8 of these are doing missionary work in memoir ''Sulla botanica in Italia'', he proposed,
Brazil. The canons of the Park Abbev publish the among other things, that a general herbarium be es-
following reviews: (1) "Analectes de TOrdre de tablished at Florence. This proposal was adopted.
Pr^montr^" (four times a year)j (2) "Revue de I'Or- Grand Duke Leopold sought nis assistance for this
dre de Pr^montr^ et de ses missions" (six times a herbarium, gave him the post of professor of botany
year); " 'T Park's maandschrift" (monthly). at the museum of natural sciences (a chair which had
Annale* Prctm.,B.y. Parehum; LmsmD* V aft, Summariaehro' been vacant for almost thirty years), and made him
nologia Parehenn* (Louvain. 1662) ; Ratmackbm in R^ehet director of the botanical garden connected with the
htttonquet tur Vanexenne abbaye de Pare (Louvain, 1868); Reme » ,:, .1 ® ,1 t ^j tj.*-!..*^— .
^ rordre de Prhnontri and ' T Park't maaruUchrift {pasnm) , both Dttuseum. For more than three decad^ Parlatorc
published at the abbey. was most active in fulfilling the duties of these post-
F. M. Gbudenb. tioDs, one of his principal services being the contribu-
tion of "Collections botaniques du mus6e royale de
Parkinson, Anthony, historian, b. in England, physique et d'histoire naturelle" (Florence, 1874) to
1667; d. there 30 J -^ ' ._ ..-
pointed professor
Convent of Douai ;
for preaching and hearing confessions. He came to the fascicules. In 1849 he made an investigation of the
missions in England in 1695 and was president of the flora of the Mont-Blanc chain of the Alps; in 1851 he
Franciscans at Warwick 1698-1701, of Birmingham explored those of Northern Europe, Lapland, and
1701-10, Definitor of the province 1707-10. Parkin- Finland ; the reports of these two expeditions appeared
son was also nominal guardian of Worcester 1704-7, respective^ in 1850 and 1854.
of Oxford 1710-13, and twice governed the hidden He published numerous treatises on botanical sub-
English Province as provincial 1713-6, and 1722-5. jectSj — discussing questions of system, organography,
As such he assisted at the General Chapter < ' " ' "
Order in Rome, May. 1723. His chief work
"Collectanea Anglo-Minoritica, or a Collection
Antiquities of the English Franciscans, or Friars pave considerable attention to the history of botany
Minors, commonly called Gray Friars", two parts, m Italy* His Ufewprk in botany, however, is "Flora
PAB1I4
505
PARMA
Italiana", of which five volumes appeared between
1848 and 1874; the next five were issued by T. Camel
(to 1894) with the assistance of Parlatore's MS. This
work stands in high repute among all botanists.
Mention should also be made of '^Lezioni di botanica
comparata" (Florence, 1843) and '^Monographiadelle
fumarie'' (Florence, 1844). To the sixteenth volume
of Decandolle's '^Prodromus'', Parlatore contributed
the accounts of the coniferi and gnetaces; to Webb's
"Histoire naturelle des lies Canaries" (Paris, 1836-
50), the accounts of the umbelligeri and graminie. In
18^ Boissier, the botanist, named a genus of cruciferi
"Parlatoria".
Sacaiido* La' botanica in Italia, I. II (Venioe, 1895, 1001);
Hatwaldo in lAterar. BerichU aua Ungam, III (Budapest, 1879).
Joseph Rompbl.
Pannai Diocsse of. Central Italy. The city is
situated on the river of the same name, an affluent of
the Po, flowing through a fertile plain, where grain and
vines are cultivated; it also contains many fine pas-
tures: the silk culture is highly developed, as also
the cheese, tobacco, and leather industnes.
The catnedral was begun in 1060, to replace the
ancient one destroyed by fire two years earlier;
finished in 1074. it was dedicated in 1106 by Pas-
chal II. It is a nne example of the Lombard style, in
the shape of a Latin cix)68, with three naves; three
tiers of galleries, supported by small columns, g;ive a
bright aspect to the facade; the cupola, of the six-
teenth century, is adorned with frescoes by Cor-
reggio, Parmigianino (Girolamo Maszuola), and other
masters: the inlaid work and the carvings of the choir
and of tne sacristy are by Lendinara and the Consor-
zialis; there are four statues by Giacomo and Dami-
ano da Gonzate: Uie ciborium of the high altar, with
its beautiful sculptures, is of the fifteenth century; in
the crypt is the tomb of the Bishop St. Bernardo, with
sculptures by Prospero Clementi. The baptistery is
separate, in the shape of an irregular octagon, and
was begun in 1196 by the architect and sculptor
Benedetto Antelami.
Other churches of note are: San Giovanni Evan-
gelista, formerly of the Benedictines, founded in 981,
restored in 1510, facade by Simone Moschino (1604),
contains the best paintings of Correggio and Mazzuola;
the Steccata {1^21)^ by Zaccagni, on the plan of a
Greek cross, with a majestic cupola, containing pic-
tures by Parmigianino and other masters; the Annun-
siata, in which there are frescoes by Correggio; Santa
Maria del Quartiere, the cupola of which was painted
b^r Bamabei; S. Rocco; S. Antonio; S. Sepolcro con-
tains works by Baa^om, Ci^aroli, and Mazzola; and
the Oratorio di S. Lodovico, formerly the ducal
chapel. Among the palaces are: del Giardino (1564),
with frescoes by Carracci; della Pilotta (1597), with
a museum of antiquities, and a gallery of paintinss
especially rich in works by Correggio; and the Bib-
lioteca Palatina, containing 303,836 volumes, 4770
manuscripts and 60,000 copper engravings. There
are monuments in honour of Correggio and Parmi-
panino. The university, which dat^from 1025, was
instituted with pontifical privileges only in 1392, and
was developed, more especially, by Duke Ferdinando
di Borbone; tnere are several intermediary schools,
besides the episcopal seminary, a seminary for for-
eign missions, an Accademia of the fine arts, and State
archives.
Parma was a city of the Boian Gauls, to which a
Roman colony was sent in 183 b. c. In 377, the town
suffered so greatly from the barbarians that St. Am-
brose numbers it among the ruined cities. The Lom-
bards took the city in 569 or 570, but their chief in
590 placed himself under the exarch Callinicus, who in
601 took possession of Parma, and imprisoned the
Duke Godiscalc; the city however soon returned to
the Lombards (603). According to the " Vita Hadri-
an! *\ Panna was comprised in the donation of Pepin to
the Holy See; but in reality, it appears to have be-
longed to the kings of Italy, who^ in the tenth century,
save over the government to its bishops, in whose
hands it remained until St. Bernardo resided it in
1106; from which time the city governed itself as a
free commune, first under a consul, and then under a
podest^. In 1167 it was obliged to join the Lombard
League. In the thirteenth centurv (1199, 1200, 1204),
Parma was at war with its neighbour Piaoenza; later
it aroused the indignation of Innocent III by the rob-
bery of a pontifical legate. In 12 18 a peace was estab-
lished. In the struggle between the popes and Frede-
rick II, Parma was at first on the side of the emperor;
but in 1247, the Guelphs obtained possession of the
town, which Frederick attempted m vain to take.
Uberto Pallavicino. a native of Parma and a GhibeUinOy
stood out against Ezzelino, and succeeded in becoming
podest^ of Parma. In the fourteenth century (1303-
16) Gilberto da Correggio became lord; after him,
Gianquirico Sanvitale and the brothers de' Rossi con-
tended for the lordship; then came John of Bohemia
(1331), Mastino della Scala (1335-41), the sons of
da Correggio, Obizzo d'Este.
Finally, through purchase, Parma was annexed to the
Duchy 01 Milan, and so remained, except for a time
when it was governed by the de' Rossi and by the Terzi
(1404-20), until 1499, when Louis XII of France took
possession. In 1512 Julius II united Parma to the
Pontifical States; it should be said that John of Bohemia
had previously held it as a fief of the Holy See; but
from! 1515 to 1521, the city was asain in the hands of
the King of France. In 1545, Paul III erected Parma
and Piacenza into a duchy, in favour of his son Pier^
luigi Famese; then b^an for Parma an era of
splendour, during which Correggio (Allegri), Mazzola^
and other famous masters showered treasures of art
upon it. Pierluigi, loved by the people and hated by
the nobles, fell at Piacenza, 10 Sept., 1547, the victim
of a conspiracy directed by Ferrante Gonzaga, im-
perial Governor of Milan. The garrison of Parma pre-
vented the citv from falling into the power of Ferrante,
as Piacenza fell; and after lon^ negotiations with
the emperor, the son of Pierluigi, Ottavio, was con-
firmed in the duchy by Julius III in 1550. That
prince governed wisely, and a conspiracv against him
by Count Landi was happily frustratecl.
He was succeeded in 1585 by Alessandro Famese.
who became famous in the wars of Flanders and or
France, and who died of a wound at Arras, in 1592.
Ranuccio enlarged the state and protected' study,
founding a college of nobles : his son 6doardo, in 1622,
succeeded to the duchy, which was governed during
his minority by his mother Margherita and his uncle
Cardinal Odoardo, as regents. During this reign there
arose the contention with the Barberini for possessiont
of the Duchy of Castro, an ancient fief of the Famese,,
and that strife ended in the destruction of Castro, vx
1649 under the son of Ranuccio II (1646-94). Duke
Francesco, having died without children, was sue-
ceded by his brother Antonio (1727-31), who also died
without issue; and the succession to the duchy com-
plicated the War of the Spanish Succession. Bv the
treaty of Seville, the duchy was given to Charles of
Bouroon, son of Philip V of Spain and Isabella Far^
nese (daughter of Francesco); and when Charles as-
cended the throne of Naples, the Peace of Vienna gave
Parma to Austria (1736: the battle of Parma, 1734);
but the intrigues of Isabella did not cease until the
Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle had ^ven the Duchy of
Parma and Piacenza, enlarged with that of GuastaUa,
to her other son Philip (1749). This prince inaugu-
rated a French absolutism in the duchy, especially at
the expense of the Church. In 1765 he fell from his
horse, was trampled upon, and dogs tore him to pieces.
Under Ferdinando (1765-1802) relations with the
Holy See grew still more strained; in imitation of the
PABHXNUinra 5<
Frendi court, he firvt concentrated, and then >up-
preaeed the reb^oiu houaea, and was supported
MainHt Rome by the other Bourbon courts. In 1802
the duchy was annexed to the French republic, In
1814 it was given to Marie Louise, wife of Napoleon,
against whom a revolution broke out in 1831, but
was quickly suppressed by Austrian troops. Marie
Louise was succeeded by Carlo Lodovico, Duke of
Lucca, acainst whom a new revolution broke out in
1848. ana the city was occupied by the Hedmontese.
On tne other hand. Carlo II abdicated in favour of his
■on Carlo III (1849). After the PiedmonteM defeat
at Novara, the Au^trians placed Carlo III on the
throne of Parma, but he was stabbed to death in 1854,
and in 1859 bis son Robert was dethroned, while the
annexation of hia state to Piedmont was decreed.
The first known Bishop of Parma is Uibanus, a
partisan of the anttpope IJrsicinus, and deposed by
Pope Damasus in 378. Other bishops were: Gra-
tiosuB (680); Lantpertus (827); Wihbodui (880-77),
who bore important charges from l/>uis 11 and his
successors; Aicardua in ^D restored the cathedral,
which had been destroyed by &re ; Si^ef redus, a former
chancellor of King Hugo, accompanied in 937 Hugo's
daughter Berta, the promised nride of Constautine
PorphyrDgenitus; Hucbertus (961), to whom Rathe-
rius di Verona dedicated his "De contemptu cano-
num"; Cadalous obtained his see through simony,
and became the antipot>e Honorius II, while remain'
ing Bishop of Parma; his successor, Everardo (1073),
was a partisan of the anti-pope Clement III, in whose
interest Everardo even resorted to arms, but was
defeated by the Countess Matilda, near Sorbara
(1084) ; he was succeeded by another schismatic, Wido
(1085), in whose place was put (1001) St. Bematdo-
d^;li Uberti, Abbot ol VaUombroea and a carding ;
St. Bernardo, however, in 1104, was dragged violently
from the altar, and driven from his see, to which
be WHS nott^le to return peacefully until 1106; he
resigned the temporal power held by the bishops of this
diocese and, havmg opposed the coronation of Conrad
( 1 127) was agun obliged to flee from Parma, and died
in 1133; Aicu^lo, a partisan of Barbarossa, and there-
fore deposed (1167); ObiMO F^eachi, an uncle of Inno-
cent IV; Gratian (1224), professor of law at Bolo|^;
Alberto Banvitate (1243), and his brother Obiiio
(125S), nephews of Innocent IV; Obiizo exerted him-
self greatly for the reform of morals, favoured the
"Mihzia d\ Gesil Cristo", and exposed the sect of the
Apostohci, founded by the Parmesan Gherardo 8e-
rarelh; Ugolino Rossi (1322) was obliged to flee from
Parma, with his father Guglielmo, on account of the
tatter's political reverses (1334); Gian Antonio da
8. Giorgio (1500) a learned cardinal; Alessandro Far-
neae (1509), became Pope Paul III, he resigned the See
of Parma in favour of nis nephew, Cardinal Alessan-
dro; Alpssandro Sforsa (1560), who distinguished him-
self at the Council of Trent; Ferrante Famese, (1573)
active in the cause of eccleaaetical reform; Camillo
MarasHUii (1711), who governed the diocese during
forty-eight years; Adeodato Turchi (1788), a Ctrou-
chin who wrote beautiful pastorals and homilies; Cai^
dinal Francesco Caselli (1804), a former superior of
the Servitcs and a companion of Consalvi during the
negotiation of the Concordat with Napoleon; at the
national council of Paris in 1811, he defended the
rights of the Holy See,
The diocese, a suffragan of Milan, and later of Ra-
venna and of Bologna (1582), depends immediately on
the Holy See since 1815; it has 306 parishes, 232,913
inhabitants, 9 rplimoiw houses of men, J8 of women, 3
educational establishmente for male students, 5 for
^rls, 1 bi-weekly periodica] (Of QiomaU del -popoia)
and 2 monthly magaiinea {L'Eco; Ltde e CieiM).
Ctmijrm.LtChiwd'Ilalia. XV: \i.ijOin. Scrit cnmalBffira
<iriw«ondii"flniia(2vol.,,P.rm«, lS5t-&7) : /Lrrf.. Sloria della
cilU di Parma (i vola,, Psmia, 1792-051. cantinued by Puiani
(fi voli.. lS37-as)i ScAUBBua. Sioria dti diuaU di J>aniu. Pia-
PABMiouno
1858): I
U. Bknigni.
See DoNATTsn.
Andrxw. See Batkk. Ankuc.
Fumsntiar, Antoine-Auocbtin, acrieultiuist, b.
at Montdidier, IT August, 1737; d. in Paris, 13 Dec.,
1813. Left an orphan at an early age, he was oom-
pelled before taking a college course to become ■
pharmacist, in which capacity he jmned the anny of
Hanover in 1757. _
Taken prisoner
several times in
the course of this
service, he profited
by his capuvity in
Prussia to gain
knowledge which
he later put to
valuable use. He
resumed hia
studies, on his re-
turn to Paris in
1774, and was ap-
pointed pharma-
cist at the HAtet-
des-Invalides, At
this time, he intro-
duced the use of
potatoes as food in
France. He also
promoted the im-
proved cultivation |
of maize and chest-
nuts, and tried to
reform the methods of baking. During the Rev-
olution he had charge lA the pr^taratjon of salted
provisions, and manufactured a aea-biscuit. He wrote
a number of books on horticultural and agricultural
topics, which betray his lack of early education.
Andr6 Parmentier (1780-1830), who attained distinc-
tion as a horticulturist in the United Stat^ was a
collateral relative.
IT (Lyon*. 1S43).
Tromas F. Meehan.
Pannlgluio, Ii. (Th> Parmbsan), the cm-
rent name of Francesco MAZsnoLA, Mazcola,
Mauttou, or Maeaou, Italian paint«r, b. at Parma,
1504; d. at Cosal Msgpore, 1540. He was the son of
I^ppo Mazzuola, a painter, also known as Filippo
dell' Etfoette, who died in 1505. Francesco's uncles,
Micbele and Pierilario, brought him up. With a
strong taste for painting, the boy developed a pai^
ticular enthusiasm for Cbrreggio, the founder of the
Parmesan School. Hia "St. BCTnard", painted for
the Observantjnes of Paima, and other eany works of
his, show him to have been an eager follower of Cor>
reggio. At twenty, lonsing to study the mastw-
K' CCS of Michelangelo, he set out for Rome, when
precocious tal«it soon won renown. According
to Vasari, it was a saving at Rome, that "the soul
of Raphael had passed into the Parmesan's body".
Clement VII commissioned him to ptunt a "Qrcuio-
cision". But the sack of Rome (1527) checked Uiia
bright beginning. Mazzuola fled to Bolc«na, where
Jerome" (now in the Louvre). For San PetrtKiio be
executed a "St. Roch". He was in Parma in 1531,
mnce his contract with the Confraternity of the Steo-
cata b dated 10 May of that year. He frescoed the.
arcade of the choir in that chun^, where lus chiaro-
scuro, "Moses breaking the Tables of the I^w", is
one of the masterpieces of bis school. Unfortunately,
PARNASSUS
be never finished the Steccata
passion for alchemy not only coat bim time, money,
and health, but prevented lum from keeping his en-
Kagements. As he had been paid part in advance, the
Steceata Confraternity, weary ol waiting, had him
Eroaecuted and condemned to prison in 1537. Re-
aised upon promise to Bnish the work, he again de-
faulted, and made his escape to Caaal Maggiore,
where he died. He was buried in the church of the
Brief oa was his career, II Farmigiano has left a
very large number of works: at Bol<^na (Pinacotheca),
"Vu^ and Child with 8ainta", "St. Maigaret",
"Martha and Mary"; at Florence (Pitti), " La Ma-
donna del CoUo Longo", (Uffizi) portrut of himself,
and "Holy Family'*; at Genoa (Palaiio Roeso),
"Marriage of St. Catharine"; at Modena (Museum),
" Apollo and Marsyas" ; at Naples (Museum)," Annun-
eiafion", "Holy Family", '^'St. Sebastian", "Lu-
cretia'', and aome portraits; at Parma (Museum),
"St. Catherine with Angels", "Madonna with
Saints"; (Annunziata) "Baptism of Christ", "St.
Bernardino". "Holy Family , "Entry of Christ into
JerUHaJem", besides the Stec-
cata frescoes, several paint-
Ein San Giovanni Evan-
ta, and a "Hislory of
ia'',in the Villa San VI tale;
at Rome (Barberini Palace),
"Marriage of St. Catherine";
(Boigbese Palace), portrait
of (>aare Borgia (formerly
attributed to Raphael 'and
then to Broniino) and S t . Cath-
erine; at Berlin (Museum),
"BaptismofChrist"; at Dres-
den (Museum), "Virgin and
Child", "Madonna of the
Rose"; in London (National
Gallery), "Vision of St. Je-
rome"; at Madrid (Prado),
"Holy Family", "St. Bar-
bara , "Cupid", and two por-
traits; in Paris (Louvre), two
"Holy Families' ' ; at St. Pelera-
bur^ (Hermitage), "Burial of
Chnat''; at Vienna (Belve-
dere) "Cupid with Bow", "St.
Catherine ', his own portrtut,
and aeveral others. He also
among them neven Holy Families, a Resurrection,
"Judith with the Head of Holophcmca", and "Sin.
Peter and John Healing the Lame Man".
Pannigiano deveioptii the germ of decay latent in
Corre^o's work. He delighted his contemporaries
PABaCOPOLU
titular see in Cappadooia Seeunda,
'rasan td Moceasus. Situated between Ancyra ana
ArcheTius, it was formerly important. Another route
passed to Csppadocia Se-
eunda; and about 536 was made suffragan ot Moceasus.
The "Notitiae Episcopatuum" mentiqn it in the thir-
teenth century. Le Quien (Oriens christianus, I, 415)
mentions nine bishops: Pancratiue, at the Arian Coun
the Council of ConstantinoDlc, 381; Eustathius, at
EpheauB, 341, deposed as a Nestorian, retracted, as-
sisted at Constantinople (44S) and Chalcedon (451);
and signed in 458 the letter of the bishops of Cappa-
TruUo", 692; Stephanua, »
Nicica,7S7;andTheognostua
at Constantinople, 869.
S. PtiTRIDfee.
with ingenious contrasts, elegant
sensual frivolity. His religious pictures are de-
ficient in gravity and sincerity, being, in many ca-T* —
like the "Madonna del Collo Longo" — types of false
distinction and pretentious affectation. "His .'■'t ,
Catherine (Borghese Palace) declines the compli-
ments of the angels with an fdr of good breeding which
is beyond description" (Burckha>rdt). These faults
are less pronounced in such profane woriu as the
frescoes of the Villa Sanvitale; and in portrmture,
where he is inspired by no factitious ideal, they di»-
appear altofether. "The vcrv name of Parm^ai-
nino", says Ch. Blanc, "which the Italians like to
write m the diminutive form, seems to say that this
mast«r has his amiable failings, and is a great masl«r
diminished" (prond maUre dimimii),
ViB:kU, Lt mtc dc' piu feaUenti pilton, cd. MrLANUi. V (Flor-
■Dcs, ISSOI, 217-42; Arrb. Vita di l^imi^oiFiD (Pinna. 1TH4):
LiHU, tr. RoBCOE, Mialory a/ Painliao in llalu. II (Londnn.
1847). KB: BUHC. Hulriri drt prinlra ij> l<ni(» Ut BcoUt: Be
lomturdi (Pmru, 1866-771 ; BmcxHinDT and Bopc, Lt Ciaro
Fnnch tr. OiiiiBD. II (Piri*. IB02>. 7IB; MOxn. Hiaoirt
VAt* paidanl la SmaiimTtct. Ill (Puii, IBM). Ml-sa.
Qaston Sortais.
Puochlal K^BB.—Ihe
parish is established to pro-
vide the parishioners with the
helps of religion, especially
witb Mass. The parochial
Mass is celebrated for their
welfare on all Sundays and
holidays of obligation, eveA
when suppressetT The par-
ish priest IS not obliged t« say
it ffersonally; but if he does
not, he must offer his own
Mass for that intention.
Parishioners now fulfil their
duty b^ assisting at Maes in
any church ; but lormeriy they
bad at least to hear a Maes
in the parish church (ch.
"Vices", 2, "De treuga et
pace" in "Eitrav. Comm."
of Siitus IV in 1478). This
obligation fell into desuetude owing to the privi- .
leges granted to the religious orders; the Council of
Trent (Sess. XXII, "De observ. et evit. in celebr.
misn," and >Sess. XXIV, c. iv, de ref .), treats it only as
a counsel ; and notwithstanding certain provincial and
diocesan r»ulations of the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries, the obligation ceased (Bened. XIV, "De
syn.", XI, xiv). The Mass not being strictly con-
ventual, it is not obligatory by common law for it to
be Sling, but it may be, and frequently this is pre-
seribcdby the statutes or custom. It is then preceded
by the blessing and aspersion of water on Sundays.
Even if not sung, it is celebrated with additional so-
lemnity, with more than two candles on the altar, and
two servera (S. Rit. C, 6 Feb., 1858, n. 3065). What
is [jiaractcristic of it is the instruction, with its special
prayers, the announcements made to the congregation,
the publication of banna of marriage, and finally
the familiar sermon or homily. (Sea Mass; also
Pastor.)
A. BotTDINHON.
Paroehlml Schooli. See Schools.
PortBcopolli, a titular aee of Macedonia, suffragan
of Theaaalonica. It is mentioned Ire Ptolemy (111, 13,
30) as being in Sintice, a part of Macedonia, and by
Phlegon "Progm. histor. gr." ed. Didot, 111, 609).
Hieroclee (Synecdemus, 639, 8) and Constantine Per-
PAROUSIA 508 PAB8I8
EhyrogenitoB (De thematibus, 2) call it Parthicopo- at Paris. In 1723 Dortous de Mairan, of the Acad4-
8, but the second locates it in Thrace. Stephanus mie des Sciences, and Fr6ret, perpetual secretary of
Byzantius calls it Parthenopolis and relates accord- the Academic des Inscriptions, sent him their
ing to Theagenes the legend of its foundation by Ge- 'Moubts" about the history, chronology, and astron-
rsestus, son of Mygdon, said to have named the city omy of the Chinese. His answers led to other ques-
in honour of his two daughters. ^ Pliny (IV, xi) has the tions, and this scientific correspondence continued
same name, but olaces it in Thrace. Its bishop, Jonas until 1740. Father Parrenin's conduct may not have
or John, assisted at the Council of Sardica (342 or been always above reproach dunns the agitation
343) ; at the Council of Chalcedon (451) there was caused in the Chinese missions by Uie famous con-
present John ^'Parthicopolis prinue Macedonia" (Le troversy about the rites (see China; The Question
Quien, ''Oriens chnstianus'', II. 75). This see is not of Rites). But his whole life contradicts the odious
mentioned in any of the Greek "Notitis episcopa- character attributed to him bv writers who edited with
tuum " . more passion than truth the ' ^M^moires historiques du
S. PiTRiDits Cardinal de Toumon'' and the "Anecdotes sur TEtat
Paroiuia See Second Advent ^® ^ Religion dans la Chine ".
rarOUUa. aee OECOND advent. j^^^ tdi^nte* et euneuae: W Reeued, Prifoee A LdUre du P.
pArriinfn DnmininiiA K at Pnonov nt^Av Roaan/vm CfuUier (Pans, 1763) ; LeUre du P. Anloine GauM on the dtath «/ P.
- a •™S?; J ^^S • ' T^no ?^?i? T?^^^ J Porrenin, MS. 12226 in the BibUothdque Nfttionale. with the
1 sept., 1665; d. at Pekm, 29 bept., 1741. He entered letters of Parrenin to Mainm and Floret (1729-€0). unedited;
the Jesuit order 1 September, 1685, and in 1697 was ^f^^ <*« ^- iH ^<»»*2» «" ?• ^- ?«"'•!"'»• coioenmu diterae* ««e*-
iipnt tn rihinA At Vf^cxTur MfiQR^ >»p Attrfk/*t^ tliA *S?^ *Y' ** ^***»* <?*^' 1759-70); Bruckbb. La Minaion d»
Seni lO V^njna; ^^S S.^ U0»o; ne auractea tne C«n«rf«17Md 1755 in fi«twrfMouertion««atoriffu«.XXIX.491
attention of K'ang-hi. His varied knowledge, and (i88i);_lDaM, CoiTMponcbnM tcMnii/Sf^
familiar use of the court languages
Tatar-Manchu, gained him the good- »cr,w*«
peror. Father rarrenin utilized this favour in the Sinioa.
mterest of religion and science. While satisfvins the Joseph Bruckbb.
extraordinary curiosity of K'ang-hi, especially 3do\i\,
physics, medicine, and the history of Europe, he dem- Pftrsis (Parsebs) a small community in India, ad-
onstrated how the scientific culture of the West was herents of the Zoroastrian religion and originally emi-
due to Christianity. Obliged to travel with the em- grants from Persia^. According to the census of 1881
peror, he visited the native Christians. Wcdl liked their total number in India was 85,397, to which must
Dv important personages at the court and the highest he added for sake of completeness about 3,000 scat-
dignitaries of the empire, he led them to look with tered about various other countries and also about
favour on the spreading of Christianity. In the 8,000 in various parts of Persia — thus bringing up the
'^Lettres ^ifiantes/' he has written of the admirable total of Zoroastnans in the world to something under
examples set by tne princes of the Sounou family, 100,000. Of the 85,397 in India. 82,091 were by the
whose conversion, begun by Father Suarez, he com- same census found in the Bombay presidency, and
Sleted. He rendered the greatest services to religion 3,306 scattered over the rest of the country. Of those
uring the reign of Yong-tching (1723-35), son of in the Bombay presidency more than half (48,507)
K'an^-hi. The new emperor soon made known his resided in Bombay City, 6,227 in Surat, and 3,088 in
aversion for Christianity and onl^ his consideration Broach; about 10,000 being in Native States, and the
for the missionaries at Peking, pnncipally for Father rest in other parts, chiefly of Guzerat. The census of
Parrenin, prevented the extermination of Christianity 1901 reveals a rise to a total of 94,190 in India, of
in China. This emperor respected the missionaries, whom 78,800 are in the Bombay presidency, not in-
not for their scientinc knowledge, but for their char- elusive of 8,409 found in Baroda State. In Persia
acters and virtues. He demanded services of more the Zoroastrians (called Iranis to distinguish them
tangible importance, notably at audiences granted to from those in India) are chiefly found in Yezd and
the ambassadors of Russia and PortusaJ and during the twenty-four surrounding villages, where according
the long negotiations, both commercial and politic^ to figures collected in 1854, there were a thousand
with the former of the two powers. The Chinese famines, comprising 6,658 souls — a few merchants, the
ministers needed the missionaries, not only as conscien- remainder artisans or agriculturalists. At Kerman
tious and trusty interpreters, but men capable of dis- there were also about 450; and at Teheran, the capi-
pellin^ Chinese ignorance of European matters and of tal of Persia, about fifty of the merchant class. They
inspinng confidence. Parrenin, who had served the were formerly much more numerous; they now show a
Government of K'ang-hi so capably in this dual r61e, constant tendency to decline.
was no less serviceable under Yong-tching. He was History. — This small community owes its origin to
assisted by his confrbreSf Fathers Mailla and Gaubil. those few Persians who, when Khalif Omar subjugated
The mission at Peking continued to exist amid most Persia in a. d. 641, resisted the efforts of the conquer-
violent persecutions, and became the salvation of the ors to impose on them the Moslem faith. Elscaping
Christians of the provinces : as long as Christianity sus- to the coast they found a first refuge in the Island of
tained itself at tne capital, its position in the rest of Ormuz, at the mouth of the Persian Gulf; but having
the empire was not hopeless; subaltern persecutors here little permanent chance of safety or sustenance for
hesitated to apply the edicts in all their rigour against a any large number, they began a series of emigrations
religion which the emperor tolerated in his capital, across the sea, landing first at^Diu on the Kaihiawar
and against men whose confrbres the emperor treated coast some time about a. d. 700. After remaining; here
with honour. for nineteen years they were led, by an omen m the
Science is indebted to Parrenin for his services in stars, to cross, the Gulf of Cambay. After suffering
drawing up the great map of China (see Regis, Jean- shipwreck they landed at Sanjan, some twenty-five
Baptistb) . He roused in K'ang-hi a desire to see his miles south of Daman on the Guzerat coast, where the
entire domain represented by methods more exact local ruler, Jadi Rilna^ on hearine their pathetic story
than those of the Chinese cartographers. Father and an account of their religious beliefs, allowed them
Parrenin had a hand in the preparations for the middng to settle on condition that they would learn the lan-
of this map in the Provinces of Pechili, Shan-tung, Kuage of the country, abstain from the use of arms,
and Liao-tung. He also collaborated on a map of dress and conduct their marriages in the Hindu man-
Peking and environs, which the emperor caused to be ner etc. A spirit of accommodation to surroundings
made in 1700. He translated into the Tatar-Man- has characterized the Pards throughout their history,
chu language for K'ang-hi several of the works pub- and accounts at once for many of their usages in dress
lished in the ''M^moires de P Academic des Sciences" and manners, and for their subsequent success in in-
PABTICULAB 509 PABTMEB8HIP
diisirial arts and trades. They thus became a regular with outsiders is rare. In very recent times the influ*
Eart ef the population of Sanjan, adopted the Guzerati ence of Western icjeas has led to a relaxing of the old
mguage as weir vernacular, and erected their first religious and social bonds, so that many are now
fire temple in a. d. 721. Here they remained for over merely nominal believers, wnile others dabble in theos-
five centuries of uneventful history, till in 1305 the in- ophy and religious eclecticism, and adopt such habits
cursion of the Moslems forced them to take refuge as smokins, the uncovering of the hesui, and even
elsewhere. Partly by further emig^tions from Persia, marryin|; European women etc. For an account of
and parti V by spreading from their centre at San j an, their rehgion see Avesta.
they gradually settled in various other localities such ^■"^' Hilary of ike ParaU (London. 1884); Hauo. Stnyt
as Cambray. Ankleshwar, Variav, Vankaner, Broach, ?* ^u^'^IS? (London. .1878); BL^kbomowto. iaraO^i^ and
Surat, Thana, Cham etc., and traces of them are Civaigatum of the BasternlranuinM (London. 1885); DosABHOT
found even as far as Delhi. When in the sixteenth Framtbii, The Partees, tkeir Hittary, Manners, Cuetome and R0»
century the Portuguese at Thana broudxt moral '^^^^ (London. 1858). tj.„„„o«, u tt
pressure to bear in order to make them Christians, i^RNEST K. hull.
they mana^ by a^subterfugeto escaiy to Kalyan, Particular Ezamen. See Examination of Con-
only returmng m 1774 when Thana had fallen under bcience.
British rule. The advent of the English to Surat in
1612 opened up new connexions for industry and Partnership, an unincorporated association of two
trade, so that Surat, as well as Broach, soon became or more persons, known as partners, having for its
two of their chief settlements. Finally, when the gov- object the canying on in common by the partners of
emment of the East India Company was (in 1668) some predetermine occupation for profit, such profit,
transferred to Bombay, the Parsis followed and soon according to the usual definition, to be shared by
began to occupy posts of trust in connexion with Gov- the several partners. ''The terms partnership and
emment and public works in Bombay. Gradually partner'', remarks Lindley (The Law of Partnership,
certain families acquired wealth and prominence (So- 7th ed., London, 1905, 10), ''are evidently derived
l_ * * '% tf 1 * V^ w T f V ■ 11 T^ 1 m ■••«« ^ii*>i ■« ••
public life of the cit3r, and for their various educational, against Robson, English Law Reports, 16 Queen's
industrial, and charitable enterprises. The Parsis had l^nch Division, 140). Lindley, however, suggests
formerly a domestic tribunal called the Panchayat, that an association might be deemed according to the
which possessed iudicial control and the power of ex- English Common Law a partnership even though its
communication; but for nearly a century back its in- object were the application of profits to other use
fluence has been curtailed, so that at present it is httle than the use of the partners (op. cit., where numerous
more than a trust for the administration of public definitions of partnership site quoted),
charitable funds. The Roman Civil Law treated elaborately of part*
The education movement began among the Parsis in nership under the name of Societaa (Pothier. "Pan-
1849. Parsi schools since then have been multiplied, dect» Justinianese", LXVII, Tit. II). Ana arch»-
but other schools and colleges are also freely frequented, olopists claim to have ascertained its existence "in
In 1854 they started the "Persian Zoroastrian Ame- a highly developed state" in ancient Babylon (Johns,
horation Fund," which, after long efforts lasting till "Babylonian and Assyrian Laws", New York, 1904,
1882, succeeded in obtaining for their poor Irani breth- 287, 290, 291).
ren in Persia a remission of the Jazia tax, besides in- Partnerships in the Roman Law were included
augurating schools and charitable institutions among among consensual contracts, those which required no
them. Many of these Persians come over to India certain form, nor any writing, but which became
and set up cheap restaurants, which on that account effectual by simple consent, qui nudo consensu per*
are familiarly known as "Irani shoi>s." ficiurUuTf "Pandects", supra, "The Commentaries
The Parsis are divided into two sects, the Shehan- of Gains" ^ III (Cambndge, 1874), 135, 136.
chais or old, and the Kadmis or new party — not on And in like manner by the English Common Law.
any point of religion, but merely on a question of the basis of the law of the several States of the United
chronology (like that of the "old" and "new style" in States^ except Louisiana, as well as the basis of the
Europe). The old party follow the Indian, and the law or all British possessions, except those acquired
new party the Persian way of framing the calendar, from France. Holland, and Spain (Buige, "Commen-
which makes a difference of about one month in the taries on Colonial and Foreign Laws", new ed., Lon-
observance of their "New Year's day." Among don, 1907, 1, 7, 8), partnership may be formed by
salient peculiarities should be mentioned: worship verbal agreement, although it is usually evidenced by
in fire temples (which contain nothing remark- written articles (see as to Statute of Frauds rendering
able except a vase of sandalwood kept perpetually a written aneement necessary, 116 New York Court
alight); praying on the sea shore to the rising and of AppesJs Keports, 97).
setting sun; celebration of marriages in public assem- The contract of partnership can be legally entered
bly; exposure of their dead to birds of prey, in what into only by persons who are competent to con-
are called ' ' towers of silence ' ' ; exclusiveness as regards tract. Accordingly, a partnership could not be formed
marriage: refusal to incorporate aliens into religious at Common Law between husband and wife (Bow-
membersnip; the rule of never uncovering the head; ker against Bradford, 140 Massachusetts Supreme
and of never smoking. But they are free from the Court Reports, 521).
Hindu trammels of caste, have no religious restric- The English Law of partnership was itself toasreat
tions about food, are free to travel and take their extent founded on what was known as the "Law Mer-
meals with other races etc. It should be remarked chant", and t^us "on foreign ideas as to matters of^
that their "worship" of fire, as explained by them- trade and the customs of merchants drawn frequently
selves, is not open to the charge of idolatry, but is re- from the Lombard or Jew traders of the Contment ^^
ducible to a relative veneration of that element as the which became "by Statute Law, custom or court de-
highest and psrest ^mbol of the Divinity. The cision . . . such a considerable body of the English
Parsis have remained faithful to their Zoroastrian law as to have a name to itself" (Stimson, "Popular
faith and are proud of their racial purity. And al- Law-making"^ New York, 1910, 90.
though the colour among many families, chiefly of Profit or gam is the object of the relation; but not
the lower classes, reveals the effect of mixed marriages, necessarily profit or gain to result from buying or sell-
the community as a whole is unmixed, and marriage ing of goods. Lawyers, for example, may enter into
PABUTA
510
PABUTA
partnenhip (Kent. ''CommentarieB on American
Law", III, 28). But since the punuit of gain is
essential to the legal notion of partnership, therefore,
a ''Young Men's Christian Association'' defining its
object to be "tibe extension of the kingdom of the
Lord Jesus Christ amons young men, and the develop-
ment of thdr spiritual life and mental powers ,
has been held to be not such an association as the
law deems to be a partnership (Queen against Robson,
supra). The tiUe of the association, the partnership
or firm name^ if not prescribed by express agreement,
may be acquured by usage.
These expressions "nrm" and "partnership" are
frequently employed synonymously. Originally, how-
ever, the word firm signified ** the partners or members
of the partnership taken collectively" (Parsons, "A
treatise on the Law of partnership", 4th ed., Boston,
1893, 1). In the English Partnership Law of 1890
"partners are called collectively a firm" (Lindley, op.
dt., 10); ana Parsons (op. cit., 2) remarks that "the
business worid " regards the firm " as a body which has
independent rights Ags^t its members as well as
against strangers". This distinction sanctioned by
the law of Louisiana, and also by the law of
those European countries whose jurisprudence is
based on the Roman Civil Law, has not alwajrs
been so clearly recognized by the Knglinh Courts (ibid,
3: Lindley, op. dt., 127, 128). According to the
Common Law, the property, or stock in trade, of the
firm is owned by the partners in joint tenancy, but
without the right of survivorship which ownership in
ioint tenancy usually implies: "and this", remarks
Kent, op. cit.. Ill, 36, "acooroing to Lord Coke was
part of the law merchant for the advancement and
continuance of commerce and trade".
It is of the essence of the contract that each partner
shall "engage to brins into the common stock some-
thing that is valuable , but one of the partners may
advance funds and another skill (ibid, 24, 25). And
the proportions of their respective interests in the firm
property are such as they may have agpreed (Parsons,
op. cit., 138).
In the course of the business of the partnership
and within its scope, everv partner "is virtually botn
a principal and an agent '^ (Cox against Hickman, 8
House of Lords cases, 312, 313). Asprindpal, each
partner binds himself, and, as agent, binds the part-
nership, or more properly, the finn (Parsons, op. cit..
3, Cox against Hickman supra). The firm is Douna
by a sflde which one of the partners may effect of part-
nership property, disposition of the property bdng
the object of the partnership (Parsons, op. cit., 134).
And BOj purchase of property by a partner binds the
firm, if the purchase be made "in the course and
witmn the scope of the regular business of the firm"
(ibid, 139).
Death of a partner dissolves the firm, unless the
partnership agreement provide to the contrary (ibid,
431, 432^ note). In the absence of such a provision
the surviving partners have, indeed, a right to the pos-
session and management of the property and business,
"but only for the purpose of selling and closing the
same" (ibid., 443).
And dissolution of a partnership before the lapse
of a period agreed upon for its contmuance may result
from some event otner than the death of a partner.
The relation being one of mutual and personal confi-
dence and of "exuberant trust" (Bell, "Principles of
the Law of Scotland" 10th ed., Edinburgh, 1899, sec.
358), no partner may introduce, whether voluntarily
or involuntarily, a substitute for himself. On assign-
ment by an insolvent partner for benefit of his credi-
tors, the assignee becomes entitled to an accounting,
but without beoominK a partner. And a like result
follows bankruptcy ofa partner. (Kent, op. cit., 59).
Bankruptcy or the firm works its dissolution, the
property vesting in an asdgnee or other statutory
official who cannot carry on the business (ib ., 58) . So,
according to the Common Law, marriage of a female
partner dissolved the partnership, " because her capac-
ity to act ceases and she becomes subject to the con-
trol of her husband" (ibid, 55).
If at any time dissensions among the partners de-
stroy mutual trust and confidence, there seems to be
great doubt, at least, whether the discordant partners
ought to be compelled to continue in partnership (Par-
sons, op. dt., 371, 396, note c).
" The law merchant gave a right for an accounting
by the representatives of a deceased partner a^pEunst
the survivor" (Street, "Foundations of legal naJbil-
ity". New York, 1906, II, 334), and whenever the
partnership is to be dissolved and its affairs settled,
each partner or his legal representative is entitled to
"his distributive share after the partnership accounts
are settled and the debts paid" (Parsons, op. cit.,
231, 508).
LxNDUDT, Ths Law of PaHnerthip (7th ed., Lcmdon, 1905) ; Paj»-
soifs, A Tnalue on the Law cf Fiirtnerahip (4th ed., Boston,
1893). Charlbs W. Sloans.
Paruta, Paolo, Venetian historian and statesman,
b. at Venice, 14 May, 1540; d. there, 6 Dec.. 1598. Of
a Luccan family, he was devoted from ^outn to htera-
ture and philosophy, also the composition of poetry.
He appUed himself especially to history and political
science, and was at the end of the fifteenth century
what Macchiavelli, though in a different way, was at
the- beginning. He belonged intellectually to the
group of recently ennobled men who met at the resi-
aence of the Morosini to discuss politics, which party
(it may be called the liberal party) came into author-
ity in 1582. Previous to this he occupied positions of
secondary importance; in 1562 he accompanied the
ambassador Michele Suriano to the Court of Maxi-
miUan II, and acted as official historiographer of the
Republic, during which office he delivered the funeral
oration for those killed at the battle of Lepanto (1572) ;
after the change of government he was made Saoio di
Terrafenna. and became a senator; he was Commis'
ario dd Cadore (1589), Governor of Brescia (1590-92),
ambassador to Rome (1592-95), procurator of St.
Mark (1596), next in dignity after the doge, and Prop-
veditore delle Fortezze (1597).
His chief works are the "Guerra di Cipro" (1570-
72) and the "Storia Venesiana", a continuation of
Bconbo's history, embracing the years 1513 to 1551,
works composed at the request of the Government,
but written with truth and impartiality, showing ee*
pecially the connexion between the current events of
Venice and the general history of Europe. His "De-
spatches" from Rome and the "Relasione" written at
the end of his diplomatic mission reveal his great polit-
ical foresight, by his accurate estimate of men and affain
at Rome, and which are eoual to those of the great-
est Venetian ambassadors. Of his political writings, the
" Delia perfezione della vita politica " in dialogue form,
written between 1572 and 1579, has a somewhat didac-
tic and academic tone, and treats principally of the
relative superiority of the active and contemplative
Ufe, a problem he decides in favour of the active life
on account of its contributing more to the welfare of
the Republic. It was supposed, not without reason, to
have been written to controvert the ideas contained
in Bellarmine's " De officio principis christian! ". His
"Disoorsi politic!" were not puolished till after his
death. The first book treats of the greatness and de-
cadence of the Romans; the second of modem govern-
ments, especially Venice, being really an apology for
the latter s policy. Thoufch Paruta is an independent
thmker. Macchiavelli's influence is notable. The pol-
icy of Italian equilibrium, which a century later de-
veloped into that of European equilibrium, was clearly
foreseen by him. In his political views economy is not
an important part, and therein he is inferior to his
contemporary, the Piedmontese Botero.
U. Benioni.
Pmoa1( Bi,aibb, b. at Clennont-Femuid, 19 June,
1623; d. in Paris, 19 August, 1862. He was the son of
Etienne Pascal, fidvocate at the court of Aids of
Clennont, and of Antoinette B^koq. His father, a
man of fortune, went with his children (1631) to hve
in Pfihs. He taught bis son grammar, Latin, Span-'
ieh, and mathematics, all according to an oripnal
method. In his twelfth year Blaise composed a trea-
tise on the communication of sounds; at sixteen an-^
other treatise, on conic sections. In 1639 he went to
Rouen with his father, who had been appointed in-
tendant of Normandy, and, to assist his father in his
calculations, he invented the arithmetical machine.
He repealed Tomcelli's vacuum experiments and
demonstrated, against P^re No^l. the wmght of air
(of. Mathieu, "Revue de Paris", 1906; Abel Lefranc,
"Revue Bleue", 1906; Strowski, "Paooal", Paris,
1908). He published works on the arithmetical tri-
angle, on wagers and the theory of probabilities, and
on the roulette or cycloid.
Meanwhile, in 1646, he had been won over to Jan-
senism, and induced his family, especially his sister
Jacquehne, to follow in the same direction. In 1650,
after a sojourn in Auvergne, his family returned to
Paris. On the advice of physicians Pascal, who had
always been aiUng and wno now suffered more than
ever, relaxed his labours and mingled in society, with
such friends, as the Due de Roannei, the Chevalier
M^ the poet Desbarreaui, the actor Miton. This
wu what has been called the worldly period of his
life, during which he must have written the "Di»-
cours sur les paamons de I'amour", inspired, it is said,
by Mile de Roannei. But the world soon became dis-
titst«ful to Mm, and he felt more and more impelled
to abandon it. During the night of 23 November,
1654, his doubts were settled by a sort of vision, the
evidence of which is in a writing, always subsequently
carried in the lining of his coat, and called "Pascal s
talisman". After this he practised the moat severe
asceticism, renounced learning -"•' »--"—"■ ♦*"• —•"-
ciales". This polemical work was nearing completion
when Pascal had the joy of seeing his friends, the
Due de Roannez and the jurisconsult Domat, con-
verted to Jansenism, as well as his niece Marguerite
Peiier, who had been cured of a fistula of the eye by
contact with a relic of the Holy Thorn preserved at
Port Royal. Thenceforth, although exhausted bv
illness, Pascal ^ve himself more and more to Goa.
He multiplied his mortifications, wore acincture of niuls
which he drove into his 6esh at the slightest thought of
vanity, and to be more like Jesus crucified, he left his
own house uid went to die in that of his brother-in-
law. He wrote the "Mystire de J&us", a sublime
memorial of his transports of faith and love, and he
laboured to collect the materials for a great apologetic
work. He died at the age of thirty-nine, after having
received in an ecstasy oi joy the Holy Viaticum, for
which he had several times asked, crying out as he
half rose from his couch: "May God never abandon
Pascid left numerous scientific works, among which
must be mentioned "Eesai sur lee comquee" (1640):
"Avis it ceux qui verront la machine arithm£lique
(1645); "lUcit de la grande experience de I'^uilibre
des liqueurs" (1548); "Traits du triangle arith-
m^tique" (1654). He shows himself a determined
advocate of the experimental method, in opposition
to the mathematical and mechanical method of Des-
cartes. In his "Trut^ sur la vide", oft«n reprinted
with the "Pensiea" under the title "De I'autoriW
en mati^re de philoeophie", Pascal clearly puts the
question regaining progras, which he answers,
boldly yet prudently, in "L'eeprit gtemetrique",
where he luminously distinfpishes between the geo-
metrical and the acute mmd, and establishes the
foundations of the art of persuasion. As to (ub
authorship of the "Discours sur lea passions de
I'amour", that essay at least contains certain theories
familiar to the author of the "Penates" on the part
played by intuition in sentiment and msthetic, and
its style for the most part resembles that of Pascal.
The '^Entretien avec M. de Saci sur Epictdte et Moa-
ttugne" ^vee the key to the "Pensfies"; psycholmfy
serving as the foundation and criterion of apot»-
setics, various philosophies sotvinK the problem only
m oike aspect, and Christianity adone affording the
complete solution.
But Pascal's two masterpieces are the "Provin-
ciales" and the "Pensfes". The occasion of the
" Provinciales " was an accident. The Due de liao-
court, a friend of
Port Royal, hav-
ing been refused
absolution by the
cur£ of Saint
Sulpice, Antoine
Arnauld wrote two
letters which were
censured by the
Sorbonne. He
wished to appeal
to the public in a
pamphlet which he
submitted to his
friends, but they
found it too heavy
and theolo^cal.
He then said to
Pascal: "You, who
are young, must
do something."
The next day (23Jan., 16fi6) I^acal brought the first
"Provinciale". The "Potites lettres" followed to
the number of nineteen, the last unfinished, frogi
January, 1656, to March, 1667. Appearing under the
pseudonym of Louis de Montalte, ttey were published
at Cologne in 1657 as " Les Provinciales, ou Lettres
6critea par Louis de Montalte It un provincial de ses
amis et au RR. PP. Jesuit«ti sur le sujet de la morale
et de la pohtique de ces p^res". The first four
treat the dogmatic question which forms the basis of
Jansenism on the agreement between grace and hu-
man liberty. Pasc^ answers it by practically, if not
theoretically, denying suffideat grace and hberty.
The seventeenth and eighteenth letters take wp the
same questions, but with noteworthy qualifications.
From the fourth to the uxteenth Pascal censures the
Jesuit moral code, or rather the casuistry, first, by
depicting a naif Jesuit who, through silly vanity, re-
veals to him the pretended secrets of the Jesuit
policy, and then bi^. direct invective against the Jes-
uits themselves. The most famous are the fourth, on
sins of ignorance, and the thirteenth, on homicide.
That Pascal intended this to be a useful woit,
his whole life bears witness, as do his deathbed declarsr
tions. His good fiuth cannot seriously be doubted,
but some of his methods are more questionable.
Without ever seriously altering his citations from the
casuists, as he has sometimes been wrongfully accused
of doing, he arranges them somewhat di^n^nuously;
he Amplifies complicated questions excessively, and,
in setting forth the solutions of the casuists sometimes
lets his own bias interfere. But the gravest reproach
against him is, first, that he unjustly blamed the Soci-
etjr of Jesus, attacking it exclusively, and attributing
to it a desire to lower the Christian ideal and to soften
down the moral code in the interest of its policy; then
that he discredited casuistry itself by refusing to n-
oogfdae its legitimacy or, in certain cases, its neceentyt
PASCAL
512
PA8CH
eo that not only the Jesuits, but retigion itself suffered
by this strife, which oontributed to hasten the condem-
nation of certain lax theories by the Church. And.
without wishing or even knowing it, Pascal furnished
weapons on the one hand to unbdievers and adversa-
lies of the Church and on the other to the partisans of
independent moralitjr. As to their literary form, the
^'Provinciales" are, in point of time^ the first prose
masterpiece of the French language, m their satuical
humour and passionate eloquence.
The "Pens^" are an unfinished work. From his
conversion to Jansenism Pascal nourished the project
•of writing an apology for the Christian Religion which
the increaffing numDer of libertines rendered so neces-
sary at that time. He had elaborated the plan, and
at mtervals during his illness he jotted down notes,
fragments, and meditations for his book. In 1670
Port Royal issued an incomplete edition. Condorcet,
on the advice of Voltaire^ attempted, in 1776, to con-
nect Pascal with the Philosophic party by means of
a garbled edition, which was opposed by that of the
Abb^ Bossuet (1779) . After a famous report of Cousin
on the MS. of the ''Pens6es'' (1842), Faug^re pub-
lished the first critical edition (1844). followed since
then by a host of others, the best of which is undoubt-
edly that of Michaut (Basle, 1896)jwhich reproduces
the original MS. pure and simple. What Pascal's plan
was, can never be determined, despite the information
furnished by Port Royal and by his sister. It is cer-
tiun that his method of apologetics must'have been at
once rigorous and original; no doubt, he had made use
of the traditional proofs — ^notably, the historical argu-
ment from prophecies and miracles. But as against
adversaries who did not admit historical certainty,
it was a stroke of genius to produce a wholly psycho-
logical argument and, by starting from the study of the
human soul, to arrive at God. Man is an "incompre-
hensible monster '^ says he. ** at once sovereign great-
ness and sovereign miser^r. Neither dogmatism nor
Pyrrhonism will solve tms enigma: the one explains
the greatness of man, the other his misery; but neither
e^lains both. We must listen to God. Christianity
alone, through the doctrine of the Fall and that of the
Incarnation, gives the key to the mystery. Chris-
tianity, therefore, is truth. God being thus appre-
hended and felt by the heart — ^which "has its reasons
that the mind knows not of, and which, amid the con-
fusion of the other faculties, is never mistaken — ^it re-
mains for us to go to Him through the will, by making
acts of faith even before we have faith.
Another curious argument of Pascal's is that which
is known as the argument of the wager. God exists
or He does not exist, and we must of necessity lay odds
for or against Him.
T^ T «>ro<»A.. /^ i «^d God is— infinite gain;
Iflwager /or j and God is not-no loss.
Tf T «r<.»o.. /./.^v«.<.# i *»d God is — ^infinite loss;
If I wager against ^ ^nd God is not-neither
loss
* nor gam.
In the second case there is an hjrpothesis wherein
I am exposed to the loss of everything. Wisdom,
therefore, counsels me to makelhe wager which in-
sures my winning all or. at worst losing nothing. In-
numerable works were devoted to Pascal in the second
half of the nineteenth centurv. Poets, critics, ro-
mance-writers, theologians, philosophers have drawn
their inspiration from him or made him the subject of
discussion. As M . Bourget has said, he is not oi^y one
of the princes of style, but he represents the reliipous
soul in its most tragic and terrined aspects. More-
over, the problems which he presents are precisely
those which confront us nowada3rs.
8aint»-B«uvis, Port-Royal, I, 11, III (Pvis, 1860); Vinbt,
Ktvdet aw Blai$€ Paaeal (Paris. 1848); Sullt-Pbitdhommb, La
vmie rdigion toUm Paaoai (Paris, 1900) ; BRUifVnftKa. Biude*
cntutuet, ser. 1. 3*4; tfuf. ^ mtratwe, 11 (Paris, 1880-1903);
MicHAXTT, Lea ipoquea da la pana4a da Paacal (Paris, 1897) ; Giraud,
Pttaeal; rhomm^ rffwirf, Ffn^umca (Paris. 1906); BovTKOVxiii
ColL daa granda ienvaina franoaia (Pans, 1900) ; Sntowaxi, PuaeA
at aon tampa (Paris, 1909) (eniHDciaUy important) ; Tatiar, PaaeaFa
Thoughta on Raliffion and Philoaophy (hondoa, 1804); jANsaENS,
La pkil&aophta at VapUooUiqiiM da P. (Louvaan. 1806).
J. Latastb.
Paieal Baylon, Saint, b. at Torre-Hermosa, in
the Kingdom of Aragon, 24 Mav, 1540, on the Feast
of Pentecost, called in Spain "the Pasch of the Holy
Ghost '\ whence the name of Paschal; d. at Villa
Reale, 15 May, 1592, on Whitsunday. His parents,
Martin Baylon and Elisabeth Jubera, were virtuous
peasants. The child began very early to display
signs of that surpassing devotion towards the Holy
Eucharist, which forms the salient feature of his
character. From his seventh to his twenty-fourth
year, he led the life of a shepherd, and during the
whole of that period exercised a salutary influence
upon his companions. He was then received as a
lay-brother amongst the Franciscan friars of the Al-
cantarine Reform. In the cloister, Paschal's life of con-
templation and selfnsacrifice fulnlled the promise of
his early years. His charity to the poor and afflicted,
and his unfaiUng courtesy were remarkable. On
one occasion, in the course of a ioumey throush
France, he triumphantly defended the dogma of the
Real Presence against the blasphemies oi a Calvin-
ist preacher, and in consequence, narrowly e8cc4)ed
death at the hands of a Huguenot ^^lob. Although
poorly educated, his counsel was sought for By
people of every station in life, and he was on terms
of closest friendship with personages of eminent
sanctity. Pascal was beatified in 1618. and canon-
ised in 1690. His cultus has flourishea particularly
in hia native land and in Southern Italy, and it was
widely diffused in Southern and Central America,
through the Spanish Conquests. In his Apostolic
letter, PromderUissimus Deua, Leo XIII declared St.
Pascal the especial heavenly protector of all Eu-
charistic Congresses and Associations. His feast is
kept on 17 May. ' The saint is usually depicted in
adoration before a vision of the Host.
^TANiFOBTH, The Saint of the Buehariai (London. 1008) ; Litaa
and Sainta of the three ordera of Saint Franeia (London. 1886);
XiMBNBB, Chronidea (Valencia. 1600); D'Abta, Supplement to
i^ve work (Rome, 1672) ; Da PoRRKMTBnT, Saint Paachal Baylon
(Paris, 1800)
Oswald Staniforth.
Pascendly Dominici Gregis. See Modernism.
Pasch or PaBSOVW. — Jews of all classes and ways
of thinking look forward to the Passover holidays with
the same eagerness as Christians do to Chnstmas-
tide. It is for them the great event of the year. With
the exception of the Temple sacrifices, thdr manner of
observing it differs but little from that which obtained
in the time of Christ. Directions for keeping; the
feast were carefullv laid down in the Law (see Exod.,
xii, xiii, etc.), and carried out with great exactness
after the Exile.
The feast of the Passover begins on the fourteenth
day of Nisan (a lunar month which roughly corre-
sponds with the latter part of March and the first part
of April) and ends with the twenty-first. The Jews
now, as in ancient times, make elaborate preparations
for the festival. Every house is subjected to a
thorough spring cleaning. The Saturday preceding
the day of the Pasch (fifteenth) is called a "Great
Sabbath '^ because it is supposed that the tenth day
of the month Abib (or Nisan), when the Israelites
were to select the Paschal lambs, before their deliver-
ance from Ecypt, fell on a Sabbath. On this Sabbath,
the day of the following week on which the Passover
is to fall is solemnly announced. Some days before
the feast, cuUnary and other utensils to be used during
the festival are carefuUy and legallv purified from all
contact with leaven, or leavened oread. They are
then said to be kOBher. Special sets of cooking and
table utensils are not uof requently kept in every houso^
PA80B
613
PA8CH
hold. On the evening of the thirteenth, after dark,
the head of the houae makes the "search for leaven
according to the manner indicated in the Mishna
(Tractate ''Pesachim", i), which is probably the cus-
tom JPoUowed by the Jews for at leaflt two thousand
years. The search is made by means of a lighted
wax candle. A piece of ordinary, or leavened, oread
is left in some conspicuous place, generally on a win-
dow-sill. The search begins by a prayer containing
a reference to the command to put away all leaven
during the feast. .The place of the piece of bread just
mentioned b first mark^ to indicate the besinning of
the search. The whole house is then carefully exam-
ined, and all fragments of leaven are carefully col-
lectcKi on a large spoon or scoop by means of a brush
or bundle of quills. The search is ended by coming
back to the piece of bread with which it began. This,
also is collected on the scoop. The .Utter, with its
contents, and the brush are then carefuUy tied up in a
bundle and suspended over a lamp to prevent mice
from scattering leaven during the nisdit and necessitat-
ing a fresh search. The master of the house then pro-
claims in Aramaic that all the leaven that is in hia
house, of which he is unaware, is to him no more than
dust. During the forenoon of the next day (four-
teenth) all the leaven that remains is burnt, and a sim-
ilar declaration made. From this time till the evening
of the 22nd, when the feast ends, only unleavened
bread is allowed. The lepal time when the use of
leavened bread was prohibited was understood to be
noon on the fourteenth Nisan; but the rabbis, in order
to run no risks, and to place a hedge around the Law,
anticipated this by one or two hours.
On this day, the fourteenth, the first-born son of
each family, u he be above thirteen, fasts in memory
of the dehverance of the first-bom of the Israelites,
when the destroying angel passed over Egypt. On the
evening of the fourteenth the male members of the
family, attired in their best, attend special services in
the synagogue. On their return home they find the
house lit up and the Seder, or Paschal Table, prepared.
The head of the family takes his place at the head of
the table, where there is an arm-chair prepared for
him with cushions or pillows. A similar chair is also
ready for the mistress of the house. The meal is
called Seder by the Ashkenasiuc Jews, and Haggadah
(because of the story of the deliverance recited during
it) by the Sephardib Jews. All the members of the
Jewish family, including servants, sit round the table.
In front of the head of the family is the Seder-dish,
which is of such a kind as to allow three unleavened
cakes or maUotki each wrapped in a napkin, to be
f>Iaced in it one above the other. A shank bone of
amb (with a small portion of meat attached) which
has been roasted on the coals is placed, together with
an egg that has been roasted in hot ashes, on another
dish above the three unleavened cakes. The rtfasted
shank represents the paschal lamb, and the roasted
egg the aiagigahf or free-will offerings, made daily in
the Temple. Bitter herbs, such as parsley and horse-
radish, a kind of sop called charosethf oonsistinp of
various fruits pounaed into a mucilage and mixed
with vinegar, and salt water, are arranged in different
vessels, sometimes disposed like candelabra above the
unleavened bread. The table is also furnished with
wine, and cups or glasses for each person, an extra
cup being always left for the prophet £)lias, whom they
expect as the precursor of the Messiah.
When all are seated around the table the first cup of
wine is poured out for each. The head of the house rises
and thanks God for the fruits of the vine and for the
gjeat day which thev are about to celebrate. He then
sits down and drinks his cup of wine in a reclining
posture, leaning on his left arm. The others drink
at the same time. In the time of the Temple the
poorest Jew was to drink four cups of wine during this
joyful meal; and if he happened to be too poor, it was
XL-138 ^ -
to be supplied out of public funds. Though four cup^
are prescribed, the quantity is not restricted to that
amount. Some water is generally added to the wine.
In earlv days red wine was used ; but, on account of the
fear of fostering the groundless blood accusations
against the Jews, this usage was discontinued. Un-
fermented raisin wine or Palestinian wine is now gen-
erally used. After drinking the first cup the master
rises and washes his hands, the others remaining
seated,^ and Edersheim is of opinion that it was at this
point of the supper that Chnst washed the disciples'
feet. After washing his hands^ the head of the family
sits down, takes a small quantity of bitter heibs^ dips
them in salt water, and eats them, reclining on his l^t
elbow. Jewish interpreters say that on^ the first
Passover was to be eaten standing, and with circum-
stances of haste. During the Passovers commemora*
tive of the first they reclined ''like a king [or free
man] at his ease, and not as slaves'' — ^in this probably
following the example of the independent Romans
with whom thev came into contact. After the head
of the famil^r has eaten his portion of bitter herbs, >
he takes similar portions, dips them in salt water,
and hands them round to be eaten by the others.
He then takes out the middle unleavened c^e, breidcs
it in two, and hides awav one-half under a pillow or
cushion, to be distributed and eaten after supper. If
this practice existed in the time of Christ, it is not
improbable that it was from this portion, called
afikomarif that the Eucharist was instituted. As soon
as this portion is laid aside, the other half is replaced,
the dish containing the unleavened cakes is uncovered,
and all, standing^p, take hold of the dish and solemnly
lift it up, chantmg slowly in Aramaic: ''This is the
bread of affliction which our fathers ate in Egvpt. «. . •
This year here, next year in Jerusalem. This year
slaves, next year free. ' The dish is then replaced,
and the shank bone, roasted egg, etc. restored to
their places above it. All sit down, and the younsest
son asks why this night above all other ni^ts Uiey
eat bitter herbs, unleavened bread, and in a reclining
posture. The head of the house then tells how their
fathers were idolaters when God chose Abraham, how
they were slaves in Egypt, how God delivei^ed them,
etc. God is praised and blessed for His wondrous
mercies to their nation, and this first part of the cere-
mony is brought to a close by their breaking forth
with the recitation of the first part of the HaUu (Pss.,
cxiii and cxiv) and drinkine the second cup of wine,
which is triumphantly held aloft and called the cup
of the Haggadan or story of deliverance.
The ceremony so far has been only introductory.
The meal proper now begins. First, all wash their
hands; the president then recites a blessing over the
unleavened cakes, and, after having dipped small
fra^ents of them in salt water, he eats them re-
elinmg. He next distributes pieces to the others.
He ako takes some bitter herbs, dips them in the
charoeelh, and gives them to the others to be eaten.
He next makes a kind of sandwich by putting a
portion of horse-radish between two pieces of un-
leavened bread and hands it round, saymg that it is
in memory of the Temple and of Hillel, who used to
wrap together pieces of the paschal lamb, unleavened
bread, bitter herbs, and eat them, in fulfilment of the
command of Ex., xii, 8. The supper proper is now
served, and consists of many courses of (fishes loved by
Jews, such as soup, fish, etc.. prepared in curious ways
unknown to Gentiles. At the end of the meal some of
the children snatch the afikoman that has been hidden
away, and it has to be redeemed by presents — a cus-
tom probably arising from a mistranslation of the
Talmud. It is then divided between all present and
eaten. Oesterley and Box think that this is a survival
from an earlier time when a part of the paschal lamb
was kept to the end and distributed, so as to be the
last thmg eaten. When the afikoman is eat^ the
1PA8CHAI. 514 PASCHAL
third Clip 18 filled; and grace after meals is said, and tlie treason. Paschal supported new missmnary expedi-
third cup dru^k in a reclining posture. A cup of tions which went out from the Prankish Empire. He
wine is now poured out for the prophet Elias, m a sent a letter of introduction to Bishop Halitgar of
dead silence which is maintained for some time, Cambria^ and appointed Archbishop Ebo of Rheims
and the door is opened. Imprecations against un- as papal legate to the pagan countries in Northern
believers, taken from the Psalms and Lamentations, Ekirope.
are then recited. These were introduced only during In 814 under Leo the Armenian, the loonodastie
the Middle Ages. After this the fourth cup is filled controversy broke out with renewed violence in the
and the great Halld (Pss., cxv-cxviii) and a prayer of Byzantine Empire. Theodore of StucUum, the great
praise are recited. Before drinking the fourth cup, champion of orthodoxy, wrote repeatedly to Fope
the Jews of some countries recite five poetical pieces, Paschal, who encouraged him to persevere. At the
and then the fourth cup is drunk. At the end a same time Theodosius of Constantinople, unlawfully
prayer asking God to accept what they have done is made patriarch bv Emperor Leo, sent a legation to
added. Among the German and Polish Jews this the pope. The latter, however, remained loyal to
pr^er is followed by popular songs. the cause of Theodore of Studium, and dispatched
The same ceremonies are observed the next even- legates to Leo to win him from the Iconoclasts,
ing. According to the Law the fifteenth and twenty* but ^thout success. Numerous monks who had
firat were to be kept as solenm festivals and davs been driven out of Greece by Leo came to Rome
of rest. At present the fifteenth and sixteenth, the where the poi)e received them kindly, assigning
twenty-first and twenty-second are whole holidays, a them places in the newly-erected monasteries,
custom introduced among the Jews of the Dispersion such as St. Praxedis, St. Cecilia, Sts. Sergius ana
to make sure that they fulfilled the precepts of the Bacchus, near the Lateran Palace. Paschal waa
Law on the proper day. The other days are half- very active in completing;, restoring, and beautifying
holidays. Special services are held in the synagogues churches and monasteries. The basilicas of St.
throughout the Passover week. Formerly the date Praxedis, St. Cecilia, and S. Maria in Dominica were
of the Pasch was fixed by actual observation [Schiirer, completely rebuilt by him. The mosaics, which at
" History of the Jewish People" (Edinburgh, 1902), that time ornamented the apses ox these three churches
I, II, Append. 3]. It is now deduced from astronomi- as well as the chapel of St. Zeno in St. Praxedis, dem-
cal calculations. onstrate to-day the deterioration of this art. In St.
OBaTBBUBY AND Box, Rd^ion and Worthip of Vu Synagogua Peter's he erected chapels and altars, in which the re-
(LondoD, 1907): UitUBmi Jetotsh Semee* tn the StflMffbgue and maina nf mArtvrR fmm tliP DnmAn tf*<Lfji/>nTnKfl m-
Home (PhiUdclphia, 1898); LBsftTBB in Vioouboux, Did. de la ^lauis oi manyre irom tne itoman cata^jomDs, es-
Bibie, B. V. Paque: Jevoieh Bneud.; Ginsbubo in Kirro, Cyclop, pecially those of Sts. Processus and Manmanus, were
of Bibl, LU.; Abrahams in HAanNas, Diat. of the Bible, s. v. placed. He also placed the relics of many Roman
fS;ffi;%^»f^i^?J*i'.Sr?i;;,SS?':?ri%?SS: ^^y^ ^^^ <^\^^ of St. praxedis where their
BEXM. Life and Timee of Jeeue the Meenah, II (London, 1900), names are stiU legible. The discovery of the rehcs
479. of St. Cecilia and companions, and their translation
C. Ahernb. to the new church of St. Cecilia in Trastevere, are well
described in ''Liber Pontificalia" (cf. Kirsch, "Die
Paschal I, Pope (817-824), the date of his birth is hi. C&cilia in der romischen Kirche des Altertums",
unknown; he died in April, May, or June, 824. He Paderbom, 1910). He made great improvements in
was the son of ^ Roman named Bonosus. While the choir of the church of S. Maria Maggiore. Pas-
still young he joined the Roman clergv and was taken chal was interred in the church of St. Praxedis, and
into the papal patriarchate (Lateran Palace) where he is honoured as a saint on 14 May.
was instructed in the Divine Service and the Holy , ^«r Pon<t/im/M. ed. Duchmnb, II. 62 soq^^
fi„_' 4,._„ T .«^ TTT u....;.... ««>*«.^:«>4-^vi u:«» «..««^»:^ "^ Mon, uertn, titst.: senpi., i, i^ 0QQ>i Jaff*, aegeata Horn.
Scnpture. Leo III having appomted him superior /vn/., 2nd ed., I (LeipBig. 1886), 318 sqq.; Simson. JahrhUeher der
of the monastery of St. Stephen near the Basilica of deutechen Reiehee unter Lading dem Frommen (Ldpsig, 1874-76);
St. Peter hi the Vatican, he took care of the pilgrims ^^J^^f^* ^ premiere t^pe del^tat pontifical ux ^evue d'hyd.
who came to Rome. On thedeath of Stephenir(24 fe)&£f?,j;:!Srif^^^^^^
January, 817) Paschal was unammously chosen as chi, Bom/wum et iglieea de Rome (Rome, 1002).
his successor. On the following day he was conse- J* P< Kirbch.
crated and enthroned. He entered into relations with
Emperor Louis, sending him several ambassadors in Paachal II, Pope (Raineriub), succeeded Urban
rapid succession. In 817 he received froni the em- 11, and reigned from 13 Au^., 1099, till he died at
Seror a document, "Pactum Ludovicianum", con- Rome, 21 Jan., 1118. Bom m central Italy, he was
rming the rights and possessions of the Holy See. received at an early age as a monk in Cluny. In his
This £>cument with later amendments is still extant twentieth year he was sent on business of the monas-
(cf . especially Sickel, " Das Privileg Ottos I ftir die tery to Rome, and was retained at the papal court by
rdmische Kirche", Innsbruck, 1883, 50 sqq., 174 sqq.). Gregory VII, and made Cardinal-Priest of St. Clem-
Paschal remained on friendly terms with the Prankish ent's church. It was in this church that the conclave
nobility and sent a special legation with rich gifts niet after the death of Pope Urban, and Cardinal
to the marriage of Kmg Lotluur I, son of Emperor Rainerius was the unanimous choice of the sacred col-
Louis. Insprmg, 823, LothairwenttoRomeandon5 lege. He protested vigorously against his election,
April he was solemnly crowned emperor by Paschal, maintaining, with some justice, that his monastic
Although the pope himself opposed the sovereigntv training had not fitted him to deal with the weighty
of the ^iankish emperors over Rome and Roman tern- problems which confronted the papacy in that trou-
tory, high officials in the papal palace, especially dIous age. His protestations were disr^arded by his
Pmnicenus Theodore and nis son-m-law Leo No- colleagues, and he was consecrated the following day
menculator, were at the head of the party which sup- in St. Peter's. Once pope, he betra>red no further
ported the Franks, and advocated tne supremacy of hesitation and wielded the sceptre with a firm and
the emperor. Shortly after the departure of King prudent grasp. The main lines of his pohcy had been
Lothair in 823, both these officials were blinded and laid by the master minds of Gregory and Urban, in
killed by the pope's servants. Paschal himself was whose footsteps he faithfully followed, while the un-
accused of being the originator of this deed, but he usual length of his pontificate, joined to a great amia-
cleared himself of suspicion by an oath. The am- bilitvofcharacter, made his reign an important factor
bassadoFB sent to Rome by Emperor Louis to investi- in the development of the medieval papal domin-
gate the affair could not punish the perpetrators, as ion. Urban II had lived to witness the complete suo-
the pope declared the murdered officials guilty of cess of his wonderful movement for the liberation of
PASCHAL 515 l»ASCfiAL
the Holv Land and the defence of Christendom. He a far-reaching activity. He maintained discipline in
Iiad died a fortnight after Jerusalem fell into the hands every comer of Europe. The greatest champions of
of the crusaders. To continue the work inaugurated religion, men like St. Anselm of Canterbury, looked up
by Urban remained the fixed policy of the Holy See for to him with reverence. He gave his approval to the
many generations. Paschal laboured vigorously by new orders of Citeaux and Fontevrauld. On his nu-
synods and journeys through Italy and France to keep merous journeys he brought the papacy into direct
alive the crusading spirit. Of more vital importance contact with the people and dedicated a large number
was the Investiture Conflict (see Investiture, Con- of churches. If it was not given to him to solve the
flictof). It was fortunate that the antipope,Guibert problem of Investitures, he cleared the way for his
CClement III), died a few months after the elevation more fortunate successor,
of Paschal. Three other antipopes, Theodoric (1100), Duchmnb, L*. Fjmi. II. 296 sqq.; GMooBovnis, Theffi*-
Aleric (IIM) ,«»d IVfaginuK. who t«}k the name of i^r^^^'Si^^Tl^iKrh^'a^teJ^it.'iX^^^^
Sylvester IV (1105), were offered by the impenahstio Hitt, of the Popes (New York. 1867).
faction; but the scjusm was practically ended. Two of James F. Loughlin.
these pretendants were sent by Paschal to do penance
in monasteries: the third had little or no following. Paschal III (Guroo of Cbema), second antipope
Herry IV, broken by his previous conflicts, had no in the time of Alexander III. He was elected in 1164
desire to renew the struggle He obstinately refused to succeed Cardinal Octavian, who, under the liame
to abjur^ his claim to imperial investitures, and. of Victor IV, had warred so many years against Alex-
consequently, was again excommunicated, and died ander III. To meet the demands of Fr^erick Bar-
at Li^ge, 7 Aug.. 1106. barossa, he canonised Charlemagne in 1165, but this
His death and the accession of his son were of du- action was never ratified by the Church (see Cbarle-
bious advantage to the papal cause; for although he magne). He died in 1168.
had posed as the champion of the Church, he soon »«.-.w«i a,„„„« q^ t>«t»,^ At»«»« nT.w^»»
showed himself as unwilling as his father hak been to P^clial, Albert. See Pmncb Albert, Diocese
relinquish any of the pretensions of the crown. Since ^'*
the pope continued to denounce and anathematise lay Paschal Candle. — The blessing of the "paschal
investitures in the synods over which he presided, the candle'', which is a column of wax of exceptional size,
chief of which were at Guastalla (1106) and Troyes usually fixed in a great candlestick specially destined
(1107), and since Hennr persisted in bestowing bene- for that purpose, is a notable feature of the servi\ce on
. fices at^ pleasure, the friendly relations between the Holy Saturday. The blessing is performed by tfcedea-
two powers soon became strained. Paschal decided to con, wearing a white dalmatic. A long Eucharistic
change his proposed journey to Germany, and pro- prayer,the"Pr8BConiumpaschale"or"Exultet"(q.v.)
ceeded to France, where he was received enthusiastic- is chanted by him, and in the course of this chant-
ally by King Phiup (who did penance for his adultery ing the candle is first ornamented with five grains of
and was reconciled to the Church) and by the French incense and then lighted with the newly blessed fire,
people. Henry resented the discussion of a German At a later stage in the service, during the blessing of
question on foreign soil, though the question of In- the font, the same candle is piunged three times into
vestitures was one of universal interest; and he the water with the words: ^'Descendat in banc pleni-
threatened to cut the knot with his sword, as soon as tudinem fontis virtus Spiritus Sancti" (May the
circumstances permitted his going to Rome to receive power of the Holy Spirit come down into the fulness
' the imperial crown. In August, 1110, he crossed the of this fountain). From Holy Saturday until Ascen-
Alps with a well-organized army, and, what empha- sion Day the paschal candle is left with its candle-
sized the entraifoe of a new factor in medieval politics, stick in the sanctuary, standing upon the Gospel side
accompanied by a band of imperialistic lawyers, one of of the altar, and it is lighted during high Mass and
whom, David, was of Celtic origin. Crushing out op- solemn Vespers on Sundays. It is extinguished after
position on his way through the peninsula, Henry sent the Gospel on Ascension Day and is then removed,
an embassy to arrange with the pontiff the prelimi- The results of recent research seem all to point to
naries of his coronation. The outcome was embodied the necessity of assigning a very high antiquity to the
in the Concordat of Sutri. Before receiving the im- paschal candle. Dom Germain Morin (Revue B6n6-
perial crown, Henry was to abjure all claims to in- dictine, Jan., 1891, and Sept., 1892) has successfully
vestitures, whilst the pope undertook to compel the vindicated, against Mgr Duchesne and others, the au-
prelates and abbots of the empire to restore all the thenticityof the letter of St. Jerome to Presidius, dea-
temporal rights and privileges which they held from con of Piacentia (Migne, P. L., XXX, 188), in which
the crown. the saint replies to a request that he would compose a
When the compact was made public in St. Peter's on carmen cerei, in other words, a form of blessing like our
the date assigned for the coronation, 12 Feb., 1111, "Exultet". Clearly this reference to a carmen cerei
there arose a fierce tumdlt led by the prelates who by (poem of the candle) must presuppose the existence, in'
one stroke of the pen had been degraded from the es- 384, of the candle itself which was to be blessed by the
tate of princes of tne empire to beggary. The indigna- deacon with such a form, and the saint's reply makes it
tion was the more intense, because the rights of the probable that the practice was neither of recent intro-
Roman See had been secured from a similar confisca- auction nor f^uliar to the church of Piacentia.
tion. After fruitless wrangling and three days of riot- Again St. Augustine (De Civit. Dei, XV, xxii) men-
ing, Henry carried the pope and his cardinals into cap- tions casually that he had composed a mils cerei in
tivity. Abandoned as he was by everyone, Paschal, verse; and from specimens of similar compositions —
after two months of imprisonment, yielded to the king all of them, however, bearing a close family resem-
that right of investiture against which so many heroes blance to our *^ Exultet " — which aref ound in the works
had contended. Henry's violence rebounded upon of Ennodius (Opusc, 14 and 81), it appears that there
himself. All Christendom united in anathematizing can be no sufficient ground for doubting the correct-
him. The voices raised to condemn the faint-hearted- ness of this statement. Moreover, Mgr Mercati has
ness of Paschal were drowned by the universal denun- now shown good reason for believing that the existing
elation of his oppressor. Paschal humbly acknowl- ''Prseconium paschale" of the Anibrosian Rite was
edged his weakness, but refused to break the promise composed in substance by St. Ambrose himself or else
he nad made not to inflict any censure upon Henry for founded upon hymns of which he was the author (see
his violence. It was unfortunate for Paschal's mem- "Studi e Testi", XII, 37-38). There is, therefore, no
ory that he should be so closely associated with the occasion to refuse to Pope Zosimus (c. 417) the credit
episode of Sutri. As head of the Church, he developed of having conceded the uBe Of the paschal candle to the
PASCHAL 616 PASCHAL
suburbicarian churches of Rome, although the men- wax was used for the paachal candle of WestmiiiBter
tion of this fact is only found in the second edition of Abbey. In England these great candles, after they
the ''Liber Poz^ificalis". Mgr Duchesne urges that had been used for the 'last time in blessing the font on
this institution has left no trace in the earliest purely Whitsun Eve, were generall]^ melted down and made
Roman Ordines, such as the Einsiedeln Ordo and that into tapera to be used gratuitously at the funerals of
of Saint-Amand; but these speak of two /ocuUb thepoor (seeWilkins/'Concilia'', 1, 571, andll,298).
(torches) Which were carried to the font before the At Kome the Agnus Deis (q. v.) were made out of the
pope and were plunged into the water as is now done remains of the paschal candles, and Mgr Duchesne
with the paschal candle. The (question of size or num- seems to regard these consecrated discs of wax as
ber does not seem to be very vital. The earliest coun- likely to be even older than the paschal candle itself.
cil which speaks upon the subject, vis., the Fourth of , BrauiM inMeMooer dfPidHe* (Maredsous, 1888). 107 Kiq.:
Toledo ^A. D 6M. cap. »). 8«»ne to couple together iK^i^S5iSrt^;;:r'M*j£Sr^ f 22j^^
the blessmg of the lucema and cereus as of equal im- sous. Jan.. 1891. and Sept., 1892); Idxm in RoMMtgna Gregonana,
portance and seems also to connect them both sym- II (Rome, 1003), 193-194; Mbbcati in Studi e Ttui, No. XII
fcUcaUy with «?me *acram^um^ i. e. mystery of bap- {2SS;lS%^i ?t:S;j2SX3!3.'g2'o*SiS SS^^
tismal illuminationand with the Resurrection of Chnst. tury^CABROL. u lAw de la PrUrt Antx^utlpmB, 1902) ; Trttb*-
And undoubtedly the paschal candle must have de- TS^ ,^.S^^^**^^^^^^h -^ph!' i*®** ^"■^j Untand Hohr
rived its origin from the splendoure of the celebration . ^^f (London. 1904) ; MastIn.. De a^tquu ucUmub nfi&u.. IV.
of Easter Eve in the early Christian centuries. As ' Herbert THUB8Tt>N.
pointed out in the article^ Holy Week, our present .-».,-- « tn -n, *
morning service on Holy Saturday can be shown to Pascnal Controversy. See Easter Contbo-
represent by anticipation a service which in primitive vxbst.
times took pla<» late in the evening, Mid^^ PasehAl Cycle. See Calendar, Christian;
mmated m the blessing of the font and the baptism Easter.
of the catechumens, followed immediately by Mass ^ . • w
shortly after midnight on Easter morning. Already in Paschal Lamb. See Lamb.
the time of Constantine we sre^ told by llusebius (De pawhal Precept. See Commandmbnto of nn
Vita Constantim, IV, xxu) that the emperor "trans- Church
formed the night of the sacred vigil into the brilliancy
of day, by lighting throughout the whole city pillars Paschal Tide. — I. LmniaicAL Aspect. The fifty
of wax <(n?poi; Ktowat), while burning lamfw illuminated days from Easter Sunday to Pentecost are called by
eveiy part, so that this mystic visil was rendered the older liturgists "Quinquagesima psschalis" or *
brighter than the bri^test daylight . Other Fathers, ''Quin. Istitise . The octave of Easter which closes
like St. Gregory Nasianzus and St. Gregory of Nyssa, after Saturday has its own peculiar Office (see Eab*
also give vivid descriptions of the illumination of the ter). Since this octave is part and complement of
Easter vigil. Further, it is certain, from evidence the Easter Solemnity. Paschal Tide in the liturgical
that stretehes back as far as Tertullian and Justin books commences with the First Vespers of Low Sun-
Martyr, that upon this Easter eve the catechumens day and ends before the First Vespers of Trinity Sun-
were Daptiz^ and that this ceremony of baptism was day. On Easter Sunday the Armenian Church keeps
spoken of as ^(^no'/uof, i. e., illumination. Indeed, it the Commemoration of All the Faithful Departed and
seems hi^^ly probable that this i& already referred to on Saturday of Easter Week the Decollation of St.
in Heb., x, 22, where the words "being illuminated" John. The Greek Church on Friday of Easter Week
seem to he used in the sense of being baptized (of. celebrates 'the feast of Our Lady, the Living Fountain
St. Cyril of Jerusalem. Cat. i, n. 15). Whether con- (shrine at Constantinople).
sciously designed for that purpose or not. the fiaschal The Sundays from Easter to Ascension Day, besides
candle typified Jesus Christ, " the true lignt which en- being called the First, Second (etc.) Simaay after
lighteneth every man that cometh into this world". Easter, have their own peculiar titles. The first
surrounded by His illuminated, i. e. newly baptizea is the "Dominica in albis , or Low Sunday (see Low
disciples, each holding a smaller light. In the virgin Sunday). In the Dioceses of Portugal and Brasil
wax a later symbolism recognized we most pure flesh (also in the orovince of St. Louis, Mo.) on the Monday
which Christ derived from His blessed Mother, in the after Low Sunday is celebrated the feast of the Joys
wick the human soul of Christ, and in the flame the or Exultation of Mary at the Resurrection of her Son
divinity of the Second Person of the Blessed Trinity, (double of the second class). The Russians, on Tues-
Moreover, the five grains of incense set cross-wise m day of this week, go in procession to the cemeteries
the candle recalled the sacred wounds retained in and place Easter eggs on the graves (Maltzew, "Fas-
Christ's glorified body, and the lighting of the candle ten- und Blumen- Triodion'^ (Berlm, 1899), 791).
with new firo itself served as a lively image of the In the Latin Church the second Sundav is called
resurrection. from its Gospel the Sunday of the Good Shepherd
Of the practice of medieval and later times regard- and from the Introit " Miserioordias Domini'; in
ing the paschaJ candle much might be said. We Team many dioceses (Seville, Capuchins) it is called the feast
on the authority of Bede, spe^ng of the year 701. ofOurLady, Mother of the Good Shepherd (d. 2nd cl.);
that it was usual in Rome to inscribe^the date ana at Jerusalem and in the churches of the Franciscans
other particulars of the calendar ^either upon the can- it is called the feast of the Holy Sepulchre of Christ: in
die itself or on a parchment affixed to it. Further, in the Greek Church it is called i<Ar Mvpo^>6fww (Sunday
many Italian basilicas the paschal candlestick was a of the women who brought ointments to the sepulchre
marble construction which was a permanent adjunct of Christ) ; the Armenians celebrate on this Sunday
of the ambo or pulpit. Severid of these still survive, the dedication of the first Christian church on Mount
as in San Lorenzo fuoridella ^ -^ ^^ • " "* '"^ .% • ^ « _j-_- s- __ii-j r
the medieval tendency was
die by making it bigger and ~-po— . ..^ „ . . . .,
are told of a magnincent erection with dragons and the Greeks call it the Sunday of the Paralytic, from
shields and seven branches, which was so big that it had its Gospel. The Oriental Churches on Wedncaday
to stand in the centre of the choir. The Sarum Pro- after the third Sunday celebrate with a very solenm
cessional of 1517 directs that the paschal candle, no Office and an octave the Me^werrewwr^, the com-
doubt that of Salisbury cathedral, is to be thirty-six pletion of the first half of Paschal Tide; it is the feast
feet in height, while we learn from Machyn's diary that of the manifostation of the Messiah, the victonr of
in 1558, under Queen Mary, three hundred weight of Christ and the Church over Judaism ["Zeitschnft
PASGHASIXTB 517 PASCHASIUS
fttr katholiflche Theologie" (1896), 169-177]; the ix). Accopdinjj to these decrees the faithful of dth«
Slav nations in this day have a solemn procession and sex, after oomins to the age of discretion, must, re-
benediction of their rivers (Nilles, ''Kal.", II, 361). ceive at least at Easter the Sacrament of the Eucharist
The fourth Sunday is called "Cantate"; by the On- (unless bvthe advice of the parfeh priest they abstain
entals it is called Sunday of the Samaritan WoiSan. for a while). Otherwise durmg life they are to be pre-
Tlie fifth Sunday, ''Vocem jucunditatis"; in the vented from entering the church and when dead are
Orient. Sunday of me "Man Bom Blind. In the Latin to be denied Christian burial. The paschal precept
Churcn follow the Rogation Days (q. v.); in the Greek is to be fulfilled in one's parish church. [Taunton,
Church on Tuesday is kept the dirMorcf or conclusion ''The Law of the Church^' (London and St. Louis,
of the feast of Easter. The Greeks sing the Canons 1906), 391, 474.] Altljpugh the precept of the IV
of Easter up to this Tuesda]^ in the same manner as Lateran to confess to the parish pnest fell into disuse
during Easter Week, whilst in the Latin Church the and permission was given to confess anywhere,
specif Easter Office terminates on Saturday following the precept of receiving Easter (Ik>mmunion in the
tne feast. Thursdav is the feast of the Ascension parish church is stiU in force where there are canon-
(see Ascension). The Friday of 'this week, in Ger- ically-erected parishes. The term Paschal Tide was
many, is called '' Witterfreitag"; the fields are blessed usually interpreted to mean the two weeks between
against frost and thunderstorms. Sundi^r within the Palm and Low Sundays (Synod of Avignon, 1337);
octave of Ascension is called ''Exaudi'' m>m the In- by St. Antonine of Florence it was restricted to Easter
troit; in some dioceses it is called Feast of Our Ladv, Sunday, Monday, and Tuesday; by Angelo da Chia-
Queen of theApoetles (double major) or of the Cenacle vasso it was denned as the period from Maundv
(Charleston and Savannah, first class); in Rome it Thursday to Low Sunday. Eugene IV, 8 July, 1440,
was called Sunday of the Roses ("Pascha rosarum" or authdritatively interpreted it to mean the two weeks
"rosatum"), since in the Pantheon rose-leaves were between Palm and Low Sundays [G. AUmang. "Kdl-
thrown from the rotunda into the church ; in the ner PastonJblatt" (Nov., 1910), 327 sq.]. In later
Greek and Russian Churches it is the feast of the 318 centiuies the time nas. been variously extended: at
Fathers' oC the first Nicene Council; the Armenians Naples from Palm Sunday to Ascension: at Palermo
call it the ''second feast of the flowers", a repetition / from A^ Wednesday to Low Sunday. In Germany,
of Palm Sunday. By older liturgists the week be- at an early date, the second Sunday after Easter ter-
the Latin Church; in the Oriental Churches this Sat- putting off the fulfillment of the precept to the last
urday is the "irvxoffd/ifiaTOP (All Souls' Day); on day. In the United States upon t>etition of the
this day the Greeks bless wheat cakes and have pro- Fathers of the First Provincial Council of Baltimore
cessions to the cemeteries. (See Whitsundat.) Paschal Tide was extended by Pius VIII to the period
Paschal Tide is a season of joy. The colour for the from the first Sunday in Lent to Trimt>r Sunday (II
Office de tempore is white; the Te Deum and Gloria Plen. Coim. Bait., n. 257); in England it lasts from
are recited every day, even in the ferial Office. On Ash Wedn»day until Low Sunday; in Ireland from
Sundays the "Aspeiges" is replaced by .the "Vidi Ash Wednesday imtil the octave of SS. Peter and
Aquam" which recalls the solemn baptism of Easter Paul, 6 July (O^^ane "Rubrics of the Roman Ritual ",
eve. There is no feast di^y from Easter until As- n. 737; Slater, "Moral Theology**, 678, 599); in Can-
cension. The Armenians during this period do away ada the duration of the Paschal Tide is the same as
even with the abstinence on Iiidays. Prayers are in the United States.
said standing, not kneeling. Instead of the "Ange- Kir^ienlex., b. v., OesterUehe Zeit; Nillm, Kal. man,, 11, 337
lus" the "Redna Cceli" is recited. From Easter to W- * '^?^?^\, Calmdrier gtwvKue de la naium armfnienns
Ascension many churches, about the tenth cent.^ said Ichm JakobiUn (Pftderborn. 1910).
only one Noctum at Matins; even some particular F. G. Holwbck.
churches in the city of Rome adopted this custom
from the Teutons (Bfiumer, "Gesch. des Breviers**, PMOhftfius, Saint, deacon of the Roman Church
312). Gregory VII limited this privilege to the week about 500; d. after 511. Almost all that is known of
of Easter and of Pentecost. Some dioceses in Ger- Paschasius is related by Gregory the Great in hia
many, however, retained it far into the nineteenth "Dialogues" (IV, xl). According to Gr^ory he was a
century for 40 days after Easter. In every Noctum man of extraordinary sanctity, and a father of the
the three psalms are said under one' antiphon. * The poor. Until his death he was a firm adherent of the
Alleluia appears as an independent antiphon; an antipope Laurentius (498-505; d. before 514). This.
Alleluia b also added to all the antiphons, reopon- however, was not the result of malice but of error ana
sories, and versicles, except to the versicles of the ignorance. He died during the reign of Pope Symma-
vreces at Prime and Compune. Instead of the "suf- chus (498-514), and after his death a demoniac was
tragiasanctorum**inthesemidoubleand ferial Offices healed by touching his dalmatic. Long after this,
a commemoration of the Holy Cross is used. The Paschasius appeared to Bishop Germanus of Capua at
iambic hymns have a special Easter doxology. The the hot springs of Angulus (Angelum) ; he told Ger-
feasts of the holy Apostles and martyrs have their manus that he had to do penance in these baths for his
own commune from Easter to Pentecost. At Mass former mistake, and begged the bishop to pray for him.
the Alleluia is added to the Introit, Offertory, and This Germanus did with great zeal, and after some
Communion ; in place of the Gradual two Alleluias are days no longer found him at the springs. Gregory re-
sung followed by two verses, each with an Alleluia; marks that Paschasius had left Dooks on the Holy
there is also a special Preface for Paschal Time. Spirit that were correct in all particulars and perfectly
II. In Canon Law Paschal Tide is the period dur- . intelligible. As a matter of fact two books " De spiritu
inp which every member of the faithful who has at- sancto** are assigned to Paschasius in several manu-
tamed the years of discretion is botmd by the positive scripts, and untu lately were printed under his name,
law of the Church to receive Holy Communion (Eas- Engelbrecht, not long ago, denied his authorship of
ter duty). During the early Middle Ages from the them, assigned them to Bishop Faustus of Ries, and
time of the Synod of Agde (508) it was customary to has published them in the works of Faustus. If this is
receive Holy (Dommunion at least three times a year, correct, then the work of Paschasius has disappeared.
Christmas, Easter, and Pentecost. A positive pre- A letter written by him to Eugippius (511) has been
cept was issued by the IV Lateran Council (1215) and preserved. The latter had begged his venerated and
confirmed by the (Ik>uncil of Trent (Sess; XIII, can. dearly loved friend Paschasius, who had great literary
PASCHASIirS 518 PASBAGLU
akilli to write a biography of St. Severinus from the ac- insist that the Body of Christ in the Sacred Host —
counts of the saint which he (Eugippius) had put to- notwithstanding its essential identity with the histori-
gether in crude and inartistic form. Paschasius, how- cal Body — is present by a spiritual mode of existence
ever, replied that th^ acts and miracles of the saint and consequently as an "m visible substance", and
could not be described better than had been done by hence that our e^es cannot immediately perceive the
Eugippius. The feast of Paschasius is celebrated on Body of Christ m the form of bread. It is difficult
31 May. to admit that Paschasius really believed what is here
MiQNB. P L., LXll. 9-40. 1 167--70; LXXVII, 397-98; Enoel- inferred : his narration, however, of certain Eucharistic
BBXCHT, Studttn Uber ate Schrxjten dea B%»eho/a von Rett Fauttua »«;-««l«„ *no«, i«a«,a J;„rvn ^^.J^ t^,,^A^*i^^ t au^
(Vienna. 1889). 28-46; Carpus acriplorum tixUnaatioorum latino- UUracleS Hiay have given SOme foundation for the
rum, XXI (Vienna. 1891); Paachasn tpistaia ad Euffinpium, ibid., SUSpiClon that he mclmed towards a grossly camal,
IX (1886). ii. 68-70; BBROiiANi* ^'^ J^^<^r^i*^.^J'^» Caphamaite-like apprehension of the nature of the
£^hf?3l^f^X.ii^SS"?fciL''ll^^ Eucharist. His opponent also reproached him with
Klemens L&fflsb. navmg, m direct contradiction to his fimdamental
viewpoint, simultaneously introduced the notlbns of
Paschasius Badbertus, Saint, theologian, b. at Afigura and of a Veritas , thus placing side by side with-
Soissons, 786; d. in the Monastery of Corbie, c. 860 (the out any reconcihation the 83rmbolic and the realistic
date 865 is improbable). As a child he was exposed, conceptions of the Eucharist. The accusation seems
but was t^en m and brought up by Benedictine Nuiis altogether unwarranted; for by figure he understood
at Soissons. He entered the Benedictine Order at Cor- merely that which appears outwwily to the senses,
bie under Abbot Adalard, and was for many years in- and by Veritas, that which Faith teaches us. At
Btructor of the young monks. In 822 he accompanied bottom his doctrine was as orthodox as that of his
Abbot Adalard into Saxony for l^ie purpose of found- opponents. He defended himself with sonie skill
ing the monastery of New Corvev (Westphalia). He against the attacks of his critics, especially in his
saw four abbots, namely Adalard, Wala, Heddo, and ''Epistola ad Frudegardum". But a more thorough
Isaac pass to their reward and on the death of Abbqt vindication of St. Paschasius was made by Gerbert,
Isaac, Paschasius was made Abbot of Corbie, though afterwards Pope Sylvester II (d. 1003), who, in a
only a deacon; through humility he refused to allow ^ work bearing the same title ''De corpore et sanguine
himself to be ordained priest. On the occasion of a Domini '^ contended that the doctrine of St. Paschar
disagreement he resigned his office after about seven sius was correct in every particular. The scientific
years and was thus enabled to devote himself to study advantage which accrued to theology from this first
and literature. controversy on the Eucharist is by no means unim-
He wrote a learned commentary on the Gospel of St. portant. For, through the accurate distinction made
Matthew, ''Commentarii in Matt, libri XII"; an ex- between the Eucharistic Body of Christ and its exte-
position of the 44th Psalm, ''Expos, in Ps. 44 libri nor sensible appearances, the way was deared for a
III" and a similar wgrk on Lamentations. ''Expos, deeper understanding ot the Eucharistic species or
in Lament, libri V"; and a life of Abbot Aaalard (cf. accidents in distinction from, and in opposition to, the
Bolland., 2 Jan.). His biography of the Abbot Wala invisible Body of Christ hidden under them. Hence
Ss a^ work of greater usefulness as an historical source also the difficult notion of Transubstantiation gained
(cf. Itodenburg, "Die Vita Walae als historische much in clearness, distinctness, and precision.
Quelle", Marburg^l877). He revised the " Passio Ru- St. Paschasius was first buried in the Church of
fini et Valerii". His earliest work in dogmatic theol- St. John at CJorbie. When numerous miracles took
ogywasatreatise, "De fide, speetcaritate" (first pub- place at his grave under Abbot Fuico, his remains
lished in Pez, "Thesaur. Anecdot.", I, 2, Augsburs, were solemnly removed by order of the pope, 12 July,
1721) ; he next wrote two books " De Partu Vireinis , 1073. and interred in the Church of St. Peter, Corbie,
in which he defended the perpetual virginity of Mary, His least is on 26 April.
the Mother of God. The collected Opera Pasehaaii were first published by SiB-
The most important of his works is : " De corpore et mond (Paria. I5I8) ; these were republished with numerous addi-
sanguine Domini", in Mart^ne, " Vet scriptor et fZ:?yi^^^i>i^^i>^^'l^^'?^iiTiltii"J^:,
monum. ampllSSimaCollectlo' , t. IX, written m 831 746 sq.; Daa Bpitaphium Araenii (paeudooym for Wala). ed.
for his pupil Placidus Varinus, Abbot of New Corvey, 5***?"??."* ^'>*«'wfW«i dar BerKner Akademie (1900); Vita
jmd for the monks of that monastery revised by ^S^lS2%T^^^?^r-Mota^.V£yJ^J!:r^.
the author and sent m 844 to Emperor Charles the 452 8q.:HAUBHBBR, Der A/. Paachaaiua Rddbertua (Mains, 1862);
Bald. The emperor commissioned the Benedictine §^/*°?''^''';u£f ^^' l^r^ff^ ^«" Sehrifien da Paachaaiua
Ratramnus of Corbie to refute certain ouestionable as- i^^iSlS^^'iiifbSS^kS:^ ^^^^k^^S^^ZXtS!^
Sertions of Paschasius, and when Rabanus MauniS Maurua und dea Ratramnua {Fr^huTK, 1896); Cuoisr, Paaehaaa
joined in the discussion (cf. Ep. iii ad Egilem, P. L., RadbeH {Qenevh, iy9); NIolis. RatramnuaunddU hl.Eucharia'
fcxil, 1513) there occurn^ the firat controversy on ^iJSSlSSLtZ (^tSS^IIfSoS^fSS^TsSfB^ ?2SS
the Eucharist, which COntmued up to the tenth century (Stuttgart, 1892), 127 sq.; Bach. DogmenaeschiehU daa MiUetal-
and even later, for both the followers of Berengarius ?^». LG^V*^*' ^??% ?®^'*'\4S?f^n* 0«cAt^ do'Liuratur
of Tours in the eleventh century and the CalvinU in l^ei^^SSgSSlfe'^ 'iCTf^^^^u^ aii«''c*7j,j^2.M
the sixteenth century vigorously assailed the work. Leipsig, 1908).
because they thou^t that they had found the real J. Pohlb.
source of doctrinal innovations, especially in regard to
the Catholic dogma of Transubstantiation. His pri- PaasagHa, Carlo, b. at Lucca, 9 May, 1812; d. at
mary object herein was to give in accordance with the Turin, 12 March, 1887. He entered the Society of Jesus
doctrine of the Fathers of the Church (e. g. Ambrose, in 1827 ; when scarcely thirty years old, he wats teaching
Augustine, and Chrysostom), the clearest and most at the Sapienza, and was prefect of studies at the Ger-
comprehensible explanation of the Real Presence. In man College. In 1845 he took the solemn vows and
carrying out his plan he made the mistake of emphasiz- became professor of dogmatic theology at the Grego-
inc the identity of the Eucharistic Body of Christ with rian University. In 1850 he took aleadinK part in
His natural (historical) Body in such exaggerated preparing the definition of the dogma of the I mmacu-
terms that the difference between the two modes of late Conception, on which he wrote three large vol-
existence was not sufficiently brought out. umes. He showed in his works a rare knowl^ge of
In opposition to his assertion that the Eucharistic the theological literature of all times. His historioo-
Body of Christ is *' non alia plane caro, quam oiue nata linguistic niethod met with criticism. It was said that
est de Maria et passa in cruce et resurrexit ae sepul- **he substituted grammar for dogma". His chief
chro" (loc. cit.), Ratramnus thought it necessary to works are: an edition of the ''Enchiridion" o£ St.
PASSAV 51d
Augustine, with copious notes (Naples, 1S47); "De Niederaltdch, Niebernburg, Mattsee, Kremsmansief
3'' (1 vol., Rome, 1850-51); ''De ecclesia CHristi" between the Enns and the Raab was added to the
(3 vols., Ratisbon, 1853 — ^incomplete); ''De stemi- diocese, which thus included the whole eastern part
tate pcenarum'' (Ratisbon, 1854). (Ostmark) of Southern Bavaria and part of what is
Tl^ trouble between Passaglia and his superiors now Hungary. The first missionaries to the pagan
l^w steadily more serious; he finally left the Society Hungarians went out from Passau, and in 866 the
m 1859. Pius IX gave him a chair at the Sapienza. Church sent missionaries to Bulgaria.
Then he came in contact with the physician Panta- Passau, the outermost eastern bulwark of the Ger-
leoni, Cavour's agent; Cavour summoned him to mans, suffeied most from the incursions of the Hun-
Turin for a personal interview (February, 1861). garians. At that time many churches and monasteries
Afterwards, at Rome, he held several conferences with were destroyed. When, after the victorv of Lech, the
Cardinal Santucci, and, persuaded that the groimd Gvermans prrased forward and resainea the old Ost-
was ready, he wrote " Pro causa italica'' (1861), which mark, Bishop Adalbert (946-971) noped to extend his
was placed on the Index. Passaglia fled to Turin, spiritual jurisdiction over Hungary. His successor
where he held the chair of moral philosophy until Piligrim (971-91), who worked zealously and success-
his death. Ignorant of the world and men, he be- fully for the Christianization of Pannonia, aspired to
lieved that the opponents of temporal power were free Passau from the metropolitan authority of S^z-
guided by the bait of intentions. He founded the bur^, but was completely frustrated in this, as well as
weekly, " II Medioatore'' (1862-66), in which he wrote in his attempt to assert the metropolitan claims which
long articles full of undigested erudition, and to which Passau was supposed to have inherited from Lorch,
he welcomed the contnbution of any priest with a and to include all Hun^^ary in his diocese. By found-
grievance. From 1863 to 1864 he edited the daily, • ing many monasteries m nis diocese he prepared the
"La Pace", and in 1867 "II Gerdil", a weekly theo- way for the princely power of later bishops. It is un-
logical review. He could not say Mass at Turin, and doubtedly to his credit that he built many new
put off the clerical dress. But as regards dogma, he churohee and restored others from ruins. His sue-
never swerved from the true Faith; nevertheless he cessor. Christian (991-1002) received in 999 from
criticized the Syllabus. We have still to mention his Otto III the market privilege and tlie rights of coin-
book, "Sul divorzio" (1861), and his refutation of age, taxation, and higher and lower jurisdiction.
Renan (1864). In 1867 the Bishops of Mondovi and Henry II granted him a laige part of the North
Clifton tried to reconcile him with the Church, but Forest. Henceforward, indeed, the bishops ruled as
he did not retract .until a few months before his death, princes of the empire, although the title was used for
BiaiM.LU. Bioorafia del nac€rdoUC.Pauaalia (Tuim, 1887); ^j^ fi^ ^^^ O^fy j^ a document in 1193.' Under
(1887-S8). Berengar (1013-45) the whole district east of -the
U. Benioni. * Viennese forest as far as Letha and March was placed
under the jurisdiction of Passau. During his time the
PaSMU, Diocese of (Passaviensib), in Bavaria, catihedral chapter made its appearance, but there is
suffragan of Munich-Freising, including within its httle information concerning its beginning as a dis-
boundjkries one district and one parish in Upper tinct coiporation with the nght of electing a bishop.
Bavaria and the City of Passau and 10 districts in This right was much hampered by the exercise of
Lower Bavaria (see Germany, Map), imperial influence.
History. — ^The Diocese of Passau may be con- At the beginning of the Conflict of Investures, St.
sidered the successor of the ancient Diocese of Lorch Altmann (q. v.) occupied the see (1065-91) and was
{Laureacum). At Lorch, a Roman station and an im- one of the few£rerman bishops who adhered to Greg-
girtant stron^old at the junction of the Enns and the ory VII. Ulrich I, Count of Hdfft (1092-1121), who
anube, Christianity found a foothold in the third was for a time driven from his see by Henry I V, fur-
century, during a period of Roman domination, and a th^red liie monastic reforms and the Crusades. Re-
Bishop of Lorcn certainly existed in the fourth. Dur- ginmar (1121-38), Reginbert, Count of Hegenau(1136-
ing the great migrations, Christianity on the Danube 47) who took part in the crusade of Conrad III, and
was completely rooted out. and the Celtic and Roman Conrad of Austria (1149-64), a brother of Bishop Otto
population was annihilated or enslaved. In the region of Freising, were all much interested in the foundation
between the Lech and the Enns^ the wandering Baju- of new monasteries and the reform for those already
vari were converted to Christianity in the seventh existing. Ulrich, Count of Andechs (1215-21), was
centuiy, while the Avari, to the east, remained pagan, formally recognized as a prince of the empire at the
The ecclesiastical organization of Bavaria was brou^t Reichstag of Nuremberg in 12 17. The reforms which
about by St. Boniface, who, with the support of Duke were begun by Grebhard von Plaien (1221-32) and
Odilo, erected the four sees of Freising, Ratisbon. RUdig^ von Rodeck (1233-1250) found a zealous pro-
Passau, and Salzburg. He confirmed as incumbent of moter in Otto von Lonsdoif (1254-65), one of the
Passau, Bishop Vivilo, or Vivolus, who had been or- greatest bishops of Passau. He took stringent meas-
dained by Pope Gregory III, and who was for a long ures against the relaxed monasteries, intrGKiuced the
time the only bishop in Bavaria. Thenceforth, Vivilo Franciscans and Dominicans into his diocese, pro-
resided permanently at Passau, on the site of the old moted the arts and sciences, and collected the old
Roman colony of Batavis. Here was a chureh, the documents which had survived the storms of the pre«
founder of which is not known, dedicated to St. ceding period, so that to him we owe almost all our
Stephen. To Bishop Vivilo's diocese was annexed the knowledge of the early history of Passau. (See
ancient Loreh, whicli meanwhile had become a small Schmidt, ''Otto von Lonsdorf, Bischof zu Passau".
and unimportant place. By the duke's generosity, a Wiirzburg, 1903.) Bishop Peter, formerly Canon ot
cathedral was soon erected near the Chureh of St. Breslau, contributed much to the greatness of the
Stephen, and here the bishop lived in common with House of Habsburg by bestowing episcopal fiefs on the
his clergy. The boundaries of the diocese extended sons of King Rudolph. Under Bemhara of Brambach
westwards to the Isar, and eastwards to the Enns. In (1285-1313) began the struggles of Passau to become
ecclesiastical affurs Passau was probably, from the a free imperial city. After an uprising in May, 1298.
beginning, suffragan to Salzburg. Through the favour the bishop granted the burghers, in the municipal
of Dukes Odilo and Tassilo, the bishopric received ordinance of 1299, privileges in conformity with what
many costly gifts, and several monasteries arose — e. g. was called the Beinhardme Charter. The cathedral
, fAiOAtt 520 PA8SAU
lia3rtng been butned down in 1281, he built a neW ca- sixteen years had been vicar-general of the Archdi6-
thedral which lasted until ld62. Albert III von Winkel cese of Munich-Freising. He was followed by Anto-
(1363-^) was particularly active in the struggle with nius von Thoma (MarchrOctober, 1889), who was
the burghers and in resistmg the robber-knights. The promoted to the archiepisoopal See of Munich, and
Black Death visited the bishopric under Gottfried II succeeded by Antonius von Ilenle (1901-06), who was
yon Weitzenbeck (1342-62). George I von Hohenlohe transferred to Ratisbon. The present diocesan, Sigi»-
(1388-1421), who, after 1418, was imperial chancellor, mund Felix von Ow-Felldorf, was appointed 11 Jan-
eneigetically opposed the Hussites. During the time uary, 1906, and consecrated on 24 February, 1906.
of Uhich in von Nussdorf (1451-79) the diocese suf- AcruikL Gonditionb. — ^The diocese is divided into
fered its first great curtailment by the formation of the a citv commission and 19 rural deaneries. In 1910 it
new Diocese of Vienna (1468). This diocese was after- numbered 222 parishes, and 102 other benefices and
wards further enlarged at the expense of Passau by expoaitureut 607 clerics, of whom 219 were pariah
Sixtus IV. Towards the close of the fifteenth century priests, ,49 were engaged at the cathedral and in dio-
the conflict between an Austrian candidate for the see cesan educational institutions, and 67 were regulars,
and a Bavarian brought about a state of war in the The resident Gatholic population was 354,200 The
diocese. cathedral chapter consists of a cathedral provost,
The Reformation was kept out of all the Bavarian a dean, 8 canons, 6 vicars, 1 preacher, ana 1 pre-
part of the diocese, except the Gountship of Orten- oentor (DomkapeUmeister), The diocesan institu-
Durg, by the efforts of Ernest of Bavaria who, though tions are the seminary for clerics, dedicated to St.
never consecrated, ruled the diocese from 1517 to 1541. Steven, with 95 alumni, and the boys' seminary
The new heresy found manv adherents, however, in at Passau; the state institutions are a gymnasium
the Austrian portion. Wolfgang I Gount of Salm at Passau, 2 homes for priests, 1 home for super-
(1540-55) and Urban von Trennbach (1561-98) led annuated priests. There i^ a state lyceum at
the counter-Reformation. Under Wolfgang the Peace Passau with 8 religious professors, where candidates
of Passau was concluded, in the summer 6f 1552 (see for the priesthood study philosophy and theologv.
Grarles V). The last Bavarian prince-bishop was The following orders and oonfpegations were est^
Urban, who in his strugsles during the Reformation lished in the diocese: Benedictme Missionaries of St.
received substantial aidfor the Austrian part of the Ottilien, a missionary seminary with 9 fathers and 20
diocese from Albert V, Duke of Bavaria, and, after brothers; . Gapuchins, 5 monasteries, 54 fathera, 24
1576, from Emperor Rudolph II. All the successors tertiary clerics, and 65 lay brothers; Redemptorists,
of Urban were Austrians. Bishop Leopold I (1598- 1 monastery with 3 fathers and 3 broUiers. Fe-
1625) (also Bishop of Strasburg after 1607) was one of male orders: Benedictines, 1 convent, 46 sistere;
the first to enter the Gatholic League of 1609. In the Gistercians, 1 house, 48 sisters; KngliaK Ladies, 3
Thirty Years' War he was loyal to his brother, Em- mother-houses. 30 affiliated institutions, 866 mem-
peror Ferdinand II. Leopold II Wilhelm (1625-62), bers: Poor School Sisters of Notre Dame, from the
son of Ferdinand IL a pious prince and a great bene- mother-house at Munich, 7 institutions, with 35 sis-
factor of the Gity of Passau, especially after the great ters; Sisters of Ghari^ of St. Vincent ae Paul from
conflagration of 1662, finally united five bishoprics, the mother-house at Munich, 18 houses with 79 sis-
Gount Wenxelaus von Thun (1664-73) began the new ters; Sisters of the Most Holy Redeemer, from Nei-
cathedral which was completed thirty years later bv derbronh, Alsace. 2 institutions with 9 sisters: Sisters
Paul Philip of Lamberg. He and his nephew Joseph of the Third Order of St. Francis, from Mallersdorfy
Dominious, his mediate successor (1723-62), became Lower Bavaria, 25 institutions with 125 sisters. The
cardinals. When Vienna was raised to an archdio- English Ladies and the School Sisters devote them-
cese in 1722, he relinquished the parishes beyond the selves to the education of girls, while Uiose in most of
Viennese Forest, hence was exempted from the metro- the remaining institutions of the diocese (the Benedic-
poUtan authoritv of Salzburg, and obtained the pallium tines and Gistercians being contemplatives) are occu-
for himself and his successors. Leopold Ernst, Gount pied with the care of the sick. Amon^ ite pious or:^an-
of Firmian (1763-83). created cardinal in 1772, estab- nations of the diocese may be mentioned the Society
lished an institute or theology at Passau and, after of St. Vincent de Paul, the Society of St. Elisabeth,
the suppression of the Jesuits, founded a lyceum. the Brotherhood for the Perpetusi Adoration of the
Under Joseph, Gount of Auersperg (1783-95). Em* Blessed Sacrament, the Society of St. Gedlia^ the
peror Joseph il took away two-thfids of the oiocese Societies of Gathouc Workmen, the Vdksverem of
to form the two dioceses of Linz and St. P5lten (see Gatholic Germany. The most important Gatholic
LiNz). The last prince-bishop, Leopold von Thun periodicals are "Die Donauzeitung and "Die Theo-
(1796-1826), saw the secularization of the old bish- logisch-praktische Monatschrift", both published at
opric in 1803 ; the Gity of Passau and the temporalities Passau.
on the left bank of the Inn and the right bank of the The cathedral, with the exception of the choir and
Ilz went to Bavaria, while the territory on the left the transept built in 1407, was rebuilt after the fire of
banks of the Danube and of the Ilz went to the Grand 1662 by the Italians Lorago and Garlone,^ in the
Duchy of Tuscany and afterwards to Austria. On 22 baroque style; its two towers were finished in 1896-98
February. 1803, when the Bavarians marched into by Heinr. von Schmidt. From Giothic times date the
Passau, the prince-bishop withdrew to his estates in parish church of the citv of Neudtting (1450-80), the
Bohemia, and never revisited his former residence. cathedral at Altdtting (fourteenth and fifteenth cen-
By the Gonoordat of 1818, the diocese was given the turies) with the tombs of Karlmann and of Tilly, the
boundaries which it still has. After the death of the Herrenkapelle near the cathedral at Passau (1414);
last prince-bishop, Passau^s exemption from metro- Renaissance and Barooue are the former Gistercian
pohtan power ceased, and the diocese became suffra- church at Aldersbach (1700-34), the Ghurch of. the
Ran of Munich-Freising. Bishop Gharles Joseph von Premonstratensians at Osterhofen (completed in
Riccabona (1826-38) turned his attention to the care 1740), the parish church at Niederalteich, formerly the
of the rising generation of clergy. With the support church of a Benedictine abbey (1718-26). The dio-
of King Louis I, he founded a preparatory course and cese contains the most famous place of pilgrimage in
then reopened the lyceum with a faculty of law and of all Bavaria: the Ghapel of Our Lady at Altdtting,
theology. Henry von Hofstatter (1839-75) estab- which is visited each year by from 200.000 to 300,000
lished a complete theological seminary, and a school pilgrims. In this chapel the hearts of the Bavarian
for boys. The former of these found a great benefac- royal family have been preserved opposite the miracu*
tor in Bishop Franz von Weckert (1875-79); the lous picture, since the time of the Elector Maximil-
latter. in Michael von Rampf <(1889-1901), who for ian I.
I
1
PA88IRAT 521 PASSIONISTB
BnomrosB. Ouchiehiedet Purttmtumt Pa$$au (Moaieh, 1S16- reoogoised by all his oompanlons as' Venetiaii in style
a4);8cH6u^.(y«cW<^d«rBM^^^ ' and out of sympathy with the Florentine methods. He
Ufriioiw MpeeuOly an traatMl in the first volume) ; BcsbOdi, Pm- painted With extraordinary i aciuty , and 80 rapidly as
mnia taera: OMonehu dn Biaiumt Patmu bM »ur SdktUarutUioti to be nicknamed Poasa Ognuno. This name has been
dM FUrtimtuma Paawu (Pmmu, 1879); Rottmatsr, Statiatu^ resarded aa a sort of olav UDon the namp nf his hirf h-
f0riieA« Aiur d<r inamm Pmmu (Paaaau. 1880); Die 6t«cAd/!icA«» place, and one author asserts that the name Passtg-
Seminarun dm- DiSMeae P<u$au (1893) ; HanrwinuBB, DU rechdicfiia nano was derived from it; but there appears to be no
**^SKm*^o'?"-'S*~*^T^*TS•#?f?2*'*l.?i^/^^?^^ authority for this. According to the custom of the
WMn, 1910); SchMuUiimtu far dM Jakr 1910 (PaaatM, 1910): VeT' .. .,•' ^« * ..\j j • u* t •!•
handiungm dw HuUmHhen Verwitufor Niedtrbavem (lindahut, wme. the artist wouid denve his famihar cognomen
1846—). The traditiona of the dioceee are treated in BirrsBAur, from his birthplace.
giSX£l&<r/52fSrJi*2r. ioJLn^ £?SS;nJS^: . P««P»fo'8 drawing wm not particularly correct.
QeacMekU dt PoMauuehsn VertraQt 9on 166$ (GAttingen. 1907). DUt his ideas Of composition were m^eniOUf and
JoBBPH LiNB. clever. He regarded Tintoretto's work with verjr high
^ ^ __ , . «« A ., . «-^ favour, and many of his own paintings closely resem-
PaBierat, Vbnsrablb JosEra, b. 30 ApnL 1772, at ble those of the great master. But his desire to paint
Joinville, France; a 30 October, 1858. The diffi- rapidly caused him to use his colours so thinly that
culties he had to surmount in following his vocation many of his important works have for this very reason
to the priesthood were wreat. He was driven from perished. He was responsible for the street decora-
the seminary, imprisoned, and forced to serve in the tions in Florence on the occasion of the marriage of
army from 1788 to 1792. Owing to his lofty stature the Grand Duke Ferdinand I with Christina ofLor^
he was made drum-major, and later quarter-master, jajne, and the frescoes of the church of San Andrea at
At the first owwrtunity he left the service and en- Rome were very largely his work. His own portrait
tered the Conmgataon of the Most Holy Redeemer ig in the Uffizi Gallery at Florence, and the same city
"^ , '^*^'^-, ^*; ^*?P.®^* ,??• Hofbauer (a. v.) contams several of his best works. He is also to be
trained him for the rehgious hfe and priesthood, and studied in Paris, London, and Vienna.
he in turn trained new-comers. Later with pe&t Vabarx (varioui editione) ; J^ani i, Storia PiUoriea (Bmmano.
difficulty owinff to the circuinBtanoes of the times 1909). Georqe Charles Williamson.
lie established nouses outside of Poland. After the Palling Ball. See Bells.
death of Bl. Clement, Venerable Passerat succeeded n..>i /-» n v a t
him as vicar-general over all the transalpme commu- PawiO (P^ionalb, Passionarium). Bee Lbo-
nities. While thus engaged (1820-48) he founded »nds of the Saints; Martyrs, Acts of the.
houses in the United States, in Bavaria. Prusbid. PaMionai, Domenico, cardinal, theologian, b. at
Switzerland, Belgium, France, Portugal, Holland, and Fossombrone, 2 Dec., 1682; d. 5 July, 1761. Educated
England. Difficulties were many in the United in the Clementine Collie at Rome, later he joined
States, and in Europe the danger of suppression was the household of his brother Guido, afterwards secre-
immhient. but never wavering, he communicated tary of the Sacred College, devoting himself to higher
his confiaence in God to his subjects. He used to studies at the Sapienza. He was soon made a prelate
say: ''Console yourselves, we are seed, be it that and in 1706 was sent to Paris to present the nuncio
we are reduced to ten, these like grains of com with the red hat, but he there acquired the Jansen-
n^uced to dust under the earth will one day give a istic tendencies which he never entirely eradicated,
rich harvest". The growth of the congregation In 1708 he was sent on a confidential mission to The
verified his prediction. He governed his numerous Hague; in 1712 he was present at Utrecht as official
family with zeal, wisdom, and tenderness. When representative of the Holy See and successfully main*
the revolution decreed the destruction of the Re- tamed the cause of Ruiswych concerning reUgion.
demptorists, he said to his subjects: ''Fear not: His efforts were less successful at Baden (1714) and at
stand courageously. Let it not be said of us that we Turin. He was later sent to Malta as inquisitor
have failed to meet martyrdom, but that martyrdom (1717-19) : he became Secretary of Propaganda, Sec-
has failed to meet us". On o April^ 1848, he was retary of Latin Letters, and in 1721 nuncio in Swit-
driven out of Vienna with his-commumty without the serland, where he wrote "Acta Apostolics Lega-
bare necessaries of life. After much hardship he tionis Helvetiae 1723-29" (Zurich, 1729; Rome,
reached Belgium. Worn out with old age and la* 1738). He blessed the marriage of Maria Theresa
hour he resigned his office and became director of the and was instrumental in converting Friedrich Lud-
Redemptoristines at Bruges. The ordinary process wig, Prince of WUrtemberg. Later on he was hostile
for his oeatification was begun at Toumai in 1892, to Austria.
and the introduction of the cause of this venerable After his return to Rome he became secretary of
servant of God was approved by Leo XIII on 13 briefs and cardinal of the title of S. Bernardo. In
May, 1901. The Apostolic Process is already com- 1755 he succeeded Quirini as librarian of the Holv
pleted. Roman Church. Although a member of the Acadr
Dmubmowt, Jottph P^«[^ tt ."^Z" eonduUe U» R^emp- cmy of Berlin, he published little. But he carried on
8SSS,K^n'"JSS".S;£SJT '^^ifSrP^l' S a learned «>rr«,pondence with the most distinguished
pMterat tMontreuil-mir-Mer. 1893). See RBDCMPTouanNxa; l%tercUi, He protected the Jansemsts and encouraged
CLBiairr Makt HorBAUBB, BuBflBBD. them to publish Amauld's works. His Ubrary of
J. Maqnibr. 32,000 volumes was open to all; it was acquired by
P«MignMlo,DoMiiNicJo(knownaslLCRE8Ti,orlL the Augustinians. His character was impetuous and
Passionano, Ciesti being his family name), Venetian haughtv especially towards ^^^^ Romans He was
painter, b. at PasrimanoTnearFlorkice, in 1658; d. at «>napelT«H t^ confirm th« Hp«r«« nmhihitmir the
Florence, 1638. Although a Florentine by birth, he , .^^^P^
belongs to the Venetian school. He appears to have ^° fS^
Jived lor a W^e at Florence, and ^^temards at Piy , ^^J^ij^^. MemarU per aervire alia storia da card. D<m. Pto*.
but gOin^ to Vemce, he accepted the Venetian tradl- $i(me% (Rome, 1762); Goujxt, Bloge hist, du card. Paanonei (The
tions which he followed through the rest of his career. Hague, 1763); letters in Ouwaoea poathunut de MabiUon (Paris.
Personally, he was a man of charming manners, de- ^^^^ • ^^ '^ htai<mcotccUnaaiica, IX (Weimar. 1769).
netful in conversation. Pope Clement VIII knighted ^- ^^^^^^QNI.
film and gave him many commissions, and Urban VIII PasiioniSts. — ^The full title of the Passionist in-
added to his honours and emoluments. He returned stitute is: The Congregation of Discalcbd Clerks
to Florence, where he was greatly beloved and re- of the Most Holy Cross and Passion of Our Lord
garded as the chief member of its Academy, althou^ Jesus Christ.
PAflSKIinSTB 5i
Foundation. — ^The founder was St. Paul of the Croee,
called in the world Paul Francie Danei. The aaint
wu bom a Jan., 1604, at Ovada. a amall town in the
thai Repubhc of Genoa. He spent hu youth at Ca»-
tellMio, in IjOmbwly, where hie parents had taken up
their residence when Paul was only ten yeora old.
TUswaatuBfather'snativeplace. It ie to Castcllasco
we have to turn our thoughts for the be^DniDga
erf Ute Pawionist Congregation. There Paul received
hia inspiratioiui concerning the work for which God
destined him. There he was clothed by his bishop in
the habit of the Paeaon, and there wrote the Rulcfl of
the new ioetitute.
The Rules were written by St. Paul while yet a lay-
man and before he assembled companions to form a
community. He narrates, in a statement written in
obedience to his confeesor, how Our Lord inspired him
with the design of founding the congregation, and how
hewrote the Rules andConstitutions. "I began", he
says, "to write this holy rule on the second of Decem-
ber in the year 1720, and 1 finished it on the. seventh
of the same mon^. And be it known that when I
was writing, I went on as quickly as if somebody in a
pnrfesBor'B chair were there dictating to me. I felt
the words come from my heart" (see "Life of St.
Paul of the Cross", II, v, Oratorian Series). In
1726 when on a viat to Rome with his brother John
Baptist, his constant eompanion and 00H>perfttor
in the foundation of the institute, Paul received from
Benedict XIII mva voeix oracxdo, permission to form a
congregation according to these Rules. The same
jippe orduned the two brothers in the Vatican ba-
silica 7 June, 1737. After serving for a time in the
hospital of St. Gallicano they left Rome with permis-
sion of the Holy Father and went to Mount Argen-
taro, where they established the first house of the
institute. They took up their abode in a small hermit-
age near the summit of the mount, to which was at-
tached a chapel dedicated to St, Anthony. They were
soon joined by three companions, one of whom was a
priest, and the observance of community hfe according
to the rules began there and is continued there U> the
present day. This was the cradle of the congregation,
and we may date the foundation of the PassionistA
from this time.
Farmalion and Devthpmenl. — By an Apostolic re-
script of 15 Maj[, 1741, Benedict XIV approved the
Rules of the institute, whose object, being to awaken
in the faithful the memory of the Paaaion of Christ,
commended itself in a special manner to him, and he
was heard to say, after signing the rescript, that the
Congregation of the Passion had come into the worid
last, whereas it ought to have been the first. Clement
XIV confirmed the Rules and approved the institute
by the Bull Supremi Apottolatue of 16 Nov., 1769,
which concedes to the Passionist Congregation all the
favours and privileges granted to other relirious or-
ders. The same pope dterwards gave to St. Paul and
his companions tne Church of Sts. John and Paul in
Rome, ivith the large house annexed to it on Monte
Celio, and this remains the mother-house of the
congregation to the present day. Before the holy
founder's death the Rules and the institute wereagain
solemnly confirmed and approved by a Bull of Pius
VI, "Proiclara virtutum eiempla", 15 Sept., 1776.
These two Bulls of Clement XlV and Pius VI gave
canonical stability to the institute, and are the basis
and authority of its rights and privileges.
After the congregation had been approved by Ben-
edict XIV many associates joined St. Paul, some of
whom were priests; and the new disciples gave them-
selves up to such a life of fervent penance and prayer
that upon Mount Argentaro the sanctity of the ancient
anchorites was revived. Before the death of the
founder twelve houses or "retreats" of the congrega-
tion wereestablished throughout Italy and formM into
Uiree provinces, fully organized according to the
2 PASfiionnTB
Rules — a general over the entire congregatjon, ft
Erovincial over each province, rectors over the several
DUsea, a novitiate in each province. These miperion
were to be elected in provincial chapters held every
three years and general chapters every six yean.
DUtinctwe Sjnrit. — The congregation embraces both
the contemplative and the activelife, as applied to re-
Ugious orders. The idea of the founder was to unite in
it the sobtan' life of the Carthuaans or Tranpists with
the active li^ of the Jesuits or Laiarists. The Passion-
ists are reckoned among the mendicant orders in the
Church. They have no endowments, nor are they al-
lowed to possess property either in private or in com-
mon, except their houses and a few acres of land
attached to each. They therefore depend upon their la-
bours and the voluntary contributions of the faithful.
The end of the congregation, as stated in the Rules^
is twofold: first, the sanctification of it« members; and
secondly, the sanctification of others. This twofold
end is to be secured by means of Ihmi dietjnctive
r, BbiobTOh, Ma**.
spirit, namely the practice and promotion of devotion
to the Passion of Our Lord as the most efficacious
means for withdrawing the minds of men from sin and
leading them on to Christian perfection. To this cod
the Passionists at their profession add to the three
usual religious vows of poverty, chastity, and obedi-
ence, a fourth— to promote to the utmost of their
power, especially by such means as their rules point
out, a devotion to the Passion of Our Divine Saviour.
Recntiting and Trainino of Memfcers,— The Passion-
ists have no colleges for the education of seculars, and
have no young men or boys under their care, except
those who wish to become members of the congre-
Sfttion, and those who are novices and professed stu-
ents. They depend therefore for their subjects upon
the attraction which the spirit and work of the con-
gregation exercise upon youths who come to know
them. The congregation admiU of two clasaee of re-
ligious: choir brothers and lay brothers. The fornier,
unless priests already, are to give themselves to study
for the priesthood. The latter are charged with the
domestic dutiSs of the retreat. The conditions for the
reception of novices are, besides those common to all
religious orders: (1) that they be at least fifteen years
of age, and not over twenty-five (from this latter the
father general can dispense tor any just and sufficient
reason) ; (2) that thev show special aptitude for the life
of a Passionist; (3) if they are to be received as clerics
they must have made due progress in their studies and
show the usual signs of vocation to the priesthood.
After prpfession and the completion of their classic^
and intermediate studies, the students take a seven
years' course of ecclesiastical studies under the direc-
tion and tuition of professors, or lectors as they are
called, in philosophy, theology, Holy Scripture e1«.,
and when they have passed the required examinationa
they are promoted to Holy orden ««( Hlvlo Paaperta-
ti».
The TOWS mtide in the congregation are timph, not
fofemn vows, and they are perpetual, or for life, so that
no religious can leave the congregation of his own ac-
cord after profeMion, and no one can be dismiflsed ex-
c^t for some grave and canonical reason. For the
sanctification of its members and the maintenance of
the spirit of the congregation in their community life,
besidea practising tne austcritiee and roorti&cationa
prescribedbyHuleand familiar only to themselvei the
PssmonistB spend five hours every day in choir chant-
ing the Divine Office or in meditation. They rise at
midnight and spend one hour and a half chanting
Matins and Lauds. They abstain from flesh meat
three days in the week throughout the year, and dur-
ing the whole of Lent and Advent: but in cold and
severe climates, such as the British Isles, a dispensation
is usually granted allowing the use of flesh meat two '
or three times a week during those seasons. They
wear only sandals on
their feet. Their
habit is a coarse wool-
len tunic. They sleep
on straw beds with
straw pillows. They
spend the time free
from choir and other
public acts of obser-
vance in study and
Siritual reading, and,
at they iuKy have
Our Lord's Sacred
Pasnon conUnually
before their mind,
they wear upon thrar
breasts and mantles
the badge of the con-
greKation on which
are inscribed the
woTdaJtruXPI Fas-
tio (Pasfflon of Jeeus
Christ) .
Acliintie* or Mia-
fiimary LaboUra. — For the spiritual good of others,
the second end of their institute, in Catholic coun-
tries they do not ordinarily undertake the cure of
aouls or the duties of parish priests, but endeavour
to Bsnst parish priests of the places where their houses
are established, especially in the confessional. In non-
Catholic countries, and in countries where the popu-
lation is mixed, that is, made up of Catholics ana non-
Catholics, the Rule provides for such circumstances,
and they may undertake ordinary parochial duties
and the cure of souls when requested to do so by the
bishops or ordinaricR, and this is the case in England,
in the United States of America, and in Australia.
Otherwise the congregation could not have been estab-
fi^ed or maintained in theee countries. Wherever
houses and churches of the congregation exist, the
fathers are always ready to preach, to instruct,
and to hear the confeesionB of all persons who may
have recourse to them. They also receive into their
houses priests or laymen who wish to (p through
a course of spiritual exercises under their direction.
The principal means, however, employed by the
Poesionists for the spiritual good of others, is giving
missions and retreats, whether to public congregations
in towns or country places, or to religious communi-
ties, to colleges, seminaries, to the clergy assembled
tor this purpose, or to particular sodalities or classes
of people, and even to non-Catholica, where this
can be done, for the purpose of their conversion.
In their misaions and retreats, in general, they
follow the practice of other missioners and accom-
modate themselves to the exigencies of the locality
and of the people; a special feature, however, of their
3 PUBiomsTS
work is that every day they ^ve a meditation or a
simple instruction on the Passion of Our Saviour
Jesus Christ; in some form or other this subject must
invariably be introduced in public misaions and pri-
vate retreats. The Passionists moke no particular vow,
like that of the Jesuits, to be ready to go on foreign mis-
sions among the inRdels or wherever the pope may
send them, out their Rules enjoin them to be thus
ready and at the disposal of the pope or of the Sa-
cred Congr^ation of Propaganda ; and accordingly
Passionist bishops and misioners nave been engaged
in propagating the ftuth and in watching over the
faitnful in Rumania and Bulgaria almost since the
time of St. Paul of the Cross. At an early period also
a few ttaUan Paasionists went to preach the Gospel to
the abori^nes of Australia, but they hod to abandon
that mission after many trials and sufferings and the
missioners were scattered. Some of them returned to
Italy and rejoined their brethren (see Moran, "His-
tory of the Catholio Church in Australasia").
In respect to mis-
sionary work and la-
bours for the good of
souls the Passionistfl
one, never to refuse
their services in any
department of Our
Lord's Vineyard,
whether the place to
-which they ore sent
be the meanest and
poorest, or the people
with whom they have
to deal be the most
Uianklcss or intracta-
ble, and even though
they may have to ex-
pose their lives by at-
tendina to those af-
fected by pestilential
diseases.
Growth and Extent .
—Before the death of
its founder twelve retreats of the institute hod been
established in different parts of Italy, and between the
year of his death (1775) and 1810 several others had
been founded, but all in Italy. Theee were all closed in
the general suppression of relipous institutes by order of
Napoleon. For the Passionists, who had no house out-
side Italy, this meant total suppression, as the whole
of that country was under the tyrant's sway. After
the fall of Napoleon and the return of Hus VII to
Rome and to his possessions, the religious orders were
speedily restored. The firet of the orders to attract
tne pope's attention was the Congregation of the Pas-
sion, although it was the smallest of dl. They were
the first to resume the religious sarb and community
life in their Retreat of Sts. John and Paul, This
event took place on 16 June, 1814. They soon re-
gained their former retreats and new ones were in a
short time founded in the Kingdoms of Naples and
Sardinia, in Tuscany, and elsewhere.
From the time of the restoration of the congrega-
tion under Pius VII it has continued without mter-
ruption to increase in numbers and influence. It has
branched into many and distant countries outside
Italy. At present, retreats of the Congregation exist
in England, Scotland, Ireland, Belgium, Prance (in
this country the conmiunities have been disbanded
since 1903 by the Republican Government), Spain,
United States of Amenca, Argentine Republic, Chile,
Mexico, and Australia; and Passionist missioners con-
tinue their labours under two Passionist bishops in
Bulgaria.
The Anglo-Hibernian Prtmince. — The first founda-
tion in E^isb-tp«aking countries in the order of
PA8SIONZ8T8
524
PASSlOHXSn
time 18 the Anglo-Hibernian Province of St. Joseph.
The Passionists were introdaced into England by
Father Dominic of the Mother of God (Barberi) who
arrived at Oeoott College, Birmin|^iam, for thia pur-
pose with only one companion, Father Amadeus (7
Oct., 1841). Tney came in the spirit of Apostles with-
out gold or silver; without scrip or stan or shoes or
two coats. They had, however, three ecclesiastical
friends who received them kinaly and encouraged
them in their enterprise by advice and patronage.
These were: Dr. Walsh, Bi^opof the Midland District;
Dr. Wiseman, then his coadjutor bishop; and Father
Ignatius Spencer, who joined tbe congregation in 1S47
and laboured as one of its most saintly and devoted
sons until his death in 1865. Father Dominic and his
companion took possession of Aston Hall, near Stone.
Staffordshire, on 17 Feb., 1842, and there established
the first communitv of Passionists in England. At the
time of the arrival of the Passionists there were only
560 priests in England and the distressful state of the
Church there may be learned from the Catholic
Directory of 1840.
The Passionists with Father Dominic at their head
soon revived without commotion several Catholic
customs and practices which had died out since the
Reformation. They were the first to adopt strict
community life, to wear their habit in public, to sdve
missions and retreats to the people, and to hold public
religious processions. ''They gloried in the disgrace
of the Cross, were laughed at by Protestants, warned
by timid Catholics, but' encouraged always b^r Cs^di-
nal Wiseman. Their courage became infectious, so
Uiat in a short time almost every order now in England
followed their example. There were two or three
Fathers of Charity then in England, but they were
engaged teaching in colleges untu they mig^t become
proficient in the language. Father Dominic, after he
nad given his first mission, wrote to Dr. Gentili and
begg^ him and his companions to start a missionary
career. They did so and the memory of their labours
is not yet dead" (MS. by Father Pius Devine, 1882).
Father Dominic laboured only for seven years in
England, during which he founded three houses of the
congregation. He died in 1849. For fourteen years
after its introduction into England the progress of
the congregation had been slow. In the beginning
of 1856 there were only nine native priests and three
lay-brothers; the rest, to the number of sixteen or sev-
enteen, were foreigners.
F(yu.ndaiion in Ireland. — It was during this year
they secured their first foundation in Ireland, which
was the beginning of a new era of progress lor the
Passionists at home and beyond the seas. Father
Vincent Grotti, then acting-provincial, invited and
encouraged by Cardinal Cullen, in 1856 purchased the
house and property called Mount Argus, near Dublin,
where their grand monastery and church now stand.
A community was soon formed there. Father Paul
Mary (Hon. Ranald Pakenham. son of the Earl of
Longford) was the first rector of the retreat, and died
there 1 March, 1857. This remarkable scion of a
noble house, first an officer in the army, received into
the CathoHc Church by Cardinal Wiseman at the age
of twenty-nine, entered the Congregation of the Pas-
sion in 1851, lived for six years an austere and peni-
tential life according to its Rule, and died in the odour
of sanctity.
In course of time other houses were founded in
England, Ireland. Scotland, and Wales. In 1887 four
Priests, Fathers Alphonsus O'Neill, Marcellus Wright,
atrick Fagan, Colman Nunan, and Brother Law-
rence Carr, at the invitation of Cardinal Moran,
went from thisprovince to establish the congregation
in Australia. Soon three houses of the institute were
founded at Sydney, Goulbom, and Adelaide re-
spectively. All three remain united to the home
province. In 1862 a house was founded in Paris
(which became aftierwards known as St. Joseph's
church in the Avenue Hoche) for the benefit of Eng-
lish-speaking Catholics, and it has remained the cen-
tre of spiritual ministrations for the purpose for which
it was founded to the present time,. though secularized
in 1903 by the Republican Giovernment.
This province of St. Joseph, including AustraKa,
possesses twelve houses or retreats. It numbers 106
priests, 36 professed students (24 of whom are reading
theology), 12 novices, and 27 professed lay-brothers;
in a)) 181 members.
In the United States,— In 1852 Dr. O'Connor, Bishop
of Pittsburg, obtained from the general of the Pas-
sionists three fathers and a lay-brother to start a
branch of the congregation in his diocese. The mis-
sionaries were Fatiiers Anthony, Albinus, and Stanis-
laus. They were totally ignorant of the English
language and, humanly speaking, most unlikely men
to succeed in Apostohc labours in America. They
were at first housed in the bishop's palace, but a re*
treat was soon built for them, and these three Passion-
ists soon attracted others to be their companions and,
in the space of twenty years, were able to build up a
flourishing province. In that period as Father Pius
writes; ''Five splendid houses of our Congregation
paced and beautified the States: a basilica ha» arisen
in Hoboken; Cincinnati, Dunkirk, Baltimore, ^and
Louisville can testify how these poor men increased
and multiplied, and now their poor beginnings came
to have such splendid results. They have built two
extra churches in Pittsburg^ and two more in New
Jersey. Recently a foundation has been ihade in the
Diocese of Brookljm at Shelter Island. It will be
used as a house of studies for novices and as a summer
retreat for the priests. The American Province is more
numerous and flourishing than any other in the order
at present. Not only have they supplied their own
wants, but they have sent offshoots to Mexico, Buenos
Ayres, and Chile to be seeds of future provinces which
may one day vie with their own" (1882, MS.).
The number of the religious and of the houses of
the congregation increased graduedly until the prov-
ince became so extended that the superiors deemed it
advisable to form a new province in the States.
Accordingly, as a branch from the old alid first prov-
ince, a second was founded, under the title of the Holy
Cross, by the authority of the Sacred Congregation
of Bishops and Regulars, in 1906. There are there-
fore at present two rassionist provinces in the United
States, namely, the Province of St. Paul of the Cross
and that of the Holy Cross. The former comprises 6
retreats, 113 professed priests and students^ and 26
lay-brothers; the latter has 5 retreats, 76 priests and
students, and 19 lay-brothers.
According to the general catalogue issued in 1905,
the whole congregation includes 12 provinces, 94 re-
treats, and 1387 religious. A retreat of the congrega-
tion, dedicated to St. Martha, was founded at Beth-
any, near Jerusalem, in 1903.
The Congregation of the Passion has never had a
regular cardinal protector, as is the case with other
reugious orders. The sovereign pontiffs have alwi^s
retuned it under their own immediate protection, and
have always been ready, according to the spirit and
the words of Clement XIV, to assist it oy their
authority, protection, and favour (letter to the
founder, 21 April, 1770), and Pius VII by a special
Rescript in 1801 declared the congregation to be
under the immediate protection of the pope.
Hkxmbucbeb, Orden u. Kongreffotionen. a. v. PcMtioni^en;
Pius a Spiritu Sancto, The Life of St, Paul of the Cross (Dublin,
1868) ; H^LTOT-MiQNE, Did, de» ordree relitfieux, IV (F«ri8, 1859).
flupplement, 1044 aq.
Pasbionist Nunb. — In the "Life of St. Paul of the
Cross" by Venerable Strambi, we have evidence of his
desi^ from the beginning of the Ck)ngregation of the
Passion to found an institute in which women, conae*
PAMION 525 PA88ZOH
crated tQ the service of dod, should devote themaelves of Jesus Crucified, and cultivate an ardent and tender
to prayer and meditation on our Lord's Passion. It devotion to His most holy Passion and Death, so that
was not until towards the end of his life that he wrote thev may imbibe His spirit, learn His virtues, and
the rules of the institute which were approved 'by a faithfully imitate them. Although the Sisters are not
Brief of Clement XIV in 1770. St. Paul had as co- bound, as are the above named Clerks, by a special
operatrix in the foundation of the Passionist nuns, a re- vow, tney should, nevertheless, with all eagerness pro-
ligious, known as Mother Mary of Jesus Crucified, mote the same salutary devotion in the h^rts of tnose
whoae secular name was Faustina Gertrude Costantini. whose education they undertake " (Rules, ch. I) . Tlie
She was bom at Cometo, 18 August, 1713. In youth sisters have foimded Houses of Refuge and Homes for
she placed herself under the direction of St. Paul of the factory girls; they also teach parochial schools, and
Cioss^ and became a Benedictine in her native city, have boarding schools for secondary education. They
awaiting the establishment of a Passionist convent, instruct converts and others, visit the sick, and ^er-
Throujsh the generosity of her relatives, Dominic Cos- form all the duties of Sisters of Mercy ana Charity,
tantini, Nicolas his brother, and Lucia his wife, a site Since their final approbation they have increased rai>-
^was obtained for the first convent of the new institute idly and now have two provinces with 18 convents
in Cometo, and a suitable house and chapel were built, in England, 3 in Ireland, and 3 in Scotland, 2 tndn-
On the Feast of the Holy Cross^ 1771, Mother Manr of ing colleges for teachers, and large parochial schools
Jesus Crucified, with the permission of Clement XIV, wherever their houses are established, 9 homes for
with ten postulants, was clothed in the habit of the factorjr girls; the sisters number 430.
Passion and entered the first convent of Passionist nuns, A similar Society was establi^ed in Chili by the
solemnlv opened by the vicar capitular of the diocese. Passionists a few years ago and these are now, by their
St. Paul, oetained by illness, was represented by the own request, to be aggre^^ated to the Anglo-Hibemian
first consultor general of the order, Father John Mary, sisterhood. Another active community of Passionist
Mary of Jesus Crucified became the first mother su- Sifters was established, and existed in Louides until
perior of her order and remained so until her death in 1903. •
1787. The spirit of the institute and its distinctive A. Dbvinx.
character is devotion to the Passion of Christ, to which
the sisters bind themselves by vows. Their ufe is aus- Passion Mullo. — Precisely when, in the develop-
•tere, but in no way injurious to health. Postulants ment of the liturgy, the history of the Passion of Our
seeking admission must have a dowry. Their con- Lord'ceased, during Holy Week, to be merely read and
vents are strictly enclosed. The sisters chant or recite became a solemn recitation, has not yet fateen ascer-
the Divine Ofiice in common and spend the greater tained. As early as the eighth century the deacon of
part of the day in prayer and other duties ofpiety. the Mass, in alb, solemnlv declaimed, in front of the
They attend to the domestic work of the convent, and altar, on a fixed tone, the history of the Passion. The
occupy themselves in their cells with needlework, words of our Lord were, however, utta«d on the n)s-
making vestments etc. With the approbation of Pius pel tone, that is, with inflections and cadences. The
IX a house was established at Mamers in the Diocese original simplicity of having the whole allotted to one
of le Mans, France, in 1872, and continued to flourish person gave way in the twelfth century to a division
until suppressed with other religious communities in into three parts assigned to three different persons, the
1903 by the Government. There is also a Passionist priest, or celebrant, the deacon, and the sub-deacon,
convent at Lucca whose foundation was predicted by To the priest were assigned the words of our Lord, the
Gemma Galganino, the twentieth-century mystic. On deacon assumed the rSle of the Evangelist, or ckro"
5 May, 1910, five Passionist nuns from Italy arrived in nUta, while the sub-deacon represented the crowd, or
Pittsburg to make the first foundation of their insti- turhOf and the various other persons mentioned in the
tute in the United States. narrative. The interrelation of the alternating voices.
Sisters of the Most Holt Cross and Passion. — their relative pitch, and the manner of interpreting the
This second Order of Passionist nuns was founded in part allotted to each have come down to us and may
England in 1850 when Father Gaudentius, one of the be heard in Holy Week in almost any city church, the
first Passionists who joined Kather Dominic in that only change since the early times b^g that all three
country, formed a plan of providing a home for factory parts are now generally sung by {Niests. The juxta-
eirls in Lancashire. With the sanction and appro- posed melodic phrases extend over an ambitus, or
Eation of Dr. Turner, then Bishop of Salford, and compass of the whole of the fifth and two tones of its
his vicar-general, a house was secured for a convent plagal, or the sixth mode. The evangelist, or cAronisto,
and home in Manchester in 1851. The first superior moves between the tonic and the dominant, while the
was Mother Mary Joseph Paul. The community pros- tuprema vox, representing the crowd, etc., moves b&-
pered and mles were drawn up. The sisters took the tween the dominant and the m>per octave. The tones
name of Sisters of the Holy Family and in course of upon which the words of our Lord are uttered are the
time became aggregated to the Congregation of the lower tetrarchord of the fifth mode with two tones of
Passionists (althoudi immediately subject to the the sixth. Later thefourth tone of the fifth mode, b, was
bishop of the diocese) under the name of Sisters of the altered into b flat, to avoid the tritonus between the
Most Holy Cross and Passion. The institute under tonic and the fourth. Throuj^out the Middle Ages
this title and its rules were approved by Pius IX on 2 the Passion was the theme most frequently treated in
July, 1876 per modum erperiinerUi ad decennium and mystery plays and sacred dramas. The indispensable
received its final approbation from Leo XIII, by a De- music in these perfonnanoes was either the plain chant
cree dated 21 June, 1887. The institute had its origin or litur^^ical melodies or religious folk-songs. It was
chiefly in the lamentable state of female operatives in not utitil toward the end of the fifteenth century that
the large towns of England, who, though constantly the whole narrative received harmonic treatment,
exposed to the greatest dangers to faith and morals, Jacobus Hobrecht, or Obrecht (1450-1505), was the
had no special guardians or instructors save the clergy, first composer, so far as is known, who presented the
To protect and maintain these women, and, if erring, subject in the form of an extended motet, a departure
to help them reform, are the special tasks of the sis- which laid the foimdation for a rich and variea Utera-
ters. The Passionist spirit of the institute may be ture of passion music. In Obrecht's composition the
known from their approved rules. ''As this congre- three melodic phrases are, in a most ingenious manner,
. eation is affiliated to and bears the same name as the made to serve as canti fermi. and, by skilful combin-
Congregation of Clerks of the Most Holy Cross and ing of the various voices ana letting them unite, as a
Passion of Jesus Christ ... let them in a particular rule, only on the utterances of the turbOf variety is
manner strive to keep alive in their hearts the memory maint>ained. The work must have become known m a
PA88ZOK
626
FA88ION
comparatively short time, for it soon found imitators,
not only among Catholic composers, of almost every
country in Europe, but also at the hands of those in
Germany, who joined the Reformation. Besides the
choral, or motet, form, of which Obrecht's work has
remained the type, another species of setting came
into vogue in wMch the three ori^nal chanters were
retained, and the chorus participation was mainly con-
&ied to the utterances of the iurba. Both forms were
cultivated simultaneously, according to the predilec-
tion of the composer, for almost a century and a half.
Among the more noted Catholic masters who have
left settings of the passion texts must be mentioned
Metre Jehan (Jean le Cock, d. before 1543), choir-mas-
ter at the Court of the Duke of Ferrara, who wrote a
work for from two to six voices. Cjrprian de Rore (b.
1516), left a setting for two, four, and six voices. Lu-
dovicus Daser (1525-89), Orlandus Lassus's prede-
cessor as choir-master at the ducal Court of Bavaria
wrote one for four voices. Lassus himself gave to pos-
teritv four different interpretations which are notable
for the fact that the master frequently substitutes ori-
ginal melodies for the liturgical ones and sometimes
the chorus is employed to give expression to the texts
belonging to a single person. The iurba is always rep-
resented oy a five part chorus. Probably the most
important musical mterpretations of this text are the
two by Tomas Luis da Vittoria (1540-1613). Vit-
toria retains the plain-chant melodies for single per-
sons and mal^ES them serve, after the manner of
Obrecht, as canti fermi in the ensemble. The value of
these works is proved by the fact that for more than
three hundred years they have formed part of the rep-
ertory of the Sistine Chapel choir for Holy Week.
Giovanni Matteo Asola (d. 1609), in his three different
settings, ignored the traditional custom of employing
the chorus for the turha only, but used it indiscrimi-
nately. The Spanish master, Francisco Guerrero
(1527-99), in two works, is quite free in his treatment
and replaces the Roman by Mozarabic plain-chant
melodies, while William Byrd's creation for soprano,
alto, and tenor, still further departs froqfi the accus-
tomed form, not only by limiting his vocal means to
the three high voices^ but also by substituting for the
liturgical melody recitatives of his own invention, all
of which gives the composition a character lyric rather
than dramatic. Jacobus Gallus, or Jacob Handl
(1550-91), wrote three settings, one for four and five
voices, one for six, and the third for eight voices in
which, in a general way he follows Obrecnt's model.
The passion texts seemed to have particular at-
traction for many of the composers who cast their lot
with the Reformation. For a considerable period they
adhered in their manner of treatment to the original
Catholic model, inasmuch as they used the Latin text
and retained the liturgical melodies. Between 1520
and 1550, the Lutheran Johannes Galliculus (H&hnel)
produced at Leipzig a work, resembling Obrecht's in
many ways, which constitutes the beginning of a long
series of works important not only as music, but more
particularly on account of the r61e they played in the
development of Protestant worship. While Joachi-
mus von Burgk (1540-1610), whose real name was
Mdller, was Uie first to discard the Latin text and com-
pose passion music to the German vernacular, it was
Johann Walther (1496-1570), Luther's friend, whose
four settings, though retaining most of the Catholic
form, voiced more than any other works the new spirit.
They retained their hold upon Genpan Protestants
for more than a hundred years. Bartholomeus
Gesius's (1555-1613) two settings, one for five, the
other for six voices, are modelled on Obrecht and Gal-
liculus, but Christoforus Demantius (1567-1643) in a
six part composition, in addition to adopting the
German vernacular, abandons the liturgical for
original melodies and shows those chromatic and
dramatic elements which find expression with Hein-
rich Schatz (1585-1672), who, in his epoch-snaking
'^Historia der frohligen und si^B;reichen AufeiBtehung
unseres Herm Jesu Christi", for from two to nine
voices, abandons the a cappella style in which all pre-
vious passion music had oeen written and calls into
service stringed instruments and a figured bass to be
played on the organ. Johann Sebastiani (1622-83)
anticipated Schutz by the employment of a sinsle
violin as an accompaniment to the chorales sung by
the congr^ation during the performance, a custom
he also originated and which became such a great
feature in later Protestant works, but it was SchUts
who assigned to the instruments an integpnl part in
the harmonic structure.
With Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750) whose^^
monumental work "Passion according toSt. Matthew *'
for soli, eight part chorus, a choir of boys, orchestra,
and organ is the creation of a great genius imbued with
profound faith, the form reaches its hi^cst develop-
ment. Only one other similar work by a Protes-
tant writer, Karl Heinrich Graun's (1701-59 ) "Tod
Jesu'', has enjoyed as gr^t popularity in Protestant
Germany. Schlitz's passion music as arranged for
performance by Karl Riedel, Bach's "Passion ac-
cording to St. Matthew", and Graun's "Tod Jesu"
continue to be to non-Catholic Germany what Han-
del's " Messiah" still is to the Englishnspeakin^ world*
While the source resorted to by non-Catholic com-
posers for the last mentioned sreat works seema to
nave been exhausted, no similar compositions ap-
pearing for more than a century, three Catholics have
essayed the fonn: Jpseph Haydn and Theodore Dubois
have interpreted "The Seven Last Words on the
Cross" and Lorenzo Perosi has set to music the
"Passion according to St. Mark", b^t these coidposi-
tions partake of the form of the oratorio^ Settings
in which the utterances of the turbat in fahuhbordane
style, alternate with the liturgical melodies are numer-
ous. Among the more noted are those by Caspar £tt
(1788-1847), Ignatius Mitterer, Franz Nekes. Emil
Nikel, and others.
Bpitta, Die Paantmtmunken von J. Sdiaaiian Bach ustf Hein-
rich SchiUt (Hamburg, 1893) ; Ambros, Qcsch. der Muaik, III
(Leipzig, 1881); Kade, Die dUere Paeaiontkompoeition bie turn
Jakre 1631 (GOtersloh, 1893).
Joseph Otten.
«
Passion of Christ, CoififEMORATioN or the, a
feast kept on the Tuesday after Sexagesima. Its ob-
ject is the devout remembrance and honour of Christ's
sufferings for the redemption of mankind. Whilst the
feast in nonour of the instruments of Christ's Passion
— the Holy Cross, Lance, Nails, and Crown of Thorns
— called '^ Anna Christi", originated during the Mid-
dle Ages, this commemoration is of mor^ recent origin.
It appears for the first time in the Breviary of Meissen
(1517) as a festum simplex for 15 Nov. The same
Breviary has a feast of the Holy Face for 15 Jan., and
of the Holy Name for 15 March [Grotefend, ''Zeit-
rechnung" (Hanover, 1892), II. 118 sqq.]. These
feasts disappeared with the introauction of Lutheran-
ism. As found in the appendix of the Roman Brev-
iary, it was initiated by St. Paul of the Cross (d.
1775). The Office was composed by Thomas Strua-
sieri, Bishop of Todi, the faitnful associate of St. Paul.
This Office and the corresponding feast were approved
by Pius VI (1775-99) for the Discalced Clerics of
the Holy Cross and the Passion of Christ (commonly
called Passionists), founded by St. Paul of the Cross.
The feast is celebrated by them as a double of the first
class with an octave (Nilles, "Kal. man.", II, 69). At
the same time Pius VI approved the other Offices and
feasts of the Mysteries of Christ's Passion : the feast of
the Prayer of Our Lord in the Garden (Tuesday after
Septuagesima) ; the Crown of Thorns (Friday after
Ash- Wednesday); the Holy Lance and Nails (Friday
after the first Sunday in Lent); and for the following
PASSION 527 PASSION
Fridays: the feasts of the Holy Winding Sheet, the LXVI, 18M6. LXVIII, 9i-2; Kb»«« in Kireh^nUx., ■. v. Dpt-
Five Wounds, and the Preciot» Blood^ Christ (cf. ~^<^*.- Sctbod. %bui., s. w. LanMe Stndan iL>r.„„™.„
appendix to Roman Brev.). These feasts were, at J*Ranci8 mbbshman.
least in part, readily adopted by many dioceses and -^ ,-•.,«_, ^ ,«,
religious orders. Nlost of them are found in the pro- Passion of Jesui Christ, Dbvotion to the.— The
prium of Salerno (a. 1798). as also is the feast of the sufferings of Our Lord, which culminated in His death
Passion (a double of the first class with an octave). "P^^ ^^^ crosS; seem to have been conceived of as one
This latter feast is celebrated with an octave in all the inseparable whole from a very early period. Even in
dioceses of the former Kingdom of Naples. On 30 ^^^ Acts of the Apostles (i, 3) St. Luke speaks of those
Aug., 1809, the privilege of the feast (double major) ^ whom Christ "shewed himself alive after his pas-
was granted to the Diocese of L^hom for the Friday «on" (^erA tA »otf«4K a^oC). In the Vulgate this has
before Passion Sunday. In the old St. Louis Ordo *>®en rendered post passionem suam^ and not only
(1824) it was assigned to Friday after Ash-Wednesday, ^^^ Reims Testament but the Anglican Authorized
which day it still retains in Idie Baltimore Ordo. The *^d Revised Versions, as well as the medieval English
seven Offices of the Mysteries of the Passion of Christ translation attributed to Wyclif , have retained the
were adopted by the City of Rome in 1831 (Corresp. ^ord "passion" in English. Paaaio also meets us in
de Rome, 1848, p. 30) and since then all the dioceses JK® same sense in other early writings (e. «. TertuUian,
that have the feast of the Passion of Christ in their "Adv. Marcipn.", IV, 40) and the word was clearly
calendar keep it on the Tuesday after Sexagesima. ^^ common use in the middle of the third century, as
By permission of Leo XIII (8 May, 1884) the octeve "^ ^"*P' Novatian, and Commodian. The last
in tne calendar of the Passionists is privileged and "named wntes:
admits onlv feasto of the first and second class. By «Hoc Deus hortatur, hoc lex, hoc passio Christi
a decree of 5 July, 1883, the voti^ Office of the Pas^ ^t resurrecturos nci credaiAus in novo s«clo."
sion of Chnst may be said every Friday which is not
taken up by a semi-double or a double Office, except St. Paul declared, and we require no further evidence
during the period from Passion Sunday to Low Sim- to convince us that he spoke truly, that Christ cruci-
day and from 18 December to 13 January. The Office fied was " unto the Jews indeed a stumbling-block, and
composed by Struzzieri is very rich and full of pious unto the Gentiles foolishness'' (I Cor., i, 23). The
sentiment; the hymns, however, are rather modem, shock to Pa^an feeling, caused by the ignominy of
NiLLBs. Xai. man. (2aded., Innsbruck, 1897); KirchenUx., b. v. Christ's Passion and the seeming incompatibility of
1906?'"' ^'™'^"' ^ ^y""^ ^ ^'•«^« <2nd ed.. Paderbom. ^j^^ Divine nature with a felon's death, seems not to
Frederick G. Holwbck. ^»ve been without ito effect upon the thou^t of Chrb-
tians themselves. Hence, no doubt, arose that prolific
Pauion Offlca*.— The recitation of these offices, §«>?^> of heretical Gnostic or Docetic sects, which
called also Of the Instruments of the Passion, was first denied the ^ity of the man J^us Chnst or of His
granted collectively to the Congregatio Clericorum suffenngs. Hence also came the tendency m the eaxly
Passionis D.N.J.C., or the Passionist Fathers, whose Christian centuri^ to depict the countenance of the
special aim is to spread the devotion to the Sacred Saviour as youthful, fau-, and radiant, the very an-
Passion of Our Lord. Soon other religious commu- JlJ^.eflw.?^ ^^^^''.f^^ ^^°^11*a ^ ? i ^'J*^m ^S,
nities and dioceses obtained a similar concession. We>s Liberadorf, J Chrwtus- und Apostel-bUd^ , 31
They were granted to the United States 12 December, «l) ^^ to dwell bv preference not upon His suffennM
1840, on petition of the Fourth Provmcial Council of but upon His works of mercifulness, as m the Good
Baltimore. The offices are affixed to the days speci- Shepherd motive, or upon His works of power, Mm
fied and cannot be transferred. In case of special in- ^^^ jaising of lAzarus or m the resurrection figured by
dult, as in the United States, they may be transferred, the history of Jonas. , , ^ . ^ ,
but not beyond Lent; they have the rank of a sec- ^IJ* while the existence of such a tendency to draw
ondary double major and give place to feasts of hiriier » ved ov«- the physical side of the Passion may readily
rank and to primary ones of the same rank. The *>e admitted, it would be easy to exaggerate the effect
offices are (1) For Tuesday after Septuagesima: Of produced upon Christian feehngin the early centuries
the Prayer of Our Lord on Mount OUvet; (2) For t>Y Pag*5 ^^^^ ?u wu"^^** *u *^^^ ^^ /??u ^.^
Tuesday after Sexagesima: Of the Passion; (3) First when he declwM that the Death and Passion of Chnst
Friday of Lent: Of the Crown of Thorns, first cele- were regarded by the maionty of the Greeks as too
brated on the occasion of the solemn introduction of sacred a mystery to be made the sub ect of contemolar
the sacred crown into Paris, under Louis IX in 1241 ^^o^ <>/ speculation^ and when he declares that the feel-
and thence spread into Germany and France (Nilles, ^^g of the early Greek Church is accurately repre-
II, 96) ; (4) Second Friday: Of the Spear and Nails, rented m the foUowing passage of Goethe: ' We draw
permitted by Innocent VI, 13 February, 1363 for a ved over the suffenngs of Chrpt simply because we
Germany and Bohemia at the request of Charles IV ^^ere them so deeply. We hold it to be reprehensible
(NiUes, II, 122); granted to some places for Friday presumption to play, and tnfle with, and embellish
after Low Sunday: (6) Third FridayrOf the Winding- those profound mysteries m which the Dmne depths
sheet, first allowed 1606 to the church of Chamb^ry m ^^ Buffenng he hidden, never to rest untd even the
Savoy by Julius II, and soon extended to the entire noblest seems mean ^d tameless (HamaclL ^Hw-
kingdom (Nilles, II, 126); (6) Fourth Friday: Of the ^ <>( P<«°?f ' Hv ^"' a* ^' • ' Slf •^"
Five Holy Wounds; (7) Fifth Friday: Of the Most chnsUichen DarsteUungen der Kreuzigung Chnsti ",
Precious BkxKi. Besides these a special second feast 5). On the other hand while Hamack speaks with
of the Precious Blood was granted to the world for the caution and restraint, other more popular wnters give
first Sunday of July by Pius IX, 10 August, 1849. .^emselves to reckless generalizations such as may be
Moreover, 6y Decree of the Sacred Congregation of S^*^*^^^/ ^^^ foUowing passa^^e from Archdeacon
Rites of 6 July, 1883, Leo XIII permitted the reci- Jarrax: "The asp«;t \ he says, 'm which the early
totion of a votive Office of the Passion for every Fri- Christians viewed the cross was that of triumph and
day not impeded according to rules there laid down, exultation, never that of moMiing and misery. It was
The Greeks have no speci J offices 61 the Passion, but ^he emblem of )ictory wid of rapture not of blood op
on the night between^aundy Thursday and Good of anguish. ; (See "The Month' Mav, 1895, 89.)
Friday theyholdaveryelaborateseriesofexereisesin Of course it is true that down to the fifth century the
its honour specimens of Christian art that have been preserved
NiixM, KaUndaHum manvaU vtrnugue teduuE, 11 (iDOflbnaok. to US in the catacombs and elsewhere, exhibit no traces
1807): MoBONi, Ditionario (Venice. 1840-61), XXX vu, 91-2, of any sort of representation of the crucifixion. Even
1
^
PA88IOM 528 PASSION
I
the siinple cross is rarely found before the time of might have spoken in modem times. Apostrophisins
Constantino (see Crobs), and when the figure of the the people of Israel, he says: ''Thou slewest thy Lord
Divine Victim comes t<p be indicated, it at first appears and He was lifted up upon a tree and a tablet was
most commonly under some symbolical form, e. g. fixed up to denote who He was that was put to death —
that of a lamb, and there is no attempt as a rule And who was this? — Listen while ye tremble: — ^Heon
to represent the crucifixion realistically. Agidn, the whose account the earth quaked; He that suspended
Clumian literature which has survived, whether the earth was hanged up: He that fixed the heavens
Greek or Latin, does not dwell upon the detcdls of the was fixed wit^ nails; He tnat supported the earth was
Passion or very frequently fall back upon the motive supported upon a tree: the Lora was exposed to ig-
of our Saviour's sufferings. The tragedv known as nominy with a naked body; God put to death; the
''Christus Patiens", which is pHnted with the works King of Israel slain by an Israelitish risht hand. Ah I
of St. Gregory Nazianzus and was formerly attrib- the fresh wickedness of the fresh murder! The Lord was
uted to him. is almost certainly a work of much later exposed with a naked body^ He was not deemed
date, probaoly not earlier thaii the eleventh century worthy even of covering, but m order that He misht
(see Krumbacher. ''Byz. Lit.", 746). not be seen, the lights were turned Ikway, and the day
In spite of all tnis it would be rash to infer that the became dark because they were slaying; (jkxl, who was
Passion was not a favourite subject of contemplation naked upon the tree " (Cureton, " Spicilegium Syria-
for Christian ascetics. To begin with, the Apostolical cum'\ 55).
writings preserved in the New Testament are far from No doubt the Syrian and Jewish temperament was
leaving tne sufferings of (}hrist in the background as an emotional temperament, and the tone of their lit^
a motive of Christian endeavour; take, for instance, erature may often remind us of the Oltic. But in *
the words of St. Peter (I Pet., ii, 19, 21, 23) : " For this any case it is certain that a most realistic presentation
is thankworthy, if for conscience towards Crod, a man of Our Lord's sufferings found f^our with the Fathers
endure sorrows, suffering wrongfully " ; ''For unto this of the Svrian Church apparently from the beginning,
are ^qu called: because Christ also suffered for us. It would be easy to make long quotations of this kind
leavins vou an example that you should follow his from the works of St. Ephraem, St. Isaac of Antioch,
steps'^; ^'Who, when he was reviled, did not revile", and St. James of Sarugn. Zingerle in the ''Theolo-
etc; or a«ain: ''Christ therefore having suffered in gische Quutalschrift" (1870 and 1871) has collected
the flesh, be you also armed with the same thoug;ht" many of the most striking passages from the last two
(ibid., iv, 1). So St. Paul (Gal., ii, 19) : "with Chnst I writers. In all this literature we find a rather tursid
am nailea to the cross. And I live, now not I; but Oriental imagination embroidering almost every de-
Christ liveth in me" ; and (ibid., v, 24) : " they that are tail of the history of the Passion. Christ's elevation
Christ's, have crucified their flesh, with the vices and upon the cross is likened by Isaac of Antioch to the
oonbupiscences" (cf . Col.^ i, 24) ; and perhaps most action of the stork, which builds its nest upon the tree-
strikingly of all (Gal., VI, 14): "God rorbia that I tops to be ufe from the insidious approach of the
should glory, save in the cross of our Lord Jesus snake; while the crown of thorns suggests to him a
Christ; oy whom the worid is crucified to me, and I wall with which the safe asylum of that nest is sur-
to the world." Seeing the great influence that the rounded, protecting all the children of God who are
New Testament exercised from a verjr early period gatherea m the nest from the talons of the hawk or
upon the leaders of Christian thought, it is impossible other winged foes (Zingerle, ibid., 1870, ;108). More-
to believe that such passages did not leave their mark over St. Ephraem, who wrote in the last quarter of the
in literature. It certainly manifested itself in the a short quotation any true impression of the effect *
devotion of the martyrs who died in imitation of their produced by the long-sustained note of lamentation, in
Master, and in the spirit of martyrdom that charao- which the orator and poet follows up his theme. In
terized the early Church. ^ the Hymns on the Passion (Ephraem, " Syri, Hymni ct
Further, we do actually find in such an Aoostolic Sermones,"ed.Lamy, I) the writer moves like a devout
Father as St. Ignatius of Antioch, who, though a Syr- pilgrim from scene to scene, and from object to object,
ian by birth, wrote in Greek and was in touch with finding everjrwhere new motives for tenderness ana
Greek culture, a very continuous and practical re- compassion, while the seven "Sermons for Holy
membrance of the Passion. After expressing in his Week" might both for their spirit and treatment have
letter to the Romans (cc. Iv, ix) his desire to be mar- been penned by any medieval mystic. "Glory be to
tyred, and by enduring many forms of suffering to Him, how much he suffered I" is an exclamation which
prove himself the true disciple of Jesus Christ, the bursts from the preacher's lips from time to time. To
saint continues: "Him I seek who dies on our behalf; illustrate the general tone, tne following passage from
Him I desire who rose again for our sake. The pangs a description of the scourging must si^oe:
of a new birth are upon me. Suffer me to receive the "After many vehement outcries against Pilate, the
pure light. When I am come thither then shall I be a all-mighty One was scouTtted like the meanest crim-
man. Permit me to be an imitator of the Passion of inal. Surely there must nave been commotion and
my God. If any man hath Him within himself, let horror at the sieht. Let the heavens and earth stand
him understand what I desire, and let him have fel- awestruck to b^old Him who swayeth the rod of fire,
low-feeling with me, for he knoweth the things which Himself smitten with scourges, to behold Him who
straiten me." And again he says in his letter to the spread over the earth the veil or the skies and who set
Smynueans (c. iv) : "near to the sword, near to God fast the foundations of the mountains, who poised the
(i. e. Jesus Christ), in company with wild beasts, in earth over the waters and sent down the biasing light-
company with God. Only let it be in the name of . ning-flash, now beaten by infamous wretches over a
Jesus Christ. So that we may suffer together with stone pillar that His own word had created. They,
Him" («/f Td <rvA*«-o^«4r a*rv). indeed, stretched out His limbs and outraged Him
Moreover, takihg the Syrian Church in general— and with mockeries. A man whom He had formed wielded
rich as it was in the traditions of Jerusalem it was far the scourge. He who sustains all creatures with His
from being an uninfluential part of Christendom — we might submitted His back to their stripes; He who is
do find a pronounced and even emotional form of de- the Father's right arm yielded His own arms to be ex-
votion to the Passion established at an early period, tended. The pillar of ignominy was embraced by
Already in the second century a fragment preserved Him who bears up and sustains the heaven and the
to us of St. Melito of Sardis speaks as Father Faber earth in all their splendour" (Lamy, 1, 511 sq.). The
. t
PA88IOH 529 PASSION
tame stnun is continued bver several pagesi and such a vernacular poem as CVnewulf's "Dream of the
amongst other quaint fancies St. Ephraem remarks: Rood", in which the tree of the cross is conceived of aa
''The very column must have quivered as if it were telling its own story. A portion of this Anglo-Saxon
alive, the cold stone must have felt that the Master poem still stands enflraved in runic letters upon the
was bound to it who had given it its beng. The col- celebrated Ruthwell Cross in Dumfriesshire, Scotland,
unm shuddered knowing that the Lord of all creatures The italicized lines in the following represent portiona
was beins scourged". And he adds, as a marvel, of the poem which can still be read upon the stone:
witnessecTeven in his own day, that the ''colunm had I had power all
contracted with fear beneath the Body of Christ". his foes to fell,
In the devotional atmosphere represented by such but yet I stood fast,
contemplations as these, it is eas^ to comprehend the Then the young hero prepared kivueHf,
scenes of touching emotion depicted by the pilsrim That was Almighty God,
lady of Galicia who visited Jerusalem (if Dr. Mees- Strong and firm of mood,
ter's protest may be safely neglected) towards the end he mounted the lofty croes
of the fourth century. At Gethsemane she describes courageously in the siaht of many,
how ''that passage of the Gospel is read where the when he willed to redeem mankind.
Lord was apprehended, and when this passage has I trembled when the hero embraced me,
been read there is such a moaning and groaning of all yet dared I not bow down to earth,
the people, with weeping, that the groans can be fall to the bosom of the ground,
heard almost at the citv . While during the three but I was oomi)elled to stand fast,
hours* ceremony on Good Fridav from midday onwards a cross was I reared, '
we are told: "At the several lections and prayers / raised Uie powerfvl King
there is such emotion displayed and lamentation of The lord of the heavens,
fdl the people as is wonderful to hear. For there is no / dared not fall down. ,
on^j great or small, who does not weep on that day They pierced me with dark nails,
dunng those three hours, in a way that cannot be on me are the wounds visible,
iniagined, that the Lord should have suffered such Still it was not until the time of St. Bernard and St.
things for us" (Peregrinatio Sylvis in "Itinera Hier- Francis of Assisi that the full developments of Chris-
osolymitana", ed. Geyer, 87. 80). It is difficult not to tian devotion to the Passion were reached. It seems
suppose that this example of the manner of honouring highly probable that this was an indirect result of the
Our Saviour's Passion, which was traditional in the preaching of the Crusades, and the consequent awaJcen-
very scenes of those sufferings, did not produce a mg of the minds of the faithful to a deeper realization
notable impression upon Western Europe. The lady of all the sacred memories represented by Calvary and
from Galicia, whether we call her Sylvia, iEtheria, or the Holv Sepulchre. When Jerusalem was recaptured
Egeria, was but one of the vast crowd of pilmms who by the Saracens in 1 187, worthy Abbot Samson of Bury
streamed to Jerusalem from all parts of the world. St. Edmunds was so deeply moved that he put on hair-
The tone of St. Jerome (see for instance the letters of cloth and renounced fle& meat from that day forth —
Paula and Eustochium to Marcella in A. d. 386; P. L., and this was not a solitary case, as the enthusiasm
XXII, 491) is similar, and St. Jerome's words pene- evoked by the Crusades conclusively shows,
trated wherever the Latin language was spoken. An Under any circumstances it is nbteworthy that the
early Christian prayer, reproduced by Wessely(L€S plus first recorded instance of stigmata (if we leave out of
anciens mon. de Chris., 206), shows the same spirit. account the doubtful case of St. Paul) was that of St.
We can hardlv doubt that soon after the relics of the Francis of Assisi. Since his time there have been over
True Cross had. been carried by devout worshippers 320 similar manifestations which have reasonable
into all Christian lands (we know the fact not only from claims to be considered genuine (Poulain, " Graces of
the statement of St. Cyril of Jerusalem himself but also Interior Prayer", tr., 175) . Whether we regard these
from inscriptions foimd in North Africa only a little as being wholly supernatural or partly natural in their
hiter in date) that some ceremonial analogous to our origin, the comparative frequency of the phenomenon
modem "adoration" of the Cross upon Good Friday seems to point to a new attitude of Catholic mysticism
was introduced, in imitation of the similar veneration in regard to the Passion of Christ, which has onlV
paid to the relic of the True Cross at Jerusalem. It established itself since the beginning of the thirteenth
was at this time too that the figure of the Crucified century. The testimony of art points to a similar
began to be depicted in Chiistian art, though for many conclusion. It was only at about this same period
centuries any attempt at a realistic presentment of that realistic and sometimes extravagantly contorted
the sufferings of Christ was almost unknown. Even crucifixes met with any f;eneral favour. The people,
in Gregory of Tours (De Gloria Mart.) a picture of of course, lagged far behmd the mystics and the reli-
Christ upon the cross seems to be treated as something gious ordersTbut they followed in their wake; and in
of a novelty. Still such hymns as the "Pange lingua Sie fourteenth and fifteenth centuries we have innu-
gloriosi prselium certaminis", and the " Vexilla regis'', merable illustrations of the adoption by the lait]^ of
both by Venantius Fortunatus (c. 570), clearly mark a new practices of pietv to honour Our Lord's Passion,
growin^^ tendency to dwell upon the Passion as a separ One of the most fruitful and practical was that tsrpe of
rate object of contemplation. The more or less orar spiritual pilgrimage to the Holy Places of Jerusalem,
mg
in the
same period, and not many centuries later we begin to Christ may be regarded as variants of this form of
find the narratives of the Passion in the Four Evaneel- devotion. How truly genuine was the piety evoked
ists copied separately into books of devotion. This, in an actual pilgrimage to the Holy Land is niade very
for example, is the case in the ninth-century English clear, among other documents, by the narrative of the
collection known as " the Book of Ceme ". An eighth- journeys of the Dominican Felix Fabri at the close of
century collection of devotions (MS. Harley 2965) the fifteenth century, and the immense labour taken
contains pages connected with the incidents of the to obtain exact measurements shows how deeplv
Passion. In the tenth century the Cursus of the Holy men's hearts were stirred by even a counterfeit pil-
Cross was added to the monastic Office (see Bishop, grimage. Equally to this period belong both the
"Origin of the Prymer", p. xxvii, n.). popularity of the Little Offices of the Cross and "De
Stm more striking in its revelation of the develop- Passione'', which are found in so man^r of the Horn,
ments of devotional imagination is the existence of manuscript and printed, and also the mtroduction of
XL— 34
PA88IOH 530 PA88IOir
new Masses in honour of *the Passion, such for example 21-23, 26, 30, 32, 35-6, 41, 43, 45, 47-9, 53-4, 65 to
as those which are now almost universally celebrated xv, 2, 9, 11-15^ 21-2, 26-7, 31-33, 37-9, 41, 43. 46-7.
upon the Fridays of Lent. Lastly, an inspection of the Verbal alterations would be required to make the
prayer-books compiled towards the close of the Mid- verses run consecutively. Sometimes the division
die Ages for the use of the laity, such as the ''Horse will not quite coincide with the verse. It is possible
Beat» Maris Virginis'', the ''Hortulus Anim»'^ the that this nucleus, out of which our present accounts
''Paradisus Anims'' etc., shows the existence of an seem to have grown, represents more or less exactly
immense number of prayers either connected with some original and more ancient narrative, whether
incidents in the Passion or addressed to Jesus Christ writt^i or merely oral matters littl^, compiled in the
upon the Cross. The best known of these perhaps earliest days at Jerusalem. This original narrative,
were the fifteen prayers attributed to St. Bridget, and so far as we can judge from what is common to all the
described most conmionly in English as 'Hhe Fifteen three Synoptics, included the betrayal, the prepara-
O's", from the exclamation with which each began. tion of the Paschal Supfier, the Last Supper with a
In modem times a vast literature, and also a hjrm- brief account of the institution (A the Eucnarist, the
nology, has grown up relating directly to the Passion of Agony in the Garden, the arrest and taking of Our'
Christ. Many of the innumerable works produced in Lord before Caiphas, with His examination there
the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries and condemnation for blasphemy. Then follow
have now been completely forgotten, though some Peter's denials, and the taking of Our Lord before
books like the medieval '' Life of Christ . by theCarthu- Pilate. Next comes Pilate's question : *' Art thou the
sian Ludolphus of Saxony, the ''Suffering of Christ" king of the Jews?" and Our Lord's answer, "Thou
by Father Thomas of Jesus, the Carmelite Guevara's sayest it", with Pilate's endeavour to set Him free on
'^ Mount of Calvary", or "the Passion of Our Lord" account of the feast, fhistrated by the demand of the
by Father de La Palma, S.J., are still read. Thoush people for Barabbas. After this Pilate weakly vields
such writers as Justus Lipsius and Father Gretser, S. J., to their insistence and, having scourged Jesus, hands
at the end of the sixteenth century, and Dom CaJmet, Him over to be crudfied. The story of the Crucifix-
O.S.B., in the ei|^teenth, did much to illustrate the ion itself is a short one. It is confined to the casting
history of the Passion from historical sources, the gen- of lots for the garments, the accusation over the head,
eral tendency of all devotional literature was to ignore the mocking of the chief priests, the supernatural
such means of information as were provided by arch®- dariuiess, and the rending of the Temple veil. After
ology and science, and to turn rather to the revelations the death we have the confession of the centurion, the
of the mystics to supplement the Gospel records. begping of the bod)r of Jesus from Pilate, and the
Amongst these, the Revelations of St. Bridget of .bunal of it, wrapped in a clean linen cloth, in Joseph's
Sweden, of Maria Agreda, of Marina de Escobar and, new tomb hewn out in the rock close by.
in comparatively recent times, of Anne Catherine In order to distinguish what is peculiar to each Evan-
Emmench are the most famous. Within the last fifty gelist we must notice a remarkable series of additional
years, however, there has been a reaction against this passages which are found both in St. Matthew and S.t.
procedure, a reaction due probably to the factHhat so Mark. There are no similar coinddences between St.
many of these revelations plainly contradict each Matthew and St. Luke, or between St. Mark and
other, for example on the question whether the right St. Luke. These passages taken as they occur in St.
or left shoulder of Our Lord was wounded by the Mark, are as follows: Mark, xiv, 15, 19-20, 24-28, 31,
weight of the cross, or whether Our Saviour was nailed 33-4, 37-40. 42, 44, 46, 60-2, 65-8, 60-4, xv, 3-8, 10,
to the cross standing or lying. In the best modem 16-20, 23-4, 29-30, 34-6, 40, 42. They have the
lives of Our Savioiu-, such as those of Didon, Fouard, character rather of expansions than of additions. Still
and Le Camus, every use is made of subsidiary sources some of them are of considerable importance, for in-
of information, not neglecting even the Talmud. The stance, the mocking of Our Lo^ by tne soldiers in the
workofP6re011ivier,"ThePa88ion"(tr., 1905), follows Praetorium, and the cry from the Cross, "My God,
the same course, but in many widely-read devotional my God, why hast thou forsaken mer" Possibly
works upon this subject, for example: Faber, "The this series also formed part of an original narrative
Foot of the Cross"; Gallwey, "The Watches of the omitted by St. Luke, who had a wealth of special infor-
Pas^ion"; Coleridge, "Passiontide" etc.; Groenings, mation on the Passion. Another explanation would
" Hist, of th6 Passion " (Eng. tr) ; Belser, D'Gesch. be that St. Mark expanded the original narrative,
d. Leidens d. Hemn; Grimm, "Leidengeschichte and that his work was then used by St. Matthew.
Christi", the writers seem to have judged that his- The passages found in St. Mark alone are quite un-
torical or critical research was inconsistent with the important. The story of the young man who fled
ascetical purpose of their works. naked has very eenerally been felt to be a personal
Herbert Thurston. reminiscence. Mark alone speaks of the Temple as
"made with hands", and he is also the only one to
Passion of Jesus Christ in the Four Gk>spels. — note that the false witnesses were not in agreement one
We have in the Gospels four separate accounts of the with another. He mentions also that Simon the Cyre-
Passion of Our Lord, each of which supplements the nian was "father of Alexander and of Rufus". no
othei)9, so that only from a careful examination and doubt because these names were well known to those
comparison of all can we arrive at a full and clear for whom he was writing. Lastly, he is the only one
knowledge of the whole story. The first three Gospels who records the fact that Pilate asked for proof of the
resemble each other very closely in their general plan, death of Christ. In St. Matthew's Gospel the peculi-
80 closelv indeed that some sort of literary connexion arities are more numerous and of a more distinctive
among them may be assumed; but the fourth Gospel, character. Naturally in his Gospel, written for a
although the writer was evidently familiar at least Jewish circle of readers, there is insistence on the posi-
with the general tenor of tte story told by the other tion of Jesus as the Christ. There are several fresh
three, gives us an independent narrative. episodes possessing distinctive and marked character-
If we begin by marking in any one of the Synoptic istics. They include the washing of Pilate s huids.
Gospels those verses which occur in substance in both the dream of Pilate's wife, and the resurrection of the
of tne other two, and then read these verses contin- saints after the death of Christ, with the earthquake
ously, we shall, find that we have in them a brief but a and the rending of the tombs. The special features
complete narrative of the whole passion story. There by which St. LuJce's passion narrative is distinguished
are of course very few details, out all the essentials are very numerous and important. Just as St.
of the story are there. In St. Mark's Gospel the Matthew emphasizes the Messianic character, so
marked verees will be as follows: xiv, 1, 10-14, 1^18, S),. Luke lays stress on the universal love mam-
PA88ION 531 PA88ION
fested by our Lord,. and seta forth the Passion as the of the Middle Ages, themselves an outcome of the
great act by which the redemption of mankind was liturgy of the Church. Ecclesiastical worship was
accomplished. He is the only one who records the thoroughly dramatic, particularly the Holy Mass,
statement of Pilate that he found no cause in Jesus; with its progressive action, its dialogue between the
and &o the examination before Herod. He alone priests and their ministers at the altar, or, on feast-
tells us of the angel who came to strengthen Jesus in days, between the officiating priest and nis assistants,
his agony in the garden, and, if the reading is right, with the choir of singers, and the people. Often
of the drops of blood which mingled with the sweat — e. g. at Christmas, Epiphany, and Easter — ^the
which trickled down upon the ground. To St. Luke text of the Gospel called for a variety of r61es. The
again we owe our knowledge of no less than three of celebration of the feasts was as » rich and varied as
the seven words from the Cross: the prayer for His they were numerous; poetry and music, in particular,
murderers; the episode of thq |>enitent thief; and the helped to impress properly on the laity the full signifi-
last utterance of all, ''Father, into thy hands I com- cance of the great events commemorated. The Ben-
mend my spirit". Finallv it is St. Luke alone who edictines of St. Gall, in Switzerland, in the tenth cen-
teUs us of the effect produced upon the spectators, tury wrote sequences, h3anns, Utanies, and tropes and
who so short a time before had been so full of hatred, set them to music. The tropes — elaborations of parts
and how they returned home "striking their breasts", of the Liturgy, particularly the Introit, fine musical
The traditional character of the Fourth Gospel as settings — found universal acceptance and remained in
having been written at a later date than the other use in v^ous forms until the end of the seventeenth
three, and after they had become part of the religious century. These tropes were dramatic in construction
possession of Christians generally, is entirely TOme and, as their musical settings prove, were sung alter-
out by a study of the passion. Although almost all nately by two choirs of men and boys, or by two half-
the details of the story are new, and the whole is choirs. The history of the ecclesiastical drama
drawn up on a plan owing nothing to the common begins with the trope sung as Introit of the Mass on
basis of tne Synoptists, yet a knowledge of what they Easter Sunday. It has come down to us in a St.
had written is presupposed throughout, and is almost Gall manuscript dating from the time of the monk
necessary before this later presentment of the Gospel Tutilo (tenth century).
can be fully understood. Most important events. The conversation held between the holy women and
fully related in the earlier Gospels, are altogether the angels at the sepulchre of our Lord forms the text
omitted in the Fourth, in a way which would be very of this trope, which is comprised in^the four sentences:
perplexing had we not thus the key. For instance, "Quem quseritis in sepulchro, o christicolae? — ^Jesum
there is no mention of the institution of the Holy Nazarenum, o coelicok&^Non est hie. Surrexit,
Eucharist, the agony in the gcu^en, or the trial and sicut prsedixerat. Ite nuntiate, quia surrexit de sepul-
oondemnation before Caiphas. On the other hand, chro. — Resurrexi, postouam factus homo, tua jussa
we have a great number of facts not contained in the patema peregi." — ^The nrst three sentences are found
Synoptists. For instance, the ea^gemess of Pilate to m many liturgical books dating from the tenth to the
release our Lord and his final yielding only to a definite eighteenth century. The trope, however, did not
threat from the Jewish leaders; the presence of our develop into a dramatic scene, until it was brought
Lady at the foot of the Cross, and Jesus' last charge to into connexion with the Descent from the Cross,
her and to St. John. Most important of all perhaps, is widely commemorated in Continental monasteries,
the piercing of the side by the soldier's spear, and the but which appears first in a Ritual of English origin,
flowing forth of blood ana water. It is St. John alone, attributed to St. Dunstan (967). In giving directions
again, who tells us of the order to break the le^ of ^1, for public services, the Ritual refers to this custom,
and that Jesus Christ's legs were not broken, because particularly as ooserved at Fleury-sur-Loire ana
he was already dead. * Ghent. . On Good Friday, after the morning services,
There seems at first sight a discrepancy between the » crucifix swathed in cloth was laid in a sort of grave
narrative of the Fourth Gospel and that of the Synop- arranged near the altar, where it remained until Easter
tists, namely, as to the exact day of the crucifixion, morning. On Easter morning, after the third re-
which involves the question whether the Last Supper sponsory of the Matins, one or two clerics clothed in
was or was not, in the strict sense, the Paschal meal. If albs, and carrying palms in their hands, went to the
we had the Synoptists only we should almost certainly grave and seated themselves there. Thereupon three
decide that it was, for they speak of preparing the other priests vested in copes, and carrying censers
Pasch, and give no hint that the meal which they de- representing the three holy women, joined them,
scribe was anything else. But St. John seems to Upon their aitival the angel asked them: "Whom seek
labour to show that the Paschal meal itself was not to ye? " The women answered ; they hear from the angel
be eaten till the next day. He points out that the the message of the Resurrection and were told to go
Jews would not enter the court of Pilate, because they forth and announce it. Then they intoned the anti-
feared poUution which might prevent them from eat- phon: "Surrexit enim^ sicut ditot dominus. Alle-.
ing the Pasch. He is so clear that we can harcUy mis- luia". The choir finished Matins with the "Te
take his meaning, and certain passages in the Synop- Deum".
tists seem I'eally to point in the same direction. This simplest form of liturgical Easter celebration
Joseph, for instance, was able to buy the linen and the was elaborated in many ways by the addition of
spices for the burial, which would not have been pos- Biblicid sentences, hymns, and sequences, in particu-
sible on the actual feast-day. Moreover, one passage, lar the " Victimse paschali , which dates from the first
which at first sight seems strongest in the other direc- half of the eleventh century; also by the representa-
tion, has quite another meaning when the reading is cor- tion of St. Peter and St. John running to the ^ave, and
rected. "With desire I have desired'', said Jesus to His by the appearance of the Lord, who thenceforth be-
Apostles, "to eat this pasch with you, before I suffer, comes the centred figure. The union of these scenes
For I say to you, that from this time I will not e^t it, in one concerted action (the dialogue), rendered in
till it be fulfilled in the kingdom of God" (Luke, xxii. poetic form (h3rmns, sequences) or in prose (Bible
15). When the hour for it had fully come He would texts), and the participation of a choir gave to the
have been already dead, the type would have passed Nuremberg Easter celeoration of the thirteenth cen-
away, and the Kingdom of God would have already • tury the character of a short chanted drama. Such,
come. Arthur S. Barnes. celebrations, however, remiained parts of the liturgy"
as late as the eighteenth century. They were inserted
Passion Plays. — ^The modem drama does not between Matins and Lauds, and served for the in-
oriidnate in the ancient, but in the retigious plays struction of the people, whose hearts and minds were
PA8SI0H 5
more deepW impressed by reproductions of the Resur-*
rectioDof tneLonI, which uppealed to the aeiues. than
t^ K sennon. The Latin t^t was no obstacle, eince
the separate parts of the plays Were known or were
Ereviously eiqiltuned. The wide diffusion of these
turgical plays, in which prieats took the different
puta, ia proof of their populajity. Lan^, to
whom we owe some thoroujih studies on this sub-
ject, pravee the existence of 224 Latin Easter dramas,
of which 159 were found in Germsny, 52 in France,
and the rest in Italy, SpaJn, Holland, and England.
The papul&r taste for dramatic productions was
fed by these Easter celebrations. The clergy empha-
Biied more and more the dramatic moments, often
merely hinted at in the rude original celebrations, and
added new subjects, among
them some of a secular
nature. They introduced
the characteis of Pilate,
the Jews, and the soldiers
guarding the sepulchre.
added the figivre of an
ointment- vender bargain-
ing with the holy women,
and other features which
did not contribute to the
edification or instruction
of the people, though they
satisfied their love of nov-
elty and amusement. In
this wa^ the early Easter
celebrations became real
dramatic performances,
known as the Easter Plays.
Since the element of
worldly amusement pre-
dominated more and more
(a development of which
Gerhoh of Reichersberg
complained as early as the
twelfth century), the ec-
clesiastical authorities be-
gan to prohibit the pro-
duction of Easter Plays in
the churches. It became
necessary to separate them
from church services, be-
cause of their length, which
increased greatly, particu-
larly after the introduction
of thestorvof the Passion. Fragmentaof an Easter Play
in Latin dating from the thirteenth century are found
in the Benedictbeum Easter Play, also in that of
Klostemeuburg, both of which, probably, go back to
the same source as the Mystery of Tours, composed as
late as the twelfth century, and which, better than
any other, offera an insist into the development of
the Easter Plays from the Latin Easter celebrations.
When, in course of time, as shown in the Easter
Play of Trier, German translations were added to the
ori^nal texts as sunt; and spoken, the popularising of
the Easter Play had begun. Tliat of Che monastery
of Muri, in Switzerland, belongs to this penod, and
is written entirely in German. But it was only after
the popular element had asserted itaelf strongly in
all departments of poetry, in the fourteenth and
fifteenth centuries, that the popular German religious
drama was developed. This was brought about
chiefly by the strolling players who were certainly
responsible for the introduction of the servant, of
the ointment-vender (named Rubin}, whose duty it
was to entertain the people with coarse jests (Wolfen-
buttel, Innsbruck, Berlin, Vienna, and Mecklenburg
Easter Plays, 1464). The Latin Easter Plays, with
their solemn tents, were still produced,
" ' " ■ ' Uy, being dii .
s confined to the meagre
Biblical element of the plays and the pULyeHs direc-
tions.' The clergy still retained the right to direct
these pioductLons, even after the plays reflected the
spirit and opinions of the times. Popult
gross and worldly, dominated in the plays, parti . _
susceptible to the influence of the Carnival plays.
flpetry,
.icularly
Thb Dsftci
The Easter Plays represented in their day the high-
est development of the secular drama; nevertheless
this most important event in the life of the God-Man
did not suffice: the people wished to see His whole life,
particularly the story of His Passion. Thus a series
of dramas originated, which were called Passion Plays,
the sufferings of Jesus being their principal subject.
Some of them end with the entombment of Christ;
in others the Easter Play was added, in order to show
the Saviour in His glory;
others ag^n close with the
Ascension or with the dis-
persion of the Apostles.
But, since the persecution
of the Saviour is intelligible
only in the li^t of His
work as teacher, this part
of the life of Christ was
also added, while some au-
thors of these plays went
back to the Old Testament
tor symbolical scenes,
which thev added to the
Passion Plays as "prefigu-
rations " ; or the plays be^
with the Creation, the sin
of Adam and Eve, and the
fall of the Angels. A gun
two short dramas were in-
serted; the I^ament of Mary
and the Mary Maadalene
Play. The sequence nanc-
tus ante nescia", it'hich
was brought to Germany
from France during the
tatter half of the twelfth
century, is the basis for the
JLamentations of Mary.
This sequence is merely a
monok^e of Mary at the
foot ot the Cross; by the
introduction of John, the
Saviour, and the bystand*
era as taking part in the
lamentations, a dramatic scene was developed which
became a part of almost all Passion Plays and has
been retwned even in their latest survivor. The
Magdalene Play represents the seduction of Mary
Magdalene by the devil and her sinful life up to her
conversion. In Magdalene's sinfulness the people
saw a picture of the depraved condition of man-
kind after the sin of the Garden, from which it could
be redeemed only through the sacrifice of Christ. This
Erofound thought, which could not be effaced even
y the coarse reproduction of Magdalene's life, ex-
plains the presence of this Uttle drama in the Passion
T\ay.
The evolution of the Passion Play was about th«
same as that of the Easter Play. It originated in the
ritual ot the Church, which prescribes, among other
things, that the Gospel on Good Friday should b«
sung in parts divided among various persons. Later
on, Passion Plays, properly so called, made their
appearance, first in Latin, then in German; contents
and form were adapted more and more to popular
ideas until, in the fifteenth century, the popular re-
Ugious plays hod developed. Thus the Benedictbeum
Passion Play (thirteenth centuiy) is still largely com-
posed of Latin ritual sentences in prose and of church
hymns, and, being designed to be sung, resembles an
oratorio. Yet even this oldest of the Passion Playi
PASSION 533 PASSION
already sfaows, bv the interpolaHon of free tranela- lengthwieey stood the houses required for the produo-
tioos of church hjrmns and of German yc'Bes not tion; they were indica^ by fenced-in Bpaces, or by
pertaining to such hymns, as well as by the appearance four poets upon which a roof ^rested, llie entrance
of ike Mother of Jesus and Mary Magdalene in the into nell was pictured by the mouth of a monster,
action, a tendency to break away from the ritual and through which the devil and the souls captured or
to adopt a more popular form. From these humble released during the plays passed back and forth,
beginnmgs thtf Passion Play must hive developed very The actors ent^ed in solemn procession, led by musi-.
rapidly, since in the fourteenth century we see it at cians or by a proBcurwr rheraid), and took their stand
a sta^ of development which could not have been at the places appointed 'them. They remained on
reached except by repeated practice. From tius the stage all through the j>erformance; they sat on the
second period we have the Vienna Passion, tJie St. barriers of their respective divisions, and were per-
Gall Passion, the oldest Frankfort Passion, and the mitted to leave their places only to recite their lines.
Maestricht Passion. All four Plays, as they are As each actor finished speaking, he returned to his
commonly called, are written in rhyme, principally place. The audience stood aroimd the stage or looked
in German. The Vienna Passion embraces the entire on from the windows of neighbouring houses. Occa-
history of the Redemption, and begins with the revolt sionally platforms, called ''bridges , were erected
and fall of Lucifer; it is to be regretted that the play as around the stage in the form of an amphitheatre,
transmitted to us ends with the Last Supper. The oldest The scenery wto as simple as the stage. There
Frankfort Passion playt that of Canon Baldemar von were no side scenes, and consequently no stage per-
Peterwell (1350-80) , the production of which required spective. Since an illusion of reality could not be had,
two days, was more profusely elaborated than the indications were made to suffice. Thus a cask stand-
other Passion Plays of this penod. Of this play only , ing on end represents the mountain on which Christ is
the ''Ordo sive Registrum has come down to us, a tempted by the devil; thunder is imitated by the re-
long roll of parchment for the use of the director, con- port of a gun, in order to signify that the devil had
taining directions and the first words of the dialogues, entered into him, Judas holds a bird of black plumage
The plays based on this list of directions lead us to the before his mouth and makes it flutter. The suicide of
pericKi in which the Passion Play reached its highest Judas is an execution, in, which Beelsebub performs
development (1400-1515). During this period the the hangman's duty. He precedes the culpnt up the
later Frankfort Passion Play (1467), the Alsf elder, and ladder, and draws Judas after him by a rbpe. Judas
the Friq4berger (1514) originated. Connected with has a olack bird and the intestines of an animal con«
this gproup are the Eger, the Donaueschingen, Augsburg, cealed in the front of his clothing, and when Satan
Freising and Lucerne Passion Plays, in which the tears open the garment the bird mes away, and the
whole world drama, beginning with the creation of intestines fall out, whereupon Judas and his executioner
man and brought down to the coming of the Holy shde down into hell on a rope. A painted picture.
Ghost, is exhibited, and which was produced with great representing the soul, is hung from the mouth of each oi
splendour as late as 1583. the two thieves on the cross ; the angel takes the soul of
Nearly all these Passion Plays have some relation the penitent^ the devil that of the impenitent thief,
to those coming from the Tyrol, some contributing to, Everything is presented in the concrete, just as the
others taking irom, that source. These, a^ain, are imagination of the audience pictures it, and the scenic
founded upon the Tyrolese Passion Play which origi- conaitions, resembling those of the antique theatre,
nated durmg the transition period of the fourteenth demand. All costume, however, is contemporary,
to the fifteenth century. Wackemell, with the aid historical accuracy being ignored,
of the plavs that have reached us, has reconstructed The Passion Plays of me fifteenth century, with
this penod. In the Tyrol the Passion Plays received their peculiar blending of religious, artistic, and
elaborate cultivation; at Bozen they were presented popular elements, gave a true picture of German city
with great splendour and lasted seven days. Here, life of those times. Serious thought and lively humour
too, the innovation of placing the female rftles were highly developed in these plays. When, how-
in the hands of women was introduced, which inno- ever, the patricians, in the sixteenth century, with-
vation did not become genend until during the drew more and more from the plays, these, left to the
seventeenth century. The magnificent productions of lower classes, be^an to lose their serious and (in spite
the Passion Plays during the fifteenth century are of the comic traits) dignified character. The influ-
cloeely connected with the ^wth and increasing ence of the Carnival plays {FastnachUpiele) was felt
self-confidence of the cities, which found its expression more and more. Master Grobianus with his coaxse
in noble buildings, ecclesiastical and municipal, and and obscene jests was even introduced into the Passion
in gorgeous public festivals. The artistic sense and Plays. In time the ecclesiastical authorities forbade
the love of art of the citizens had, in co-operation with the production of the pla3rB. Thus the Bishop of
the clergy^ called these plays into being, and the wealth Havelberg commanded ms cleivy, in 1471, to suppress
of the citizens provided for magxiificent productions the Passion Plays and legencrpla3rs in their parish
of them on the pubtic squares, whither they migrated districts because of the disgraceful and irrelevant
^fter expulsion from the churches. The citizens and farces interspersed through the productions. In a
civil authorities considered it a point of honour to similarmannertheSynodofStrasburg (1549) opposed
render the production as rich and diversified as possi- the religious plays, and the year previous (1548), the
ble. Ordinarily the preparations for the play were Parliament of Pans forbade the production of ** the
in the hands of a spiritual brotherhood, the play itself Mysteries of the Passion of our Redeemer and other
being considered a fonn of worship. People of the Spiritual Mysteries''. One consequence was that the
most varied classes took part in the production, and secular plays were separated from the religious, and,
frequently the number of actors was as high as l^o as Carnival plays, neld the public favour. The
hundred and even mater. It was imdoubtedly no Passion Plays came to be presented more rarely, par-
small task to drill the performers, particularly since ticularly as the Reformation was inimical to them.
the stage arrangements were still very primitive. School dramas now came into vogue in Catholic
The stage was a wooden structure, almost as broad and F^testant schools, and frequently enough be-
as it was long, elevated but slightly above the ground came the battle-ground of religious controversies,
and open on all sides. A house formed the back- When, in the seventeenth century, the splendidly
Sound; a balcony attached to the house represented eauipped Jesuit drama arose^ the Passion Plays were
eaven. Under the balcony three crosses were relegated to out-of-the-way villages and to the monas-
erected. Sometimes the stage was divided into three teries, particularly in Bavaria and Austria. Towards
sections by doora. Along the sides of the stage, taken the end of the eighteenth century, during the so-called
PA88IOR8
534
PA88ION8
age of enlightenment, efforts were made in Catholio
C&rmany, particularly in Bavaria and the Tyrol, to
destroy even the renmtots of the tradition of medie-
val plays. Public interest in the Passion Play awoke
anew during the last decades of the nineteenth cen-
tury, and since then Brixlegg and Vorderthiersee in
the Tyrol, Horitz in southern Bohemia, and above
all, Oberammergau in Upper Bavaria attract thou-
sands to their plays. The text of the play of Vor-
derthiersee (Oeamel in der Vorderen Thiersee) dates
from the second half of the seventeenth century, is
entirely in verse, and comprises in five acts the events
recorded in the Gospel, from the Last Supper to the
Entombment. A prelude (Vorgespiel)^ on the Good
Shepherd, precedes the i)lay. After being r^atedly
remodelled, the text received its present classical form
from the Austrian Benedictine, P. Weissenhof er. Pro-
ductions of the play, which came from Bavaria to
the Tyrol in the second half of the eighteenth cen-
tury, were arranged at irregular intervals during
the first half of the nineteenth century; since 1855
they have taken place at regular intervals, at Brix-
legg eveiy ten vears. The Hdritz Passion Play, the
present text of which is from the pen of Provost
Landsteiner, has been produced every five years,
since 1893.
The chief survival, however, of former times is the
Passion Play of Oberammergau. The first mention
we find of it is in 1633, when it is referred to in con-
nexion with a vow made to obtain rehef from the
Black Death, when the people of Ammergau vowed
to produce the play every ten years. As early as
1634 the Passion was enacted (Iragiert), Since
this Passion Play was then well-known, productions
must have ttJcen place before that date. The oldest
text still in existence was written about 1600 and con-
tains traces of two older dramas, one of which was
preserved at St. Ulric, the other at St. Afra, Augsburg.
In 1662 a Passion text by the Augsburg Meistersinger,
Sebastian Wild, was woven into it, together with parts
of the Weilheim Passion Play of Rector Johann Aelbel
(c. 1600). About the middle of the eighteenth century
the text was revised by the Benedictine Rosner, after
the model of the Jesuit drama; in 1780 this bombastic
version was again reduced to a simpler form by the
Benedictine Knipfelberger. Finally, P. Otmar Weiss
and M. Daisenberser gave it its present simple and
dignified form, andf transcribed the verse into prose.
Stage and costuming are adapted to modem require-
ments. The music is by Rochus Dedler. (See also
Miracle Plats and Mtsteries.)
WmoHT. Engliah Mytteriea (London, 1838): Pollaad, English
Mir^de Plays (London, i904) ; Chambers, The Mediaeval Stage
(Oxford, 1903); Tunibon, Dramatic Traditions of the Dark Ages
(Cincinnati, 1907) ; Schelunq, Hist, of English Drama (Boston,
1908) ; CoLUBB, Hi^. of English Dramatic Poetry (London, 1879) ;
Du MiRiL, Theatri liturgici (Paris, 1849): Coussemaker. Drames
liturgiques du moyen Age (Rennes, 1860) ; Grifpith, Orim^ of Cus'
toms of Easter Day in Potter's Am. Mag, X (1878), 306; Hampson,
Medii JBvi Kalendarium{\A>ndon, 1847) ; Monb, AUdeutsche Sduiu»
spieU (QucMllinburg, 1847); Idem. Schaiupiele des Mittelalters
(Karlsruhe, 1846); Devribnt, Geschichte der deutschen Sehau'
spielkunst, I (Leipiig, 1848) ; Holland, Die Bnttoieklung des deut^
sehen SchaiLspieles im Mittelaller und das Ammergauer Passions-
spiel (Munich, 1861)j Wilken, Geschichte der geistlichen Sviele
in Deutscfdand (Qottingen, 1872); Callbkberg, Das geisiliche
Sehauspiel des MiUelaUers in Prankreieh (MOhlhausen, 187fi);
Milchsack, Die Oster- und PassionssjneU (Wolfenbtkttel, 1880) ;
Gautieb, Histoire de la pohie liturgique au moyen Age (Paris,
1886); Lanob, Die Lateinischen Osterfeiem (Munich, 1887);
Creizbnach, Geschichte des neueren Dramas, I (Halle, 1893);
Fronino, Das Drama des Mittelalters (Berlin, s. d.) ; Wirth, Die
Oster- und Passionsspiele bis sum 16 Jahrhundert (Halle, 1889);
Wackbrnell, AUdeutsche Passionsspiele aus Tirol (Gras. 1897);
WiLMOTTB, Les passions allemands du Rhin dans leurs rapports
avee Vaneien thidtre fran^ais (Paris, 1898) ; Trautmann, Oberamr
mergau undsein Passionsspiel (Bamberg, 1890); Tezt des Oberamr-
mergauer Passionsspieles (Munich, 1910) ; Heinzbl, Abhandlungen
turn altdeutschen Drama (Vienna. 1895); HAurrBN, Ueber das
Hdritter Passionsspiel (Prague, 1894); Text des Hdrilser Passions-
svieles (Stuttgart, 1908) ; Text des Passionsspieles in Vorderthiersee
(Munich, 1905); Weber, Oeistliches Sehauspiel und christliche
Kun9t (Stuttgart, 1894).
AN8BLM ^ALZSK.
Panions. — By passions we are to understand here
motions oi the sensitive appetite in man which tokd
towards the attainment of some real or apparent good,
or the avoidance of some evil. The more intensely
the object is desired or abhorred, the more vehement
is the passion. St. Paul thus speaks of them : ** When
we were in the flesh, the passions of siA, which were
by the law, did work in our members, to bring forth
fruitf unto death'' (Rom., vii, 5). They are called
passions because they cause a transformation of ihe
normal condition of the body and its organs which
often appears externally. It may also be noted that
there is m man a rational appetite as well as a sen-
sitive appetite. The rational appetite is the will ; and
its acts of love, joy, and sorrow are only called pas-
sions metaphorically, because of their likeness to the
acts of the sensitive appetite. They are classified by
St. Thomas and the Scnoolmen as follows: The sensi-
tive appetite is twofold, ooncupiscible and irascible,
specifically distinct because of tneir objects. The ob-
ject of the concupiscible is real or apparent good, and
suitable to the sensitive inclination. The object of
the irascible appetite is good quaUfied by some spe-
cial difficulty m its attainment. The cmef passions
are eleven in number: Six in the concupiscible ap-
petite— ^namely, joy or delight, and sadness, desire
and aversion or abhorrence, love and hatred — and
five in the irascible — ^hope and despair, courage and
fear, and anger. ^
To explain the passions in their relation to virtue it
is necessary to consider them first in the moral order.
Some moralists have taught that all passions are good
if kept under subjection, and all bad if unrestrained.
The truth is that, as regards morality, the passions
are indifferent^ that is, neither good nor bad m them-
selves. Only in so far as th^ are voluntary do they
come under the moral law. Their motions may some-
times be antecedent to any act of the will ; or they may
be so strong as to resist every command of the will.
The feelings in connexion with the passions may be
lasting, and not edways under the control of the will,
as for example the feelings of love, sorrow, fear, ana
anger, as experienced in the sensitive appetite; but
they can never be so strong as to force the consent
of our free will imless they first run away with our
reason.
These involuntary motions of the passions are neither
morally good nor morally bad. They become volun-
tary in two ways: (1) oy the command of the will,
which can command the inferior powers of the sensi-
tive appetite and excite its emotions: (2) by non-
resistance, for the will can resist by refusing its con-
sent to their promptings, and it is bound to resist
when their promptings are irrational and inordinate.
When voluntary, the passions may increase the in-
tensity of the acts of the will, but they may also lessen
their morality by affecting its freedom.
In regard to virtue the passions may be considered
in the three stages of the spiritual life: first, its ac-
quisition; seconcfly, its increase; thirdly, its perfectioir.
When regulated by reason, and subjected to the
control of the will, the passions may be considered
good and used as means of acquiring and exercising
virtue. Christ Himself, in whom there could be no
sin nor shadow of imperfection, admitted their influ-
ence, for we read that He was sorrowful even unto
de^th (Mark, xiv, 34), that He wept over Jerusalem
(Luke, xix, 41), and at the tombof Laearus He groaned
in the spirit, and troubled Himself (John, xi, 33). St.
Paul bias us rejoice with them that rejoice, and weep
with them that weep (Rom., xii, 15). The sensitive
appetite is given to man by God, and therefore its acts
have to be employed in His service. Fear of death,
judgment, and nell prompts one to repentance, and to
the first efforts in acquiring virtue. Thoughts of the
mercy of God produce hope, gratitude, and correspon-
dency. Eeflection on the sufferings of Christ moves
PASSION
535
PASS08
to sorrow for sin, and to oompassion and love for Him
in HiB suffering.
The moral virtues aie to regulate the passions
and employ them as aids in the progress of spirit-
ual life. A just man at times experiences great ioy)
great hope and confidence, ana other feelings m
performing dirties of piety, and also great sensible
sorrow, as well as sorrow of soul, for his sins, and he
is thus confirmed in his jif^ice. He can also merit
constantly by restraining and purifying his passions.
The saints who have reached the exalted state of per-
fection, have retained their capacity for all human
emotions and their sensibilitv nas remained subject
to the ordinary laws; but in them the love of God has
controlled the mental images which excite the pas-
sions and directed all their emotions to His active
service. It has been justly said that the saint dies,
and is bom again: he dies to an agitated, distracted,
and sensual lue, by temperance, continency, and aus-
terity, and is bom to a new and transformed life.
He passes through what St. John calls 'Hhe night of
the senses", after which his eyes are opened to a
dearer lisdit. ''The saint will retum later on to
sensible objects to enjoy them in his own way. but
far more intenselv than other men" (H. Joly, "Psy-
chology of the Saints", 128). Accordingly we can
understand how the passions and the emotions of the
sensitive appetite may be directed and devoted to the
service of God, and to the acquisition, increase, and
perfection of virtue.
All admit that the passions, imless restrained, will
carry a man beyond the bounds of duty and honesty,
and plunge him into sinful excesses. Unbridlca
passions cause all the moral ruin and most of the
physical and social evils which afflict men. There are
two adverse elements in man contending for the mas-
tery, and designated by St. Paul as "the flesh" and
"the spirit" (Gal., v, 17). These two are often at
variance with each other in inclinations and desires.
To establish and preserve harmony in the individual,
it is necessary that the spirit rule, and that the flesh
be made obedient to it. The spirit must set itself
free from the tyranny of the passions in the flesh. It
must free itself by the renunciation of all those un-
lawful things which our lower nature craves, that
right order mav be established and preserved in the
relations of our higher and lower nature. The flesh and
its appetites, if allowed, will throw everything into
confusion and vitiate our whole nature by sin and its
consequences. It is therefore man's duty to control
and regulate it by reason and a strong will aided by
God's grace.
Croni^. The Science of Blhies (Dublin, 1909); Dctinb, Manuai
of Myttieal Theology (London, 1903); Jolt, Pyachology of th4
Saint*; Marsr, Psychology (London, 1890); St. John or thb
Cboss. The Dark Night of the Soul ; Scaram klli, // Direttorrio
MyUico (Venice, 1765) ; Billuabt, Summa Summa S. Thomas de
Paesionibue (Paris, 1884).
Abthur Devine.
Passion Sunday, the flfth Sunday of Lent, a Sun-
day of the first class, not permitting the celebration of
any feast, no matter of what rank, but allowing a
commemoration of feasts which are not transferred. It
is called Dominica de Passiane in the Roman Missal,
and Dominica P(U8ionis in the Breviary. Durandus
and other liturgical writers speak of it as Dominica in
Passionej or simply Paasio. or Paasio Domini. It is
also known as Judica Sunday, from the first word of
the Introit of Mass; Isti suntf from the beginning of
the first response in the Matins; Odava mediana. it
being the eighth day after LoUare Sundav, called
sometimes Mediana^ or Middle of Lent; Repus. an
abbreviation of reposituB, i. e. abscondiluSf or hidden
from the veiling of the Crosses ^>u Cange, "Glossar."
8. V. repositua). Among the Slavs it is the NedUa
8tra8lna (pain, suffering, terrible), muki (painful, or
sorrowful), glu?ia (deaf or silent), tiha (auiet), amer-
idna (relating to death), or also cema (black), which
appeUation is also found in some parts of Germany
as Sehwartzer Sonntag. Since after this Sunday there
are not many more days of the Lei^texi season the
Greek Church admonishes the faithful to special
mortifications, and places before them the example
of the penitent St. Mary of Egypt.
BcTLEB, Movable Fetute and FaUe (New York) ; OuKBANaBB«
The Liturgical Year, Lent,
Francis Mebshman.
Passiontide, the two weeks between Passion Sun-
day and Easter. The last week is Holy Week, while
the first is called by the Latins ^' Hebdomas Passionis",
by the Greeks ''Week of the palms" (from the Sunday
following). During this time the monks of the East,
who had chosen the desert for a severor mode of life,
returned to tKeir monasteries (Cyril of Scythopolis in
'^Life of St. Euthymius", n. 11). The rubrical pre-
scriptions of the Roman Missal, Breviary, and "Ceere-
moniale Episcoporum'' for this time are: before
Vespers of Saturdav preceding Passion Sunday the
crosses, statues, and pictures of Our Lord and of the
saints on the altar and throughout the church, wiUi
the sole exception of the crosses and pictures of the
Way of the Cross, are to be coverea with a violet
veil, not translucent, nor in any way ornamented.
The crosses remain covered until after the solemn de-
nudation of the principal crucifix on Good Friday.
The statues and pictures retun their covering, no
matter what feast mav occur, until the Gloria in
Excelsis of Holy Saturday. According to an answer
of the S. R. C. of 14 May, 1878, the practice may be
tolerated of keeping the statue of St. Joseph, if out-
side the sanctuary, uncovered during the month of
March, which is dedicated to his honour, even during
Passiontide. In the Masses de tempore the Psalm
Judica is not said; the Gloria Patri is omitted at the
Asperges, the Introit, and the Lavabo; only two
orations are recited and the Preface is of the Holy
Cross. In the Dominical and ferial offices of the
Breviary the doxology is omitted in the Invitatorium
and in the responses, whether long or short. The
crosses are veiled because Christ during this time no
longer walked openly among the people, but hid him-
self. Hence in the papal chapel the veiling formerly
took place at the words of the Gospel: "Jesus autem
abscondebat sc.'' Another reason is added b>r Du-
randus, namely that Christ's divinit]^ was hidden
when he arrived at the time of His suffering and death.
The images of the saints also are covered because it
would seem improper for the servants to appear when
the Master himself is hidden (Nilles, "Kal.^ II, 188).
In some places the crosses were covered on A^
Wednesday ; in others on the first Sunday of Lent. In
England it was customary on the first Monday of
Lent to cover up all t^e crucifixes, images of every
kind, the reliquaries, and even the cup with the
Blessed Sacrament. The cloths used were of white
linen or silk and marked with a red cross (Rock, infra^
IV, 258). The two beautiful hymns of the season,
" Vexilla Regis'' and "Pange lingua glbriosi", are the
work of Venantius Fortunatus (q..v.), Bishop of Poi-
tiers. On the Friday of Passion Week the Church very
appropriately honours the Seven Dolours of Our Lady.
On Saturday the Greeks commemorate the resuscita-
tion of Lazarus.
Rock, The Church of Our Pathere (London, 1904); Nillbs, Kal
man, (InnBbruck, 1897).
Francis Mershman.
Passes (or. more fully. Santos Pabsos), the Portu-
guese name locally used to designate certain pious
exercises, including representations of the Sacred
Passion, practised annually during Lent at Goa and
in other Catholic communities in India. The repre-
sentations of the Passion are made by means of ima|(es
and figures, although at one period m the past, livmg
beings also took part in them. According to Father
'r:^
-rf 4ii#<nM^ -•r-rrj^ir «*t./rni
-Vv** 9Vl v*"i wi ^/i» ^^f^tm^^ i- -t-ispjiar Kym4;sm tnrra^
^^fu Ml t4# «Vwii^ V k^ ^.^stst^a mvtMly ^ktiuvl !•
'<iMpj»t>«{^ v» * 4r<«Nr « -lilt *ntm*ii
IT -1/ **^«* >% «F»/tli» -^Hi^^ft ■*,'\p^m v^iffjt^ n titf.rjut
mui w 4^«* ^****'^* t^iyrt rifT^^it -*!#► '•V*:
V/ 'a^ t»t*Jt#Virtovv» 4**^ "5*^ «",'i#V<* VT '>\A. ftr flirt'.
•-/i^ y««#»:>r«4r V /i^ /:/
«<**t/r «*i5/v^#«H»** "^ ^A'ry^ f "^/Vf *A^. W0t Xl *aj^. ^^^w:
«>»*w<«» V^'z-^uK x^^^^^of *fA Vt f»-vf.*3i^urt
Ai-i'^Mf/* V»*r ♦ti|5*,:'U -y «i>ljj<t W SUtUli*<
i\ 1^ «nuiar
aM\i«%c«at- 7iairaH« imiPzrT'nc 'tlul ia»
lut uw*n»v»r7 lit -viftamtR ^•-i? iii 111 jhujt a
*r;3«r^usi& ton 5ul imrriflanr or 2*wZ: n.
aim *jxj* i-unfturt S^^sbk >w JunjuiiLS ol *tw
J^J'Sft. IL l^i'
♦i»^ jT/^A-x -i-^K ''''^ ^■*'^ f 1* v;.-'"-^; ;'j«^ V^*^ '.A**: WJt*»»^ V>
f'jf..**'* // >..<;t>'^ •» -v. * ju*-*- '/r try%/> tfijC /^'x^ itr.i *
«v/<^ ittrn **^> ;<'>*^> /?. i^ii^M. *♦". *^;^ *;r,.v.*«?y* '/ ''•/t,
•*#irA^ S^'rff ♦f^ ^/r/< W'^*/. '/r^jy ♦.*>: itit'A^t, *A ^^.n.*^
|<»^*jy ^'//# ^/'yy| Ff»/J:»y/, !>^ i ^nnUtifm. At if if
tiArftftt%\y%M.\nitt\ifYfu tfftfft <>^<»f >//•* UfiVHnfiJAy\Mtiftfi
Ui#w '!•/•. O/i U#«j JMi twr; *ft:4:ntiujtm Uj« prry^cwn/jo
5 rnrr'
-vmicL
hvf^ve liMsrjryjr^ i'XJuitoL XL iia itimxnE
f r'>»!'JL *»iLaft t/t<fr d!SXAaRicua;a . ^
%g*: xZ '>j«r.rrr»»£ iBiyS M vs<bjs mtBom « fiesBii be
lKi>£zf cf the
aft4
7>>^ *?-*';>- '>f f#3Ti**5:i^fc.tk«» ted Pjetcwr to sUM&ee in
v,;,^;«L?i/. » ,1*^, »/yi f>«!r- A« the rwuJt <rf his BUC4JLifql
ir/ v'->^ f^;!;.* yer.i *A i*fra^fzj\.h t^ waa mAed by tiie EmpRSB
hy,c*-^ii^T wr,<^f>*T b* wo-iW »>t now derote faiiDBelf to
♦i>«: </rsptr;ijti* .'yrj '/ i^reat msnufa^rturing indtstneE for
xU \m^>^Ux *A Fniac^. He ra>Ikd that he ooDsdcral
it <ini*A'. U:w^*h Uj«& diditr of* scientbt to pre tip his
tirr*«; V/ <y/Trirri*T'^. and whii*? be WM willing that otben
Kh'/«jM tak'- vivant^ate of hi* diwovcriei be wnntAi to
p>j»h ^/Ti t/i furxhffr niT.-if^tifk work.
'fJ/w WM a fortunatir deciaon. His KiooeBrful invB»-
tiK**»^^« 1^ th<^ French Govenunent to aivpea] to him
U) ^.ij'Jy f^J/f mlk-worm dineaae. Thi« had produced
mif'h nvrngt* in the mlk industiy in France that the
end of it »e(»ned not far off. Many expedients and
k
LOUIS PASTEUR IN HIS LABORATORY
PAINTING Bl
PA8TO 537 PASTOR
supposed reniedies had been tried. Fresh silk-worms were sent from everv civilized country and all the
had been brought from China on a number of occa- great institutions of learning.
sions, but they succumbed to the disease, or their Pasteur's faith 'was as genuine as his science. In
progeny became affected by it. Nothing availed and his panegyric of Littr^, whose fatUeuH he took, he said:
the case seemed hopeless. Pasteur found the silk- "Happy the man who bears within him a divinity, an
worm had been suffering from two diseases, pehrine ideal of beauty and obeys it; an ideal of art, an ideal of
and fackerUf and that the spread qf these oiseases science, an ideal of country, an ideal of the virtues of
could be prevented by careful sesregation of healthy the Gospel''. These words are graven above his
worms from those diseased. The announcement tomb in the Institut Pasteur. In ms address Pasteur
seemed too good to be true and was scouted. Pasteur said further "These are the living springs of great
demonstrate its absolute truth and his practical thoughts and great actions. Evcxything grows clear
ability, by taking charge of the villa of the French in the reflections from the Infinite". Some of his let-
Prince Imperial, where the silk industry h{^l been ters to his children breathe profound simple piety,
rained. At the end of the yeai* the sale of cocoons gave He declared "The more I know, the more nearly is my
a net profit of 26,000,000 francs (over $5,000,000). faith that of the Breton peasant. Could I but know
Naturally Pasteur proceeded to the study of diseases all I would have the faith of a Breton peasant woman."
of animals and human beinm. He demonstrated the What he could not above all understand is the failure
bacterial cause of anthrax, which had made serious ray- of scientists to recognise the demonstration of the ex-
a^es among cattle in France. The onanism was dis- istence of the Creator that there is in the world around
tnbuted by contact, real contagion. Earthworms, he us. He died with his rosary in his hand, after listening
showed, carry it up from the bodies of animals buried to the Life of St. Vincent de Paul which he had asked
in shaUow graves to infect grazing ahimals. He found to have read to him, because he thought that his work
furtherthathecouldbyheatreducethevitalityof thean- like that of St. Vincent would do much to save suffer-
thrax microbe, so that it produced but a mild form of ing children.
the (Usease which would protect cattle against the fcital Pasteur's principal works are : '' Etudes sur le Vin ",
form. Then he discovered the cause ol fowl cholera. (1866); "Etudes sur le Vinaigre" (1868)j "Etudes sur
He cultivated ' '" " '' " " ~
tures
served
cultures
coveries of vaccinating viruses for these two diseases tagion" (1878); "Discoufs de Reception de M. L.
saved France millions of dollars every year. Pasteur k 1' Academic Frangaise" (1882); **Traite-
Pasteur proceeded with the development of bac- ment de la Rage" (1886).
teriology and its relation to disease. Having studied
many cases of child-bed fever at the hospitals, he de- „„,,„„„ „„,,„^^^^r ^^^u ^. m: mu^^i.tis*u xu«t^r
dared before a medical society that he had seen its York,'Y9ob)7 HsKncB.* Yn/iwk^of AS^lr <m "kUieai 5ct^
cause, and challenged he drew a picture resembling a (New York. 1904); Jvbiu dt M. Patuw {18B§-I89t\, (Pari«,
rosary of what we now know as a streptococcus, or l®®^); Walm. MakerM of Modem Mtdiein* (New York. 1907).
chain coccus. He discovered other coccus (berry) Jambs J. Walsh.
forms of pathological microbes, some of them arranged «k ^ ,^ .t^ t>
in bunches Uke grapes, thence called staphylococci. Pasto, Diocese op (Pastensis, Pastopolitana),
Fmally came his work on rabies. Unable to find the a Colombian see, suffragan of Popaydn, from which it
causeof thedisease, whichhasnotyetbeendiscovered, was separated by the Bull of Plus IX, "In excelsa
he succeeded in making from the. dessicated spinal mihtantibusecclesia", 10 Apnl, 1859. Situated m the
cords of animals dead from the disease a vaccinating sJi^te of Cauca, it is bounded on the north by the
virus, which protects human beings bitten by a rabid ^^^^^ 9^ Garzon and Popayto, and on the south by
animal agamst the development of rabies. This ^e Vicariate Apostohc of Napo, Ecuador. ITbe present
treatment met with great opposition. The Germans bishop, Mn- Adolf o Perea, b. 1863in the Diocese of
talked sneeringly of "a remedy of which we know Popay to, elected 16 December, 1907, succeeded Mj^
nothing for a (firoase of which we know less". With ?*«l"»ej Moreno, 0.8.A.(b. at Atfaro, Tamzona, 9
time Pasteur's vindication came. The Russians, who Apnl, 1838, made titular Bishop of Pinara, 23 October,
suffered severely from rabies, from the bites of mad 1?^3, transferred to Paste, 2 Decembe The
wolves on the steppes, found it of great service, diocese contains 315,640 Catholics, 4 1,000^ pagan In-
and the tsar honoured Pasteur by a personal visit. ^J^i o8 parishes, 90 secular and 23 regular priests,
Next the British in India found it wonder-working. 133 churches orchapels. The town of Pasto, contain-
Other countries adopted it. Finally the German P8 about 12,000 inhabitants, is weU built and w a
Government established Pasteur Institutes, and ac- busy trade centre between Colombia and Ecuador,
claimed the discovery. It is situated at the eastern base of the volcano La
Many honoure came to Pasteur. Besides the Rum- Galera at an altitude of 8650 feet. Founded in 1639,
ford and Copley Medals (185^-1874), in 1868 the it was captured by BoUvar during the War of Inde-
Austrian Government gave him a prize of 10,000 pendence in 1822, and suffered severely from an
francs for his work on siflc-worms; in 1873 the French earthquake in 1834. It contains many churches, a
8oci6t^ d'Encouragement, a prise of 12,000 francs; semmwy, a JjMuit college, and an hospital under the
theRussianSocietyofRural Economy, a medal (1882); care of the Sisters of Charity. On 23 December,
the Albert medal (1882) ; the Bressa Prise, 6000 francs 1^04, the Prefecture Apostohc of CaquetA (q. v.) was
(Turin Academy, 1888) ; the French Government, an separated from Pasto.
annual p«ision of 12,000 fiim«« (1874), increased in ct^^L^.'. ^^^d^P^U^rcJ^St^J'^Ti^")^^
1883 to 26,000 francs, and besides all the degrees of RejmblieofCoUmbia (London. 1906).
the Legion of Honour orders were conferred on him A. A. MacErugan.
bv Russia, Denmark, Greece, Brazil, Sweden, Turkey,
^forway, and Portuf^al. Oxford gave him a D.C.L., Pastor. — ^This term denotes a priest who has the
Bonn, an honorary M.D., the En^ish Royal Society, cure of souls (cura animarum), that is^ who is bound in
foreign membership, and the French Academy, its virtue of his office to promote the spiritual welfare of
membership (1881). He was made Perpetual Secre- the faithful by preaching, administering the sacra-
tary of the Academy of Sciences in 1887. There was ments, and exercising certain powers of external gov-
a mamificent celebration of his jubilee on his seven- emment,e.g.,the right of supervision, giving precepts,
tieth Dirthday, 27 Dec., 1892, to which contrifjutions imposing light corrections — ^powers rather paternal in
X|n'l1etl from Lhi? cutliLi
'■•■ refcency to his
lut the battle of
11 prisoner, he re-
iki Damietta, em-
nt his brothers to
')i« of Castile en-
ircements, ndther
rose up, an-
the king's reecue.
myet«rious person
ho waa soon called
lo preach the Cru-
n to the shepherds
ty_ years of age and
his thin face, and
i, it was said, the
Virgin. He drew
iributed the Cross
from the Church,
—from Picardy to
ult, Lorraine, and
0 men was formed.
picted the Blesaed
if Hungary. The
in the towns, and
provisions to ttie
". lOon showed them-
' ially to the Friars
'laving induced St.
:r, a host of idlers,
nmen joined their
us audacity they
e bishops and even
) to have imagined
i^totherelieforSt.
I' to her she quea-
.gifU.
ic Paatoureaux en-
, wearing a mitre,
.Custaehe. Clerica
1 thrown into the
Ited, and the Uni-
ts own defence to
aU and the left
iix then left Paris
liich spread terror
'i-hop and his clergy
M June, 1251). At
(9 PA8T0UBUUX
Orl&uis a large number of university derice were
killed and thrown into the Loire (11 June). At Tours
the Pastoureaus took by storm the convent of
the Dominicans and deeecrated the pburcbes. The
credulous populace regarded them as saints and
brou^^t them the sick to be cured. At last Blanche of
Castue realised that she had been mistaken and com-
manded the royal officers to arrest and destroy them.
When they reacted Boui^ee the clerics and priests had
fled, whereupon they seiced the posseeeiQns of the
Jews, sacked the synagogues, and pillaged the dty.
An attempt was made to impriaon them, but they
broke down the gates. A troop of citizens puTsueo
and halted them near Vill£neuve-aur-Cher. The Mas-
ter of Hungary was slain, together with a large num-
ber of his followers. Some reached the valley of the
RhAne and even Marseilles; others went to Bordeaux,
whence they were driven by Simon de Montfort, Ean
of Leicester and Governor of Guienne in the name of
the King of England, who caused their leader to be
,thrown into the Gironde.
Another leader went to England and assembled
some shepherds who, learning that the Pastoureaux
were excommuCicated, killed nim. Henry II ordered
the Lord Warden of the Cinque Porta to take
measures to prevent their invasion of his king-
dom. Some of them submitted, and after having re-
ceived the Cross at the hands of clerics set out for the
Holy Land. EkicleaiBaticBl chroniclers assert that the
Pastoureaux had concluded with the sultan a secret
treaty to subject Christianitv to Mohammedanism.
" It is said that they have resolved first to exterminato
the clei^ from the face of the earth, then to suppress
the religious, and finally to fall upon the knights and
nobles in order that the country thus deprived of de-
fence may more easily be delivered up to the errors
and incur^ona of the pa«ana" (Letter from the Guar-
dian of the Paris Friar? Minor to his brethren at Ox-
ford; Chartularium Univ. ParisienHiB, Paris, 1880, i,
225) . This is obviously a fable, but as a matter of fact
this popular movement, sincere and somewhat mysti*
cal in origin, soon acquired an anarchistic character.
The same is true of the second movement of the
Pastoureaux in 1320 during the rei^ of Philip V. In
the north of France a suspended pneat and unfrocked
monk preached the Crusade to a band of peasants,
thuhdering agtunat the indifference of the king and the
nobles with r^ard to the deliverance of Palestine. As
in 1251, the ignorant mystics were aoon joined l)y ruf-^
fians of every description whose object was to profit by
their simphcity. Clad in rags and armed with sticks
and knives they marched on Paris, Uberated the pris-
oners in the ChAtolet, and defied the kingi who merdy
intrenched himself in the palace of the Cit^ and in the
Louvre. From Paris they went to Berry, thence to
Saintonge and Aquitaine to the number ol 40,000, pil-
laging as thej^ went. At Verdun-sur-Garonne nve
hundred Jews imprisoned in a dungeon strangled one
another so as not to fall into their hands. They were
ofton aided by the people of the cities and even the mid-
dle-claag citizens applauded the massacre of the Jews.
Inreplytothepapalexcommunicationtheymarch^to
Avignon, and then resolved to embark like St. Louis
at AiguPS^Moretes. But the Seneschal of Carcassonne
assembled hia men at arms, closed the gates of the city
against them, and drove them into the neighbouring
marches, where hunger dispersed them. The soldiers
then organized hunting parties which resulted in the
hanging of thousands or the Pastoureaux, but for a
long time a number of their bands continued to lay
waato the south of France.
PABTOft
538
PABTOft
their nature, and differing from those of a bishop,
which are legislative, judicial, and coactive. A pas-
tor is properly called a parish-priest (parochua) when
he exercises the cure of souls in his own name with
regard to a determined ntimber of subjects, who are
obliged to apply to him for the reception of certain
sacraments specified in the law. In this article
"parish-priest" is always taken in this strict sense.
Pastors (whether parish-priests or not) are either ir-
removable {inamovibUes) or movable (amovibUea ad
nutum). An irremovable pastor or rector is one
whose office gives him the right of perpetuity of tenure;
that is, he cannot be removed or transferred except
for a canonical reason, viz., a reason laid down in the
law, and, in the case of a criminal charge, only after
trial. (See iRREMOVABiiiiTT.) A movable pastor or
rector is one whose office does not give him this right;
but the bishop must have some just and proportionate
reason for dismissing or transferring him against his
will, and, should the priest believe himself wronged in
the matter, he may have recourse to the Holy &e, or
to its representative where there is one having power
in such eases. ' Moreover, acQording to some canonists,
even movable pastors in case of a criminal charge
cannot be absolutely removed from their office without
a trial (cf. PierantoneUi, "Praxis Fori Ecclesiastici,"
tit. iv; Smith, "Elements of Ecclesiastic^d Law'^ n.
418.) This, certainly, is the case in the United States
of America (Decrees of Propaganda, 28 March, and
20 May, 1887).
The Council of Trent (Sess. XXIV, cap. xiii, de Ref .)
shows it to be the mind of the Church that dioceses
should, wherever it is possible, be divided into canoni-
cal panshes (see Parish), to be governed by irremov-
able parish-priests. In places, therefore, where the
Tridentine law cannot be fully carried out, bishops
adopt measures which fulfil this requirement as nearly
as circumstances allow. One such measure was the
erection of quasi-parishes, districts with defined limits,
ordered for the United States in 1868 (Second Plenary
Council of Baltimore, n. 124). Another such was the
institution of irremovable rectors (pastors with the
right of perpetuity of tenure), ordered for England
in 1852 (First Provincial Council of Westminster.
Deer, xiii), and for the United States in 1886 (Third
Plenary Council of Baltimore, n. 33).
The power to appoint pastors is ordinarily vested
in the bishop. Among the candidates possessed of
the necessary qualifications the appointment should
fall on the one who is best fitted for the office. More-
over, according to the Council of Trent (Sess. XXIV,
cap. xviii, de Ref) candidates for the office of parish-
pnest should (a few cases excepted) pass a competi-
tive examination (concuraiu). This provision of the
Council of Trent is sometimes by particular enact-
ments applied in the selection of candidates for the
office of irremovable rectors, as happens in the
United States (Third Plenary Council of Baltimore,
tit. ii, cap. vi).
With regard to the faculties and powers of pastors,
those of parish-priests are sufficiently defined by the
law, and hence are ordinary, not delegated. Of these
faculties some are called rights strictlv parochial, be-
cause in a parish they belong exclusively to the parish-
priest, so that their subjects cannot with regard to
them have recourse to another priest, except with his
or the bishop's consent. These rights are the follow-
ing: the rignt of administering baptism, holy viati-
cum, and extreme unction in all cases where there is no
urgent necessity; the right of administering paschal
communion, of proclaiming the banns of marriage, and
of blessing marriages. To the parish-priest are also
reserved tne celebration of funerids (except in certain
cases specified in the law), and the imparting of certain
blessings, the chief one being blessing of the bap-
tismal font. To pastors, who are not parish-priests,
the right of assisting at marriages is given by the law
as to parish-priests. The other rights usually are
granted to them by the bishops and are defined m thie
particular laws; such is very commonly the case in the
United States, England, and Scotland, with regard to
baptism, holy viaticum, extreme unction, and funerals.
Mention should be maede here of the custom which
exists in certain dioceses of the United States, whereby
the faithful of *one district are permitted to receive
such sacraments from the pastor of another district if
they rent a pew in his church (Second Plenary Council
of Baltimore, nn. 117, 124, 227, and the. statutes of
several diocesan synods). Rights not strictly paro-
chial are those which belong by law to parish-pnesta,
but not exclusively. Such are the faculties of preach-
ing, celebrating Mass, low or solemn, bearing confes-
sions, administering Holy Communion. Pastors who
are not parish-priests receive these faculties from their
bishop.
Pastors are naturally entitled to a salary. This is
furnished by the revenues of the parochial benefice,
should there be one; otherwise, it is taken from the
revenues of the church or from the offerings. Such
offering^ as the faithful contribute of their own ac-
cord, without specifyingthe purpose of their donation,
belong to the pastor. This assertion is based on the
presumption that these gifts are meant to ehow the
gratitude of the faithful towards the priests who spend
their lives in caring for the souls committ^ to their
charge. This presumption, however, ceases wherever
custom or law provides that at least a certain portion
of these offerings should belong to the church. This b
generally the case where churches, not possessing other
sources of income, depend entirely on the offerings.
An illustration of such laws is to be found in the eighth
decree of the Second Provincial Council of Westmin-
ster, approved by Leo XIII in the Constitution "Ro-
manos Pontifices'' of 8 May, 1881. Accordingly, in
countries where this is in force, the usual collections
taken up in the churches belong to each mission, in
addition to the pew-rents, and it is from these reve-
nues that the salaries of pastors and assistjemts are or-
dinarily drawn.
Pastors, besides having rights, have also obliga-
tions. They must preach and take care of the reUgious
instruction of the faithful, especially of the young,
supply their spiritual needs by the administration of
the sacraments, reside in their parish or mission, ad-
minister diligently the property entrusted to their
care, watch over the moral conduct of their parish-
ioners, and remove, as far as possible, all hinarances
to their salvation. Moreover, parish-priests must
make a profession of faith and tal^e the oath
prescribed by Pius X in his "Motu Proprio'*,
1 Sept., 1910: they must also offer the Holy Sacrifice
on behalf ot their flock on Sundays and certain
holydays set down in the law. When the number
of the faithful entrusted to the care of the pastor is so
large that he alone cannot fulfil all the duties incum-
bent on his officejthe bishop has the right to order him
to take as many priests to help him as may be neces-
sary. These are called assistants or auxiliary priests,
ana differ both from coadjutors who are given to pas-
tors for other reasons determined by the law, and from
administrators who take charge of a parish during its
vacancy, or the absence of its pastor.
Positive law (Council of Trent, Sess. XXI, cap. iv,
de Ref.), modified in some countries by custom, re-
serves to the parish-priest the right to choose his a^ist-
ants, a choice, however, which is subject to the
approval of the bishop, and it is also from the
bishop that assistants receive their faculties. The
amount of their salary is likewise to be determined
by the bishop, and, as to its source, the same rules
hold as those already mentioned with regard to
pastors. As to their removal, (a) when their nom-
mation belongs by law to the parish-priest, they
can be removed either by him or oy the bishop, (b)
PASTORAL
639
PA8TOU&1AUZ
when their nomination belongs to the bishop, he alone
can remove them; in any case a reasonable cause is
necessary, at least for the lawfulness of the act, and
the assistant who believes that he has been wronged'
may have recourse to higher authorities, as mentioned
above with regard to movable pastors. Their office,
however, does not cease with the death of the priest or
bishop who appointed them, unless this was clearly
expressed in the letters of appointment. For the
recent legislation regarding the removal of parish-
priests, see Parish, section II, 2.
Baakt, L0mU Formulary (4th ed.. New York), on. 86-113;
Bouiz, be Parocho (3rd ed., Paris, 1880) ; Fbrrabis, Biblio-
theca Canoniea eU. (Rome, 1885-90); Nabdi, Dei Parrochi
(Pesaro, 1820-60) ; Santi, 'PraUdioiuM jvrie eananxci (New York,
1905); ScHBRSB. Handbueh dea KireKtnrMhU (Qrss, 1886). xdi-
iii; Smite. EUmtnU^ EceUeiaeticdl Law, I (9th ed.. New York,
1893), nn. 63^70; Wernz, Jim Deeretalium (Rome, 1899). tit.
xxzix; Ratmukoi Antonii Enaoon, In^rwtio Paitorali* (5th
ed.. Freiburc, 1902); Aichnbb, Compendium juris ecd. (6th ed«,
Brixen. 1887). 426-41; Cbonin, The New Matrimonial LegieUUion
(Rome. 1908). HeCTOB PaPI.
Pastoral Letters. See Lettbrb, Egclbsiastical.
Pastoral Stall. See Crosier.
Pastoral Theology. See Theoloot.
Pastoureauz, Crusade of the, one of the most
curiousof the popular movements inspired by a desire to
deliver the Holy Lajxd. St. Louis, Kmg of France, had
gone on the Crusade (1248), leaving the regency to his
mother, Blanche of Castile. Defeated at the battle of
Mansourah (8 Feb., 1250) and taken prisoner, he re-
gained his freedom by surrendering Damietta, em-
barked for SaintnJean d'Acre, and sent his brothers to
Fnsice to obtain relief. But Blanche of CastUe en-
deavoured in vain to send him reinforcements, neither
nobles nor clergy showing good will in this respect. At
this juncture the shepherds and labourers rose up, an-
nouncixig that they would go to the king's rescue.
About Easter (16 April), 1251, a mysterious person
whose real name is unknown but who was soon called
the "Master of Hungary'',* began to preach the Cru-
sade in the name of the Blessed Virgin to the shepherds
in the north of France. He was sixty years of age and
aroused wonder by his long beahi. his thin face, and
his always-closed hand, which held, it was said, the
map given to him by the Blessed Virgin. He drew
crowds by his eloquence, and distributed the Cross
among them without authorization from the Church.
The movement spread rapidly-r-from Picardy to
Flanders, then to Brabant, Hainault, Lorraine, and
Burgundy. Soon an army of 30,000 men was formed,
carrying a banner on which was depicted the Bless^
Virgin appearing to the Master of Hungary. The
movement was equally successful in the towns, and
the citizens of Amiens furnished provisions to the
army. However the Pastoureaux soon showed them-
selves hostile to the clergy, especially to the Friars
Preachers, whom they accused of having induced St.
Louis to go to Palestine. Moreover, a host of idlers,
robbers, cut-throats, and fallen women joined their
ranks, and thenceforth with growing audacity they
slew clerics and preached a^aii^ the bishops and even
the pope. Blanche of Castile seems to have imagined
that she could send the Pastoureaux to the relief of St.
Louis, and summoning the master to her she ques-
tioned him and dismissed him with gifts.
Emboldened by this reception the Pastoureaux en-
tered Paris^ and the grand-master, wearing a mitre,
preached from the pulpit of St. Eustache. Clerics
and monks were hunted, slain, and thrown into the
Seine, the Bishop of Paris was insulted, and the Uni-
versity of Paris was compelled in its own defence to
close the Petit-Pont between the Cit6 and the left
bank of the Seine. The Pastoureaux then left Paris
and divided into several armies which spr^d terror
everywhere. At Rouen the archbishop and his clergy
were expelled from the cathedral (4 June, 1251). At
Orleans a large number of university derics were
killed and thrown into the Loire (11 June). At Tours
the Pastoureaux took by storm the convent of
the Dominicans and desecrated the phurches. The
credulous populace regarded them as saints and
brought them the sick to be cured. At last Blanche of
Castue realized that she had been mistaken and com-
manded the royal officers to arrest and destroy them.
Wlien they reached Bourges the clerics and priests had
fled, whereupon they seized th^ possessions of the
Jews, sacked the synagogues, and pillaged the city.
An attempt was made to imprison them, but they
broke down the gates. A troop of citizens puilsued
and halted them near Villeneuve-sur-Cher. Tne Ma^
ter of Hungary was slain, together with a large num-
ber of his Ktllowers. Some reached the valley of the
Rh6ne and even Marseilles; others went to Bordeaux,
whence they were driven by Simon de Montfort, Earl
of Leicester and (jovembr of Guienne in the name of
the Kinp of England, whp caused their leader to be
/thrown into the Gironde.
Another leader went to England and assembled
some shepherds who, leamins that the Pastoureaux
were excommunicated, killed nim. Henry II ordered
the Lord Warden of the Cinque Ports to take
measures to prevent their invasion of his king-
dom. Some of them submitted, and after having re-
ceived the Cross at the hands of clerics set out for the
Holy Land. Ecclesiastical chroniclers assert that the
Pastoureaux had concluded with the sultan a secret
treaty to subject Christianitv to Mohammedanism.
" It is said that they have resolved first to exterminate
the clergy from the face of the earth, then to suppress
the religious, and finally to fall upon the knights and
nobles in order that the country thus deprived of de-
fence may more easily be delivered up to the errors
and incursions of the pagans" (Letter from the Guar-
dian of the Paris Friars Minor to his brethren at Ox-
ford; Chartularium Univ. Parisiensis, Paris, 1889, I,
225) . This is obvioudy a fable, but as a matter of fact
this popular movement, sincere and somewhat mysti-
cal in origin, soon acquired an anarchistic character.
The same is true of the second movement of the
Pastoureaux in 1320 during the rei^ of Philip V. In
the north of France a suspended pnest and unfrocked
monk preached the Crusade to a band of peasants,
thundering against the indifference of the king and the
nobles with regard to the deliverance of Palestine. As
in 1251, the ignorant mystics were soon joined ]^y ruf^
fians of ever>r description whose object was to profit by
their simplicity. (Jlad in rags and armed with sticlcs
and knives they marched on Paris, liberated the pris-
oners in the Ch&telet, and defied the king, who merely
intrenched himself in the palace of the Qt^ and in the
Louvre. From Paris they went to Berry, thence to
Saintonge and Aquitaine to the number of 40,000, pil-
laging as they went. At Verdun-sur-Garonne nve
huncLred Jews imprisoned in a dungeon strangled one
another so as not to fall into their hands. They were
often aided by the people of the cities and even the mid-
dle-class citizens applauded the massacre of the Jews.
In reply to the papal excommunication they marched to
Avignon, and then resolved to embark like St. Louis
at Aigues^Moretes. But the Seneschal of Carcassonne
assembled his men at arms, closed the gates of the city
against them, and drove them into the neighbouring
marshes, where hun^r dispersed them. The soldiers
then organized huntmg parties which resulted in the
hanging of thousands of the Pastoureaux, but for a
long time a number of their bands continued to lay
waste the south of France.
Chroniquet de St. Deni* in Hitt. de Fr., XXI, 115 iq.; Bbbqbb,
Hiet. de Blanche de CaetiOe (PariB, 1895), 392-402; Bbmont,
Simon de Montfort, Comte de Leicester (Paris, 1884); ROhricht,
Die Pastorellen in ZeU. fUr Kirehengesch. (1884). 290-96; Vioal,
L'imeute dee Paetoureaux en 1S£0 in Annalea de St. Louie dee
Franoaie (1899), 121-74; Lshuoubdb. Hiet. de Philippe le Long
(Pari*. 1897), 417-21. LouiS Br£uU£R.
PATAOOMU 540 PATAOONU
. Pataffonla is the name ^ven to the southernmost elementary one. and consists in a kind of happy hunt-
extremity of South America. Its boundary on the north ing ground. Their langulige is guttural and harsh,
is about 44® S. lat., and pn the south the Straits of It is very deficient in words, one soimd having
Magellan. On the west it extends to the Cordilleras frequently to do duty for a large number of ideas,
and Chile, and on the east to the South Atlantic. It Owmg, however, to their intercourse with the whites,
has an area of about 300,000 square miles. It was dis- mBuy of them have acquired a sufficient knowledge of
covered by Magellan in 1,520. although as early aa Spanish to make themselves understood. Ancient
1428 a map of the world described by Antonio GaJvao remains have been discovered in the country, at about
showed the Straits of Magellan under the title of the 44° S. lat. Skulls and flint arrow-heads and knives
Drapon's Tail. Magellan is supposed to have called have been found, also the mummy of, a female, which
the mhabitants "Patagoas'' on account of the large- has been presented to the Smithsonian Institute,
ness of their feet. To this day they wear coltsHn There is no industry to be found in Patagonia, except
shoes which i>roject far beyond their toes, which ac- among the European settlers. They are largelv en-
oounts for their size and his mistake. gaged iUv sheep oreeding, and in cattle and horse
The surface of the country is very varied. Track- raising.
less pampas (plains) rise in gently graduated terraces The government of the Catholic Church in Pata-
to the lofty ranges of the Andes, between which there Kpnia is divided into two parts, northern and southern,
is a mighty network of lakes and lagoons. From the The Vicariate of Northern Patsftonia was founded in
■■ south to the Sierra ^evada stretch these pampas in 1883, and canonically approved by Decree on 20 Jan.,
ever-rolling waves of tussock grass, thorn bushes, 1902. Monsisnor Giovanni Cagliero, S.C., titular
ffuanacoSj and mirages. On the western rim the Ck)r- Archbishop of Sebaste, and Apostolic Delegate of
dilleras rise against the sky, holding in their jagged Costa Rica, is at its head, with tne Very Rev. rather
bosoms glaciers and icy blue lak^. On the fla^s of Stefano Pagliere, S.C., as his vicar-general for the
these mountains are to be found thousands of square missions. The entire vicariate is under the control
miles of shaggy, primeval forests, only the bare edges and direction of the Salesian Congregation. There are
of which have up to the present been explored. On the now in it about fifty priests and a large number of
eastern coast the Chubut, the Deseado, the Southern brothers, engaged in mission work and in the various
Chioo (which joins the Santa Cruz in a wide estuary institutes and schools. In the beginning the pioneer
before emptying its waters into the South Atlantic), work "was done by Monsignor Cagliero, Fathers Fa-
and the Gallegos, are the only reidly important rivers, gnano, Costamagna. RabagHati, and Espinosa, who
In general it ma^ be said that the eastern part of Pata- formed a small bana of missionaries, carefully trained
goma is level and treeless, with few bays, whilst the under the eye of the founder of the congregation,
west, really the Chilian seaboard, is everywhere Don Bosco. So far there has been no synod, the spe-
pierced with fiords, and has many headlands covered cial conditions of the situation rendering it unneces-
with dark, thick forests, jutting out into the sea. saiy. Besides the priests who are sent on the mission
The climate in the north of Patagonia is not so from Europe, there are many undergoing training in
severe aa in the south. Very little ice is seen there, the institutes and houses established in the vicariate,
except in the mountains, and snow seldom remains Each house is a centre from which the natives are
long on the ground. In the south it is very cold, the visited in their settlements. There are at present
* ffround being covered with snow in winter, and the nineteen centres, which are situated as follows: —
lakes and rivers choked with ice. For at least six The Institute of Don Bosco of the Holy Family, the
months in the year there are strong gales of wind, and parish church of Our Lady of Mercy, and tne subordi-
rain is prevalent all over the countiy. In the south nate church and Institute of Our Lady of Pity, all in
there is practically no summer, whilst in the north the same settlement of Bahia Blanca; the Mission of
there is a mild season which lasts for several months, the Sacred Heart of Jesus, at Choele-Choel; the
The principal settlements are: Gallegos, 3000 in- parish church of Our Lad^ Immaculate, at Chos-
habitants. on the Gallegos River; Pimta Arenas, malal; the church and Institute of St. Lawrence, at
11,000 innabitants: and the smaller Welsh ones at Conesa-Sur; the Institute of St. Peter, at Fortin
Trelew, Rawson, Gaimon Colhaupi near Lake Mus- Mercedes; the parish and Institute of Mary Immacur
ters, and Chubut. The original inhabitants are all late, at General Acha; the parish of St. Rose of Toay,
descended from the Araucanian race. They are at Guardia Pringles; the parish and Institute of Our
mostly tall and muscular, averaging at least six feet. Lady of Snow, at Junin ae los Andes; the parish of
and are splendidly developed, m the interior are to Our Lady of Carmel and the Institute of St. Joseph,
be found the Pampas Indians and the inhea of the at Patagones; the parish and Institute of St. Michael,
Tehuelches. The latter are very lazy, and amongst and St. Joseph's School of Agriculture, at Roca; the
those whom the missionaries have not yet evangelized; parish and Institute of Mary Help of Christians, at
it is said that wives are still bought and sold. There is Victorica; the parish of Our Lady of Mercy, and the
the tribe of the Alacalufe in the south, and the warlike Institute of Arts and Trades, dedicated to St. Francis
Onas who inhabit Tierra del Fuego. The natives are de Sales, at Viedma; the Michael Rua Institute and
nomadic in their habits, and live principally on the the Mission of the sacred Heart of Jesus, at Puerto
products of the chase. They hunt uie pampa fox, the Madrym Chubut; the parish and Institute of Our
ostrich (rAeaDanrtm), the guanaco or wild llama, and Lady of Sorrows, at Rawson; and St. Dominic's
the puma. Some of the tribes, however, are not suffi- Institute, at Trelew.
oiently civilized to understand the use of the bow and The Prefecture of Southern Patagonia was founded
arrow. They live in toldos, or tents made of raw hide, in 1883, and received canonical approval by Decree
Agriculture is unknown amon^ them. They are ruled dated 20 Jan., 1902. The prefect Apostolic is Mon-
by military governors from Chili or Argentina, accord- signor Fagnano. S.C. This prefecture is also under
ing to the territory in which they live. These gover- the control of tne Salesian Congregation, all its mis-
nors reside in the larger settlements, such as Punta sions and institutes being in the hands of its members.
Arenas. Gallegos, and Chubut. They are each at the There are about twenty-four priests engaged in mis-
head of a smiul military force, to be used if necessary sion and teaching work, and there are also many
in punitive expeditions. brothers being prepared for the same field of labour.
Their religion is the crudest form of Dualism. They In this southern part of Patagonia the pioneer work
believe in a oad sprit called Gualicho, and in an infe- was done by Monsignor Fagnano, with Fathers Beau-
nor good spirit. The latter is much neglected, whilst voir, Borgatello, and Diamond; the latter afterwards
the former, with his attendant devils, requires a great founded the Mission of Our Lady Star of the Sea, at
deal of propitiation. Their notion of Heaven is % very Port Stanley, Falkland Islands, m 1888.
PATARA
541
PATEN
There are at present ten centres, which are situated
as follows: — ^The Mission of Our Lady.of Candelaria,
at Cabo Peiia; the Mission of St. Agnes, at Cabo
Santa Ines: the Mission of the Good Shepherd, and
that of St. Haphael, on Dawson Island; the parish and
Institute of Our Lady of Lujin, Gallegos, on the River
Gallegos; the church and Institute of Our Lady Star
of the Sea, at Port Stanley, Falkland Islands; the
Institute of St. Josm)h, at Punta Arenas, and the
dependent parish of St. Francis de Sales at Porvenir;
the parish and Institute of the Holy Cross, at Santa
Cruz; and the Church of Our Lady of Mercy, at
Ushaia, Tierra del Fuego.
In both Northern and Southern Patagonia the
entire religious and educational work is in the hands
of the Salesian Congregation, and the Sisters of Mary
Help of Christians. There is no other reU^ous order
at present in Patagonia, and no native missionaries.
Many Indian youths have been received as students,
but so far not one has been raised to the dignity of the
priesthobd.
The principal work of the Sisters of Mary Help of
Christians is the care of children, especiaUy during
the winter time. In fact this is the only period of the
year when the children can be instructed in the Cath-
olic reli^on, as during the summer months thejr are
away with their parents on their nomadic excursions.
The children in the institutes, which are attached to
nearly every one of the Salesian Missions, are fed,
clothed, and taught b^ the nuns. A few of the girls
have been admitted into the order, where they are
working for their compatriots.
The Sodality of the Children of Mary, among the
girls, the Guild of St. Aloysius, among the boys, and
the Confraternity of the Sacred Heart among the
adults, are in a flourishing condition. Slowly and
steadily, as far as it can be done, the Catholic paro-
chial system and life are being introduced and aevel-
oped among these poor and uncivilized natives.
Reid, PcUagonian' ArUiquitieM: Pritchabd, Through the Heart
of Patagonia (London, 1902) ; Darwin, Origin ofSpeciea (London,
1888). xi, zii; Iobm^ The Voyage of the Beagle (London. 1839—);
Snow, A Trvo Yeare* Cruiee off . . . Patagonia; Musters. At
Home with the Pcttagonians (London. 1873) ; Cunninqhaii . iVcUu-
ral History of the Strait of Magellan (Edinburgh, 1878) ; MobeRo,
Viage d la Patagonia; Lista, Mi» ea^oracionee ... en (a Pata^
ffon%a (Buenos Ayres, 1880) ; Bovc. Patagonia, Tierra del Fuego;
Onblli, a travere lea Andea; The Saleaian BttlUtin; Catalogue of
the Saleaian Congregation (1910). EbNEBT MaRSH.
Patara, titular see of Lycia, sofifragan of Myra,
formerly a large commercial town, opposite Rhodes.
Founded perhaps by the Phcenicians, it received later
a Dorian colony from Crete; a legend traces its found-
ation to Patarus, son of Apollo. Renowned for its
wealth, it was more so for its temple of Apollo where
the oracles of the god were rendered durii^g the winter.
Ptolemy Philadelphus extended it, naming it
Arsinoe. On his third missionary journey St. Paul
embarked from here for Tyre (Acts, xxi, 1-3). The
" Notitise Episcopatuum *' mention it among the suffra-
gans of Myra as late as the thirteenth century. Le
Quien (Oriens christianus, 1, 977) names seven bishops:
8t. Methodius, more probably Bishop of Olympus; Eu-
demus,at Nicsea, 325; Eutychianus, at Seleucia, 359;
Eudemus, at Constantinople, 381 ; Cyrinus, at Chalce-
don, 451, signed the letter of the bishops of Lycia
to Emperor Leo, 458; Licinius, at Constantinople,
536; Theodulus, at the Photian Council of Constan-
tinople, 879. Its ruins are still visible near Djelemish,
vilayet of Koniah; the^ consist of the remains of a
theatre built b3r Antonmus Pius, public baths of the
time of Vespasian, temples, and tombs. The port
is choked with sand.
Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman Oeog.,B.v.; Bsauvobt, Kara-
mania, II, 6; Fellows, An account of Diacoveriea in Lycia (London,
1841), 222; Spratt and Forbes. Travela in Lycia (London, 1847),
I, 30. II, 189; Benndorf and Niemann. Reiaen in Lykien und
Karien (Vienna, 1884). I. 114 oq., II. 118; Hill, Catalogue of Uu
Orfk Coin* of Lycia, 25-27. g. PirRwis.
Paten. — The eucharistic vessel known as the paten
is a small shallow plate or disc of precious metal upon
which the element of bread is offered to God at the
Offertory of the Mass. and upon which the consecrated
Host is again placed after the Fraction. The word
paten comes from a Latin form patina or patenaf evi-
dently imitated from the Greek irardwri. It seems
from the beginning to have been used to denote a flat
open vessel of the nature of a plate or dish. Such
vessels in the first centuries were used in the service
of the altar, and probably served to collect the offer*
ings of bread made by the faithful and also to dis-
trioute the consecrated fragments which, after the
loaf had been broken by the celebrant, were brought
down to the communicants, who in their own hands
received each a portion from the patina. It should be
noted, however, that Duchesne, arguing from the lan-
guage of the earliest Ordines Romani (q. v.), believes
that at Rome white Unen bags were used for this pur-
pose (Duchesne, "Lib. Pont. , I, introduct., p. cxliv).
We have, however, positive evidence that silver
dishes were in use, which were called patina ministe-'
rialeSf and which seem to be closely connected with
the calicea ministerialee in which the consecrated wine
was brought to the people. Some of these patina^ as
we learn from the inventories of church plate in the
"Liber Pontificalis" (I, pp. 202, 271 etc.), weighed
twenty or thirty pounds and must have been of large
size. In the earliest times the patens, like the chaUces,
were probably constructed of glass, wood, and copper,
as well as of gold and silver; in fact the Liber Ponti-
ficalis" (L 61 and 139) speaks of glass patens in its
notice of rope Zephjrrinus (a. d. 198-217).
When towards the ninth century the zeal of the
faithful regarding the frequent reception of Holy
Communion very much declmed, the system of conse-
crating the bread offered by the faithful and of dis-
tributing Communion from the patinoe seems grad-
ually to have changed, and the use of the large and
proportionately deep patincB ministeriales feu into
abeyance. It was probably about the same time
that the custom grew up for the priest himself to use a
paten at the altar to contain the sacred Host, and
obviate the danger of scattered particles after the
Fraction. This paten, however, was of much smaller
size and resembled tnose with which we are now
familiar. Some rather doubtful specimens of the old
ministerial patens are preserved in modem times.
The best authenticated seems to be one discovered in
Siberia in 1867 (see de Rossi in "Boll, di Archeol.
Crist. "^ 1871, 153), but this measures less than seven
inches m diameter. Another, of gold,»of oblong form,
was found at Gourdon. There is also what is believea
to be a Byzantine paten of alabaster in the treasury
of St. Mark's at Venice. Some of these patens are
highly decorated, and this b what we should expect
from the accounts preserved in the "Liber Pontifi-
c^is'\ In the altar patens of the medieval period wo
usually find a more marked central depression than is
now customary. This well or depression is usually
set round with ornamental lobes, seven, ten, or more
in number. At the present day hardly any ornament
•is used or permitted.
The paten, like the bowl of the chalice, must be
of gold or silver gilt, and it cannot be used before it
has been consecrated with chrism by a bishop. The
formula employed speaks of the vessel as blessed "for
the administration of the Eucharist of Jesus Christ,
that the Body of our Lord may be broken upon it'',
and also as " the new sepulchre of the Body and Blooa
of Jesus Christ". In the Oriental liturgies there is
placed upon the altar a vessel called the discuSf
anidogous to the paten, but it is of considerably
larger size.
Kbull in Kraus, Realencyclopddie fr. ehriat. All.; de Flcubt,
La Meaae, IV (Paris, 1887), 155-67, with the plates thereto be-
longing, which supply the best available collection of illustni-
tious; Ottb, Hanab, der Kirch, KunahArchdologie, I (Leipsig,
PAT8NSON
542
PAtHOLOOY
1883), 231 ; Aldbnkibcbbn. Drei Uiurg. 8chas»dnd. %l.A. (Bonn,
1883); Kauvmann, Hcmdb. d.cArchdol. (Paderborn. 1901), 563
■q.; Klbinscucii>t in THmL Prak. QuartaUchrift (1901), 32,
(1902). 289.
Herbebt Thurston.
Pfttenson, William, Venerable, English mar-
tvr, b. in Yorkshire or Durham: d. at Tvbum, 22
«mnuary, 1591-2. Admitted to tne English College,
Reims, 1 May, 1584, he was ordainea pi^est Sep-
tember, 1587, and left for the English mission 17
January, 1588-9. On the third Sunday of Advent,
1591, he said Mass in the house of Mr. Lawrence
Mompesson at Clerkenwell, and while dining with
another priest, James Young, the priest-catchers sui^
prised them. Young found a hidmg-place, but Pat-
enson was arrested and condemned at the Old Bai-
\ey after Christmas. According to Young, while in
prison he converted and reconciled three or four
thieves before their death. According to Richard
Verste^an, he converted, the night before his martyr-
dom, SIX out of seven felons, who occupied- the con-
demned cell with him. On this account he was cut
down wlule still conscious.
PoLLBN. AcU of the Bngluh Mariyrt (London. 1891). 115-7;
EnglUh MaHyra 168A-160S (London, 1906), 208, 292; Chalt
LoiCEB. MUtionary PriesU, I, no. 94; Knox, Douay Diaries (Lon<
don, 1878). 201. 217. 222.
John B. Wainbwright.
Pathology, Mental. — ^I. Localization of Men-
tal Facuwies. — In the cerebral cortex — ^that is, the
thin covering which envelopes the entire surface of the
brain — are mstinguished various areas, connected by
long nerve tracts with the organs of sense, the skin, the
muscles, and in fact with the entire surface of the body.
These connexions constitute what is known as the Pro-
jection System. There are other areas which are not
connected with the outer world, but are related in the
closest maimer by numerous nerve fibres one with
another, and with the areas of the projection svstem.
These constitute the Association System, In the for-
mer, definite elementary, psycho-physiological func-
tions are accurately localized. There are sharply
defined centres for the movements of the individual
members (the tongue etc.), for the sensations (taste
etc.), for hearing, sight etc. In the left cerebral hemi-
sphere (in the right for left-handed persons), there is a
specifically human centre, that for speech; destruc-
tion of this definite portion of the bram cortex causes
a loss of the power of speech and of the understanding
of spoken words, even though there be no deafness,
paralysis of the tongue, mental, disorder, or an3rthing
of this order. ' ^
The higher and specifically psychical functions, and
indeed all psychical processes (attention, mental
moods, will, etc.) are localized in the association cen-
tres, the entire massive frontal lobes serving exclu-
sively as such. Modem attempts to localize the
individual mental faculties are as little successful as
Gall's endeavours to deduce scientifically defects or
developments from the formation of the skull.
The external forms of normal psychical conduct
have a normally functionating foundation — ^a healthy
brain cortex; unhealthy changes in this latter dis-
turb the normal psychical processes, that is, they lead
to mental disease.
II. Causes of Mental Disturbances. — ^The nor-
mal mechanism of the cerebral cortex may be impaired
in a variety of ways. Impairment may result from the
ori^ally insufficient or defective construction of the
entire brain (as in congenital dementia, idiocy), or by
the destruction of extensive portions of the normally
developed brain by injury, inflammation, softening,
malignant new growths etc. In very many cases it is
due to the action of poisons, which either temporarily
or permanently affect the activities of the sound and
well-proportioned elements of the cortex. The num-
ber and variety of such active poisons is extremely
great; among them are alcohol, morphine, cocaine,
hashish, lead, prison products of microscopically small
organisms or bacteria (fever deliria), abnormal prod-
ucts of metabolism coming from the gastro-intestinal
tract (gastro-intestinal auto-intoxication — hallucinar
tory confused states), syphilis (in general paresis),
poisons from the disturbance of important glandu-
lar organs (e. g. disease of the thyroid glands in the
dementia of cretinism). In other cases, a disease pro-
cess of the blood-vessel system affects also the blood
vessels of the brain, and thus injures the cerebral
cortex (mental diseases due to the calcification of the
blood vessels, arterio-scelerotic psychosis).
One and the same poisonous agent (e. g. alcohol)
may be taken within definite limits and withstood by
one individual, whereas another individual's reaction
to the drug may occasion a nervous or mental disease.
The personal predisposition plays an important causa-
tive factor. This individual constitution (i. e. inferi-
ority, lower capacity for resistance) of the. central
nervous System is for the most part congenital and
hereditanr,-just as temperament, talent etc. Mental
diseases due to alcoholism or nervousness are doubly
severe in persons to whom a corresponding t^nt
has been transmitted by their ancestors.* In some in-
stances this inferiority may be induced in previously
healthy and normally constituted nervous systems by
sunstroke, concussion of the brain etc. Injuries to the
head, especially those accompanied by concussion of
the brainj cause not only an increased disposition to
mental disease, but are not infrequently its direct
cause. A chronic state of exhaustion produces psy-
choses, severe and protracted hasmorrhages, weakness
due to chronic purulent disease, malignant new
growths, etc. Occasionally the mental disturbance
bears a direct relation to phases of the, female sexual
life (menstruation, pregnancy, labour, suckling, change
of life).
In some markedly predisposed individuals, very
intense bodily pain or continuous physical irritations
may occasion attacks of mental disturbance (confused
states in migraine, toothache, polypi in the ear, worms
in the intestines etc.). In very many instances we are
entirely ignorant of any direct cause, and can only
interpret the unstable disposition as due to a strong
hereditary taint. In many forms of mental disease
we know absolutely nothing concerning the causes.
It is striking that psychical factors themselves
(worry, care, shock etc.) as sole and direct causes of
mental disease play a "^ry minor r61e — a fact in strik-
ing contrast to the popular notion. Only in extremely
hysterical individuals, i. e. those already disposed to
disease, do violent psychical emotions frequently give
rise to rapidly-passing attacks of mental disoitler.
Furthermore^ long-continued excitement, trouble, and
the like, work only indirectly in the aetiology of the
psychoses — e. g. by reducing the |x>wer of resistance
of the central nervous system, that is, by giving rise to
an increased disposition to nervous and mental dis-
ease, which itself is transmissible to posterity. Alco-
holics mi^e up a third, paretics almost two-thirds of
^ all the mentduy diseasea. If the teachings of Chris-
^ tianity were to be generally followed, there would
very rarely be a paretic, since for the most part
syphilis is acquired only from illegitimate intercourse;
there would be no alcoholism; and the untold distress
caused by mental disturbance would be spared man-
kind.
With reference to the question whether one may
through one's own fault bring on psychoses [as was ex-
pressly taught by the Protestant psychiatrist Hein-
roth (d.l843)], modem psychiatry teaches as follows: as
has been said above, there are manypurely bodily causes
of mental disease, in connexion with which there can
be no question raised as to personal responsibility.
In the case of alcoholism the matter is not so simple.
While it is certain that the abuse of alcohol \fi Qtie ot
PATHOLOOT 543 PATflOLOOT
tlie most im^rtant causes of mental disedse, it is also restlessness. The severest cases end in Eighty ideas,
oertun that a ^reat proportion, even the majority, of confusion, and frenz^r. But even the mila cases ^r^
habitual drinkers are severely burdened by heredity, disastrous for the patients and for their surroundings,
and start as psychopatliic mferiors. They are not Abnormal sensuality shows itself; individuals of pre-
degenerate because they drink, but they drink because viously high moral standards give themselves up to
they are degenerate, and alcoholism merely destroys violent alcoholic excesses, and practise all. kinds of
an already ailing nervous system. The true cause of sexual crimes. The patients are senselessly lavish,
drunkenness lies primarily in the individual's constitu- are guilty of deomts and thefts, and, b^ reason of their
tion, and may frequently be traced to the ancestors. irritabiUty, quarrel with their associates, superiors
The sins of the fathers are visited upon the sons, even etc., insult them, and disturb the public peace, commit
to the third and fourth generation. In so far as illeffiti- violence^ are arrogant, quarrelsome, contentious, and
mate intercourse is a sin, syphilis and its attendant delight m intolerable hair-splitting. Sleep is badly
Saresis may be regarded as one's own fault. I| should broken, the eyes shine, the play of the countenance is
ot, however, be forgotten that S3rphilis can be ac- full of expression and vivacious; many patients re*
quired in other ways (e. g. by drinking from an infeo- semble persons slightly intoxicated. Very frequently
ted glass). One finds the accusations of conscience maniacal and melancholic states occur with character-
and self-reproach in wholly irr^iponsible melancholic istically regular alternations, and rep^t themselves in
gatients, and unrepentant criminals often live a long one and the same individual, who during the intervals
fe without developing insanity. In short, the ques- is mentally normal (circular insanity with lucid
tion whether the soul through its passions or burdens intervals).
can make itself diseased must in general, according to (3) General Paresis, — ^This disease leads with
modem experience, be answered: negatively, or the gnulually increasing mental and physical decay to
possibility of such causative combinations may be dementia, paralysis, and death. Freauently, in the
acknowledged only with important reservations and early stages maniacal states, antecedent to severe
the greatest restrictions: dementia, are already observable. The patients are
III. Varibtibs OF iNSANrrr. — ^The forms that men- not only distracted and forgetful, but above all
tal disease may assume, according to their symptoms, irritable, sleepless, brutal, shameless, sensual, lavish,
their course, and their results, are extraordinarily extravagant etc., exactly like* true maniacs, only in a
complex. ^ Only those of most importance will be stiU more coarse and unrestrained fashion, because of
toucned upon. the simultaneously appearing dementia. Very often
(1) MeCancholia, — The most imporjbant feature here one finds the most grotesc^ue and changeable ideas
JB a primary («c. not induced by external events), sad, of grandeur (megalomania) ; the patients believe
and anxious depression, with retardation of the themselves immeasurably rich, are emperors, operar
thought processes. The patients feel themselves singers, even God Himself : they have discovered per-
deeply unhappy, are tired of Ufe, and overwhelm petual motion, know all languages, have thousands
tiiemselves with self-reproaches that they are unable of wives, etc. In other cases there are hypochon<-
to work, are lazy, stupid, wicked, or unamiidble. In driacal delusions (the patients complain they are
many cases the patients themselves can give no reason dead, or putrescent, etc.). Not infrequently the
for their depression; they often cite in explanation delusions are permanent, and the patients simply
long-forgotten sins of youth, all kinds of more or less ^w less rational from day to day. On the physical
unimportant occurrences and circumstances, the cares side, one observes most frequently a characteristic
of daily life which are treated as a matter of course in difficulty in speech; the speech becomes stutter-
times of health, or the very symptoms of their illness, ing, uncertain, and finally an unintelligible babble.
Because they take no pleasure in anything, in prayer The pupils of the eyes lose their circular form, are
or in the presence of their families, they accuse them- often uneoual (e. g. the right narrow, the left very
selves of impiety and want of aiifection. Lr other wide), and do not contract on exposure to light
instances pure delusions arise. The patients accuse ^ (Argyll-Robertson pupil^. Very frequently transi-
themaelves of crimes which they have never commit- tory apoplectic or epileptic attacks occur. In the last
ted: they have made everybody unhappy, have dese- stages tie patients are quite insane, prostrated, oon-
crated the Host, and have given themselves up to the fin^ to bed, and pass their excretions involuntarily
Devil. Many cases of dsemonomania of the Middle until death intervenes. In the earlier stages, almost
Ages and of the times of the Reformation belong to at any stage in fact, marked and continued improve-
tlus category, as was clearly recognized by many eccle- ment and stationary periods may take place at any
siastics. R«gino, Abbot of PrQm (892-99), Gregory moment.
VII (1074) etc. protested energetically against the (4) Juvenile Insanity {Dementia prmcox). — ^This
execution of witches; the Jesuit Friednch von Spee disease process usually sets in after the years of pu-
(d. 1675), in his "Cautio crimihalis", condemned the berty, and gradually leads to a condition of dementia,
trying of witches as an institution opposed to human- Quite frequently only the ethical side of the psyche is
ity, science, and the Catholic Church. at first affected. Boys and ^rls who have been
The patients often feel a terrible anxiety, fear a active will suddenly develop a dislike to work, become
cruel martyrdom; sleep suffers, bodily nutrition fa4b, irritable and headstrong, give themselves up to coarse
and painful centres of pressure are often found in dif- excesses, go about in bad company, lose every family
ferent nerve tracts. Tne danger of suicide is extremely sense, etc. After a year or more the loss of intelli-
great. The greater number of all suicides occurs as a gence becomes unmistakable. At times the initial
result of recognized melancholia; other conditions, stages take on a hypochondriacal colouring. Natures
such as an intense state of anxiety, may often render previously healthy and full of the joy of me begin to
such patients dangerous also to others. The self- observe themselves with anxiety, go from physician
accusations are unmfluenced by anv words of com- to physician, have recourse to quacks, etc. They
fort; a hundred times confessed, they return again found their complaints on all kinds of foolish notions;
and again. The severest cases end in a condition of there must be an animal, or a sore, in their stomachs,
inability to speak or to move (stupor). etc. Very frequently in the further course of the
(2) Sdania, — By this we understand a primary (i. e. disease (occasionally at the beginning), hallucinations
not caused by external influences), happy, elated of hearing and of sight occur. Conditions of con-
mood subject to veiy rapid variations, especially fusion, delusions of persecution, of poisoning, of
to impulave, wrathful emotions. Self-conscious- megalomania of varying types occur. Peculiar so-
ness is increased, the flow of ideas is precipitate and called catatonic stat^ of muscular tension develop, in
rambling; there is over-talkativeness ana excessive which the patients reoaain expressionless and moUon-
»ATHbLOOY 544 PATH0I.007
less in all sorts of , poaitioiis. Set forms of speech, necessity, and to pretend that they no longer believe in
cerjtain songs and motions are repeated in a stereo-, them (dissimulation). By reason of the obstinacy of
typed manner. All of these states can chance with the ideas of persecution, and eepecially because ot
great rapidity. Very of ten a remio-kably sudden im- their clearness of thought in other respects, these
Erovement sets in, leading one to expect a recovery, patients may become very dangerous, attacking those
little bv little a state of incurable dementia becomes about them with violence, taking tneir revenge by
established. killing, or by well-planned murders of their supposed
(5) Senile Dementia* — On a basis of a general persecutors.
breakdown due to old age, there develops increasing In many cases the apparent sanity of these patients,
dementia, chiefly characterized by a disturbance of and the fanaticism with which they promulgate their
memory. In the mild cases thd patients remember ideas, deceive an uncritical following, so that healthy
the occurrences/ persons, and names from their early but undiscriminating people share m their delusions
years, but cannot retain in their memory an3rthing (induced insanity) . Many cases of so-called psychic
recent. In the severe cases the patients hve entirelv epidemif^, of perversely abstruse rehgious sects, be-
in the past, speak of their parents as still living, think , lonf; to this category. In some ca@ee the ideas of perse-
themselves from twenty to thirty years old, do not cution are basea on real or imamnary legal iniustioe
know where they are, nor what is ^ing on about them, suffered by the patient, who then believes that all
As a result such patients are easily led, are eugaeetir- advocates, judges, and administrative authorities are
ble; they do not know, for instance, what they have in league against him (Paranoia qyendanst litigious
done in the morning, but declare, on being questioned, paranoia). Traces of this are seen in the cases of ob-
that they have been to school. Married women stinate litigants, who spend large amounts of money
recall only the names of their parents and forget that on lawyers to recover absurdly insignificant sums,
they have had children. As a result of forgetting When their complaints are dismissed everywhere, they
many words, their speech also is often very character- commit a crime merely in order to come before a jury
istic. Many nouns having escaped them, they help and be thus enabled to renew their old suit,
themselves out by freauent repetitions of stop-gap (7) Alcoholic Mental Diaeaee. — In addition to what
expressions, such as "wnat-d'ye-call-it'\ etc.. or they has already been said of alcoholism, it may be added
use tirc^me circumlocutions (e. g. insteaa of key, that in chronic drinkers there often arise character*
they say, ''a thing that one opens thinjpB with'O* istic, motiveless delusions of jealousy (alcoholic para-
The patients are irritable, hypochondriacal, sub- noia), which, by reason of the habitual brutality of the
picious, believe that their pockets have been picked, drinker, lead to continuous cruelty, and at times to
or that they have been poisoned. As in general paresis assault and murder of the wife,
and dementia prcBcoXf it is especially important to Pathotogioal intoxication is another important dis-
remember that marked loss of the moral sense may ease, in which the symptoms of ordinary drunken-
for some time precede the loss of intelligence. Sexual ness do not appear, but which constitutes a true psy-
desire especially mounts up again in unhealthy fashion chosis. This is usually of short duration; the patients
in these <^d people, and leads with special frequency are for the most part unusually Violent, are entirely
to immoral attacks upon small children. Very fre- confused, and on recovery have no memory whatever
quently, in the early stages of SMenile dementia, there of their mental disturbance. In delirium tremens, in
may be observed silly, intense ideas of jealousy, whose addition to the marked tremor, sweating, and absolute
object is often the aged wife with whom the patient sleeplessness, one finds vivid hallucinations of sight
has lived for many decades in the hapfpiest of wedlock, (of numberless small animals, mice, vermin, men,
By reason of the disturbance of memory and the nerydevils,ete.),confusion, ana feverish activity, dur-
above-mentioned suggestibility, these patients often ing which the patients go about restlessly, working
fall victims to unprincipled scoundrels, who swindle with imaginary tools. In other cases active nallucina-
them out of their entire fortunes, induce them to make tions of hearing take place. They hear threatening
foolish wills, ete. -and abusive voices, which may make the patient so
(6) Chronic DeliLsion (Paranoia), — Certain pa- anxious as to lead nim to impulsive suicide.
tients develop ever-increasing fixed delusions with (8) Epileptic Psychosis, — Mild but permanent pgy-
clear consciousness and without any weakening of the chical anomalies are observed in very many epileptics,
intellect. The individual stages of this disorder may These patients are for the most part extremely sensi-
usually be distinguished. At first, these patients tive and irritable, and, in contrast with this, may
believe themselves to be imder observation, to be often simultaneously show an exaggeratedly tender and
pursued by enemies. Everything that is done has pathetic pietism. Not infrequently one observes char-
a deliberate reference to themselves; people slander acteristic periodic variations in the mood. From time
them, spy upon them, or wateh them. Hallucinations to time the patients themselves feel an incomprehen-
of heanng develop (e. g. mocking, abusive voices), sibleintemalunrest, anxiety, or sadness; some seek to
The circle of their persecutors gradually enlarges; it mitigate this condition by taking strong nerve poisons,
is no longer a definite person (an enemy, a rival, at times in excessive doses (many cases of dipsomania
a business competitor, ete.) who is the originator of belong to this class) ; others have recourse to debauch-
this persecution and slander, but entire classes or ery; a third class go off like tramps for days; while a
bodies (Freemasons, Jesuits, political parties, the fourth attempt suicide. In other cases we meet with
entire Civil Service, the members of the royal house- moodiness, which is not sad but irritable and angry,
hold, etc.)' As their grandiose ideas develop, the and consequently differs from the regular irritabm^
patients believe themselves the victims of widespread of the epileptic; it frequently leads to most violent
intrigues and persecutions, because others are envious attacks upon those about them. Such conditions may
of them, or because of their importance. The con- often be traced even to earliest childhood.
Crete content of the delusions varies greatly in. In connexion with eclampsia, or even in its place,
different cases, but remains fixed in the same indi- there often take place characteristic mental di6turi[>*
vidual. One believes himself to be an important ances which begin very suddenly (dream or twili^t
inventor; another, a reformer; a third, a le^timate states), last but a short time and pass, usually leaving
successor to the throne; a fourth, the Messias. In no trace in the memory. These attacks show them-
addition to the hallucinations of hearing, different selves outwardly in characteristic impulsive acts— as
bodily hallucinations develop. The patients feel them- for instance in aimless wanderings (many cases of mil-
selves electrified^ penetrated with the rontgen rays, itaiy desertion are due to such attacks), or in delirious
etc. In the initial stages the patients are very often confused conditions, mostly of a horrifying nature
well able to hide their delusional ideas in case of (fire, blood, ghosts, ete.)* Such patients are often very
PATHOLOGT 545 PATHOLOGY
dangerous, for in their blind anxiety they assiul those incorrigible reprobates who cannot be reached by edu-
about them, no matter who they may be. The cases cational influences, who in spite of kindness or stem«
among the Malays of ''running amuck" are of this ness, in spite of the best example and breeding at
nature. In other cases of fre(}uent occurrence the home, are criminally inclined from childhood, and
patients have visionary, ecstatic deliria; they sing later become lazy vagabonds, prostitutes, or habitual
psalms aloud, believe that they see the heavens open, criminals.
see the Last Judgment, speak with God, etc. (Moham- These children, when hardly past infancrjr, are con-
med was an epileptic). Often the attacks occur only spicuous for their unusual unrulmess, selfishness, and
at night (epileptic night-waUcers, somnambulists). lack of family affection. They show a characteristic
(9) Hysterical Psyaiosis. — Many hystericid patients malice and cruelty, maltreat animals in the most re-
are at the same time permanently abnormal from the fined ways, and take a truly diabolical delight in tor-
psychical point of view; they are egre^ously selfish, mentins their brothers, sisters^ and comrades. They
irntable, and. untruthful. Oonscious simulation ana have a kind of explosive irritability and impulsive sen-
diseased imagination run into one another so as to be suousness, shown especially in an uncontrollable appe-
indistinguishable. The mental disturbances of the tite for sweets, to satisfy which they have recourse even
hvsterical show many superficial resemblances to those to theft and violence. They take to drinking when
of the epileptic; the latter however are spontaneous, very young, and practise various other forms of immor-
while the former are due to definite psychical causes, ality. Shamelessness, absolute laziness, and an ex-
fright, anger, and the like; the sexual life also plays treme mendacity always characterize these persons,
here an important rdle. Vifflonary ecstatic dreamy Their mendacity appears not only in lies told to escape
conditions occur, whereby an hystericid person can punishment or to obtain something desirable, but also
psychically infect hundreds of others (cf. the epi- m fantastic romancing (pseudologiapharUastica), We
demies of the Middle Ages of flagellants, dancers, etc. ; also usually observe in these patients a variety of
superstitious ''miracles of modem times; speakers bodily malformations and combinations of epilepsy
of foreign tongues, and the like, where no sharp boun- and h^rsteria. As causes may be mentioned : heredity
dai^ exists between conscious swindling and patho- ^especially from alcoholism), infantile brain disease
logical suggestibility). (severe epilepsies), injury to the infantile skull during
On the physical side one meets with strange paraly- childbirtn, cerebral concussion, etc.
ses, cramps, blindness, isolated ansesthetic spots [thus (11) Compulsory Ideas.- — Even In patients whose
explaining the notorious "mark of the devil'' in the intelligence is intact, certain ideas recur over and over
"Malleus Maleficarum" (14S9), met with in ancient agfun against their will, cannot be banished, and hin-
witch trials]. All of these symptoms can disappear der and cross the normal flow of ideas, in spite of the
just as suddenly as they come. The majority of the fact that their folly and senselessness are always
wonder-cures by charms or similar superstitions are clearly recognized. The number of these impulsive
possible only in the case of hysterical persons, in whom ideas is very ^at. For the clergy the knowledge of
the imagination causes both the disease and the cure, certain forms is important, especially those that occur
In modem times hysteria plays a larg[e r61e in in- fairly frequently among religious persons, and are
juries — traumatic neurosis, "railway spme" — which highiy troublesome and painful. Such people, for
is a combination of symptoms following a railway col- instance, although they are believers, are forced con-
lision, or after accidents during emplo3rment. stantly to brood over such Questions as: "Who is
(10) Imbecility f WeakminMtness. — The severer God? "Is there a God?" Otners have fancies of the
forms (idiocy^ and also those of moderate severity are lowest and most obscene character, which annoy them
easily recogmzed, even by the layman. The milder only during prayer, and return with the greater per-
forms, however, may be overlooked very readily, since sistency according as the patient is more anxious to
the mechanical accomplishments of memory may be dispel them. Such patients require hours to say a
very good, although the judgment (i. e. independent simple Pater nosterj beca>ise they believe they have
critical thought) is lacking. The weak-minded know profaned the prayer by a sudden obscene fancy and
only what they have committed to memory, but not must therefore begin all over again. The reassuring
the why and wherefore; they cannot draw conclu- words of the confessor make little impression, save for
sions, cannot adapt acquired knowledge to suit new the moment. Such sufferers torment themselves ahd
and unaccustomed circumstances; they are at a loss their confessor incessantly by the endless repetition of
when confronted by questions demanding intelligence, their reUgious scruples, notwithstanding the fact that
The weak-minded child, for instance, can learn a poem they clearly recognize the disordered compulsion (i. e.
by heart, but cannot by himself perceive its signifi- the involuntary nature of their ideas). But they can-
eance ; he can name the holidays, but does not under- not help themselves; the thoughts return against their
titand their meaning; he can calculate well (i. e. will.
mechanically) 9 + 3, but does not understand the (12) Menstrual Psychosis. — A few words may be
question: "I think of a number, add 3 to it, and the added about a mental disturbance, which is of impor-
answer is 12; what is the nunaber I thought of? " By tance to jurists and to the clergy. In nervous women
reason of their inability to think independently, such a menstmal psychosis occurs, i. e. mental anomalies
individuals are blindly led by the authority of others which appear only at the time of the catamenia (usu-
for ^ood or evil. Because of the impossibility of re- ally a few days earlier) in individuals otherwise
fleeting upon anything exactly, tiny often commit, healthy. Conditions of confusion, unfounded ideas
not only very foolish, but also dangerous and criminal of jealousy, or excited states with marked excitability
acts, to free themselves from a momentarily unpleas- or sexuid excitement manifest themselves. In women
ant situation. Their emotional life is characterized by just delivered, excited and confused states occur in
unreasonableness and irrepressibility. On the physi- which the patient kills the new-bom child; afterwards
cal side one finds deformations of the skull, defects of there is complete loss of memory of the deed,
speech, squint-eyes etc. One of the most important (13) Impulsive Psychosis. — By this is meant the
causes is alcoholic excess on the part of the parents; occurrence of an irresistible impulse to steal (klepto-
brain disease during childhood or before birth is also mania), to bum (pyromania), to wander about (porio-
sometimes responsible. In many cases' the defect in- mania), the diseased nature of the action beinp espe-
volves that side of psychical life which is called the ci^y recognizable in the complete lack of motive (no
moral or social side, which cannot be acquired by neea, no satisfaction, etc.). The stolen articles, for
intellectual means but is essentially connected wiui instaiice, will not be used or sold, but carelessly and
sentiment. Without moral sensibility, moral conduct immediately thrown away after the theft has been
is impossible. Hence arises the sad picture of the committed; the thief often enjoys good social and
XL— 35
PATHOBE 5i
material podtion. Such impulsive inclinations often
exist throi^out life, but oftener occur at intervals —
as for instance during puberty; in women, not infre-
quently only duriaK menstruation, or during preg-
nancy. In eJI these forms, Bsalao in cases of so-called
moru insanity, one must be unusually sceptical If one
is to avoid favouring the introduction of the most
dangerous abuses into the administration of justice.
(14) Sexual Pmchopathy. Anomaliex of the Seiuni
Life. — The patholopcal umormalitiee of the sexual
impulse belong to the most melancholy chapters of
peycho-pathology, and the horror that arises from the
study of these occurrences can only be mitigated by
the knowledge that what is so frequent is not always
a disEusting vice and depravity, but often a mental
disorder. But, as has been already sud, we should be
exceedingly cautious in assuming the existence of
mental disturbaDce in cases which naturally lead to
criminal prosecution, and where there is of course fre-
quently a tendency to simulation.
IV. FKEEDOHOrTUE WlLLANoKESPONSIBltnT.
In the question of moral rceponsibiUty or liability
(from the theological or legal standpoint) a further
and very impottant question arises. Mental sound-
ness implies freedom of the will, while mental disease
destroys it. In nature, however, there are no rigid,
definite boundaries between disease and health, but
only ^^ual transitions. We meet with so-called
"border-land" cases between health and disease, a
well-recognized example being weakmindedness.
While the difference between the two extremes (an
animal-like idiot, on the one hand, and, on the other,
a Newton, a Pasteur, etc.) is at once palpable to all,
where are the sharp boundaries between the moder-
ately serious and mild forms of imbecility, l>etween
these latter and the very mildest forms, and finallv
between these and simple, but in no wise patholo^cal,
stupidity? The same may be said of moral imbecdity,
which passes by insensible gradations from the un-
doubtedly healthy to the irresponsible, superficial,
sensual, and violent individual. The same may be
sud of menstrual pisychoais, which shows its physio-
lo^cal roots in the increased general nervousness of
every woman at the menstrual period. In short, in
the entire domain of peycho-pathology one oft«n meets
with these borderland conditions, and the question of
freiedom of will cannot be answered by a simple yes or
no, but requires a strictly individual weighing of all of
the conditions of the concrete act. Not infrequently
the psychopathic changes constitute, not indeed a
total exculpation, but a mitigating circumstance. Or
the matter may be such that one and the same indi-
vidual, bv reason of his mental abnormality, may be
completely responsible for one crime, and irresponsible
for another. A kleptomaniac, for instance, certainly
commits a theft in a condition of irresponsibility; he
must be held to answer, however, for another type of
crime, for instance, an act of immorality. Even indi-
viduals, who are continuously free from characteristic
psychopathic traits of a general nervous order, may by
a combination of a number of definite external dis-
turbances develop passing conditions of irresponsi-
bility. The so-called paUwlogical affo'U belong to
this class. By reason of the simultaneous combma-
tioD of long-continued depressing influences (trouble,
care, etc.), of fatigue, slecplessnesSj exhaustion, hun-
ger, digestive disturbances, and pain, a normal emo-
tiond activity may reach a patholofpcal or diseased
height, accompanied by impulsive violence, and fol-
lowed by dreamy or incomplet« memory.
V. Pathological Chanqbs in the Brain Strdc-
TURE. — Constant and definite changes in the brain we
know to be proved at the present time only in such
forms of mental disease as accompany defective stains,
either of congenital (e. g. idiocy) or acquired orif^n
[e. g. senility, paresis etc.). The weight of the brmn
remuns considerably under normal in these condi-
6 PATMOBK
tions. In contrast to the average of 1360gramineef(W
males, and 1230 grammes for females (the weight of
Gauss's brain was 1492 grammes; of TurgeDieff*a,
2120 grammes), in full-^wn idiots we find weights of
417 to 720 grammes (m one case only 200), and in
paretics weights of about 1000 grammes. With the
naked eye one can see in pareNs, in senile dementis
etc., the great diminution and disappearance of lite
cerebral cortex, adhesions between the cort«x and the
brun coverings, cedema of the ventricles, scan,
shrinkages^ soitenings, changes in the btood-veeaels,
etc. In idiots one observes in addition the most vari-
ous congenital malfoimationa (resemblance to lower
animals, or persistence of embryonal stagai, ete.), the
remains of inflammatory processes, etc. The patho-
logical findings by the microscope of fine changes in the
brain cortex (in the ganglion cells, nerve fibres, etc.)
are even richer.
In all the other forms of mental disease patholo^cal
anatomy has failed to give us any information.
Autopsy either reveals no abnormal conditions in the
brain, or the changes that are found are either incon-
stant or have no particular relation to the psychosis,
as for example the very fine alterations of the cortjcal
cells, which modem microscopy has proved to exist in
acute psychosis, can be induced also by other bodily
diseases which cause death. Our knowledge in this
field is still veiy bacy.
Mabix. TVail* inltrnolioTiai di ,_, ,_.
IBIO); Kb*b»«lim, trfrlmtA df Ptydiialrit (L
1900 ; Piux. LtMnicA dt niriiJiaulim PtreMatrii
190§^; Buuin, 5Mnirw<nim£HlmM»n(2iidMl., F]
BT..1X7). A. Pim:x.
if Ptwhiatrit CSth ed., Lnpu,
' ' m Ptehiatni (Vieniu.
m (2ad Ml., FnibuTB Im
Pabnon, Covkhtbt, tne of the major poets of
the nineteenth century, in spite of the small bulk of hia
t, b. at Woodfoid, " ' '
Lymington, 26
Nov., 1806. His
father was a man
of letters, and a
writer of ability
and fancy, who
lived among wrif^
of the company
that included
Lamb, Haclitt,
Leigh Hunt,
'■Barry Corn-
wall", and others
of less well-re-
July, 1823; d. at
Meeting with
financial reverses
late in life, P. G.
Patmore unavoid-
ably left his son.
carefully educated
but unprepared
for any profession.
to gain a difficult livelihood. Coventry Patmore mar-
ried, in his early twentiesj Emily Augusta Andrewa,
daughter of a Nonconformist clergyman who was Ru»<
kin's tulorin Greek before the young student went to
the university. MonclttonMilnes (later l«rd Hough-
ton), meeting Coventry Patmore at Mrs, Proctor's
house, and interested by hia intellectual face and lus
evident poverty, recommended him for employment in
the British Museum Library, and thisit was that made
his marriage possible. Coventry Patmore'a early poems
were published by the leal of his father, and gained
prophecies of future greatness from Leigh Hunt and
others. In 1863 was published his first mature work,
"Tamerton Qiurch Tower and other Poems", and in
1854 appeared the first part of a more deliberate work,
"The Angel in the House", a vereified love-story ot
great simplicity, interspersed with brief meditations.
FATMOS
547
PATRAS
now grave, now epigrammatioally witty, on the
profounder significances of love in mamage. The
book became quickly famous. In 1862 the poet's
wife died, leaving him with six young children. As
happy love had been his earlier, the grief of loss be-
came in great measure his later theme; poignantly
touching and also most sublime thoushts upon love,
death, and immortality are presented under greatly
poetic imagery in ik^ odes of' 'The Unknown Eros .
Coventry Patmore oecame a Catholic in Rome very
soon after his first wife's death. His second wife,
Marianne Byles, was of the same faith. She was a
woman of considerable fortune as well as beauty.
Bringing him no children, she died after some twenty
years of marriase, and the poet, somewhat late in
life, made a thira alliance, his wife being Miss Harriet
RoDson, also a Catholic; she became the mother of
one son.
Patmore's 'i)rose works are the essays collected under
the title ''Principle in Art'', and Rod, Root, and
Flower". They oelong to the latter half of his life.
The volume named second is in great part deeply
and loftily mystical. During the perioa of his first
marriage Patmore had lived in the intimacy of Ruskin,
Browmng, Tennyson, Dobell, Millais, Woolner, Ros-
setti. and Holman Hunt, and was associated with the
Pre-Raphaelites, especially in the production of the
"Germ , to which ne contributed poetry and prose.
During his last years he withdrew mto the country,
and gave his time almost entirely to meditation. His
unioue lot was to be at first the most popular, and later
the least popular of poets. Between the periods of
composition occurrea long spaces of silence. Yet
there was no change in the spirit of the poet. He
smiled to see such different estimation wait upon
poetry that was as starry and divine in the trivial-
seeming and much-read "Angel" as in the "Unknown
Eros", hardly opened by the public, and only now
beginning to take its place as a great English classio
In the mmds of students.
AucB Metnell.
PatmoB, a small volcanic island in the iEgean Sea.
off the coast of Asia Minor, to the south of Samoa ana
west of Miletus, in lat. 37** 20' N. and long. 26** 35'
E. Its length is about ten miles, its breadth six miles,
and its coast-line thirty-seven miles. The highest point
is Hagios Elias (Mt. St. Elias), risinp to over 1050 feet.
The island was formerly covered with luxuriant palm-
groves, which won it the name of Palmosa; of these
groves there remains but a clump in the valley called
" The Saint's Garden ". The ancient capital occupied
the northern (Ruvali) isthmus. The modem town
of Patmos lies in the middle part of the island. Above
it towers the battlements of St. John's monastery,
founded in 1088 by St. Christobulus. The Island of
Patmos is famous m history as the place of St. John's
exile: "I, John . . . was in the island, which is called
Patmos, for the word of God, and for the testimony of
Jesus" (Apoc^ i, 9): there according to general belief
the Beloved Disciple wrote the Apocalypse, the im-
agery of which was in part inspirea by the scenery of
the island. The spot where St. Jolm was favoured
with his revelations is pointed out as a cave on the
slope of the hill, half way between the shore and the
modem town of Patmos.
Clark, Travels (London. 1818): Murray, Handbook to Atia
Minor (London); Tosbr, The luanda of the JEgean (London,
1890): GuArin, Deaeription deVIUde Patmoe (Paris, 1856); La-
CROix, Lee Uea dela Grice (Paris, 1853) ; Lb Camus, Voyaot aux
?ay» btbliquee (Paris, 1890) ; Rosa, Reieen auf den ariiehiechim
ni ' '~
fneeln (Stuttgart. 1840).
Charles L. Souvat.
Patna. See Allahabad, The Diocese of.
Patras, metropolitan see in Achaia. It was one
of the twelve ancient cities of Achaia, built near
Mount Panachaicon (now Voidia), and formed of
three small districts, Aroe, Antheia, and Mesatis.
After the Dorian invasion Patreus established there a
colony from Laconia, and gave his name to the city. In
the Peloponnesian War it took sides with Athens, and.
in 419 B. c, Alcibiades advised the construction oi
long widls to connect the town with its harbour. Re-
verses having reduced it to extreme misery, Au|;ustu8
restored it after the victory at Actium by a military
colony, called Aroe Patrensis, the existence of which
till the reign of Gordianus III is attested by coins. It
became very prosperous through its, commerce and
especially through its weaving industry. In the
sixth century it suffered from an earthquake (Pro-
copius, "Bell. Goth.'\ IV, xxv), and afterwards from
the ravages of the Slavs. In 807, however, it re-
sisted the attacks of the Slavs and, in return, received
the title of metropolitan see from the Emperor Nice-
)3horus I. Patras was dependent on Rome until 733,
when it became subject to the Patriarchate of Constan-
tinople. Nothing is known of the beginninfl; of Chris-
tiamty in the city, unless we accept the tradition that
it was evangelised by the Apostle St. Andrew. A
celebrated Stylite lived there in the tenth century, to
whom St. Luke the Younger went to be trained
(P. G., CXI, 451). In 1206 WilUam of Champlitte
took possession and installed canons; they in turn
electea Anthelme, a monk of Cluny, as archbishop.
The territory formed a barony subject to the Aleman
family and mcluded in the principality of Morea or
Achaia. The Latin archbishops held it from the
second half of the thirteenth century till 1408, when
they sold it to Venice. In 1429 it again fell into the
power of the Greeks, and was taken by the Turks
m 1460. Under the Ottoman dominion Patras
became the capital of the pashalik of Morea, and
underwent severe trials. In 1532 it was captured by
Andrea Dona; in 1571, at the time of the Battle of
Lepanto, the Greek metropolitan aroused the popu-
lace on behalf of the Venetians and was cut to pieces
by the Turks. It was burnt by the Spaniards in
1595; pillaged by the Maltese in 1603. and captured
by the Venetians on 24 July, 1687, and kept by them
for thirty years. In 1770, at the instigation of the
Russians, the city revolted, and was sacked by the
Turks. On 4 April, 1821, it rose unsuccessfully
against the Ottomans, who held it until it was de-
livered by General Maison on 5 October, 1828. It is
now the capital of the nome Achaia, and has 38,000
inhabitants. .
The Greek see, first dependent on Corinth, became
a metropolitan see in the ninth century. It had four
suffragans (Gelser, "Ungedruckte . . . Texte der
Notitiffi episcopatuum", 557): then five about 940
(Gelxer, '^Georgii Cyprii Descriptio orbis Romani",
77); after 1453 it had only two, which successively
disappeared (Gelser, op. cit., 634). Its titulars were
called Metropolitans of Patras from the ninth century
until the Middle Ages, Metropolitans of Old Patras
until 1833, Bishops of Achaia until 1852, Archbishops
of Patras and Eleia from that time. The list of its
titulars has been compiled by Le Quien (Oriens christ.,
II, 177-82), Gelaer (in Geriand, "Neue Quellen zur
Geschichte des lateinischen Erzbistums Patras'',
Leipsig, 1903), 247-55, Pargoire (in "Echos d'Orient",
VII, 1&-07) . The Latin arehdiocese, created in 1205,
lasted until 1441, when it became a titular see. It
had five suffragans, Andravida, Amyclse, Modone,
Corone, and Cephalonia-Zante; even when Modone
and Corone belonged to the Venetians they continued
to depend on Patras. The list of Latin titulars has
been drawn up by Le Quien (op. cit., Ill, 1023-32),
Eubel (Hierarehia cath. med. sevi, I. 412; II, 236;
III, 289), and Geriand (op. cit., 244-46). In 1640 the
Jesuits established themselves at Patras, and in 1687
the Franciscans and Carmelites. In the nineteenth
century the pope confided the administration of the
Peloponnesus to the Bishop of Zante, in 1834 to the
Bishop of Syra. Since 1874 the city has formed a
PATRIARCH
548
PATRIARCH
part of the Apostolic Delegation of Athens. It con-
tains from SOOO to 10,000 Catholics. The parish
work is in charse of secular priests. There is a con-
vent of Sisters of the Immaculate Conception of I vrea.
Smith, Did. of Greek and Roman Geography ^ II, 557; Geblano,
op. cit.; Thomopoulos, HiUory of the town of Patrae (Athens,
1888), in Greek.
S. Vailh^.
Patriarchy vaTptdpxvf- — ^The word palriarch as
applied to Biblical personages comes from the Sep-
tuagint version, where it is used in a broad sense,
including religious and civil officials (e. g. I Par.,
xxiv, 31 ; xxvii, 22). In the more restricted sense ana
common usage it is applied to the antediluvian fathers
of the human race, and more particularly to the three
great progenitors of Israel: Abraham, Isaac, and
Jacob. In the New Testament the term is extended
also to the sons of Jacob (Acts, vii, ^9) and to King
David (ibid., ii, 29). For an accoimt of these later
patriarchs see articles Abraham; Isaac; Jacob; etc.
The earlier patricurchs comprise the antediluvian
group, and those who are placed between the Flood
and the birth of Abraham. Of the former the Book
of Genesis gives a twofold list. The first (Gen., iv.
17-18, passage assigned b^ critics to the so-cidled "J
document) starts with Cain and gives as his descend-
ants Henoch, Irad, Maviael, Mathusael, and Lamech.
The other list (Gen., v, 3-31, ascribed to the priestly
writer, ""P") is far more elaborate, and is accompanied
by minute chronological indications. It begins with
Seth and, strange to say, it ends likewise with Lamech.
The intervening names are Enos, Cainan, Midaleel,
Jared, Henoch, and Mathusala.
The fact that both lists end with Lamech, who is
doubtless the same person, and that some of the names
conunon to both are strikingly similar, makes it
probable that the second hst is an amplification of the .
nrst, embodying material furnished by a divergent
tradition. Nor should this seem surpnsing when we
consider the manv discrepancies exhibited by the two-
fold genealogy of the Saviour in the First and Third
Gospels. The human personages set forth in these
Usts occupy a place held b^ the mythical demi-gods in
the story of the prehistonc begiiminKs of other early
nations, and it ma^ well be that Uie chief value of the
inspired account given of them is didactic, destined in
the mind of the sacred writer to inculcate the great
truth of monotheism which is so distinctive a feature
of the Old Testament writings. Be that as it may,
the acceptance of this general view hdps greatly to
simplify another difficult problem coxmected wi^ the
Biblical account of the early patriarchs, via. their
enormous longevity. The earlier accoimt (Gen., iv,
17-18) gives only the names of the patriarchs there
mentioned, with the incidental indication that the
city built by Cain was called after his son Henoch.
The later narrative (Gen., v, 3-31) gives a definite
chronology for the whole period. It states the age at
which each patriarch begot his first-born son, the
number of years he lived after that event, together
with the sum total of the years of his life. Nearly eJl
of the antediluvian fathers are represented as living
to the age of 900 or thereabouts, Mathusala, the
oldest, reaching 969.
These figures nave alwajrs constituted a most difficult
problem for commentators and Bible readers; and
those who defend the strict historical character of the
passages in question have put forward various ex-
planations, none of which are considered convincing
by modem Biblical scholars. Thus it has been
conjectured that the years mentioned in this coxmex-
ion were not of ordinary duration but of one or more
months. There is, however, no warrant for this
assumption in the Scripture itself, where the word year
has a constant signification, and is always clearly
distinguished from the minor periods. It has also
been suggested that the ages given are not those of
individuals, but signify epochs of antediluvian history,
and that each is named after its most illustrious rep-
resentative. The hypothesis may be ingenious, but
even a superficial reading of the text suffices to show
that such was not the meaning of the sacred writer.
Nor does it help the case much to point out a few
exceptional instances of persons who m more modem
times are alleged to have lived to the age of 150 or
even 180. For even admitting ti|ese as facts, and that
in primitive times men lived lonser than at present
(an assumption for which we find no warrant in his-
toric times), it is still a long way from 180 to 900.
Another argument to corroborate the historical
accuracy of the Biblical accoimt has been deduced
from the fact that the legends of many people assert
the great longevity of their early ancestors, a circum-
stance which is said to imply an original tradition to
that effect. Thus the first seven Egyptian kings are
said to have reigned for a period of 12,300 years,
making an average of about 1757 years for each, and
Josephus, who is preoccupied with a desire to justify
the Biblical narrative, quotes Ephorus and Nicolaus
as relatins ** that the ancients lived a thousand years ' * .
He adds, however, ** But as to these matters, let every
one look upon them as he thinks fit''. (Antiq., I, iii,
in fine). On the other hand, it is maintained that as
a matter of fact there is no trustworthy historic or
scientific evidence indicating that the average roan
of human life was greater in primitive than in modem
times. In this connexion it is customary to cite
Gen., vi, 3, where God is represented as decreeing by
way of punishment of the universal corruption which
was the occasion of the Flood, that henc^orth the
days of man ''shall be a hundred and twenty years".
Tms is taken as indicating a point at whidi tne physi-
cal deterioration of the race resulted in a marked
decrease in longevity. But apart from critical con-
siderations beanng on this passage, it is strange to
note further on (Gen., xi) that the ages of the subse-
quent patriarchs were by no means limited to 120
years. Sem lived to the age of 600, Aj^haxad 338
(Massoretic Text 408), Sale 433, Heber 464 etc.
The one ground on which the accuracy of all these
figures can be defended is the a priori reason that
h&n^ contained in the Bible, they must of a necessity
be historically correct, and tnis position is maintained
by the older commentators generally. Most modem
scholars, on the other hand, are agreed in considering
the genealogical and chronological lists of Gen., v,
and xi, to be mainly artificial, and this view seems to
be confirmed, they say, by a comparison of the figures
as they stand in the Hebrew original and in the an-
cient versions. The Vulgate is in agreement with the
former (with the exception of Arphaxad), showing
that no substantial alteration of the figures has be«i
made in the Hebrew at least since the end of the fourth
century a. d.
But when we compare the Massoretic Text with
the Samaritan version and the Septuagint, we are
confronted by many and strange discrepancies which
can hardly be the result of mere accident. Thus for
instance, with regard to the antediluvian patriarchs,
while the Samaritan version agrees in the main with
the Massoretic Text, the a^ at which Jared begot his
fhist-bom is set down as 62 instead of the Hebrew 162.
Mathusala, likewise, who according to the Hebrew
begot his first-bom at the age of 187, was only 67
according to the Samaritan; and though the Hebrew
places the same event in the case of Lamech when he
was 182, the Samaritan gives him only 53. Similar
discrepancies exist between the two texts as regards
the total number of years that these patriarchs lived,
viz. Jared, Heb. 962, Sam. 847: Mathusala, Heb. 969,
Sam. 720; Lamech, Heb. 777, Sam. 653. Comparing
the Massoretic Text with the Septuagint, we find
that in the latter the birth of the first-bom in the case
of Adam, Seth; Enos, Cainan, Malaleel, and Henodi
PATBZABGH 549 PATEXAECH
was at the respoctiye ases of 230, 205, 190, 170, 165, up patriarchs", meaning apparently metropolitans
and 165, as asainst 130, 105, 90, 70, 65, and 65 as of provinces (H. £.^ V, viii). As late as the mth and
stated in the Hebrew, and the same sjrstematic dif* sixth centuries Cehdonius of Besan^on and Nioetius
ferenoe of 100 years in the period before the birth of Lyons are still called patriarchs (Acta SS., Feb.,
of the first4x)m appears likewise in the lives of III, 742; Gregory of 'Tours, ''Hist. FYancorum", V,
the postdiluvian patriarchs, Arphaxad, Sale, Heber, xx).
Phafeij, Reu, and Sarug. For tnis list, however, the Gradually then — oertainlv from the eighth and
Samantan agrees with the Septuagint as against the ninth centuries — ^the word oecomes an official title,
Massoretic Text. used henceforth only as connoting a definite rank in
As regards the list of the antediluvians, the Hebrew tbe hierarchy, that of the chief bishops who ruled over
and Septuagint agree as to the sum total of each metropolitans as metropolitans over their suffragan
patriarch's Bfe, since the Greek version reduces reg- bishops, being themselves subject only to the first
ularly bv a himdred years the period between the patriarch at Kome. Durins these earlier centuries
birth of the first-bom and the patriarch's death, the name appears generally in conjunction with
These. accumulated differences result in a wide diver- '' archbishop '', ''archbishop and patriarch", as in the
genoe when the duration of the entire patriarchal Code of Justmian (Gelzer, "Der Streit Uber den
period is considered. Thus the number of years Titel des 6kumen. Patriarchen" in "Jahrbuch far
which elapsed from the beginning down to the death protest. Theol.", 1887). The dispute about the
of Lamech is, according to the Hebrew, 1651, while title (Ecumenical Patriarch in the sixth century (see
the Samaritan gives 1307, and the Septua^t 2227. John the Faster) shows that even then the name
These are but a few of the peculiarities exhibited by was receiving a technical sense. Later medieval and
the comparison of these perolexing genealogical lists, modem devdopments, schisms, and the creation of
That the divergences are for the most part inten- titular and so-called "minor" patriarchates have pro-
tional seems to be a necessary inference from their duced the result that a great number of persons now
systematic r^ularity, and the implied manipulation claim the title; but in alTcases it connotes the idea of
of the figures by the early translators goes far to make a special rank — ^the highest, except among Catholics
probable the more or less artificial character of these who admit the still higher papacy,
primitive chronologies as a whole. PairiarchiUe (Gr. rarpMpx^^\ LiEit. pairiarchaius) is
Von Humm slaukb. Comment, in Geneaim (Paris. 1895) ; Gioor, the derived word meaning a patnarch's office, see, reign,
S^i^^.iar?^^^ ^ *^ ^^^ "^ '*f P^ rettoiiMfU, I (New or, most often, the territory he governs. It corre-
York, 1901), 184 aq.; ViOOVROnx, Ltvret SainU et CnltQua -TintiHa ir\ onisAnna^v onicuvinafA an/I Hiamma in twIo.
RationaliaU, IV (Paria. 1891). 224 so.; Idbm. Manuel Biblique, II "PO^OS tO epiSCOpacy, episcopate, ana OlOCese m relSr
(Paris, 1880). n. 333; Kaulbn in Kirehenlexih»h s. v.; see also tion tO a Dishop.
CnoNOLooT, BiBucAL. James F. Dbibcoll. II. The Thbee Patriabchb. — ^The oldest canon
law admitted only three bishops as having what
Patrlareh and Patriarchate, names of the high- later ages called patriarchal rignts — ^the Bishops of
estr ecclesiastical dignitaries after the pope, and of Rome, Alexandria, and Antio<£. The successor of
the territory they nue. St. Peter as a matter of course held the highest place
I. Origin OF THE TrriiE. — Patriarch (Gr. irarpidpx^f; and combined in his own person all dignities. He
Lat. patriarcha) means the father or chief of a race was not only bishop, but metropolitan, primate, and
(rarpid, a clan or famil}^). The word occurs in patriarch; Metropolitan of the Roman Province, Pri-
the Septuagint for the cmefs of the tribes (e. g. I mate of Italy, and first of the patriarchs. As soon aa
Par., xxiv, 31; xxvii, 22, Tarpidpxai, tQp ^vXQp: cf. a hierarchy was organized among bishops, the chief
II Par., xxiii, 20 etc.); in the New Testament (Heb., authority and dignity were retained by the Bishop of
vii. 4) it is applied to Abraham as a version of his Rome. The pope combines the above positions and
title ''father of many nations" (Gen., xvii, 4), to each of them gives him a special relation to the faith-
David (Acts, ii, 29)f and to the twelve sons of Jacob ful and the bishops in the territory corresponding.
(Acts, vii, 8-9). Tnis last became the special mean- As pope he is visible head of the whole Church;
ing of the word when used of Scriptural characters, no Christian is outside his papid jurisdiction. Aa
The heads of the tribes were the '' Twelve Patriarchs", Bishop of Rome he is the diocesan bishop of that dio*
though the word is used also in a more general sense cese only; as metropolitan he governs the Roman
for the fathers of the Old Law in general, e. g. the in- IVovince; as primate he governs the Italian bishops;
vocation in the litany, ''All ye holy Patriarchs and as patriarch he rules only the West. As patricurch
Prophets". the Roman pontiff has from the beginning ruled aU
Names of Christian dignitaries were in early days the Western lands where Latin was once the civilized,
taken sometimes from civil life (IrlffKorot, duijcowt), and is still the liturKical languajse, where the Roman
sometimes borrowed from the Jews (xpctr/Si^tpoff). Rite is now used ahnost exclusively and the Roman
The name patriarch is one of the latter class. Bishops canon law (e. g. celibacy, our rules of fasting and
of special cugnity were called patriarchs just as deacons abstinence, etc.) obtains. To Christians in the East
were called Tevites, because their place corresponded he is supreme pontiff, not patriarch. Hence there
by analogy to those in the Old Law. All such titles has always been a closer relation between Western
became technical terms, official titles, only gradually, bishops and the pope than between him and their
At first they were used loosely as names of honour Eastern brethren, just as there is a still closer relation
without any strict connotation; but in all such cases between him and the suburban bishops of the Roman
the reality existed before any special name was used. I^vince of which he is metropolitan. Many laws
There were ecclesiastical dignitaries with all the rights that we obey are not universal Catholic laws, but
and prerogatives of patriarchs in the first three cen- those of the Western patriarchate. Before the Coun-
turies; but the official title does not occur till later, dl of Nicflsa (325) two bii^ops in the East had the
As a Christian title of honour the word patriarch same patriarchal authority over lar^^ territories,
appears first as applied to Pope Leo I in a letter of those of Alexandria and Ajitioch. It is difficult to
Theodosius II (40^50; Mansi^ VI^ 68). The bish- say exactly how they obtained this position. The
ops of the Byzantine jurisdiction apply it to their oiganization of provmces under metropolitans fol-
cnief, Acacius (471-89; Evagrius, "H. E.", Ill, 9). lowed, as a matter of obvious convenience, the or-
But it was still merely an honourable epithet that ganization of the empire arranged by Diocletian
might be i^ven to any venerable bishop. St. Greg- (Fortescue, "Orthodox Eastern CSiurch", 21-23).
ory of Nazianzus says: "the elder bishops, or more In this arrangement the most important cities in the
li^tly, the patriarchs" (Orat., xlii, 23). Socrates East were Alexandria of E^prpt and Antioch of Syria
says that the Fathers of Constantinople I (381) "set So the Bishop of Alexandria became the chief of aU
PATRIARCH
550
PATRIARCH
Egyptiaii bishops and metropolitans; the Bishop of
Antioch held the same place over Syria and at the
same time extended his sway over Asia Minor, Greece,
and the rest of the East. Diocletian had divided
the empire into four great prefectures. Three of
these (Italy, Gaul, and lUjrricum) made up the Roman
Sitriarchate, the other, the ''East" (Pnrfectura
rientis) had five (civil) ''dioceses" — ^Thraoe, Asia,
Pontiis, the Diocese of the East, and Egypt. Egypt
was the Alexandrine patriarchate. The Antiochene
patriarchate embraced the civil "Diocese" of the
East. The other three civU divisions of Thrace.
Asia, and Pontus would have probably developed
into separate patriarchates, but for the rise of Con-
stantinople (ibid., 22-25). Later it became a popular
idea to coxmect all three patriarchates with the Prince
of the Apostles. St. Peter had also reiffned at An-
tioch j he had foimded the Church of Akxandria by
his disciple St. Mark. At any rate the Council of
Nicsea in 325, recognises the supreme place of the
bishops of these three cities as an "ancient custom"
(can. vi). Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch are the
three old patriarchates whose imique position and
order were disturbed by later developments.
III. The FrvB Patriarchates. — When pilnims
began to flock to the Holy City, the Bishop of Jeru-
salem, the guardian of the sacrra shrines, began to be
considered as more than a mere suffragan of Cssarea.
The Council of Nicsea (325) gave him an honorary
primacy, saving, however, the metropolitical rights of
Cffisarea (can. vii). Juvenal of Jenisalem (420-58)
succeeded finally, after much dispute, in chanfldng
this honorary position into a real patriarchate. The
Council of (Jhalcedon (451) cut away Palestine and
Arabia (Sinai) from Antioch and of them formed
the Patriarchate of Jerusalem (Sess. VII and VIII).
Since that time Jerusalem has always been counted
among the patriarchal sees as the smallest and last
(ibid., 25-28). But the greatest change, the one that
met most opposition, was* the rise of Constantinople
to patriarduLl rank. Because Constantine had made
Byzantium "New Rome", its bishop, once the hum-
ble suffragan of Heraclea, thought that he should be-
come second only, if not almost equal, to the Bishop
of Old Rome. For many centuries the popes op-
posed this ambition, not because any one thought of
disputing their first place, but because they were un-
willing to change the old order of the hierarchy. In
381 the (Ik)uncil of Constantinople declared that:
"The Bishop of (Donstantinople shall have the pri-
macy of honour after the Bishop of Rome, because
it is New Rome" (can. iii). The popes (Damasus,
Gregory the Great) refused to confirm this canon.
Nevertheless Constantinople srew by favour of the
emperor, whose centralizing policy found a ready help
in the authority of his court bishop. Chalcedon (451)
established Constantinople as a patriarchate with ju-
risdiction over Asia Minor and Thrace and gave it
the second place after Rome (can. xxviii). Pope
Leo I (440-61) refused to admit this canon, which
was made in the absence of his legates; for centuries
Rome stiU refused to give the second place to Con-
stantinople. It was not until the Fourth Lateran
Council (1215) that the Latin Patriarch of Constan-
tinople was allowed this place; in 1439 the Council of
Florence gave it to the Greek patriarch. Neverthe-
less in the East the emperors wish was powerful
enough to obtain recognition for his patriarch; from
Chalcedon we must count Constantinople as practi-
cally, if not legally, the second patriarchate (ibid.,
28-47). So we have the new order of five patriarchs
— Rome, (Donstantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jeru-
salem— that seemed, to Eastern theologians espe-
cially, an essential element of the constitution of the
Church [see (ibid., 46-47) the letter of Peter III of
Antioch, c. 1054).
IV. Further Dbvelopmsnt. — ^At the time of
Cerularius's schism (1054) the Kreat Church of the
empire knew practically these five patriarchs only,
though "minor" patriarchate had already begun m
the West. The Eighth Creneral Council (Constan-
tinople IV, in 869) had solemnly affirmed Uieir posi-
tion (can. xxi). The schism, and further distinctions
that would not have existed but for it, considerably
augmented the number of bishops who claimed the
ti^. But before the great schism the earlier Nes-
torian and Monophynte separations had resulted in
the existence of various heretical patriarchs. To be
under a patriarch had come po be the normal, appar-
ently necessarv, condition for any Church. So it was
natural that these heretics when they broke from the
Catholic patriarchs should sooner or later set up ri-
vals of tneir own. But in most cases they have
been neiUier consistent nor logical. Instead of being
merelv an honourable title for the occupants of the
five chief sees, the name patriarch was looked upon
as denoting a rank of its own. So there was the idea
that one mi^t be patriarch of any place. We shall
understand the confusion of this idea if we imagine
some sect setting up a Pope of London or New York
in opposition to the Pope of Rome. The Nestorians
broke away from Antioch in the fifth century. They
then called their catholicus (originally a vicar of the
Antiochene pontiff), patriarch; thougn he has never
claimed to be Patriarch of Antioch. which alone would
have given a reason for his title. Babseus (Bab-
Hai, 408-503) is said to be the first who usurped the
title, as Patriarch of Seleucia and Ctesiphon (Aaae-
mani, "Bibl. Orient.", Ill, 427). The Copts and
Jacobites have been more consistent. Dunng the
long Monophysite quarrels (fifth to seventh cent.)
there were continually rival or alternate Catholic and
Monophysite patriarchs of Alexandria and Antioch.
Eventually, since the Moslem conquest of Egypt and
Syria, rival lines were formed. So there is a line of
Cioptic patriarchs of Alexandria and of Jacobite jpa^
triarchs of Antioch as rivals to the Melchite ones. But
in this case each claims to represent the old line and
refuses to recognize its rivals, which is a possible
position.
The Armenian Church has made the same mistake
as the Nestorians. It has now four so-called pa-
triarchs, of which two bear titles of sees that can-
not by any rule of antiquity claim to be patriarchal
at all, and the other two nave not even the pretence of
descent from the old lines. The Armenian Catholicus
of Etchmiadzin began to call himself a patriarch on
the same basis as the Nestorian primate — simply as
head of a larf;e and, after the Monophjrsite schism
(Synod of Dum in 527), independent Church. It is
difficult to say at what date he assumed the title.
Armenian writers call all their catholici patriarchs,
back to St. Gregory the Illuminator (fourth cent.).
Silbemagl counts Nerses I (353-737) first patriarch
(Verfassung u. gegenw. Bestand, 216). But a claim
to patriarcnal rank could hardly have been made
at a time when Armenia was still in union with
and subject to the See of CJsesarea. The Catho-
licus's title is not local; he is "Patriarch of all Arme-
nians." In 1461 Mohammed II set up an Armenian
Patriarch of Constantinople to balance the Orthodox
one. A temporary schism amonff the Armenians re-
sulted in a Patriarchate of Sis, and in the seventeenUi
century the Armenian Bishop of Jerusalem began to
call himself patriarch. It is clear then how entirely
the Armenians ignore what the title really means.
The next multiplication of patriarchs was produced
by the Crusades. The crusaders naturally refused to
reco^ze the claims of the old, now schismatical,
patriarchal lines, whose representatives moreover in
most cases fled; so they set up Latin patriarchs in
their place. The first Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem
was Dagobert of Pisa (1099-1107); the Orthodox
rival (Simon II) had fled to Cyprus in 1099 and died
PATSIABCH 551 tATBIABCB
there the same year (for the list of his suceeflsors see for the Chaldees (converted Nestorians). It began
Le (^ien, III, 1241-^). It was not till 1142 that with the submission of the Nestorian patriarch, John
the Orthodox continued their broken line by electing Sulaga (d. 1555). There has been a complicated series
Arsenics II, who like most Orthodox patriarchs at of rivalries and schisms since, of which the final curi-
that time lived at Constantinople. At Antioch, too, ous result is that the present Uniat patriarch repre-
the crusaders had a scruple against two patriarchs of sents the old Nestorian line, and his Nestorian nval
the same place. They took the citv in 1098, but as the originally Catholic line of Sulaga. The title of
long as the Orthodox patriarch (John IV) remained "Babybn'' was not used till Pope Innocent XI con-
there they tried to make him a Catholic instead of ap- f erred it in 1681. The Melchite patriarchate dates
pointing a rival. However, when at last he fled to from 1724 (Cyril VI, 1724-1759). It began again
Constantinople they consiaered the see vacant, and with a disputed succession to the old patriarchal See
Bernard, Bishop of Arthesia, a Frenchman, was of Antioch; the Melchite occupant has quite a good
elected to it (the succession in Le Quien, III, 1154- claim to represent the old line. The Uniat Bysantine
■84). Sees of Alexandria and Jerusalem are for the present
In 1167 Amaury II, Kins Of Jerusalem, captured considered as joined to that of Antioch; the Melchite
Alexandria, as did Peter I, Ring of Cyprus, in 1365. patriarch uses all three titles (see Mslchitbs). The
But both times the city was given back to the Mo»- Uniat Armeniazis have a patriarch who resides at Con-
lems at once. Nor were there any Latin inhabitants to stantinople, but does not take his title from that city.
Justify the establishment of a Latin patriarchate. On His line oegan with a disputed election to Sis, one of
the other hand, the Orthodox patriarch, Nicholas I the secondary Armenian patriarchates, in 1739. He
<c. 1210-after 1223^ Le Quien, II, 490) was well dis- is called Patriarch of Cilicia of the Aimenians. In
posed towards reumon^ wrote friendly letters to the 1781 Ignatius Giarve, Jacobite Bishop of Aleppo, was
pope, and was invited to the Fourth Lateran Council elected canonically Patriarch of Antioch. He then
(1215). There was then a special reason for not set- made his submission to Rome and the heretical bish-
ting up a Latin rival to him. Eventually a Latin ops deposed him and chose a Monophjrsite as patriarch,
patriarchate was established rather to complete what from Giarve the line of Uniat Syrian patriarchs of
nad been done in other cases than for an^ practical Antioch descends. Lastly, in 1895, Pope Leo XIII
reason. Giles, Patriarch of Grado, a Dommican, was erected a Uniat Coptic Patriarchate of Alexandria for
made first Latin Patriarch of Alexandria by Clement the many Cbpts who were at that time becoming
V in 1310. An earlier Latin Athanasius seems to be Catholics. This exhausts the list of Uniat patriarchs,
mythical (Le Quien, III, 1143). For the list of Giles's In three cases (the Chaldees, Melchites, and Syrians)
line see Le Quien (III, 1141-1151). When the Fourth the Uniat patriarch has, on purely historical grounds,
Crusade took Constantinople in 1204, the patriarch at least as good a claim as his sohismatical rival, if not
John X fled to Nicsea with the emperor, and Thomas better, to represent the old succession. On the other
Morosini was made Latin patriarch to balance the hand, the existence of several Catholic patriarchs of
Latin emperor (Le Quien, ill, 793-836). It will be the same see, for instance, the Melchite, Jacobite,
seen then that the crusaders acfted from their point of Maronite, ana Latin titulars of Antioch. is a conces-
view correctly enough. But the result was for each sion to the national feeling of Eastern Christians, or,
see double lines that have continued ever since. The in the case of the Latin, a relic of the crusades that
; Orthodox lines went on; the Latin patriarchs ruled as archsologically can hardly be justified.
; long as the Latins held those lands. When the cm- It is curious that there is no Uniat Patriarch of
i saders' kingdoms came to an end they went on as titu- Constantinople. There was for a time, however bricdf,
' lar patriarchs and have been for many centuries dig- a new patriarchate among the Orthodox. In the six-
nitaries of the papal court.* Only the Latin Patriarcn teenth century the Church of Russia had become a
of Jerusalem was sent back in 1847 to be the head of very larpe and flourishing branch of the (hrthodox
all Latins in Palestine. By that time people were so commumon. The Russian Government then thought
accustomed to see different patriarchs of the same the time had come to break its dependence on Con-
place ruling each his own ''nation'' that this seemed a stantinople. In 1589 the Tsar Feodor I (1581-98)
natural proceeding. made the Metropolitan See of Moscow into an inde-
The formation of Uniat Churches since the. six- pendent patriarchate. In 1591 the other patriarchs in
teenth century again increased the number of patri- svnod confirmed his arrangement and gave Moscow
archates. These people could no longer obey the old the fifth place^ below Jerusalem. Orthodox theolo-
schismaticid lines. On the other hand each group gians were dehghted that the sacred pentarchy, the
came out of a corresponViing schismatical Church; classical order of five patriarchs, was thus restored;
the^ were accustomed to a chief of their own rite, they sidd that God had raised up Moscow to replace
their own ''nation" in the Turkish sense. The onlv fallen Rome. But their joy did not last long. Only
course seemed to be to ^ve to each a Uniat patriarch ten Russian patriarchs reigned. In 1700 the last of
corresponding to his schismatical rival. Moreover, in these, Adria. died. Peter the Great did not allow a
many cases the line of Uniat patriarchs comes from a successor to be elected, and in 1721 replaced the patri-
disputed succession among the schismatics, one claim- archate by the Holy Directing Synod that now rules
ant having submitted to Rome and being therefore the Russian Church. But many Russians who resent
deposed by the schismatical majority. The oldest of the present tyranny of State over Church in their
these Uniat patriarchates is that of the Maronites. country hope for a restoration of the national patri-
In 680 the Patriarch of Antioch, Macarius, was de- archate as the first step towards better things,
posed by the Sixth General Council for Monotheletism. There remain only the so-called "minor" patri-
The Monotheletes then grouped themselves aroimd archates in the West. At various times certain WeSt-
the hegumenoe of the Maromte monastery, John (d. em sees, too, have been called patriarchal. But there
707). This bedns the separated Maronite (at that is a fundamental difference between these and anv
time undoubtedlv Monothelete) Chureh. John made Easternpatriarehate. Namely, the pope is Patriarch
himself Patriarch of Antioch for his followers, who of the West; all Western bishops of whatever nmk are
wanted a head and were in communion with neither subject not only to his papal but aJsoto his patriarehal
the Jacobites nor the Melchites. At the time of the jurisdiction. But a real patriarch cannot be subject
crusades the Maronites united with Rome (1182 and to another patriarch: no patriarch can have another
again in 1216). They are allowed to keep their Patri- under his patriarchal jurisdiction, just as a diocesan
arch of Antioch as head of their rite; but he in no way ordinary cannot have another ordinary in his diocese,
represents the old line of St. Peter and St. Ignatius. Eastern patriarchs claim independence of any oUier
The next oldest Uniat patriarchate is that of Babylon patriarch as such; the Catholics obey the pope as
l^ATftlA&dfi 552 PATRIARCH
•
gope, the Orthodox recognize the civil headship of bishop of Lisbon and the new patriarch. In 1740
Constantinople, the Armenians a certain primacy of Beneoict XIV joined the archbishopric to the patri-
honour in their catholicus. But in every case the es- archate. The Patriarch of Lisbon has certain privi-
sence of a patriarch's dignity is that he has no other leges of honour that make his court an imitation of
patriarch over him as patriarch. On the other hand, that of the pppe. His chapter has three orders like
these Western minor patriarchs have never been sup- those of the College of Cardinals; he himself is always
posed to be exempt from the Roman patriarchate, made a cardinal at the first consistory after his pre-
They have never nad fragments cut away from Rome conization and he uses a tiara (without the keys) over
to make patriarchates for them, as for instance Jem* his arms, but he has no more than metropoUtical juri»-
salem was formed of a fragment detached from diction over seven suffragans. Lastly, Leo XIII, in
Antioch. 1886, as a counterpoise to the Patriarchate of the
Indeed, none of them has ever had any patriarchate West Indies, erectea a titular Patriarchate of the East
at all. It may be said tiiat the origin of the title in Indies attached to the See of Goa.
the West was an imitation of the Eiast. But legally At various times other Western bishops have been
the situation was totally different. The Western called patriarchs. In the Middle Ages those of Lyons,
patriarchates have never oeen more than mere titles Bourges. Canterbury, Toledo, Pisa were occasionidiy
conveying no jurisdiction at all. The earliest of them so caUea. But there was never any legal daim to
was Aquueia m Ill^ricum. It was an important city these merely complimentary titles,
in the first centuries; the see claimed to have been V. Existing Patriarchs. — We cpve first a corn-
founded by St. Mark. During the rule of the Goths in plete list of all persons who now bear the title. A.
Italy (fifth to sixth centuries) the Bishop of Aquileia Caiholica, — ^The pope as Patriarch of the West (this is
was called patriarch, though the name was certainly the commonest form; ''Patiiarchof Rome", or ''Latin
not used in any technical sense. It is one more exam- Patriarch" also occur) rules all Western Europe from
pie of the looser meaning; by which any venerable Poland to Illyricum (the Balkan Peninsula), Africa
bishop might be so called m earlier times. However, west of Egypt, all other lands (America, Australia)
the Bishop of Aquileia began to use his complimen- colonized uom these lands and all Western (Latin)
tary title m a more definite sense. Though Fllyricum missionaries and dwellers in the East. In other words,
undoubtedly belonged legally to the Roman Patri- his patriarchal jurisdiction extends over all who use
archate, it was long a fruitfm source of dispute with the Western (Roman, Ambrosian, Mozarabio) rites,
the East (Orth. Eastern Church, 44-45) ; Aquileia on and over the B^^zantine Uniats in Italy, Corsica, ana
the frontier thou^t itself entitled to some kind of Sicilv. As patriarch he may hold patriarchal ssrnods
independence of either Rome or Constantinople. At and he frequently makes laws (such as ritual laws and
first the popes resolutely refused to acknowledge this our form of dencal celibacy) for the Western patri-
new claim in any form. Then came the quarrel of the archate alone,
lliree Chapters. The Uniat Catholic patriarchs are as follows: (1)
When, however. Pope Vipilius had yielded to the Melchite Patriarch of Antioch, Alexandria, Jerusalem,
second Council of Constantmople (553), a number of and all the East, ruling over all Melchites (o. v.); (2)
North Italian bishops went into formial schism, led the Syrian Patriarch of Antioch and all the East: (3)
by Macedonius of Aquileia (539-56). From this the Maronite Patriarch of Antioch and all the East;
time the Bishops of Aquileia call themselves patri- (4) the Coptic Patriarch of Alexandria; (5) tiie Patri-
archs, as heads of a sduamatical party, till 700. Pau- arch ctf Ciucia of the Annenians; (6) the Patriarch of
linus of Aquileia (557-71) moved his see to Grado, a Babylon of the Chaldees. These rule over all mem-
small island oppcMite Aauileia, keeping, however, the bers of their rite, except that the Armenian has no
old title. This line of bishops in Grado oecame Catho- jurisdiction in Austria or .the Crimea, where the Ar-
lics about 606; their schismatical suffragans then menian Bishops of Lemberg and Artwin are exempt,
restored the old see at Aquileia as a schismatical patri- being immediately subject to the Holy See.
archate. The popes seem to have allowed or toler- Of the Latin patriarchs onlv one nas jurisdiction:
ated the same title for the Bishops of Aquileiar-Grado. the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem (over all Latins in
The Synod at Aquileia in 700 put an end to the Palestine and Cyprus). All the others are titular,
schism finally. namely: the Latm Patriarchs of Constantinople, An-
From that time, however, there were two lines of tioch and Jerusalem, ornaments of the papal court at
so-called patriarchs, those of Aquileia and of Grado Rome; the "minor" Patriarchs of Venice, Lisbon, the
(where the bishop now kept the title of Grado only). West Indies, the East Indies. It should be noted that
Neither had more than metropoUtical jurisdiction, the modem Roman lists (e. g. the " Gerarchia Catto-
Both these titles are now merged in that of the Patri- Uca") i^ore the difference Between those who have
arch of Venice. The See of Venice absorbed Grado in jurisdiction and the titular patriarchs, and count all
the fifteenth century. The city of Aquileia was over- who bear the title of one of the old patriarchates (Con-
thrown by an earthquake in 1348, but the line of patri- stantinople, Alexandria^ Antioch, Jerusalem) as ma-
archs continued at Udine. It came thus entirely in jor, all others (including Babylon and CUicia) as
the power of the Venetian Republic ; the patriarch was minor.
idways a Venetian. Eventually Benedict XIV, in B. NonrCatholica, — Non-Catholics who bear the
1751, changed the title to that of Patriarch of Venice, title now are the Orthodox Patriarchs of Constanti-
The discovery of America added a vast territory to nople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem; the Nestorian
the Church, over which it seemed natural that a patri- patriarch ac Kuchanis (his title is now "Catholicus
arch should reign. In 1520 Leo X created a "Patri- and Patriarch of the East"); the Coptic Patriarch of
archateof the West Indies'* among the Spanish cler^. Alexandria; the Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch; four
In 1572 Pius V joined this rank to the office of chief Armenian patriarchs, the "Catholicus and Patriarch
chaplain of the Spanish army. But in this case, too, of all Armenians'' at Etchmiadsin and those of Con-
the dignity is purely titular. In 1644 Innocent X gave stantinople, Sis, and Jerusalem. The rights, dignity,
the patricurch some jurisdiction, but expressly in his and duties of patriarchs form part of the canon law of
quahty of chapla&n only. He has no income as patri- each Church. They are not the same in all cases. As
arch and is often idso bishop of a Spanish diocese. In a general principle it may be said that the f undamen-
1716 Clement XI, in answer to a petition of King John, tal notion is that a patriarch has the same authority
who^ in return for help in fijditing Turks, wanted a over his metropolitans as they have over their suffra-
fatnarch like the King of Spain, erectea a titular gan bishops. Moreover, a patriarch is not himself
Patriarchate of Lisbon at the kind's chapel. The city subject to another patriarch, or rather he is not sub*
was divided between the jurisdiction of the Arch- ject to any one's patriarchal jurisdiction. But therv
PATBIABCH8 553 PATRICIAN
ifl here a difference between Catholics and the others, monial prerogatives. The Roman vatriarchia are five
All Catholics, including patriarchs, obey the supreme basilicas, one the pope's own catnedral, the others
(papal) authority of the Eoman pontiff; further we churches at which Uie other i>atriarch8 officiated if
must except from our consideration the merely titular they came to Rome, near which they dwelt. The
patriarchs who have no authority at all. In the case piapal pcUnarckium was originally the ''Domus Puden-
of the Eastern Churches the general principle is that a tiana' , since the earlv Middle Ages it is the Basilica
patriarch is subject to no Uving authority save that of Saint Saviour at the Lateran (St. John Lateran).
of a possible general council. But here again we must The others are, or were. St. Peter for Constantinople,
except the Armenians. Their catholicus had for many St. Paul Without the Walls for Alexandria, St. Mary
centuries authority over all his Church ver^ like that Major for Antioch, St. Lawrence for Jerusalem,
of the pope. It is diminished now; but still one can These are now only titles and memories. «
hardly say that the other patriarchs are quite inde- LbQuisn, Oriem ehritHanut (Paris, 1740); Binoram. OHoinf
pendent of him. He alone may summon national f"/*^*^*^^. ^J^^^^on, 1708-!^). M2 aq.: Lt)B«cK./2«»cA««<ii-
*^ J rii -A . \ n -L • •^1, "yt:^^ **»«»vr»*»» Utlung u, ktrehltche Hxerarchve des OnerUa 6m turn Aiugana tU9
synods. The ^Armenian) Patnarch of C>onstantmople vi«rt€n JakrhunderU (MQnster, 1900) ; Hinbchxtm. Syttem deB
has now usurped most of his rights in the Turkish Em- ktUholuehen KirckenrechU, l (1869) : Kattenbubcb, LekHntch
pire. One of these two ordains all bishops. The Patri- *^ wrgUiehenden Kar^nnorukunde, I (Freiburg. 1892) ; Siiara-
arch of Sis may not even consecrate Cnnsm, but is sup- dea Orienta (lUUsbon, 1904) ; Fobtucue, The Orthodox Baatem
plied from Etchmiadzin. A somewhat similar case is Church (London,. 1907), L
' that of the Orthodox. Since the Turkish conquest the Adrian Fortbscub.
^"^^^ ?**I?^ ^^y^"" ^^'^ ^5^ ^^ ""K^ Patriapcha, Testaments of the Twelve. See
the Orthodox m the Turkish Empire. He has contm- Apocetpha sub-title II
uallv tried and still to a great extent tries to turn his ' *
civil headship into supreme ecclesiasticaJ authority, Patridaa Brothers (or BBOTHEitd of Saint
to be in shoii; an Orthodox pope. His attempts are Patrick). — This Brotherhood was founded by the
always indi^antly rejected by the other patriarchs Right Rev. Dr. Daniel Delan^, Bishop of Kildare
and the national Churches, but not always success- and Leighlin, at Tullow, in the County of Carlow, Ire-
fuUy. Meanwhile he has kept at least one sign of au- land^ on the feast of the Purification of the Blessed
thority. He alone consecrates chrism for all Orthodox Virgm Mary, in 1808, for the reli^ous and literary
bishops, except for those of Russia and Rumania. education of youth and the instruction of the faithfm
In the East the general principle is that l^e patri- in Christian piety. Catholic Ireland was at this
arch ordains all bishops in his own territory. This is a period just emerging from the troubled times of the
very old sign of authority in those countries. He is penal laws. These laws made it treasonable for a
elected byliis metropolitans or (permanent) synod, Cathohc parent to procure for his child a religious and
ordained, as a rule, by his own suffragans, makes laws, secular education m consonance with his belief, and
and hafl certain ri^ts of confirming or deposing his consequently not only were the young deprived of the
bii^ops, generally m conjunction with his synod, and means of instruction, but adults also were in a state
may summon patriarchid (temponuy) synods. The of enforced ignorance of Christian doctrine and its
question of the deposition of patriarchs among the practices. Bishop Delan^ set about the good work
non-Catholics is difficult. Among the Orthodox they of founding the Reli^ous Congregation of the Broth-
have been and are constantly deposed by their metron ers of Saint Patrick in his diocese, for the purpose of
politans or synod. They nearly always refuse to affording his people that education of which they had
acknowledge their deposition and a struggle follows been so long aeprived. He chose from among the cate-
in which Constantinople always tries to interfere, chetical instructors of the Sunday schools seven young
Eventually the Turk settles it, generally in favour of men who formed the nucleus of the new order, and
deposition, since he gets a lar^e bribe for the new patri- under the personal instruction of the bishop, and
arch's berat. The special nghts and duties of the direction of his successor, the illustrious Dr. Dojrle,
patriarchs of the vanous Eastern Churches are given the congregation was established as a diocesan institu-
m Silbemagl (infra), tion. jji succeeding years filiations were established
In the Catholic Church since Eugene IV (1431- in other dioceses of Ireland, and the Brothers were
47) cardinals have precedence over patriarchs, invited by several Australian and Indian bishops to
Uniat patriarchs are elected by a synod of all the these distant countries. Several foundations were
bishops of the patriarchate and confirmed by the Holy made, among them those of Sydney, to which arch-
See. They must send a profession of Faith to the diocese the Brothers were invited by Cardinal Moran;
pope and receive the pallium from him. Their ri^ts and that of Madras in India, undertaken at the re-
are summed up by a Constitution of Benedict XIV quest of the late prelate of that diocese, Bishop
C^Apostolica", 14 Feb., 1742), namely: to summon Stephen Fexmelly.
and preside at patriarchal synods (whose acts must In 1885 the Brothers made application to the Holy
be confirmed at Rome), to ordain all bishops of their See for the approval of the congr^ation. for constitut-
territory and consecrate chrism, to send the omopho- ing a central government and for establisning a common
rion to their metropolitans, receive appeals made novitiate. The request was ^nted. After taking
aeainst the judgments of these, and receive tithes of the opinions of the bishops m whose dioceses the
aU episcopal income; in E^od they may depose their Brothers were labouring. Pope Leo XIII provisionally
bishops. They bear their patriarchal cross not only approved the congregation for five years by a Rescript
throughout their own territory, but, by a special con- dated 6 January, 1888, and on 8 September, 1893,
cession, everywhere except at Rome. All have a per- issued a decree of final confirmation, highlv commend-
manent representative at Rome. They must visit ing the good work hitherto accomplished by the
all their dioceses every third year and may not resign Brothers, approving of their rules and constitutions,
without the pop^'s consent. The Bull 'Tteversurus" granting them all the facilities and powers necessary
of Pius IX (1867) made further laws first for the Ar- for carrying on the duties of their congregation, con-
menian patriarch; then with modifications it has been stituting India and Australia separate provinces, and
extended to other Uniats. The precedence among imparting to the institute the Apostolic Benediction,
patriarchs is determined by the rank of their see, ac- The houses of the order, which had hitherto been inde-
cording to the old order of the five patriarchates, pendent and separate communities, were united under
followed by Cilicia, then Babylon. Between several a superior general who with four assistants governs
titulars of the same see but of different ritee the order the congregation.
is that of the date of their preconization. A general chapter of the Patrician communities as-
The tituliMT Lfitta patriarchs tay§ only Qertaia cer^ lembtea QY^ eix years, Ag a remilt q( the confirma-
PATBICK 554 PATRICK
tion of the institute the Brothers have been enabled to sanctuary of L6rins which was just then acquiring
perfect and extend their congregation in Ireland, and widespread renown for learning and piety; and wher-
to open new collies, schools, and orphanages in the ever lessons of heroic perfection in the exeroifle of
above-mentioned n>reign countries. Tne scope of their Christian life could be acauired, thither the fervent
work, which embraces primary, intermeoiate, and Patrick was sure to bend nis steps. No sooner had
university education, has been much extended in re- St. Germain entered on his great mission at Auxerre
cent years. The introduction of a scheme of technical than Patrick put himself under his guidance, and it
and scientific study by the different educational de- was at that great bishop's hands that Ireland's future
Eartments has been warmly supported by the Brother- apostle was a few yeaj*s later promoted to the priest*
ood; while by their management of orphanages and hood. It is the tradition in the territory of the Morini
industrial schools they aid thousands of youths to that Patrick under St. Germain's guidance for some
raise tJiemselves to a higher place in the social scale, years was en^^ed in missionary work among them.
Their residential colleges and secondary day-schools When Germam commissioned by the Holy See pro-
equip the students for responsible positions in life, oeeded to Britain to combat the erroneous teachings of
Tne colleges of the Brothers in India are affiliated to Pelagius, he chose Patrick to be one of his missionary
the Allahabad and Calcutta Universities, in which companions and thus it was his privily to be associ-
their students have distin^ui^ed themselves; while ated with the representative of Rome in the triimiphs
in Australia, notwithstanding that the Brothers re- that ensued over heresy and Paganism, and in the
ceive no State aid, their pupils compete successfully many remarkable events of the expedition, such as*
witji those of the highly subsidized Government t^e miraculous calmine of the tempest at sea, the visit
schools for positions in tne civil service. On the occa- to the reUcs at St. Alban's shrine, and the Alleluia
sion of the centenary in 1908, His Holiness Pope Pius victory. Amid all these scenes, however, Patrick's
X bestowed on the order many favours and special thoughts turned towards Ireland, and from time to
indulgences. The superior general and his assistants timehe was favoured with visions of the children from
reside at the mother-house, Tullow, Ireland, where are Focluth, by the Western sea, who cried out to him:
also the novitiate and house of studies. ''0 holy youth, come back to Erin, and walk once
Jerome F. Btrnb. more amonmt- us."
Pope St. Celestine I (q. v.), who rendered immortal
Patrick, Saint. Apostle of Ireland, b. at Kil- service to the Church by the overthrow of the Pelagian
patrick,nearDumbarton, in Scotland, in the year 387; and Nestorian heresies, and by the imperishable
d. at Saul, Downpatrick. Ireland, 17 March, 493. He wreath of honour decreed to the Blessed Virgin in the
had for his parents Calphumius and Conchessa. The General Coimcil of Ephesus, crowned his pontificate
former belonged to a Roman family of high rank and by an act of the most far-reaching consequences
held the office of decurio in Gaul or Britain. Con- for the spread of Christianity and civiUzation, when
chessa was a near relative of the great patron of Gaul, he entrusted St. Patrick with the mission of gathering
St. Martin of Tours. Kilpatrick still retains many the Irish race into the one fold of Christ, ralladius
memorials of Saint Patrick, and frequent pilgrimages (q. v.) had already received that commission, but
continued far into the Middle Ages to perpetuate terrified by the fierce opposition of a Wicklow chief-
there the fame of his sanctity and miracles. In his tain had abandoned the sacred enterprise. It was St.
sixteenth year, Patrick was carried off into captivity Germain, Bishop of Auxerre, who commended Patrick
b>r Irish marauders and was sold as a slave to a chief- to the pope. The writer of St. Germain's Life in
tain named Milchu in Dalaradia. a territory of the the ninth century, Heric of Auxerre, thus attests
present county of Antrim in Ireland, where for six this important fact: "Since the fflory of the father
years he tended his master's flocks in tne valley of the shines in the training of the children, of the many
Braid and on the slopes of Slemish, near the modem sons in Christ whom St. Germain is believed to have
town of Balljrmena. He relates in his "Confessio" had as disciples in reU^on, let it suffice to make
that during his captivity while tending the flocks he mention here, very bnefly, of one most famous,
prayed many times in the day: "the love of God", he Patrick, the special Apostle of the Irish nation, sjs the
added, "and His fear increased in me more and more, record of his work proves. Subject to that most
and the faith grew in me. and the spirit was roused, holy discipleship for 18 years, he drank in no little
so that, in a single day, I nave said as many as a hun- knowledge in Holy Scripture from the stream of so
dred prayers, and in the night nearly the same, so that sreat a well-spring. Germain sent him, accompanied
whilst in the woods and on the mountain, even before by Segetius^ his priest, to Celestine, Pope of Kome,
the dawn, I was roused to prayer and I felt no hurt approved of by wnose judgment, supported by whose
from it, whether there was snow or ice or rain; nor was authority, and strengthened by whose blessing, he
there any slothfulness in me, such as I see now, be- went on his way to Ireland." It was only shortly
cause the spirit was then fervent within me." In before his death that Celestine gave this mission to
the ways of a benign Providence the six years of Ireland's apostle and on that occasion bestowed on
Patrick s captivity became a remote preparation for him many relics and other spiritual ^ts, and gave
his future apostolate. He acquired a perfect knowl- him the name "Patercius" or "Patritius". not as an
edge of the Celtic tongue in which he would one day honorary title, but as foreshadowing the ffuitfulness
announce the fflad tidings of Redemption, and, as and merit of his apostolate whereby he became paler
his master Milchu was a druidical high priest, he be- civium (the father of his people). Patrick on his re-
came familiar with all the details of Druidism from turn journey from Rome received at Ivrea the tidings
whose bondage he was destined to Uberate the Irish of the deatn of Palladius, and turning sjside to the
race. neighbouring city of Turin received episcopal conse-
Admonished by an angel he after six years fled from cration at the hands of its great bishop, St. Maximus,
his cruel master and bent his steps towards the west, and thence hastened on to Auxerre to make under the
He relates in his "Confessio" that he had to travel guidance of St. Germain due preparations for the
about 200 miles; and his journey was probably Irish mission.
towards Killala Bay and onwards thence to Westport. It was probably in the summer months of the year
He found a ship ready to set sail and after some re- 433, that Patrick and his companions landed at the
buffs was allowed on board. In a few days he was mouth of the Vantry River close by Wicklow Head.
among his friends once more in Britain, but now his The Druids were at once in arms against him. But
heart was set on devoting himself to the service of Patrick was not dbheartened. The intrepid mission-
God in the sacred ministry. We meet with him at St. ary resolved to search out a more friendly territory
Martin's monastery at Tours^ and again at the island in which JU> enter on Jiis jnission. First of aU, however,
PATBIOK 51
he would proceed towards Dalaradia, where he had
been a slave, to pay the price of raiuom to his former
master, and in exchange for the servitude and cruelty
endured at hia hands to impart to him the blessings
and freedom of God's children. He reat«d for some
davs at the islands off the Skerries coast, one of which
stUl retains the name of Inis-Fatrick, and be probably
vinted the adiraning mainland, which in olden times
was knovn as Holm Patrick. Tradition fondly points
out the impression of St. Patrick's foot upon the
hard rock — off the main shore, at the entranc« to
ber of the natives tiam gathered around him and
heard with joy in thdr own sweet tongue the glad
tidiii^ of Redemption. There too he performed
his &^ miracle on Irish soil to confirm the honour
due to the Blessed Virgin, and the Divine birth of
our Saviour. Leaving one of his companions to con- , .
tinue the work of instruction so auBpiciously be- by_ St. Patrick who
gun, he hastened forward to Strangford Lough and with mitre and
■ ■ '■ • ^- ■ crorier WB8 arrayed
in full episcopal at-
tire, proceeded in
processional order
toTara. Thedruids
5 PATRICK
stjtion on the Celtic race, for th^r demoniac oraclee
had announced that the messenger of Christ had come
to Erin. St. Patrick arrived at the hill of Slane, at the
opposite extremity of the valley from Tara^ on Easter
Eve, in that ^ear the feast of the Annunciation, and
on the summit of the hill kindled the Paschal fire.
Thedruids at onoe raised their voice. "O King"; (they
said) "live for ever; this fire, wWch has been hghtea
in defiance of the royal edict, will blaie for ever in this
land unless it be tlus very night extinguished ." By
order of the king and the agency of the druids. re-
Kted attempts were made to extinguish the blessed
and to punish witli death the intruder who bad
disobeyed the royal command. But the fire was not
extinguished and Patrick shielded by the Divine power
came unscathed from their snares and assaults. On
Esster Day the missionary band having at their head
the youth Bcnignus bearing aloft a copy of the Gos-
pels, and followed
when a chieftiun, named Dichu, appeared on the scene
to prevent his further advance. He drew his sword
to smite the saint, but his ann became rigid as a
statue and continued so until he declared himself
made a gift of a large tabhall (bam), in which the
sacred mysteries were offered up. This was the first
sanctuary dedicated by St. Patrick in Erin. It be-
came in later years a chosen retreat of the sunt.
A monastery and church were erected there, and the
hallowed site ret^ns the name Sabhall (pronounced
Saul) to the present day. Continuing nis journey
towards Slemish, the saint was struck with horror on
seeing at a distance the fort of his old master Milchu
enveloped in fiamee. The fame of Patrick's marvel-
lous power of miracles had preceded him. Milchu,
in a fit of frenzy, gathered his tresaures into his man-
sion and setting it on fire, cast himself into the flames.
An ancient record adds; "His pride could not endure
the thou^t of being vanquished by his former slave".
Returning to Saul, St. Patrick learned from Dichu
that the chieftains of Erin had been summoned to
' celebrate a special feast at Tara by Leoghaire, who was
the Ard-Rign, that is. Supreme Monarch of Ireland.
This was an opportunity which Patrick would not fore-
go; he would present himself before the assembly, to
stnke a decisive blow against the Druidism that held
the nation captive, and to secure freedom for the glad
tidings of Redemption of which he was the henld.
As he joumeved on he rested for some days at the
house of a cnieftain named Secsnen. who with bis
household joyfuUif embraced the Faith. The youth-
ful Benen, or Benignus, the son of the chief, was in a
rnal way captivated by the Goepel doctrines and
meekness of Patrick. Whilst the sfunt slumbered
he would gather sweet-scented flowers and scatter
them over his bosom, and when Patrick was setting
out, continuing his journey towards Tara, Benen clung
to his feet declaring that nothing would sever him
from him. "Allow him to have nis way", said St.
Patrick to the chief tain, "he shallbe heir to my sacred
mission." Thenceforth Benen was the inseparable
companion of the saint, and the prophecy was ful-
filled, for Benen is named among the comhards" or
succesBOiB of St. Patrick in Ai^iagh. It was on26
March, Easter Sunday in 433, that the eventful a»-
sembly was to meet at Tara, and the decree went forth
that from the orecedin^ da^ the fires throughout the
kingdom should be extinguished until the mgnal blase
was kindled at the royal mansion. The ctuefs and Bre-
hons came in full numbeia and the druids too would
muster »3l their strength to bid defiance to the bM«ld
of good tidings and to secure the hold of thor super-
put forth all their
strength and em-
ployM all their in-
cantations to main-
tain theirsway over
the Irish race, but
the prayer and faith
of Patrick achieved
aglorious triumph.
The druids by their
incantations ovei^
spread the hill and ^
surrounding plain
with a cloud of
worse than E^rp-
tiandarkness. Pat-
rick defied them to
remove that cloud,
and when all their efforts were made in vain, at his
prayer the sun sent forth its rays and the bright-
est' sunshine lit up the scene. Agfun by demoniac
power the Arch-Druid Lochru, like Simon Magus
of old, was lifted up high in the ah, but when Fat-
rick knelt in prayer the . druid from his flight was
dashed to pieces upon a rock. Thus was the final
blow given to pajganism in the presence of all the
assembled ciueftains. It was, indeed, a momentous
day for the Irisb race. Twice Patrick pleaded tor the
Faith before Leoghaire, The king ha!d ^ven orders
that no sign of respect was to be extended to the
strangers, but at the first meeting the youthful Ere,
a royal page, arose to show him reverence; and at the
second, when all the chieftains were assembled, the ,
chief-bard Dubhtach showed the same honour to the
saint. Both these heroic men became fervent disci-
plea of the Faith and bright ornaments of the Irish
Church. It was on this second solemn occasion that
St. Patrick is said to have plucked a shamrock from
the sward, to explain by its triple leaf and single stem,
in some rou^ way, to the assembled chieft^ns, the
neat doctrine of the Blessed Trinity. On that bright
Easter Day, the triumph of religion at Tara was com-
plete. The Ard-Righ granted permission to Patrick
to preach the Faith throughout the length and breadth
of Erin, and the druidical prophecy like the words of
Balaam of old would be fulfilled: the sacred fire now
kindled by the ssint would never be extinguished.
The beautiful prayer of St. Patrick, popularly
known as "St, Patrick's Breast-Plate", is supposed to
hav« been composed by him in preparation for this
PATRICK
556
PATRICK
victory over Paganism. The following is a literal
translation from the old Irish text: —
I bind to m3r8elf to-dav
The strong virtue of the Invocation of the Trin-
ity:
I believe the Trinity in the Unity
The Creator of the Universe.
I bind to myself to-day
The virtue of the Incarnation of Christ with His
Baptism.
The virtue or His crucifixion with His burial,
The virtue of His Resurrection with His Ascen-
sion,
The virtue of His coming on the Judgment Day.
I bind to myself to-day
The virtue of the love of seraphim,
In the obedience of angels,
In the hope of resurrection unto reward,
In prayers of Patriarchs,
In predictions of Prophets,
In preaching of Apostles,
In faith of Confessors,
In purity of holy Virgins,
In deeds of righteous men.
I bind to myself to-day •
The power of Heaven,
The ug^t of the sun.
The brightness of the moon,
The splendour of fire,
The flashing of lightning.
The swiftness of wind,
The depth of sea,
The stability of earth.
The compactness of rocks.
I bind to myself to-day
God's Power to guide me,
God's Might to uphold me,
God's Wisdom to teach me,
God's Eye to watch over me,
God's Ear to hear me,
God's Word to give me speech,
God's Hand to guide me,
God's Way to lie before me,
God's Shield to shelter me,
God's Host to secure me,
Against the snares of demons,
Against the seductions of vices.
Against the lusts of nature,
Against everyone who meditates injury to me,
Wiether far or near,
Whether few or with many.
I invoke to-day all these virtues
Against every hostile merciless power
WHiich may assail my body and my soul,
Against the incantations of false prophets.
Against the black laws of heathenism,
Against the false laws of heresy.
Against the deceits of idolatry,
Against the spells of women, and smiths, and
druids,
Against every knowledge that binds the soul of
man.
Christ, protect me to-day
Against every poison, against burning,
Against drowmnp, against death-wound.
That I may receive abundant reward.
Christ with me, Christ before me,
Christ behind me, Christ within me,
Christ beneath me, Christ above me,
Christ at my right, Christ at my left,
Christ in the fort,
Christ in the chariot seat,
Christ in the poop,
Christ in the heart of everyone who thinks of me,
Qirist in the mouth of everyone who speaks to me,
Christ in every eye that sees me,
Christ in every ear that hears me.
I bind to myself to-day
The strong virtue of an invocation of the Trin-
ity,
I believe the Trinity in the Unity
The Creator of the Universe.
St. Patrick remained during Easter week at Slane
and Tara, unfoldins to those around him the lessons
of Divine truth. Meanwhile the national ^ames were
being celebrated a few miles distant at Taillten (now
Telltown) in connexion with the royal feast. St.
Patrick proceeding thither solemnly administered
Baptism to Conall, orother of the Ard-Righ Leoghaire,
on Wednesday, 5 April. Benen and outers had al-
ready been pnvateN^ gathered into the fold of Christ,
but this was the nrst public administering of bap»
tism, recognized by royal edict, and hence in the an-
cient Irish Kalendars to the fifth of April is assigned
"the beginning of the Baptism of Erin". This first
Christian royu chieftain made a gift to Patrick of a
site for a church which to thepresent day retains the
name of Donagh-Patrick. llie blessing of heaven
was with Conall's family. St. Columba is reckoned
among his descendants, and many of the kings of
Ireland until the eleventh century were of his race.
St. Patrick left some of his coippanions to carry on the
work of evangelization in Meatn, thus so auspiciously
bc^gun. He would himself visit the other territories.
Some of the chieft^ns who had come to Tara were
from Focluth, in the neighbourhood of Killala, in
Connaught, and as it was the children of Focluth who
in vision had summoned him to return to Ireland,
he resolved to accompany those chieftains on their re-
turn, that thus the district of Focluth would be among
the first to receive the glad tidings of Redemption.
It affords a convincing proof of the difficulties that St.
Patrick had to overcome, that though full liberty to
preach the Faith throughout Erin was apranted by the
monarch Leoghaire, nevertheless, in order to procure
a safe conduct through the intervening territories
whilst proceeding towards Connaught he had to pay
the price of fifteen slaves. On his wav thither, passing
through Granurd he learned that at Magh-Slecht, not
far distant, a vast concourse was engaf^ in offering
worship to the chief idol Crom-Cruach. It was a
huge pillar-stone, covered with slabs of gold and silver,
witn a circle of twelve minor idols around it. He pro-
ceeded thither, and with his crosier smote the cnief
idol that crumbled to dust: the others fell to the
ground. At Killala he foima the whole people of the
territory assembled. At his preaching, the king and
his six sons, with 12,000 of the people, became docile
to the Futh. He spent seven years visiting every
district of Connauf^t, organizing parishes, forming
dioceses, and instructing tne chieftains and people.
On the occasion of his first visit to Rathcrogan, the
royal seat of the kings of Connaught, situated near
Tulsk, in the County of Roscommon, a remarkable
incident occurred, recorded in many of the authentic
narratives of the saint's life. Close by the clear foun-
tain of Clebach, not far from the royal abode, Patrick
and his venerable companions had pitched their tents
and at early dawn were chanting thepraises of the Most
High, when the two daughters of the Irish monarch —
Ethne, the fair, and Fedelm, the ruddy — came thither,
as was their wont, to bathe. Astoniwed at the vision
that presented itself to them, the royal maidens cried
out: "Who are ye, and whence do ye come? Are ye
phantoms, or fairies, or friendly mortals?" St. Patrick
said to them: "It were better you would adore and
worship the one true Qoij whom W9 i^nnoim^ to you>
PATBICK
657
PATBICK
than that ^ou would satisfy your curiosity by such
vain questions/' And then Ethne^ broke forth into
the questions: —
"Who is God?"
"And where is God?"
"Where is His dwelling?"
"Has He sons and daughters?"
"Is He rich in silver and sold?"
"Is He everlasting? is He beautiful?"
"Are His daughtm dear and lovely to the men of
this world?"
" Is He in the heavens or on earth? "
"In the sea, in rivers, in mount^ns, in valleys?"
"Make Him known to us. How is He to be seen?
How is He to be loved? How is He to be found? "
"Is it in youth or is it in old age that He may be
found?"
But St. Patrick, filled with the Holy Ghost, made
answer:
" God, whom we announce to you, is the Ruler of all
things."
"The God of heaven and earth, of the sea and the
rivers."
"The God of the sun, and the moon, and all the
stars."
"The God of the high moimtains and of the low-
lying valleys."
"The God who is above heaven, and in heaven, and
under heaven."
"His dwelling is in heaven and earth, and the sea,
and all therein." ""
"He gives breath to all."
"He gives life to all."
"Hew over aU."
"He upholds aU."
"He pves light to the sun."
" He imparts splendour to the moon."
"He has made wells in the dry land, and islands in
the ocean."
"He has appointed the stars to serve the greater
lights."
"His Son is oo-etemal and co-equal with Himself."
"The Son is not younger than the Father."
"And the Father is not older than the Son."
"And the Holy Ghost proceeds from them."
"The Father and the Son and the Holy Ghost. are
undivided."
"But I desire by Faith to unite you to the Heavenly
Kins, as jrou are daughters of an earthly king."
Tne maidens, as if with one voice and one heart,
said:
"Teach us most carefully how we may believe in the
Heavenly King: show us how we may behold Him
face to face, ana we will do whatsoever you shall say
to us."
And when he had instructed them he said to them:
"Do you believe that by baptism you put off th^
sin inherited from the first parents."
They answered: "We believe."
"Do you believe in penance after sin?"
"WebeUeve."
"Do you believe in fife after death? Do you be-
lieve in resurrection on the Day of Judgment/ f
"WebeUeve."
"Do you believe in the unity of the Chureh?"
"WebeUeve."
Then they were baptised, and were clothed in white
garments. And the^ besought that they mi^t be- ■
old the face of Chnst. And the saint said to them:
"You caxmot see the face of Christ unless you taste
death, and unless you receive the sacrifice." Tliey' ..
answered: "Give us the sacrifice, so that we may be
able to behold our Spouse." And the ancient nar- '
rative adds: "when they received t^e Euoli^rist'ol^
God, they slept in death, and they were plac^ upoii
a couch, arrayed in their white baptismal robes."
In 440 St. ratrick entered on the special work of the
conversion of Ulster. Under the following year the
ancient annalists relate a wonderful spread of the
Faith throughout that province. In 444 a site for a
chureh was granted at Armagh by Daire, the chieftain
of the district. It was in a vaUey at the foot of a hiU,
but the saint was not content. He had special design?
in his heart for that district, ana at length the chief-
tain told him to select in his territory any site he would
deem most suitable for his reUgiotus purpose. St.
Patrick chose that beautiful hill on which the old
cathedral of Armagh stands. As he was marking out
the chureh with his companions, they came upon a doe
and fawn, and the saint's companions would idU them
for food; but St. Patrick would not aUow ihem to do
so, and, taking the fawn upon his shoulders, and fol-
lowed bv the doe, he proceeded to a neighbouring hiU,
and laid down the fawn, and announced that there, in
future times, great ploiy would be given to the Most
High. It was precisely upon that liill thus fixed by
St. Patrick that, a few years ago. there was solemnly
dedicated tiie new and beautiful CathoUc cathedral
of Armagh. A representative of the Holy See pre-
sided on ike occasion, and hundreds of priests and bish-
ops were gathered tnere; and, indeed, it might truly
be said, the whole Irish race on that occasion offered
up that glorious cathedral to the Most High as a trib-
ute of their united faith and pietv, and their never-
failing love of God. From Ulster St. Patrick probably
proceeded to Meath to consoUdate the organization
of the communities there, and thence he contin-
ued his course through Leinster. Two of the saint's
most distinguished companions, St. AuxiUus and St.
Iseminus, had the rich vaUey of the Liffey assi^ed to
them. The former's name is stiU retained in the
chureh which he founded at KiUossy, while the latter
is honoured as first Bishop of KilcuUen. As usual,
St. Patrick's primaiv care was to gather the ruling
chieftains into the fold. At Naas, the royal residence
in Uiose days^ he baptised the two sons of the King of
Leinster. Memoriius of the saint stiU abound in the
district — the ruins of the ancient chureh which he
f oimded, his holy weU, and the hallowed sites in which
the power of God was shoim forth in miracles. At
Sletty, in the immediate neighbourhood of Carlow,^
St. fiacc, son of the chief Brehon, Dubthach, was in-
stalled as bishop, and for a considerable time that
see continued to oe the chief centre of reUgion for aU
Leinster. St. Patrick proceeded through Gowran into
Ossory ; here he erected a chureh imder the invocation
of St. Martin^ near the present city of Kilkenny, and
enriched it with many of the precious reUcs wmch he
had broufl^t from Rome. It was in Leinster, on the
borders ofthe present counties of Kildare and Queen's,
that Odhran, St. Patrick's charioteer, attained the
martyr's crown. The chieftain of that district hon-
oured the demon-idol, Crom Cruach^ with special
worship, and, on hearing of that idol being cast down,
vowed to avenge the insult by the death of our apos-
tle. Passing through the temtory . Odhran overheard
the plot that was being organized for the murder of
St. Patrick, and^as they were setting out in the chariot
to continue their journey, asked the saint, as a favour,
to take the r^ns, and to allow himself, for the day, to
hold the place of honour and rest. This was granted,
and scarcely had they set out when a weU-directed
thrust of a lance pierced the heart of the devoted
charioteer, who thus, by changing places, saved St.
Patrick's life, and won for himself me martyr's crown.
St. Patrick next proceeded to Munster. As usual,
his efforts were directed to combat error in the chief
centres of authoritv^ knowing weU that, in the paths
of conversion, the kings and chieftains would soon be
f oUowed by their subjects. At ' ' Cashel of the Kings "
he was received with great enthusiasm, the chiefs and
Brehons and people welcoming him with joyous ac-
claim. While engaged in the baptism of the royal
prince Aengus, son of the King of Munster, the saint,
PATRICK 558' PATBIOK
leaning on his cromer, pierced with its ahaip pmnt the of dealing with the chieftains. He found, It says, fli#
prince^ foot. Aengus bore the pain unmovea. When chief, Ernasc, and his son, Loam, sittini^ under a tree,
ot. Patrick, at the close <5f the ceremony, saw the "with whom he remained, together with his twelve
blood flow^ and asked him why he had been silent, he companions, for a week, and they received from him
replied, with genuine heroism, that he thought it the doctrine of salvation with attentive ear and mind,
might oe part of the ceremony, a penalty for the ioy- Meanwhile he instructed Loam in the rudiments of
ous blessings of the Faith that were imparted. The learning and piety." A church was erected there,
saint admired his heroism, and, taking tne chieftain's and, in after vears, Loam was appointed to its charge,
shield, inscribed on it a cross with the same point of The manifold virtues by wnidi the early saints
the crosier, and promised that that shield would be were distinguished shone forth in all their perfection
the signal of countless spiritual and temporal tri- in the life of St. Patrick. When not engaged in the
umphs. Our apostle spent a considerable time in the work of the sacred ministoy, his whole time was spent
present County of Limerick. The fame of his mira- in prayer. Manv times in the day he armed hiznself
cles and sanctity had gone before him, and the inhab- with the sign of the Cross. He never relaxed' his
itants of Thomond and northern Munster, crossing penitential exercises. Clothed in rou||^ haiiHshirt, he
the Shannon in their frail coracles, hastened to receive made the hard rock his bed. His dismterestedness is
his instruction. When giving his blessing to them on specially commemorated. Coimtless converts of high
itie summit of the hill of Finnime, looking out on the rank would cast their precious ornaments at his feet,
ridi plains before him, he is said to have prophesied but all were restored to them. He had not come to
the coming of St. Senanus: ''To the men island in Ebin in search of material wealth, but to enrich her
the West, at the mouth of the sea [i. e., Inis-Cathaigh, with the priceless treasures of tne Catholic Faith,
now Scattery Island, at the mouth of the Shannon. From time to time he withdrew from the spiritual
near Kilrush], the lamp of the people of God will duties of his apostolate to devote himself wholly to
oome; he will be the head of counsel to all this terri- prayer and penance. One of his chosen places of
tory." At Sanpril (now Singland), in Limerick, and solitude and retreat was the island of Lougn Der^,
also in the district of Garryowen, the holy wells of the which, to our own day. has continued to be a favourite
saint are pointed out, and the slab of rock, which resort of pilgrims, ana is known as St. Pa^ck's Pur^
served for his bed, and the altar on which every day gatory. Another theatre of his miraculous power and
he offered up the Holv Sacrifice. On the banks of piety and penitential austerities in the west of Lreland
the Suir, and the Blackwater, and the Lee, wherever ments particular attention. In the far west of Con-
the saint preached during the seven vears he spent in naught there is a range 6f tall mountains, which, ar-
Munster. a hearty welcome awaited him. The an- rayed in rugged majesty, bid defiance to the waves
dent Life attests: ''After Patrick had founded cells and storms ch the Atlantic. At the head of this range
and churches in Munster, and had ordained persons of arises a stately cone in solitary grandeur, about 4000
eveiv grade, and healed the sick, cmd resuscitated the feet in height, facing Crew Bay, and casting its shadow
dead, he bade them farewell, and imparted his blesa- over the adjoining districts of Agha^wer and West-
ing to liiem." The words of this blessing, which is port. This moimtain was Imown in pagan times as
said to have been given from the hills of Tipperary, the E^le Moimtain, but ever since Iremnd was en-
as registered in the saint's life^ >to which I have just lightened with the light of Faith it is known as Croagfa
referred, are particularly beautiful: — Patrick, i. e. St. Patrick's moimtain, and is honoured
"A blessing on the Munster people- ^ }¥, ™^y, ™^' *H ^^"^^ ^^' ^ lre]BJid. St.
Men, youths, and women : Patndc, m obedienceto his guardian angel, made this
A blessinK on the Isnd mountain his hallowed place of retreat. In mutation
That yields them fruit. S^ ^^^ K^* Jewish legislator on Sinai, he spent forty
days on its summit m fasting and prayer, and other
"A blessins on every treasure penitential exercises. His o3y shelter from the fury
That shall be produced on theu- plaiiu, , of the elements, the wind and rain, the hail and snow,
Without any one being m want of help, ^^s a cave, or recess, in the solid rock; and the flag-
God s blessing be on Munster. gtone on which he rested his weary timbs at night Is
"A blpssing be on their peaks, still pointed out. The whole purpose of his prayer
On their bare fiagstones, was to obtain special blessings and mercy for the Irish
A blessing on their glens, race, whom he evangelised. The demons that made
A blessing on their ridges. Ireland their battlefield mustered all their strength
"Like the sand of the sea under shipe,- j!!™'??* ^^t^W^SSw.^ Ki^iS*™^^^
Onmo?:^tainBfonhllls.able«ing." - SlW^ra^t^c^4t£teS2£
St. Patrick continued until his death to vicdt and like a cloud, and they so filled the air that Patrick
watch over the churches wluch he had founded in aU could sec neither sky nor earth nor ocean. St. Pat-
the provinces of Ireland. He comforted the faithful rick besought God to scatter the demons, but for a
in tneir difficulties, strengthened them in the Faith time it would seem as if his prayers and tears were
and in the practice of virtue, and appointed pastors to in vain. At length he rang his sweet-sounding bell,
continue his work among them. It is recorded in his sjrmbol of his preaching of the Divine truths. Its
Life that he consecrated no fewer than 350 bishops. He sound was heard over tne valleys and hills of Erin,
appointed St. Loman to Trim, which rivalled Armagh everywhere bringing peace and joy. The flocks of
itself in its abunduit harvest of piety. St. Guasach, demons b^an to scatter. He flung his bell among
son of his former master, Milchu, became Bishop of them; they took to precipitate flight, and cast them-
Granard, while the two daughters of the same pagan selves into the ocean. So complete was the saint's
chieftain founded close by, at Clonbroney, a convent victory over them that^ as the ancient narrative adds,
of pious virgins, and mented the aureola of sanctity, "for seven years no evil thing was to be found in Ire-
St. MeL nephew of our apostle, had the charge of Ar- land." The saint, however, would not, as ye^ de-
dagh; St. MacCarthem, who appears to have been soend from the mountain. He had vanquished the
particularly beloved by St. Patnck, was made Bishop demons, but he would now wrestle with God Himself,
of Closer. Tlie narrative in the ancient life of the like Jacob of old, to secure the spiritual interests of his
saint regarding his visit to the district of Costello, in people. Hie angel had announced to him that, to
the County of Mayo, serves to illustrate his manner reward his fidelity in prayer and penance, as many of
PATRIMONY 559 PATBIZI
his people would be gathered into heaven as would critical notes, is by Rev. Dr. White for the Royal
cover tne land and sea as far as his vision could Irish Academy, in 1905. The 34 canons of a synod
reach. Far more ample, however, were the aspirations held before the year 460 by St. Patrick, Auxihus. and
of the saint, and he resolved to persevere in fasting Isseminus, though rejected by Todd and Haadan,
and prayer until the fullest measure of his petition have been placed by Prof essor Bury beyond the reach
was granted. Again and again the angel came to of controversy. Another series of 31 ecclesiastical
comfort him, announcing new concessions; but all canons entitled "Synodus secunda Patritii", though
these would not suffice. He would not relinquish his unquestionably of Irish origin and dating before the
poet on the mountain, or relax his penance, until all close of the seventh century, is generally considered to
were granted. At length the message came that his be of a later date than St. Patrick. Two tracts (in
prayers were heard: (1) many souls would be freed P. L., LIII), entitled '*De abusionibus sseculi'', and
from the pains of purgatory through his intercession; ''De tribus habitaculis", were compcMsed by St.
(2) whoever in a spirit of penance would recite his Patrick in Irish and translated into Latin at a later
hymn b^ore death would attain the heavenly reward; period. Passages from them are assigned to St.
(3) barbarian hordes would never obtain sway in his Patrick in the ''Collectio Hibemensis Canonum*',
Church; (4) seven years before the Judgment Day, which is of unouestionable authority and dates from
the sea would spread over Ireland to save its people the year 700 (Wasserschleben, 2nd ed., 1885). This
from the temptations and terrors of Antichrist; and ''Collectio Hibemensis'' also assigns to St. Patrick the
(5) greatest blessing of all, Patrick himself would be famous synodical decree: ''Si quse qusestiones in hac
deputed to judge the whole Irish race on the last day. insula onantur, ad Sedem Apostolicam referantur."
Such were the extraordinary favours which St. Pat- (If any difficulties arise in this island, let them be re-
rick, with his wrestling with the Most High, his un- f erred to the Apostolic See). The beautiful prayer,
ceasing pravers, his unconquerable love of heavenly known as ''Faeth Fiada", or the "Lorica of St.
things, ana his unremitting penitential deeds, ob- Patrick'' (St. Patrick's Breast-Plate), first edited by
tained for the people whom he evangelised. Petrie in his ''History of Tara", is now universally
It is sometimes supposed that St. Patrick's aposto- accepted as genuine. The " Dicta Sancti Patritii ", or
late in Ireland was an unbroken series of peaceful brief sayings df the saint, preserved in the "Book of
triiunphs, and yet it was quite the reverse. No storm Armagh", are accurately edited by Fr. Hogan, S.J.,
of persecution was, indeed stirred up to assail the in- in "Docimienta de S. Patritio" (Brussels. 1884). The
fant Church, but the saint himself was subiected to old Irish text of "The Rule of Patrick" has been
frequent trials at the hands of the druids and of other edited by O'Keefife, and the translation by Archbishop
enemies of the Faith. He tells us in his "Confessio" Healy in the appendix to his Life of St. Patrick (Dub-
that no fewer than twelve times he and his companions lin, 1905). It 18 a tract of venerable antiquity, and
were seized and carried off as captives, and on one embodies the teaching of the saint.
occasion in particular he was loaded with chains, and l"^ Trio* thaumaturga (fol., Louvain, 1647) of the FranciBcao
his death WM decn»d. But from all .the^ triab and 2^* "xtX-SSL^r^^l ^I^^^S^^^I^f^^^. °M9)
SUnenngS he was llberatea by a benign rrovidence. preaenta from the pen of HBNNBaay the tranalation of the Irish
It is on account of the many hardships which he en- TrivartUe Life, with copious notes. Whitlbt Stokes, in the
dured for the Faith that, in some of the ancient Mar- il^r2^^i:2*#i*°;« *?' ^"♦PXf'l*^" ^^ 'i'a *"^^,^?° <>'
. 1 . , . 1 . 'i . oa -o x_: 1 *"• *^'<* TnpartUa^ together with many original documents from
tyrologies, he is honoured as a martyr. St. Patnck, the Book of Armagh and other sources. The most noteworthy
having now completed his triumph over Paganism, works of later years are Shearman. Loca Patriciana (DubUn,
and gathered Ireland into the fold of Christ p«,par«l «J«) ; ^--^ &■ /^^,\j^S^^^, ^U^X.^^'^^t^i^r^^i
for the summons to his reward. St. Bngid came to Wr%t%ng» of St. Patrick (Dublin, iocs).
him with her chosen virmns, bringing the shroud in Patrick Francis Cardinal Moran.
which he would be enshrined. It is recorded that -^ . . _ - a^i^A. « a^ cs o
when St. Patrick and St. Brigid were united in their ^ Patrimony of Balnt Feter. See States of the
last prayer, a special vision was shown to him. He Church.
saw the whole of Ireland lit up with the brightest rays PatripMsiuiB. See Monarchians.
of Divine Faith. This continued for centuries, and w.*^-**-,- a^ T?.mT,«T.o ^™ »««, r»»^«^«. t>.
then clouds gathered around the devoted island, and, _^f*"^*^^- ^ Fathers op the Church; Pa-
little by little, the religious glory faded away, until, urology.
in the course of centuries, it was only in remotest Patrizi, Francis Xavier, Jesuit exegete, b. at
valleys that some glimmer of its light remained. St. Rome, 19 June, 1797; d. there 23 April, 1881. He was
Patrick prayed that that light would never be extin- the eldest son and heir of the Roman Count Patrizi,
iruished, and, as he prayed, the angel came to him and ^ entered the Society of Jesus 12 Nov., 1814, was
«ud: "Fear not; your apostolate shall never cease." ordained priest in 1824^ and soon became professor
As he thus prayed, the glimmering hgh t grew in bright- of Sacred Scripture and Hebrew in the Roman College,
ness, and ceased not until once more all the hills and The revolution of 1848 caused Patrizi and his fellow
valleys of Ireland were lit up in their pristine splen- professor Perrone to take refuge in England. Here,
dour, and then the angel announced to St. Patrick: and afterwards at Louvain, Patrizi taught Scripture
''Such shall be the abiding splendour of Divine truth to the Jesuit scholastics. When peace was restored at
in Ireland.'' At Saul (Sabhall), St. Patrick received Rome, he again began to lecture in the Roman College,
the summons to his reward on 17 March, 493. St. The revolution of 1870 ended his career as a teacher,
Tassach administered the last sacraments to him. and he found a home in the German-Hungarian
His remains were wrapped in the shroud woven by St. College of Rome, remaining there till death.
Brigid's own hands. The bishops and clergy and He wrote twenty-one Biblical and ascetical works,
faithful people from all parts crowded around his re- Of the former the most important are: ''De interpre-
mains to pay due honour to the Father of their Faith, tatione scripturarum sacrarum '' (2 vols., Rome, 1844) ;
Some of the ancient Lives record that for several days " De consensu utriusque libri Machabseorum" (Rome,
the light of heaven shone around his bier. His re- 1856); "DeEvangeliis'' (3voIs.,FreiburgimBrei8gau,
mains were interred at the chieftain's Dun or Fort two 1853) ; "In Joannem commentarium " (Rome, 1857) ;
miles from Saul, where in after times arose the cathe- "In Marcum commentarium" (Rome, 1862); "In
dral of Down. actus Apostolorum commentarium" (Rome, 1867);
Writingb OF St. Patrick. — The "Confessio" and "Cento salmi tradotti letteralmente dal testo ebraico
the "Epi^t<^a ad Coroticum" are recognized by aU e commentati" (Rome, 1875); "De interpretations
modem critical writers as of unquestionable genuine- oraculonim ad Christum pertinentium" (Rome, 1853);
ness. The best edition, with text,' translation, and "De immaculata Maris origine" (Rome, 1853);
PATBOLOOY 560 PATRON
''Delle parole di San Paolo: In quo omnee peccave- towards her benefactor. Inasmuch as the rights of the
runt" (Rome, 1876). His Latin is classic, but only the patron p^tiun to the spiritual order, the right of
earnest Biblical student appreciates the immense em- patronage is designated in the decretals as ius spirt-
dition of his heavily burdened sentences. No one has tuali annexunif and is therefore subject to ecclesiastical
better stated the rules of sane interpretation and illus- legislation and jurisdiction. Since, however, the aues-
trated those rules in practice. His master-work on tion of property rights is also involved, a f aivreacning
interpretation has ^ne through many editions. The influence is wielded to-day by civil laws and civu
Ciospel commentanes are meant especially to refute courts in matters pertaining to patronage,
the rationalistic errors of the time. II. In the Oriental Church the foimder of a church
HuxTsm ^Kirdiml^nkan,B. ▼.; Sommervoqil. Biblioth^ was permitted to nominate an administrator for the
d. laC.de /.. VI. 366H59; CtvtUA Ca(toZ.ca. iith^™«. VI. 491. temjJwal goods and indicate to the bishop a cleric
WALTER irnvM. guitablc for appointment (L. 46, C. de episc. I, 3.
^ik«^i««i<wMr ^\s^ -♦«^,r r.f ♦!** ..^4^:»^ ^t *k« T?« Nov. LVII, c. 2). In the Western Church the Synod
fJiS^^rWnK Si^^^^ of Orange 441) granted such a right of presentation
thCTB of the Church, has more commonFy been known ^ bishop who had built a church in another diocese
^ "S^Wif JSv '^^^^ "cZflv"^^/ pir' (c. h C. XVl, q. 6) and the Synod bf Toledo (655) gave
as patnsUc study . Some writers, chieflv in Ger- ^ j ' thii privilege for each church erected bylSm
S^{^.^FL,tf fS^n^^^^ ^rnh^J^i (^ 32, C. XVlfq. 7)^But the founder had no pi^pri<^
p<rfrMiu».-Fe8sler, for instance,^ ^ Jj^^ (c 3l, C. XVI, q. 7). In the countries
science which provid^ aU that is necessary for the us- ^pj^^by the dermanic tnW on the basis of the
wif WlSr ZtL^tv^^L%Hi "fS^^li^Tfh^; indi^ual temple and church rights found in their
with then- authonty, the cntena for judging theu- national laws, the builder of a church, the feudal lord,
fnd'^f ;^A th??^^^^ %^ F^wi n^^"^n' or the admiiistrator possessed full ririit of disposal
^^?„J?nnI^ P J^lS "SL a Wrl?^!nl^ hl^l ovcr the chuwh foundedoTpossessedTSy him, as his
"J^l^^w^rKngdPa'^^^^ 2^'^'bSi.at^cSitiXi^
r^s;;^iSli)"'^^'l^t:£^^^ ^oT^te\^»Sd^^
bing, 1908) On the other hand, Fessler descnbes appointment and dismissal of ecclesiastics at least
^rZ^i^Hh^it^^^ Wp'f h^^fSi nf ^oSnally was made subject to the consent of the bishop
JS^F^I^Si^ hS?A"*^^^ (c.37,dxVI,q.7). Vthecoun^of the Conflict of
^^d^w^^'oirrle^'r^^ Kti^ui^,ho^e;^r,the^^^^^
and works of the Fathers axe d«8cnbed.by another abolish^, although to the lord of the estate, as
SSIX^jil^J^ ^^X; t^^Z^f^^'^Zo'^^' patron, was cinceded'^e right as ius spirUuali an-
much observed, nor do they seem very necessary; ^^,JP^f «..«^f;r»» « aIo^a 4^ fK« w«hon r.«ii «r/»-
muuxi uui^rvt^, uur uu uu«jf Bc«m very u^^ry , j^exwm of presenting a cleric to the bishop (tu« prm-
they are nothing else than aspects of patnstic study !^rJ*j]\ i« ViTl ^t^«o;/x« r^t • ^ra/.annv \r^^^^a, r^^nyo^^
«- u /^«»«. JwTwfV^r ^,,»ri«»«».«/li *\^«^\^, ^t .^„uu,l sentandt) on the occasion oi a vacancy m tne cnurcn
thJ^brin^d^^f 14^^^ iAP' ^^^' ^- '' ^- '^ ''' ^ ^ **^^^ '^^^^^
ro^^!&t?S.''^v'J^^^^^^^ ^^^^^^^ll^y^
loria Latina , 221 vols., and Patrologia Gr«ca , 161 bereditarjr (haTediiaHum), or restncted to the family,
^ fS; bibUography Bee Father, of the Church. or even to a definite peraon (familiare; persarudissi-
John Chafman. fnum); individual (stngiUare) or snared {ius compa-
tronaius); complete (plenum) or diminished {minus
Patroxuhge of Our Lady, Feast of the.— It was plenum). A personal right of patronage is peculiar to
first permitted by Decree of the Sacred Congregation ? person as such, while a real right of patronage be-
of Rites, 6 May, 1679, for aU the provinces of Spain, in longs to one in possession for the time being of some-
memory of the victories obtained over the Saracens, thing with which a patronage is connected, prodded
heretics, and other enemies from the sixth centurv to of course that he is qualified for the possession of the
the reign of Philip IV. Benedict XII ordered it to be nght of patronage. A spintual patronage is one be-
kept in the Papal States on the third Sunday of longmg to the incumbent of an ecclesiastical office, or
November. To other places it is granted, on request, estabUshed by the foundation of a church or a benefice
for some Sunday m November, to be designated by out of ecclesiastical funds, or instituted by a layman
the ordinary. The Office is taken entirely from the and later presented to the Church. Thus the patron-
Common of the Blessed Virgin, and the Mass is the ages in possession of seculanzed bishopncs, monas-
"Salve sancta parens". In many places the feast of teries, and ecclesiastical foundations are regarded as
the Patronage w held with an additional title of Queen spiritual. A lay patronage w estabhshed when an
of All S«dnts, of Mercy, Mother of Graces. The ecclesiastical office is endowed by anyone out of pn-
Greeks have no feast of this kind, but the Ruthenians, vate means. A patronage is mixed when held m
followed by all the Slavs of the Greek Rite, have a common by the incumbent of an ecclesiastical office
feast, called "Patrocinii sanctissimae Dominae" etc., and a layman. . , i
or Pokrov Bogarodicy, on 1 October, which, however, IV. Any church benefice, with the exception of the
would seem to correspond more with our Feast of papacy. the cardinalate, the epis<x)pate, and the prelar
the Scapular. tures of cathedral, collegiate, and monastic churches,
NiLLsa. KaUndartum ManuaU, II. 632; Benedict XIV. Z># may be the object of the right of patronage. All per-
/€ttu, II, §1173. 174; MABTufov, Prieia hiatorique* (1858), July. sons and corporate bodies may be subject to the nght
Francis Mbbshman. of patronage. But persons, besides being capable of
Patronage of St. Joiaph, Feast OF THE. See Sh^theL'^Sew^^^
J08KPB Saint xnus iiciitiiiciiB, jcws, ucrci/ios, nx/xusiuai/ii/o, auu a^njo-
' tates are ineli^ble for any sort of patronage, even real.
Patron and Patronage. — I. By the right of pat- Nevertheless in Germany and Austria it has become
ronage (iu^s patronatus) is understood a determinate customary as a result of the Peace of WestphaUa, for
sum of rights and obligations entailed upon a definite Protestants to possess the rights of patronage over
person, the patron, especially in connexion with the Catholic, and Catholics over Protestant church offices,
assignment and administration of a benefice; not in In modem concordats Rome has rcpeatedly granted
virtue of his hierarchical position, but by the legally the right of patronage to Protestant princes. Entirely
regulated grant of the Church, out of gratitude ineligible for patronage are the excommunicati viiandi
PATRON 561 PATRON
(iheexcammufdcati toUraii are able at least to acquire has only to present the name of a candidate who is
it), and those who are infamous accordini^ to ecclesias- suitable in his opinion. In case this candidate has not
tical or civil law. On the other hand, illegitimates, passed the parish concursus, he must undergo an ex-
children, minors, and women may acquire patronages, amination before the synodal examiners. In the case
V. A right of patronage comes into existence or is of a mixed patronage, the rights of which are exercised
originally acquired by foundation, privilege, or pre- in common by an ecclesiastical and a lay patron, the
script ion. Under foundation or fundatio vet the same rule holds as in the case of a lay patronage,
broader sense is included the granting of the necessary Here It is the rule to deal with the mixed patronage,
means for the erection and maintenance of a benefice, now as a spiritual and again as a lay patronage^ ao-
Thus, granting that a church is necessary to a bene- cording as it is most pleasing to the patrons. It the
fioe, three things are requisite: the assignment of land prerogatives of the mixed patronage are exercised in
(fundatio in the narrow sense), the erection of the turn, however, it is coiisidered as a spiritual or a lay
cnurch at one's private expense (cBdificatio), and the patronage, as suits the nature of the case. The patron
granting of the means necessary for the support of the <»uinot present his own name. Co-patrons may, how-
church and beneficiaries (dotoHo). If the same person ever, present one of their own number. If through no
fulfils all three requirements, he becomes ipso jure fault of the patron, the name of an ineligible person is
patron, unless he waives his claim (c. 25, X de lure presented, he is granted a certain time of gra^ to
patr. III. 38). Whence the saying: Patronum Jaciuni make a new presentation. If, however, an inelif^ible
do8, (BdificaiiOf fundus. Different persons performing person has been knowingl>[ presented, the spintual
these three acts become co-patrons. It is an accepted patron loses for the time being the ri^t of presentar
theory that one who is resplonsible for only one of the lion, but the lay patron, so long as the first interval
three acts meiitioned, the other two conditions being allowed for presentation has not expired, may make
fulfilled in any mamier whatsoever, becomes a patron, an after-presentation. Thus the presentation of the
It is possible to become a patron also through the spiritual patron is treated more alter the manner of
Teadificaiio ecdesiw and redotatio beneficii, A second the episcopal collation. On that account the spiritual
manner in which a patrona^^ may be acc^uired is patron is not permitted an after-presentation or a
through papal privilege. A third is by prescnption. variation in choice, which is permitted the lay patron,
VI. Derivatively, a patronage may be obtained after which the bisnop has the choice between the sev-
through inheritance ex tesiamerUo or ex intesUUo, in eral names presented (ttia variandi cumtdativum, c. 24,
which case a patronage may easily become a co-pa- X de iure patr. Ill, 38).
tronase; by presentation, in which a lay patron must A presentation may be made by word of mouth or
have me sanction of the bishop if he desires to transfer in writing. But imder penalty of nullity all exprefr*
his right to another layman, but an ecclesiastic re- sions are to be avoided which would imply a bestowal
quires the permission of the pope to present it to a la^r- of the office (o. 5, X de iure patr. IIL 38). A simoni-
man, or that of the bishop to sive it to another ecclesi- acal presentation would be invalid. The time allowed
astic (c. un. Extrav. comm. de rebus eccl. non alien, for presentation is four months to a lay patron, and
III, 4). Furthermore an already existing right of pat- six to a spiritual patron ; six months is stipulated for a
ronage may be acquired by exchange, bv purchase, or mix^ patronage when exercised in common, four or
by prescription. In exchani^e or purchaise of a real six months when turn is taken (c. 22, X de iure patr.
patronage the price of the object in question may not III, 38). The interval begins the moment announoe-
be raised in consideration of the patronage; the right ment is made of the vacancy. For one who through
of patronage being a iua amrituidi annexum, such a no fault of his own has been mndered in making a pres-
thing would be simony. That the ruler of a country entation, the time does not expire at the end of the
may acquire the right of patronage in any of the three period mentioned. When his candidate has been un-
ways mentioned, like any other member of the Church, justly rejected by the bishop, the patron may appeal,
goes without saying. On the other hand, it would or make an after presentation.
be false to teach, as did the Josephinists and repr&- (b) The honorary rights (iura honorifica) of the pa*
sentatives of the ^'lUuminati", that the sovereign tron are: precedence m procession, a sitting in the
possesses the right of patronage merelv by being ruler church, prayers and intercessions, ecclesiastical men-
of the country, or that he receives the patronage of tions^ burial in the church, ecclesiastical mourning,
bishoprics, monasteries, and ecclesiastical foundations inscriptions, specisJ incensing, the aeperges (holy
through secularization. Yet this question is now gen- water), ashes, palms, and the rax.
erally settled in Germany, Austria, etc. by agreement (c) The utilitarian rights (iura utUia) of the patron
between the civil Governments on the one hand and conmst essentiallv in this: that in so far as he is a de-
the pope or bishopA on the other. scendant of the rounder he is entitled to an allowance
VII. The rights involved in patronage are: the right sufficient for his maintenance from the superfluous
of presentation, honorary rights, utiUtarian rights, and funds of the church coxmected with the patronage, if,
the cura beneficii. through no fault of his own, he has been reducea to
(a) The nght of presentation (iiu prcBeerUandi), such straits as to be unable to support himself, and no
the most important privilege of a patron, consists in one else is under any obligation to assist him (c. 25, X
this, that in case of a vacancy in the benefice, he may de iure patr. Ill, 38). To draw any other material ad-
propose (prcBserUare) to the ecclesiastical superiors vantages from the church connected with the patron-
empowered with the right of collation, the name of a age, as so frequently happened in the Middle Ages, it
suitable person (persona idonea), the result being that is requisite for this condition to have been made at the
if the one suggested is available at the time of presen- time of foundation with the consent of the bishop, or
tation, the ecclesiastical superior is bound to bestow that it be subsequently stipulated (c. 23, X de iure
on him the office in question. Co-patrons with the patr. Ill, 38. C. un. Ebctrav. comm. de rebus eccl. non
right of presentation may take turns, or each may pre- aUen. Ill, 4).
sent a name for himself, or it may be decided by vote. (d) The right or important duty (iura anerosa) of
In the case of juridical persons the presentation may the patron is, in the first place the cwra benefieiif the
be made according to statute, or by turns, or by deci- care to preserve unimpaired the status of the benefice
property
tical patron must choose from among the candidates the discharge of the spiritual duties on the part of the
for presentation the one he beUeves the most suitable, holder of the benefice. This cura hen^icn entitles the
judging from the parish concursus. The lay patron -patron to have a voice in all changes in the benefice
XL— 36
PATRON 562 PATRON
and the property belongmg to it. Agam, on the pa- telics of the martyrs were derived the names of Memo-
iron is incumbent the defensio or the aavobatia heneficii tub (memorial churches), Martyria, or Confe$no, f re-
Cc. 23,24, Xdeiurepatr. Ill, 38). In the present ad- quently given to churches. The name of ''Title"
ministration of justice, however, this obligation has (TUtUua) has from the earliest times been employed
practically disappearea. Lastly, the patron has the with reference to the name of the saint bv which a
subsidiary duty of building (Trent, oess. XXI, "de church is known. The practice of placing the body or
ret", c. vii) . some relics of a martyr under the lutar of sacrifice has
VlII. The right of patronage lapses ipso itare at been perpetuated in the Church, but the dedication
the suppression of the subject or object. If the church was eariy extended to confessors and holy women who
ooxmected with the patronage is threatened with total were not martyrs. Tlie underlying doctrine of patrons
ruin, or the endowment with a deficit, if those first is that of the communion of samts, or the bond of spir-
bound to restore it are not at hand, the bishop is to ex- itual union existing between God s servants on earth,
hort the patron to rebuild (recBdifieandum) or renew in heaven, or in purgatory. The saints are thereby
the endowment (ad redotandum). His refusal forfeits regarded as the advocates and intercessors of those
him the right of patronage, at least fbr himself per- who are making Uieir earthly pilgrimage,
sonally. Furthermore, the rig^t of patronase is lost Choice of Patrone. — Down to the seventeenth cen-
upon express or tacit renunciation. And lastly, it tury popular devotion, underlie guidance of ecclesiaa-
lapses in cases of apostasy, heresy, schism, simonia4ud ticaJ authority, chose as the titulars of churches those
ahenation, usurpation of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction men or women renowned for their miracles, the saint-
over the patronal church or appropriation of its liness of their lives, or their apostolic ministiy in con-
goods and revenues, murder or mutilation of an ecde- verting a nation to the Gospel. Urban YlII (23
siastic ooxmected with the church. March, 1638) laid down the niles that should guide
HiK»OT5»,D«JC»rc*«M;«e«^JCa^ the faithful in the future selection of patrons of
SS^SJSr'^ churches, dties, and«)untries, without, however, mter-
DoM KirehenpatronatarMht und $eine Eniwieklwtg in OutmrmtX fering With the traditional patrons then venerated
/T> _!• ,oA.x o^ F j_ .. J -^Aj I. (Acta 8. Sedis, XI, 292). As during the days of perse-
^^^^V^ SS3t5.SL?SS'iSiS!^;?5USi3n cutio" ^^ illWrious among tie OudrtiaJ^ere
(Bonn, 1808) , 32 aqq. those who had sacrificed their lives for the faith, it was
JoHANNBB Baftibt SiGiit^LUBB. to be expected that during the fourth century the
selection of the names of martyrs as titulars would
Patron Sainti. — ^A patron is one who has been everywhere prevail. But with the progress of the
assigned by a venerable tradition, or chosen by eleo- Church in times of comparative peace, with the de-
tion, as a special intercessor with God and the proper velopment of the religious life, and the preaching of
advocate of a particular locality, and is honoured by the Go^)el in the di&rent countries of Europe and
clergy and people with a special form of retigious ob- Asia, bishops, priests, hermits, and nuns displayed
servance. The term ''patron", being wider in its in their lives lofty examples of Christian holiness,
meaning than that of "titular", may be i^pUed to a Cliurohes, thereforo, began to be dedicated in their
churoh, a district, a country, or a corporation. The honour. The choice of a particular patron has de-
word "titular" is applied onlv to the patron of a pended upon many circumstances. These, as a rule,
church or institution. Both the one and the other, nave been one or other of the following: (1) The poe-
according to the le^lation now in force, must have session of the body or some important relic of the
the rank of a canomzed saint. saint; (2) his announcement of the Gospel to the
Patrons of Churches. — Ori^n. — During the first nation ; (3) his labours or death in the locality ; (4) his
three centuries of the Churoh's history^ the faithful as- adoption as the national patron ; (5) the special devo-
sembled for worship in private houses, m cemeteries, or tion of the founder of the church; (6) the spirit of
other retired places. At intervals it had been possible ecclesiastical devotion at a given time. Leo XIII
to erect or adapt buildings for the sacred rites of reli- enumerated (28 Nov., 1897) as characteristic religious
gion. Such buildings, however, were not dedicated to movements of our time:-— devotion to the Sacred
the saints, but were spoken of as the House of God, the Heart, to Our Lady of the Rosary, to St. Joseph, and
House of Praver. and sometimes as the Temple of God. to the Blessed Sacrament. It should be clearly under-
They were also known as K^friaca^ Dominica, or Orof' stood that a churoh is, and always has been, dedicated
Urria. Larser structures received the name of basil- to God: other dedications are annexed on an entirely
icas, and the term churoh (eccleeia) was constantly different plane. Thus a churoh is dedicated to God in
employed to designate the place where the faithful honour (tor example) of the Blessed Virgin and the
assembled to hear the word of God and partake of saints. A typical form is the following: "Deo sacrum in
the sacraments. After peace had been given to the honorem deiparse immaculatse et SS. Joannis Baptists
Churoh by (>>nstantine, sacred edifices were freely et Evangelists." In 1100 a collegiate churoh in Dub-
erected, the emperor setting the example by the char- tin was dfedicated "to God, Our Blessed Lady, and St.
acter and magnificence of his own foundations. The Patrick". Sometimes out of several who are men-
Christians had always hddia deep reverence the mem- tioned the patron is expressly designated, a^ in the
cry of the heroes who had sealed with blood the pro- d«lication of a chaplainry in Arngask (Scotland) in
fession of their faith. The celebration of the solemn 1527, "for the praise, glory, and honour of the indivisi-
rites had long been intimately associated with the ble Trinity, the most glorious Virein and St. dlolumba,
places where the bodies of the martyrs reposed, and abbot, our patron of the parish . The celestial pat-
the choice of sites for the new edifices was naturally ronage here considered will be restricted in the first
determined by the scene of the martyrs' suffering, or instance to churohes and chapels. Patrons in different
by the spot where their sacred remains lay enshnned. countries generally present a distinctly national col-
The great basiUcas founded by Constantine, or du^ng ourin^; but the principles which have governed the
bis lifetime, illustrate this tendency. The churches of selection of names will be made apparent by the
St. Peter, St. Paul outside the walls, St. Lawrence in examination of a few instances. In comparing place
Agro Verano, St. Sebastian, St. Agnes on the Via with place, the rank or precedence of patrons should
Nomentana were all cemeterial basilicas, i. e. they be kept in view. A convenient arrangement .will be
were built over the spot where the bodies of each of the following: Dedications (1) to God and the Sacred
these saints lay buried. The sa^e practice finds illus- Humanity ofChrist or its emblems; (2) to the Mother
tration in the churches of SS.' Domitilla and Gene- of God; (3) to the Angels; (4) to the holy personages
rosa, SS. Nereus and Achilleus, St. Felix at Nola, and who introduced the NeW Law of Christ; (5) to the
others. From this custom of rendering honour to the Apostles and Evangelists; (6) to other saints. >
PATRON 563 PATRON
•
Rome, — ^Rome is illuBtrious for churches named colleges, or institutions), the numbers are: HolyTrin-
after its local martyrs. The most important are the ity, 16; Holy Cross, 15; Sacred Heart, 90. Consecrap-
basilicas of St. Peter, of St. Paul Outside the Walls, tions in honour of the Blessed Virgin maintain their
of St. Lawrence, St. Sebastian, and of St. A^^es in the ancient pre-eminence, reaching a total of 374. The
Via Nomentana. Other churches have received their simple designation of St. Maiy's is the most freauent
title from the fact of being constructed in connexion appellation. The form ''Our Lady'' occurs usually in
and Paul, St. Frances's of Rome. Santa Croce recalls the Sea,. Assumption, Our Lady of the Rosary. One
St. Helen ; the Domine quo vadis chapel refers to the church only bears the title of the Transfiguration, and
meeting of Our Lord and ot. Peter on the Appian Way ; one only is distinguished by each of the following titles :
San Pietro in Carcere is erected above tne Mamer- Our Lady of Refuge, of England, of Pity, of Paradise,
tine prison; ^an Pietro in Montorio adjoins the place of Reparation, of Reooncihation, Spouse of the Holy
of St. Peter's martyrdom; San Pietro m Vincoli con- Ghost, Most Pure Heart of Mary. The angels are not
tains the actual chains with wluch St. Peter was favoured, Michael standing almost alone, but with 38
bound. St. John I^teran's was first dedicated to dedications. St. John Baptist has 20, while the name
Our Saviour, but the title was changed in the twelfth of Joseph appears as titular in no fewer than 145
oentuiy; St. Gregory on the Coelian recalls the home churches. Apostles and Evangelists reach a total of
of St. Gregory and the site of the church he built in 153: Peter leads the way with 43; the Beloved Disciple
honour of St. ^dzew; St. Lorenso in Damaso re- counts his 30, Peter and Paul follow with 17. Each of
calls its founder. Pope Damasus. There are thirl^- the remaining Apostles has at least 2 churches under
four churohes dedicated to the Mother of God, dis- his invocation, except Matthias, Barnabas, and Mark,
tinguished often topographically (as Sta Maria in Via who have but 1. Among the male saints: Anthony
lata, or Sta Maria in Trastevere) and also in other of Padua, Charles, Edward, Edmund, George, and
wa3r8 (as Sta Maria Maraore, so called in relation to Richard have each between 10 and 20; but Patrick,
other Ronum churches m Our Lady^ta Maria della with 46, heads the list; then follow Augustine 22,
Pace, Sta Maria dell' Anima, etc.). The formal dedi- Benedict 19, Cuthbert 18, and Francis of Assisi 21.
cations to God consist of TSrinit4 dei Pellegrini, Tri- A special interest attaches to names which occur but
nit^ dei Moi^ti, S. Spirito in Sassia, S. Salvatore in once, for frequently they are dedications to a local
lAuro, S. Salvatore in Thermis, and the Gesu. There saint, as in the instances of Birinus (Dorchester),
are no dedications to the Angels nor (until recently) to Dubritius (Treforest), Gwladys (New]X)rt, Mon.), la
St.. Joseph, the Sacred Heart, All Saints, or All Souls. (St. Ives)2^eot (Liscard), Oswin (T^nemouth), Prian
In a few mstances titulars occur more than once: (Truro), Teilo (Tenby), Simon Stock (Faversham),
Lawrence, 6; Peter, 4; Paul. Andrew, Charles, John, Frideswide (Abingdon), and Walstan (Cossey). Noth-
Nicholas, 3 each (see Rome). ing could have been more appropriate than the saints'
England. — St. Augustine and his companions names selected in the northern dioceses correspond-
brou^t with them to England the Roman customs ing with the ancient Northumbria. There we meet
and traditions respecting the naming and dedication with dedications to Aidan, Bede, Bennet, Columba,
of churehes. Altars were consecrated with the ashes Cuthbert^ Ninian, Hilda, Oswald, etc. Among the
of the martvrs. One of the earliest dedication prayers female saints Anne, the mother of Our Lady, occupies
of the An^loMSaxon Chureh runs thus: ''Tibi, sancta a position of eminence with 30 churches, Winefrid
Dei genitnx, virgo Maria (vel tibi, sancte J. B. Do- ranks next with 10, and Catherine follows with 8.
mini, ... vel martyres Christi, vel confessores The Saxon virgins and widows are honoured in the
Domini) tibi commendamus banc curam templi hujus, localities which they hallowed by their saintly lives,
quod consecravimus Domino Deo nostro, ut nic inter- thus: Begh (Northumbria); Etheldreda (Ely) * Hilda
cessor existas; preoes et vota offerentiimi hie Domino (Whitby); Mildred (Minster); Modwena (Burton-
Deo offeras; odoramenta orationum plebis . . . on-Trent)j08beriK (Coventry); Wereburg (Chester);
ad patris thronum conf eras ", etc. (Lingard. " The His- Winefrid (Holywell) .
tory and Antiquities of the Anglo-Saxon Cnureh ", II. Scotland, — Celtic and Medieval. — ^In the da3rs of the
40). Among the titulars of the Anglo-Saxon period Picts, St. Peter was held in preference, from a. d. 710
are found: Christ Chureh (Canterbury), St. Mary's when Roman usages were adopted, but Andrew
de Comeliis. St. Mary's of Huntingdon, and of Lym- claimed the greater number of dedications from the
ing. All Hallows (Lincoln), Peter (to whom the greater time his relics had been brought to the coast by St.
Put of the Anglo-Saxon churehes were dedicated), Regulus. As instances of double titulars, native and
'eter and Paul (Canterbury), Paul (Jarrow), Andrew foreign, the following may be taken: St. Mary and St.
(Rochester), Martin (near Canterbury), Pancratius Manchar (Old Aberdeen); St. Mary and St. Boniface;
(Canterbury). Accepting the fi^r»9 of F. A. Foster Sts. Mary and Peter; Madrustus and John Baptist;
in her '' Studies in Chureh Dedications", and with- Stephen and Moanus. In pre-Reformation times Holy
out drawing a line between pre-Reformation and Trinity occurred less frequently than in England; the
post-Reformation Enghsh churehes (not now Cath- Holy Ghost is met with three times; man^ churohes
oUc), we get the following enumeration of titulars: bore the title of Christ (Kilchrist^ Kildomme); Holy
Christ 373, Holy Cross or Holv Rood 83, Michael, or Blood and Holy Rood are found m several instances.
Michael the Arehangel, or St. Michael and the Angels A chapel styled ''TeampuU-Cro-Naomh" (Temple of
721 (one in six of the churehes, ancient and modem, the Holy Heart) once stood on the shore at Gauslan in
now attached to the Established Church bears the Lews. Numerous churehes bore Our Lady's name
name of Our Lady or one of her titles, the total being (Lady Kirk) : the Assumption isfoimd as early as 1290,
2162, and the proportion in pre-Reformation times and a churen is dedicated to Our Lady of Loreto in
was still larger), John Baptist, 576; Peter, 936^eter 1530. Many churehes had St. Michael for patron (Kil-
and Paul, 277; Paul, 329; Holy Innocents, 15; Helen, michael). St. Anne is the titular in several places, and
117; Augustine of Canterbury, 57; Thomas of Canter- an altar to the Three Kings existed in almost every
bury, 70j Nicholas. 397 ; Lawrence, 228. The Catholic chureh. St. Joseph is nowhere found as a chureh titu-
Church m England at the present time has shown the lar, though he held the position of joint titular of an al-
same spirit of conservatism and of independence which tar in 1518. The present day. — ^The choice of titulars
is everywhere manifested in the choice of patrons, in the Catholic cnurehes of Scotland at the present
Among the chief of the 170 dedications to God of the time displays the same twofold direction that we find
churohes and chapels (not counting religious houses, elsewhere: the honour of the saints of Scotland and of
PATBON
664
PATBOH
other lands, and the prompting^ of modem devotion.
The Sacred Heart has 8 dedications, the Holy Rood 3.
The Apostles receive the special honour of 39 churches,
John being the patron of 13, and Andrew of 7. 77
churches are dedicated to the Blessed Virgin, of which
11 celebrate the Immaculate Conception, 7 bear the
title of Star of the Sea: Our Lady of the Waves and
Our Lady of Good Aid stand alone. Churches with
the titles of modem saints are in a minoritv, for Pat-
rick takes the lead with 12; Ninian, SootliEUid's first
apostle, has 6; Columba 5; Mungo 4; David 3; and
Margaret 2. Many Celtic saints occur but once, as for
example, Bean, Brendan, Cadoc, ColimibkiUe, Fillian,
KesBOg, Kieran, Mirin, and Winning.
Ireland. — ^The history of the patron saints of Ire-
land has yet to be written. The country has passed
through long periods of trouble and oppression, yet
severiu of the Celtic dedications have been preserved
and linger in some districts even to this day. The
Catholic church is often known simply by the name of
the street in which it is situated, as the Cathedral,
Marlborough St., Dublin, or the Jesuit church in
Gardiner Street. A similar instance occurs in Dublin
with regard to the church dedicated to St. Francis of
Assisi. but alwa3rs styled ''Adam and Eve", from the
fact that when the building was erected in the seven-
teenth century, there swung at the end of the alley, in
which the chapel was situated, a public-house m«a
with the full figures of our first parents. The two reli-
gious edifices in a town are sometimes called the
^'Cathedral'' and the ''Old Chapel''. In the days of
persecution, when churches and endowments had alike
been confiscated, the conditions of Catholic worship
recalled the secrecy of the catacombs. During the
nineteenth century the old "bams'' that had so long
served for chapels were replaced by beautiful and
spacious churches for which Irish saints were fre-
quently selected as patrons: but as a rule the choice
has been determined by the tendencies of modem
devotion. There are decucations to the Sacred Heart,
to Our Lady i^ider her various titles, and to manv ot
the more recently canonized saints, such as St. Yin-
cent and St. Francis de Sales. Still the people con-
tinue to refer to the churches by the names of the
streets. In Celtic times manv churches were dedi-
cated to Our Lady and called Kilmurray. All the
Donaghmore {Dominica Major) churches were dedi-
cated to St. Patrick, because they had been founded
by him. Other dedications include Bridget (Kil-
bride), Peter (Kilpedder), Paul (Kilpool)^ Catherine
of Alexandria (Ailladreenan, Kilcathenne). The
Holy Sepulchre found a place among the oldest dedi-
cations. In Dublin or the neighbourhood the titles of
Peter, Bride, Martin, Kevin, McTail (St. Michael-le-
Pole), Nicholas within and Nicholas without the walls,
were to be met with . Then there were churches under
the patronage of All Hallows, Macud (Kilmacud),
Macnonna, Fintan, Brendan (Carrickbrenan), Begnet
(St. Bega, Kilbegnet), (jobhain (Kiigobbin), Tieman
(Kilter, Kilteman). Bern's church was so called be-
cause foimded b^ a priest of Byrne's clan. The title of
Cell-Ingen-Leimn (Church of the five daughters of
Leinin, whence the name Killiney) was so called from
its founders. New names were introduced by the
Normans, as Audven (Dublin), being St. Ouen of
Rouen. The colony from Chester, brought over to*
repeople Dublin which had been decimated by the
plague at the end of the twelfth century, erected a
church dedicated to their patroness, St. Werburg.
ContinerUal Europe, — ^With regard to the patrons of
churches on the continent of Europe it must suffice to
mention that in France alone there are 3000 dedica-
tions under ihe invocation of St. Martin, and then to
take a glance at the single diocese of Bruges in Bel-
gium : Bruges is the diocese of an old country that has
never lost the faith. Its churches have 95 titulars
which are distributed as follows: Holy Trinity 1;
Holy Redeemer 2; Sacred Heart 3; Exaltation of the
Holy Cross 3; Our Lady (Notre Dame) 24; Immacu-
late Conception 4; Assumption 6; Nativity 4. Michael
holds the patronage of 7 churches, Joseph of 5, and
John the Baptist of 16. Seven of the Apostles are
honoured with 63 dedications: Peter has 23; Peter's
Chains 3; Paul 5; Conversion of Paul 2; Bartholomew
6 ; James 6; and John only 3. Every town and district
of Belgium is hallowed with the traditions of the holy
men and women of ancient days, so that the devotion
shown to the saints of other countries is not a little
remarkable. Out of 57 male saints adopted as titu-
lars Martin has the hi^est number, namely 20:
Nicholas 13 ; Lawrence 8 ; Blaise 6. Amand, Apostle ot
the Fleminm, has been chosen patron of 19 churches,
Audomar of 8 : Bavo, the hermit of Ghent, of 7 ; Eligius
of 10; Medard of 6^and Vaast of 4.
United States. — ^The fourteen archdioceses of the
United States have been examined as affording
suitable material for a study of local piet3r, namely,
Baltimore, Boston. Chicago. Cincinnati, Dubuque,
Milwaukee^ New Orleans, New York, Oregon City.
Philadelphia, St. Louis, St. Paul, San Francisco, ana
Santa F^. Over this area are found some 300 churches
under dedications of the first rank, the principal ones
being here enumerated: Most Holy Trinity 27;
Holy Ghost 10; Holy Redeemer 11 ; Sacred Heart 109;
Blessed Sacrament (including Coipus Christi 4, Holy
Eucharist 1) 14; Holy Name 12; Holy Cross 19. The
life of Christ is adequately represented, thus: In-
carnation 3; Nativity 9; Epiphany 3; Tirsjusfiguration
4; Resurrection 3; Asc^ision 9. Other titles may be
mentioned : Holy Spirit 3 ; Gesu 2 ; Atonement, GkxxI
Shepherd, Holy Comforter, Holy Saviour. Provi-
dence of God, St. Sauveur, and Sacred Hearts of
Jesus and Maiy 1 each. With the increasing reali-
zation of the gifts of the Incarnation which appears
in modem devotions, it will excite Uttle wonder that
some 500 or more churches are dedicated to the
Mother of God under one or other of her many titles,
the principal being : St. Maiy 148 : Immaculate Con-
ception 105; Assimiption 36; Holy llosary 19: Annun-
ciation 12; Visitation 10; Star of the Sea 9; Presenta-
tion 6; Nativity5; Holv Name of Mary 3| Maternity
3; Immacularte Heart of Mary 2; Purification 2; Most
Pure Heart of Mary 1. Titles from l^e Litany of
Loreto attract in so far as they represent the more
recent expressions of CathoUc devotion, thus: Mother
of God 2; Mother of Divine Grace 1; Our Ladv of
Good Counsel 10; Gate of Heaven 1; Help of Chris-
tians 13 ; Queen of the Angels 1 ; Our Lady of the Angels
6; Our Lady of the Rosary 11. With the foregoing
list certain derivative titles may be connected: Our
Lady of Consolation 6; of Good Voyage 1 ; of Grace 3 ;
of Help 2; of Mercy 4; of Perpetual Help 10; of Pity 2 ;
of Prompt Succour 1 ; of Refuge 1 ; of Solace 1 ; of Sor-
rows 6^f the Lake 5: of the Sacred Heart 3; of the
Seven Dolours 5; of the Snow 1; of Victory 8. The
following geographical determinations occur: Our
Lady of Csentochowa 4; of Guadalupe 8; of Himgary
2: of Loreto 4; of Mount Carmel 22; of Lourdes 14;
of Pompeii 4; of Vilna 2. Notre Dame de Bon Port,
du Bon Seoours, de Chicago, de la Paix, Nuestra
Sefiora de Belen, del Pilar, &ncta Maria Addolorata,
and Sancta Maria Incoronata, 1 each, suggest F^nch
Spanish, and Italian affiliations.
The list of male saints in the fourteen dioceses com-
prises 156 names, and the female 41 . For the sake of
convenience these have been divided into groups. 10
churches are dedicated to All Saints, the Apostles in
Seneral have 1; Peter, the Prince of the Apostles. 58;
ames 26; Andrew 15; Thomas 11; Matthias 5; Philip
5; Barnabas 3; Bartholomew 2; Jude 1; the Evangel-
ists have: John 59: Matthew 13; Mark 9: Luke 6.
St. Paul is honoured with 26 dedications; reter and
Paul have 28; Philip and James 3; John and James 1.
Michael the Archangel has 57; the Holy Angels 6; the
PATBOH 565 PATBOK
Guardian Angels 7; Gabriel 7: Raphael 10. In the La Visitation, L'Assomption, Notre Dame de la Mer-
lons list of male saints Joseph heads the list with 183 cie, Notre Dame de la Faix, Notre Dame des Anges,
dedications, followed by Patrick who counts 83. and Notre Dame des Ni^ffes, Notre Dame de Bon Conmil,
then in numerical order: John the Baptist and An- Notre Dame du Mont Carmel, Notre Dame du
thony 43 each; Francis of Assisi and Stephen 23 each; Rosaire, Sacr6 Cceur de Marie etc. The patrons of
Augustine and Vincent 19 each; Francis de Sales, churches, outside the class just referred to, nave been
Fnmcis Xavier, <^(i Lawrence 16 each; Bernard, listed according to the number of churches dedicated
Iflmatius, and Thomas Aquinas 15 each; Alo3rsius, to them in the Archdioceses of Halifax, Kingston,
Charles, and Louis 14 each; Alphonsus and Nicholas Montreal, Ottawa, Quebec, St. Boniface. Toronto,
11 each; Leo and Martin 10 each; Dominic 9; Ed- Vancouver, and tiie Archdiocese of St. JoWs, New-
ward 8; Ambrose, Clement, Jeiome, and Joachim foundland, and are as follows: Most Holy Trinity 2;
7 each ; Benedict and Pius 6 ; Gregory 5 : Anselm, Atha- Hdv Ghost 1 ; Sacred Heart 15 ; Most Hofy Redeemer
nasius, Bonaventure, Denis, Hubert, Maurice, Peter 1: Holy Name of Jesus 2 : Infant Jesus 3 ; Holv Child 1 ;
Claver, and Philip Neri 3 each; Dionysius^ Eloi, Holy Family 5: Bleesea Sacrament, Transfiguration,
Ferdinand, Francis Borgia, Gall, Hvacinth, Isidore, Ascension, St. oauveur, and Gesu 1 each: Holy Cross
liborius, Nicholas of Tolentino, Sebastian, Vincent 4. To Our Lady we find: Immaculate Conception 7,
Ferrer, and William 2 each; Albert, Alphonsus Turi- Nativitjr 5, Presentation 2, Annunciation 4, Visitation
bins, Anthony the Hermit, Basil, Bnde, Canicius, 3, Purification 1, Assumption 6, Mary Immacidate 1,
Cyprian, Cym. David, Donatus. Edmund. Engelbert, Holy Name of Mar^ 4, St. Mary 9, Notre Dame 4,
Eustachius, Florian, Fidelis, Francis Solano, Fred- Notre Dame de la Consolation 1, Notre Dame de la
erick, Irenseus, John Baptist de la Salle, John Berch- Garde 2, Notre Dame de TE^rance 2. Sacred Heart
mans, John Capistrano, John Chrysostom. John of Mary 5, Stella Maris 1, Our Lady &eip of Christians
Francis Regis, John the Martyr, Kyran, Landry, 1, of Good Counsel 5, of Grace 4, of la Salette 2, of
Lazarus, L^mder, Leon, Leoniurd of Port Maurice, Loreto 1, of Lourdes 3, of Mercy 3, of Mount Carmd
Luis Bertrand, Maron, Martin of Tours, Maurus, 6. of Peace 1, of Perpetual Succour 5, of Victory 3, of
Nicholas of Mynjs Napoleon. Norbert, Kaymund. tne Angels 2, of the Blessed Sacrament 1, of the Roe-
Rock, Theodore, Tliomas of Canterbury. Thomas ot ary 7, of the Sacred Heart 1, of the Seven Dolours 3,
Villanova. Timothy, Valentine, Viator, Victor, Wille- of the Snow 2, of the Wayside 2.
brod, Zepnyrin, 1 each. To the saints: Joseph 21; Patrick 20; Anthony 10;
The female patronesses are 41 in number, those Louis 9; James, Micnael. Paul, and Peter 8 each;
whose names appear more frequently being: Anne 36; John, John the Baptist, John the Evangelist, and Vin-
Rose 22; the three Catherines 21 ; Teresa 14; Agnes 13; cent de Paul 7 each: Francis of Assisi 6; Augustine,
Cecilia 12; Margaret 10; Elizabeth 9; Monica 8: Bernard, and Charles 5 each; Edward, Francis de
Genevieve 6: Pmlomena 5; Clare. Gertrude, ana Safes, Francis Xavier 4 each; Ambrose, Charles Bor-
Mary Magdalen 4 each; Agatha, Helen, and Veronica romeo, Gabriel, George. Gerard, Joacldm, Luke,
3 each; Anastasia, Angela, and Lucy 2 each; Barbara, Thomas Aquinas, and Viateur 3 each; Alexander,
Cunegunde, Elisabeth of Hungary, Eulalia, Frances Aloysius, .^Jiastasius, Andrew, Anselm, Coliunban,
« , any , , ^ . ,
nationality of devotion finds occasion for its mani- Philip Neri, Stephen, and Thomas 2 each; Adrian,
festation. Celtic centres are shown by such titles as: Aime, Alfred, Alphonsus ligouri, Arsenius, Athana-
Brendan5; Canice 1; Colman 3; Columba 5: Colum- sius, Bamaby, Basil, Benedict, Eienjamin, Bemardin
banus 2; Columbkille 6; Cronan 1 ; Finbar 1 ; Jarlath 1 ; of Siena, Bonaventure, Boniface, Bnde, Cajetan, Ca-
Kevin 1; Kilian 3; Lawrence O'Toole 3; Malachy 6; lixtus, Camillus of Lellis. Carthagh, Casimir, Clement.
Mel 1; Attracta 1: Bridget 11; Ita 1: George, a widely ColiunbanuSj Coliunbkille, Cosmos, Cuthbert, Qmi
favoured national patron, has 17 cnurches. Rita of and Methodius, Cyprian. Daniel, Denis, IMsir^, Do-
Casoia 3, and Rocco 2, show the ItiJian; Ludmilla 1, natus, Dominic, Edmuna, Eugene, Faustinus, Fdix of
Procopius 1, and Vitus 1. are Bohemian; Stephen with Valois, Good Thief, Henry, Hugh, Hvacinth, Ignatius
23 suflKests Hungary; Boniface with 21 dedications, Loyola, Irensus, Isidor, Jerome, John Benmmans,
and Henry with 8, tell of Germany. Benedict the John CSantius, John Chrysostom^ John of the Cross,
Moor (New York) is the patron of the church for ne- Jovita. Jude, Justin, ICyran, Lawrence, Lawrence
groes. The numerous Polish population has adopted O'Toole, Leo, Malachy, Malo. Mark, Martin, Mat-
distinctive patrons: Adalbert 8; Casimir 10; Cyril thew, Narcissus, Nicholas, Odilo, Pascal-Babylon,
and Methodius 8; Josaphat 3; John Cantius 4; Peter Celestine Philippe, Raphael, Remi^us, Rock,
John Nepomucene 8: Ladislaus 1; Stanislaus 23; Romuald, Sixtus, Stephen de Lauzon, Tunbius, Vita*
Vojtiechus 1; WenceslausO; Hedwig6;Salomea 1. lis, Vitus, Zephyrim, and Zotjcus 1 each; Anne 7;
Canada, — In the Dominion of Canada, to a very Bridget and Pmlomena 4 each; Helen 3: Agnes,
great extent, the name ot a district or villaffe is the Ceciua. Emily, and Marguerite 2 each; Agatna, Anas-
same as that of the patron of the church. Obviously tasia, Angelica, Catherine. Catherine of Siena, Clare
the different localities have been named after their of Tereanville, Clotilde, Cunegundes, Elisabeth, Eli-
respective patrons. The number of titulars is con- sabeth of Hungary. Elizabeth of Portugal, Euphemia,
siderable^ tne names having been assigned on the plan Felicitas, Jeanne cte Neuyille, Magdalen, Margaret,
of avoiding repetitions. In the list examined the Monica, Veronica, All Saints, 1 each,
names of wout 400 male, and 100 female, saints are Atutralia, — ^This includes the Archdioceses of Syd-
represented, and the entire range of popular devotion ney. Melboume^obart, Adelaide, Brisbane, and the
is covered. It is a surprise to find that m this long list Archdiocese of Wellington, which comprises all the
of provincial divifidons no dedications are to be found territory of New Zealand. The patrons of churches
to the Most Holy Trinity, the Holy Ghost, the Blessed are: (1) Trinity 3 ; Good Shepherd 2 ; Most Holy Re-
Sacrament. Nloreover, only five are to be found deemer3; Sacred Heart 63; St. Saviour 1; Real Ptcb'
which in any way relate to Christ or the mysteries of ence 1 ; Holy Name 4 ; Blessed Sacrament 2 ^Church of
His life, these b^g, St. Sau veur, Le I^cieux Sang, the Reparation 1 ; Church of the Passion 1 ; Holy Cross
L'Epiphanie, Sacr6C<Burde J^sus, L'Ascenaon. The 7. (2) St. Mary 74 j Immaculate Conception 21;
Holy Family is represented, also tne Angels Guardian, Nativity 1 ; Annunciation 1 ; Assumption 6; Our Lady
and Our Lady tmder the Various mysteries of her Ufe Help of Christians 2; of Good Counsel 1 ; of Lourdes 1 ;
and many of her most popular titles of devotion, such of Mercy 1 ; of Moimt Carmel4 ; of Perpetual Succour 3 ;
ne: La Conception, L» Pr^^otation, L' Annunciation, of the Rosary 11 ; of the Sacred Heart 1 ; of the Seven
PATBOH
666
PATBOK
Dolours 3; of the Suburbs 1; of Victories 1; Refuse of
Sinners 1: Auxilium Christianorum 1; Blessed Virgin
2; Holy Heart of Mary, Holy Name of Mary, Mary
Immaculate, and Queen of Angels 1 each; St. Mary of
the Angels 2; Star of the Sea 19. (3) Guaxdian Angels
4: Holy Angels 2. (4-5) Patrick 85; Joseph 74:
Michael 24; Peter IQ; Peter and Paul 13; Francis ot
Assisi and Paul 10 each ; John the Evanselist, Ck>-
lumba, Francis Xavier, John, Anthony, and James 8
each; Augustine and Francis de Sales 7 each; Andrew,
John the Baptist, Lawrence, Matthew, and Vincent 6
each: Bede, Benedict, Lawrence O'Toole, Malachy,
Stephen, and Thomas 4 each; Aidan, Brendan, Col-
man, and Ignatius 3 each; Aloysius, Bernard, Charles,
Columbkille, Edward, Gabriel, George, Gregory.
Joachim, Mark, Martin, Raphael, Stanislaus, ana
Thomas Aquinas 2 each; Alphonsus, Ambrose, Atha-
nasius, Barnabas, Bartholomew, Boniface, Carthagh,
Clement, Cleus, Declan, Felix, Fiacre, Finbar, Fur-
seus, Gerard, John and Paul, John Berchmans, John
of God, John of the Cross, Joseph and Joachim, Kevin.
Kieran, Leo, Leonard, Luke, Maro, Michael ana
George. Munchin, Nicholas, Nicholas of Myra, Pau-
linus, Peter Chanel, Philip and James, Pius, Rock,
Rupert, Vigilius, William, and the Apostles 1 each.
(6) Bngid 19; Anne 7; Canice and Monica 4 each;
Agnes 3; Margaret 2; Agatha, Clare, Gertrude,
Helen, Ita, Joan of Arc, Rose of Lima. Teresa, Wine-
fred, 1 each. All S^ts 6, All Souls 2. '
British SotUh Africa, — ^This includes the Eastern
and Western Vicariates, the Vicariates of Natal, Kim-
berley, Transvaal, Orange River, Basutoland, and the
Prefectures Apostolic of Great Namaqualand and
Rhodesia. The churches are dedicated as follows:
(1) Trinity 1; Sacred Heart 16; St. Saviour 1; Holy
Family 2. (2) St. Mary 17; Immaculate Conception
12; Annunciation 1; Assumption 1 ; Mater Dolorosa 2;
Our Ladv 1 ; Our Lady of Good Counsel 3; of Grace 1 :
of Louraes 1; of Perpetual Succour 1 ; of Sorrows 1; ot
the Rosary 4; of the Sacred Heart 2; Star of the Sea 2.
(3) Michael and the Holy Angels 1. (4-5) Joseph 11:
Augustine and Patrick 5 each; Francis Xavier and
Michael 4 each; Peter, and Peter and Paul 3 each;
Charles, Dominic. Francis de Sales, and Ignatius
Loyola 2 each; Anthony, Benedict, Boniface, Co-
lumba, Francis of Assisi, Gabriel^ James, Joachim,
John, John the Baptist, Leo, Martm, Matthew, Paul,
Peter Claver, Simon and Jude, Thomas, and Triashill
1 each. (6) Anne and Monica 2 each; Agnes and
Mechtilda 1 each. All Saints 1.
Patbons of Countries. — An authentic catalogue
of patron saints of countries of the world has yet to be
made. Some countries appear to have no celestial
patron, others have several assigned to them, and it
IS by no means clear that the distinction between
patron and Apostle is invariably taken into account.
The following list gives the patrons of some few
countries of the world: Austria (Our Lady), Beldum
(St, Joseph). Brasil (declared ** Th^ Land of the Holy
Cross", 3 Mav, 1500). Borneo (St. Francis Xavier),
Canada (St. Anne and St. George), The Congo (Our
Lady), Chili (St. James), England (St. George), East
Indies (St. Thomas, Apostle), Ecuador (styled ''The
Republic of the Sacred Heart"), Finland (Henry of
Upsal), France (St. Denis), Germany (St. Michael),
Holland (St. Willibrord), Hungary (St. Stephen),
Ireland (St. Patrick), Italy (various), Lombaray (St.
Charles), Mexico (Our Lady of Help, and Our Lady
of Guadaloupe), Norway (St. Olaf), Portugal (St.
George). Piedmont (St. Maurice), Scotland (St.
Andrew), Sweden (St. Bridget), Spain (St. James).
South America (St. Rose of lima). United States of
North America (Our Lady under the title of Immacu-
late Conception), Wales (St. David).
Patbons op Trades and Professions. — The
beliefs of a Catholic in an age of Faith prompted him
to place not only his churches under the protection of
some illustrious servant of Go(i but the ordinary
interests of life, his health, and family, trade, malar
dies, and perils, his death, his city and country. The
whole social life of the Catholic world before the
Reformation was animated with the idea of protection
from the citizens of heaven. It has been stated that
in En^and there existed 40,000 religious corporations,
inclumng ecclesiastical bodies of all kinds, monas-
teries and convents, military orders, industrial and
professional guilds, and charitable institutions, each
of which had its patron, its rites, funds, and methods
of assistance. Some idea of the vastness of the sub-
ject may be gathered from a few examples of the
trades under their respective patrons: Anastasia
(weavers), Andrew (fishermen), Aime (houseworkers
and cabinet-makers), Christopher (porters), Cloud
(nailmakers), Coemas and Damian (doctors), Crispin
(shoemakers), Eloi (all workers with the hammer),
Hubert (huntsmen)^ Lydia (dyers), Joseph (carpen-
ters, Mark (notaries), Luke (pamters). Nativity
(trades for women), Raymund Nonnatus (midwivee),
Raymimd of Pennafort (canonists), Stephen (stone-
masons). Vincent Martyr (winegrowers), Vitus (co-
medians). Conditions of life: foundlings (Holy In-
nocents), girls (Blandina), boys (Aloysius), singers and
scholars (Gregory), philosophers (Catherine), musi-
cians (C])ecilia), persons condenmed to death (Dismas).
There were patrons or protectors in various forms of
illness, as for instance : Agatha (diseases of the breast) .
ApoUonia (toothache), Blaise (sore throat), Clare ana
Luc]r (the eyes), Benedict (against poison), Hubert
(against the bite of dogs). Theae patrons with very
many others were chosen on account of some real
correspondence between the patron and the object of
patronage, or by reason of someplay on words, or as a
matter of individual piety. Tnus, while tiie great
special patrons had their chents all over Christendom,
other patrons in r^ard of the same class of objects
might vary with different times and places. In order
to complete this imperfect and summary sketch of the
subject of patrons, a list of the patrons announced by
the Holy See within the last few years should here find
a place: St. Joseph was declared patron of the uni-
versal Chureh by Pius X on 8 Dec., 1870. Leo XIII
durii^ the course of his pontificate announced the
following patrons: St. Thomas Aquinas, patron of
all universities, colleges, and schools (4 Aug., 1880);
St. Vincent, patron of aU charitable societies (1 May.
1885); St. C^amillus of Lellis, patron of the sick ana
of those who attend on them (22 June, 1886); the
patronal feast qf Our Lady of the Congo to be the
Assumption (21 July. 1891); St. Bridget, patronesa
of Sweden (1 Oct^ 1801) ; the Holy FaSly, fiie model
and help of all Christian families (14 June, 1892) ;
St. Peter Claver. special patron of missions to the
negroes (1896) ; St. Paschal Baylon, patron of Eucha-
ristic congresses and all Eucharistic societies (28 Nov.,
1897). On 25 May, 1899, he dedicated the world to
the Sacred Heart, as Prince and Lord of alLCatholics
and non-Catholics, Christians and non-Chiistians.
Lourdes was dedicated to our Ladv of the Rosaiy (8
Sept., 1901). Pius X declared St. Francb Xavier
patron of the Propagation of the Faith (25 Mar., 1904).
The honouring of the saints has in some instances
doubtless been the occasion of abuse. Spells and
incantations have been intruded in the place of trust
and prayer; the prayerful abstinence of a vigil baa
been exchanged for the rollicksome enioyment of
wakes; reverence may have run incidentally to puerile
extravagance; and patrons may have been chosen
before meir claim to an heroic exereise of ChriBtia&
virtue had been juridically established. Still it re-
mains true that the manifestation of Christian piety
in the honour paid to angels and saints has oeen
singularly free from the taint of human excess and error.
Cahieb. CaracUri§lique» de» SaitOM (Paru, 1867); HusBKBxn,
EmbUmt of the SainU, «d. Jbsmp (8rd ed.. Norwioh. 1882) ; Boiia«
PATTI 567 PAUL
JUruM LUwrgiearttm I, xix; SrANTOif. Mmotogy cf Bn^famd and Latin (op. cit., 104-17), and a letter from the Corin-
WaiM (London, 1887): Linqabd. The Hutory and AniimnUee of thiana in PaiiI with thf» Iftttpr'ci n^nlv thp ArmpntAn
U« AngioSaxok Churck, II; Fomt»», Stwdte* in ChwrS Dtdia^ tmans to raui wiin ine ia«er 8 repiv, tne Armenian
i»ofM(8vols.. London. 1899); Mackinlbt. iiftcieia CAureA D«di. text of which was preserved (cf. Zahn, "Gesch. des
iana in SeoOand jEdinbur|d». 1910) ; IK)nwbllt, Hiatcry of neutest. Kanons", II, 592-611), and tBe Latin discov-
Min /^btmAm (Dublin): C. T. S. pubhoAtionB; Couuian, Hu- ^^ ^ Rprirpr in 18QI (of KitrniLrk "Difl Annkrv-
ieal Memoirt of the Ciiy of Armagh (Dublin. 1900); Smith. ®^ °J pemr in IWl ^Cl. namaCK^ l^e apow^r-
ISSr.SSliSkl'^rS.S^rtiSSSSS^ anticipated this result with regard
Hbnbt Pabkinbon. documents, and the manner m which St. Jerome
Breaks of the vtploioi Pauli et Thecke (De viris ill.,
Pattiy Diocese of (Pagtbnbis), in the Province of vii) mig^t have permitted the same surmise with re-
Messina (Sicily), on the western shore of the gulf of gard to the first.
the same name. The city has a large trade in tunny- Another consequence of Schmidt's discovery is no
fish. In its cathedral is preserved the body of St. Fo- less interesting. Lipsius maintuned — and this was
timeofPUny, however, the sea had encroached ^p'eatly 5; XXV. 4) pl^uses them among the books in dis-
upon the shore, and after the foundation of Patti, TNp- pute, sucn as the ** Shepherd " of Hennas, the " Apoca-
daris was almost entirely abandoned: there remains lypse of Peter", the ''Epistle of Barnabas", and the
only the church of Santa Maria del Tindaro, with a "Teaching' of the Apostles". The stichometry of the
Franciscan monastery. Three of the bishoiM of Tyn- "Codex Qaromontanus" (photograph in Vigourouz,
daris are known: Severinus (601); Eutychius (594), "Diet, de la Bible", II, 147) places them after the
with whose zeal for tiie conversion of pagans St. Greg- canonical books. Tertullian and St. Jerome, while
ory the Great was well pleased : and Theodorus (649). pointing out the legendary character of this writing, do
Patti was destroyed by Frederick of Aragon about not attack its orthodoxy. The precise purpose of St.
13(X), on account of its attachment to the House of Paul's correspondence with the Corinthians which
Anjou; rebuilt in the sixteenth oentuiy, it was sacked formed part of the "Acts", was to oppose the Gnos-
by the Turks. Count Ruggiero had founded there a tics, Simon and Cleobius. But there is no reason to
Eienedictine abbey, and in 1131, the antipope Anaclo- admit the existence of heretical "Acts" which have
tus II made Patti an episcopal see, uniting it, however, since been hopelessly lost, for all the details ^ven by
with the Abbey of Lipari; Eugenius III in 1157 con- ancient authors are verified in the "Acts" which have
firmed the action of tne antipope, the first legitimate been recovered or tally well with them. The foUow-
fastor of the see hemg Gilbertus. In 1399, Lipari and ing is the explanation of the confusion: The Mani-
'atti were separated, and the first bishop of the sepa- dueans and Priscillianists had circulated a collection
rate see of Patti was Francesco Hermemir. Other bish- of five apocryphal " Acts ", four of which were tainted
ops were: Francesco Urvio (1518), who in the course of with heresy, and the fifth were the "Acts of Paul",
controversies with the capitano dello spagnuolo was The "Acta Pauli" owing to this unfortimate associa-
imprisoned; later he was transferred to the Diocese of tion are sucroected of heterodoxy by the more recent
Urgel: Bartolomeo Sebastiani (1548), distinguished authors such as Philastrius (De hseres., 88) and Pho-
himself at the Council of Trent, and was Governor of tins (Cod., 114). Tertullian (De baptismo, 17) and
Sicilv for three vears; Alfonso ae los Cameros (1652), St. Jerome (De vir. ill., vii) denounce the fabulous
the founder of the seminuv, restored later by Bishop character of the apocryphal "Acts" of Paul, and this
Galletti (1727) ; Cardinal Geremia Celesia, later Arch- severe judgment is amply confirmed by the examina-
bishop of Palermo, Bishop of Patti, 1860-71. tion of tiie fragments published by Schmidt. It is' a
The diocese is a suffragan of Messina; it has 49 purely imaginative work in which improbability vies
parishes, 20,000 inhabitants, 5 rehgious houses of men. with absurmty . llie author, who was acquainted with
and 15 of sisters, who conduct 4 institutes for girls and the canonical Acts of the Apostles, locates the scene in
several schools. the places really visited by St. Paul (Antioch, Iconium,
Cappellktti. u Ch%M9 d* Italia, XXI. XJ. Bbnioni. Myra, Perge, Sidon, Tyre. Ephesus, Corinth, Philippi,
Rome), but for the rest ne pves his fancy free rem.
Paul, Saint. — I. Preuminart Questions. — ^A. His chronoloey is absolutely impossible. Ofthesixtv-
Apocryphal Acts of St, Pavl, — Professor Schmidt has five; persons he names, very few are known and the
recently published a photographic copy, a transcrip- part played by these is irreconcilable with the state-
tion, a Uerman translation, and a commentary of a ments of the canonical "Acts". Briefly, if the canoni-
Coptic papyrus composed of about 2000 fragments, cal "Acts" are true the apocr3rphal "Acts" are false,
which he has classified, juxtaposed, and deciphered at This, however, does not imply tnat none of the details
a cost of infinite labour ("Acta Pauli aus der Heidel- have historical foundation, but they must be oon-
berger koptischen Papjmishandschrift Nr. 1", Leip- firmed by an independent authority,
cif;, 1904, and "Zus&txe", etc., Leipzig, 1905). Most B. Chronology. — If we admit according to the al-
critics, whether Catholic (Duchesne, Bardenhewer, most unanimous opinion of exegetes that Acts, xv, and
Ehrhard etc.), or Protestant (Zahn, Hamack, Cors- Gal., ii, 1-10, relate to the same fact it will be seen
sen etc.), believe that these are real "Acta Pauli", that an interval of seventeen years — or at least six-
although the text edited by Schmidt, with its very nu- teen, counting incomplete years as accomplished —
inerous gaps, represents but a small portion of the ori- elapsed between the conversion of Paul and tiie Apoe-
ginal work. This discovery modified the generally ao- tohc council, for Paul visited Jerusalem three years
cepted ideas concerning the origin, contents, and value after his conversion (Gal., i, 18) and returned after
of these apocryphal Acts, and warrants the conclusion fourteen years for the meeting held with regard to
that three ancient compositions which have reached us legal observances (Gal., ii, 1 : x^vara dcd itxareaadptitw
formed an integral part of the "Acta Pauli" viz. the h-Qp). It is true that some authors include the three
"Acta Pauh et Theclie", of which the best edition years prior to the first visit in the total of fourteen, but
is that of Lipsius ("Acta Apostolorum apocrypha", this explanation seems forced. On the other hand,
Leipzig^ 1891, 235-72), a '^Martyrium Fauh" pre- twelve or thirteen years elapsed between the Apostolic
Berved m Greek and a fragment of which also exiete in council and the end of the captivity, for the captivity
PAUL 568 PAm.
lasted nearly five yean (more than two years at Cse- ticipation of the famine foretold by Agabus (Acts, id,
sarea,. Acts, xxiv. 27, six months travelling, including 28, 29) preceded the appearance of the scourge or coin-
the sojourn at Malta, and two years at Rome, Acts, cided with the first symptoms of want. On the othei
zzviii, 30); the' third mission lasted not less than four hand, the synchronism between the death of Herod
years and a half (three of which were spent at Ephesus, and the mission of Paul can only be approximate, for
Acts, XX, 31, and one between the departure from although the two facts are closely connected in the
Ephesus and the arrival at Jerusalem, I Cor., xvi, 8; Acts, tibe account of the death of Agrippa may be a
Acts, XX, 16, and six months at the very least for the mere episode intended to shed light on the situation
journey to Galatia, Acts, xviii, 23); while the second of the Church of Jerusalem about the time of the
mission lasted not less than thiee years (eighteen arrival of the delegates from Antioch. In any case,
months for CorintJi, Acts, xviii. 11, and the remainder 45 seems to be the most satisfactory date,
for the evangeHsation of Galatia, Macedonia, and (3) Replacing of Felix by Festus two ^rears after
Athens, Acts, xv, 36-xvii, 34). Tnus from the con- the arrest of Paul (Acts, xxiv, 27). — Until recently
version to the end of the fiist captivity we have a chronologists commonly fixed this important event
total of about twentv-nine years. Now if we could in the year 60-61. Hamack,0. Holtsmann, and Mo-
find a fixed point that is a synchronism between a Giffert suggest advancing it foiur or five years for the
fact in the life of Paul and a certainly dated event following reasons: (1) In his ''Chronicon", Eusebius
in profane history, it would be easy to reconstruct places the arrival of Festus in the second year of Nero
the Pauline chronology. Unfortunately this much (Oct., 5&-Oct., 56, or if , as is asserted, Eusebius makes
wished-for mark has not yet been indicated with the reigns of the emperors begin with the Septem-
certainty, despite l^e numerous attempts made by ber after their accession. Sept., 56-Sept., 57). But it
scholars, especially in recent times. It is of inter- must be borne in mind that the chroniclers being
est to note even the abortive attempts, because the always obliged to ^ve definite dates, were likely to
discovery of an inscription or of a coin may anv day guess at them, and it may be that Eusebius for lack
transform an approximate date into an absolutely of definite information divided into two eoual parts
fixed point. These are: the meeting of Paul with Ser- the entire duration of the government of Felix and
gius Paulus, Proconsul of Cyprus, about the year 46 Festus. (2) Josephus states (Ant., XX, viii, 9) that
(Acts, xiii, 7), the meeting at Corinth with Aquila and FeUx having been recalled to Rome and accused by the
Priscilla, who had been expelled from Rome, about 51 Jews to Nero, owed his safety only to his brother
(Acts, xviii, 2), the meeting with Gallic, Proconsul of Pallas who was then high in favour. But according to
Achaia, about 53 (Acts, xvui, 12), the address of Paul Tacitus (Annal., XIII, xiv-xv), Pallas was dismissed
before the Governor Felix and hiis wife Drusilla about shortly before Britannicus celebrated his fourteenth
58 (Acts, xxiv, 24). All these events, as far as they anniversary, that is, in January. 55. These two state-
may be assigned approximate dates, agree with the ments are irreconcilable; for ii Pallas was dismissed
Apostle's general cnronologv but give no precise re- three months after Nero's accession (13 Oct., 54) he
stuts. Three sjmchronismsThowever, appear to afford could not have been at the summit of his power when
a firmer basis: — his brother Felix, recalled from Palestine at the com-
(1) The occupation of Damascus by the ethnarch mand of Nero about the time of Pentecost, arrived at
of King Aretas and the escape of the Apostle three Rome. Possiblv Pallas, who after his dismissal re-
years after his conversion (II Cor., xi, 32--33; Acts, tained his wealth and a portion of his influence, since
ix^ 23-26). — Damascene coins bearing the effigy of he stipulated that his administration should not be
Tiberius to the year 34 are extant, proving that at subjected to an investigation, was able to be of as-
that time the city belonged to the Romans. It is sistance to his brother tmtil 62 when Nero, to obtain
impossible to assume that Aretas had received it as possession of his goods, had him poisoned.
a gift from Tiberius, for the latter, especially in his last The advocates of a later date bring forward the
years, was hostile to the King of the Nabatsans whom following reasons: (1) Two years before the recsdl
Vitellius, Governor of Syria, was ordered to attack of Felix, Paul reminded him that he had been for
(Joseph., "Ant."j XVIII, v, 13); neither could Aretas many years judge over the Jewish nation (Acts, xxiv,
have possessed himself of it by force for, besides the 10-27). This can scarcely mean less than six or
unlikelihood of a direct aggression against the Romans, seven years, and as, according to Josephus who agrees
the expedition of Vitelhus was at first directed not with Tacitus, Felix was named procurator of Judea
against Damascus but against Petra. It has there- in 52, the beginning of the captivity would fall in
fore been somewhat plausibly conjectured that Ca- 58 or 59. It is true that the argument loses its
ligula, subject as he was to such whims, had ceded strength if it be admitted with several critics that Felix
it to him at the time of his accession (16 March, 37). before being procurator had held a subordinate posi-
As a matter of fact nothing is known of imperial coins tion in Palestine. (2) Josephus (Ant., XX, viii, 5^)
of Damascus dating from either Caligula or Claudius, places imder Nero everything that pertains to the
According to this h3rpothesis St. Paul's conversion government of Felix, and althou^ this long series of
was not prior to 34, nor his escape from Damascus and events does not necessarily require many years it is
his first visit to Jerusalem, to 37. evident that Josephus regards the government of
(2) Death of Agrippa, famine in Judea, mission of Felix as coinciding for the most part with the reign of
Paul and Barnabas to Jerusalem to bring thither the Nero, which began on 13 Oct., 54. In fixing as foUows
alms from the Church of Antioch (Acts,xi,27-xii,25). — the cnief dates in the life of Paul all certain or prob-
Agrippa died shortly after the Pasch (Acts, xii, 3, 19), Me data seem to be satisfactorily taken into account:
when he was celebrating in Csesarea solemn festivals Conversion, 35; first visit to Jerusalem, 37; sojourn
in honour of Claudius's recent return from Britain, at Tarsus, 37-43; apostolate at Antioch, 43-44; see-
in the third year of his reign, which had begun in 41 ond visit tp Jerusalem, 44 or 45; first mission, 45-
(Josephus, '^Ant.", XIX, vii, 2). These combined 49; third visit to Jerusalem, 49 or 50; second mission,
facts oring us to the year 44, and it is precisely in this 50-53; (I and II Thessalonians), 52; fourth visit to
year that Orosius (Hist., vii, 6) places tne great famine Jerusalem, 53 j third mission, 53-57; (I and II Corin-
which desolated Judea. Josephus mentions it some- thians; Galatians), 56; (Romans), 57; fifth visit to
what later, under the procurator Tiberius Alexander Jerusalem, arrest, 57; arrival of Festus, departure for
O^ut 46), but it is well known that the whole of Rome, 59; captivity at Rome, 60-62; (Philemon:
Claudius's reign was characterized b v. poor harvests Colos8ians;Epne8ian8;Philippians), 61; second period
(Suet., "C]au(uus", 18) and a general famine was usu- of activity, 62-66; (I Timothy; Titus), second arrest,
ally preceded by a more or less prolonged period of 66; (II Timothy), martyrdom, 67. (See Turner,
scarcity. It is also possible thfkt the i^li^ qen^ in «j^- ''(^hrpnolo^ of tl\e N- T." in {i^ustin^, "Pioti Qt
PAUL 569 PAUL
the Bible"; Hdnicke, "Die Chronologie des Lebens Kghtning and thunder. All this combined, according
des Ap. Paulus ''.Leipzig, 1903.) to Kenan's theoiy, to produce a cerebral commotion, a
II. LiFB AND Work of Paul. — A. Birth and Edn passing delirium which Paul took in good faith for an
vcation, — From St. Paul himself we know that he was apparition of the risen Christ.
bom at Tarsus in Cilicia (Acts, xxi, 39), of a father The other partisans of a natural explanation, while
who was a Roman citizen (Acts, xxii, 26-28; cf. xvi, avoiding the word hallucination, eventually fall back
37), of a family in which piety was hereditary (II on the system of Renan which they merely endeavour
Tim., i, 3) and which was much attached to Phari- to render a little less complicated. Thus Holsten, for
saic traditions and observances (Phil., iii, 5-6). St. whom the vision of Christ is only the conclusion of a
Jerome relates, on what ground is not known, that series of syllogisms by which Paul persuaded himself
his parents were natives of Gischala, a §mall town of that Christ was truly risen. So also Pfleiderer, who
Cxahlee, and that they brought him to Tarsus when however, causes the imagination to play a more influ*
Gischala was captured by the Romans (''De vir. ill.", ential part: "An excitable, nervous temperament; a
y; "In epist. ad Phil.", 23). This last detail is cer- soul that had been violently agitated and torn by the
tainlv an anachronism, but the Galilean origin of the most terrible doubts; a most vivid phantasy, occupied
family iff not at all improbable. As he belonged to the with the awful scenes of persecution on the one hand,
tribe of Benjamin he was given at the time of his and on the other by the ideal image of the celestial
circumcision the name of Sfl^, which must have been Christ; in addition the nearness of Damascus with the
common in that tribe in memory of the first king of urgency of a decision, the lonely stillness, the scorch-
the Jews (Phil., iii, 5). As a Roman citizen he also in^ and blinding heat of the desert — in fact every-
bore the Latin name of Paul. It was quite usual for thms combined to produce one of those ecstatic states
the Jews of that time to have two names^ one Hebrew, in which the soul believes that it sees those images and
the other Latin or Greek, between which there was conceptions which violently agitate it as if they were
often a certain assonance and which were joined to- phenomena proceeding from the outward world"
gether exactly in the manner made use of by St. Luke {Lectures on the influence of the Apostle Paul on the
^cts, xiii, 9: ZaOXot 6 koX naOXot). See on this point development of Christianity, 1897, 43). We have
Deissmann, "Bible Studies" (Edinburgh, 1903), quoted Pfleiderer's words at len^h because his "psy-
313-17. It was natural that in inaugurating his chological" explanation is considered the best ever
apostolate among the Gentiles Paul should have devised. It wul readily be seen that it is insufficient
adopted his Roman name, especially as the name Saul and as much opposed to the account in the Acts as to
had a ludicrous meaning in Greek. As every re- the express testimony of St. Paul himself. (1) Paul is
spectable Jew had to teach his son a trade, young Saul certain of having "seen " Christ as did the other Apos-
leamed how to make tents (Acts, xviii, 3) or rather ties (I Cor., ix, 1); he declares that Christ "appeared"
to make the mohair of which tents were made (cf. to him (I Cor., xv, 8) as He appeeured to Peter, to
Lewin, "Life of St. Paul". I, London, 1874, 8-9). James, to the Twelve, after His Resurrection. (2) He
He was still very young when sent to Jerusalem to knows that his conversion is not the fruit of his reason-
receive his education at the school of Gamaliel (Acts, ing or thoughts, but an unforeseen, sudden, startling
xxii, 3). Possiblv some of his family resided in the change, due to all-powerful grace (Gal., i, 12-15; 1
holy city; later there is mention of the presence of one Cor., xv, 10). (3) He is wrongly credited with doubts,
of his sisters whose son saved his life (Acts, xxiii, 16). perplexities, fears, remorse, beK)re his conversion. He
From that time it is absolutely impossible to follow was halted by Christ when his fury was at its height
him until he takes an active part in the martyrdom (Acts, ix, 1-2); it was "through zeal" that he perse-
of St. Stephen (Acts, vti, 58-60; xxii, 20). He was cuted the Church (Phil., iii, 6), and he obtained mercy
then quidified as a young man (Ma Wat), but this was a because he had acted "ignorantly in unbelief" (l
very elastic appellation and might be applied to a Tim., i, 13). All explanations, psycholo^cal or other-
man bel^ween twenty and forty. wise, are worthless m face of these defimte assertions,
B. Corwernon and early Labours, — ^We read in the for ail suppose that it was Paul's faith in Christ which
Acts of the Apostles three accounts of the coiiversion engendered the vision, whereas according to the con-
of St. Paul (ix, 1-19; xxii, 3-21 ; xxvi, 9-23) presenting cordant testimony of the Acts and the Epistles it was
some slight differences, which it is not difficult to har- the actual vision of Christ which engendered faith,
monize and which do not affect the basis of the nanra- After his conversion, his baptism, and his miracu-
tive, which is perfectly identical in substance. S^ lous cure Paul^t about preacning to the Jews (Acts,
J. Massie, "The Conversion of St. Paul" in "The ix, 19-20). He afterwards withdrew to Arabia — ^prob-
Expositor", 3rd series, X, 1889, 241-62. Sabatier. ably to the region south of Damascus (Gal., i, 17),
agreeing with most independent critics, has well said doubtless less to preach than to meditate on the Scrip-
(L' Ap6tre Paul, 1896, 42) : "These differences cannot tures. On his return to Damascus the intrigues of the
in any way alter the reality of the fact; their bearing Jews forced him to flee by night (II Cor., xi, 32-33;
on the narrative is extremely remote; they do not deal Acts, ix, 23-25). He went to Jerusalem to see Peter
even with the circumstances acoompanymg the mirap- (Gal., i, 18), but remained only fifteen d^s, for tiie
cle but with the subjective impressions which the snares of the Greeks threatened his life. He then left
companions of St. Paul received of these circum- for Tarsus and is lost to sight for five or six years (Acts,
stances. ... To base a denial of the historical char- ix, 29-30; Gal., i, 21). Barnabas went in search of him
acter of the account upon these differences would and brought him to Antioch where for a year they
seem therefore a violent and arbitrary proceeding." worked together and their apostolate was most fruit-
All efforts hitherto made to explain without a miracle ful (Acts, xi, 25-26). Together also they were sent to
the apparition of Jesus to Paul nave failed. Naturalis- Jerusalem to carry alms to the brethren on the occa-
tic explanations are reduced to two: either Paul be- sion of the famine predicted by Agabus (Acts, xi, 27-
Ueved that he really saw Christ, but was the victim of 30). They do not seem to have found the Apostles
an hidlucination, or he believed that he saw Him only there; these had been scattered by the persecution of
through a spiritual vision, which tradition, recorded in Herod.
the Acts of the Apostles, later erroneously material] zed. C. A postoUc Career of Paul. — ^This period of twelve
Renan explainea everything by hallucination due to years (45-57) was the most active and fruitful of his
disease brought on by a combination of moral causes life. It comprises three great Apostolic expeditions of
such as doubt, remorse^ fear, and of physical causes which Antioch was in each instance the stfurting-point
such as ophthalmia, fatigue, fever, the sudden transi- and which invariably ended in a visit to JerusiSem.
tion from the torrid desert to the fresh gardens of (1) First mission (Acts, xiii, 1-xiv, 27).— Set apart
Damascus, perhaps a sudden storm accompanied by by command of the Holy Ghost for the special evan-
PAUI. 570 PAUI.
ffdisation of the Gentiles. Barnabas and Saul embark the same fact, for the actors are the same, Paul and
for Cyprus, preach in the s3magogue of Salamina, Barnabas on the one hand, Peter and James on the
cross the island from east to west doubtless following other; the discussion is the same, the question of the
the southern coast, and reach Pi^hoe, the residence of circumcision of the Gentiles; the scenes are the same,
the proconsul Serous Paulus, where a sudden change Antioch and Jerusalem; the date is the same, about
takes place. After the conversion of the Roman pro- A. d. 50; and the result is the same, Paul's victoiy over
consul, Saul, suddenly become Paul, is invariably theJudaixers. However, the decision of Jerusalem did
mentioned before Barnabas by St. Luke and mam- not do away with all difficulties. The question did
festly assumes the leadership of the mission which not concern only the Gentiles, and while exempting
Barnabas has hitherto directed. The results of this them from the Mosaic law, it was not declared that it
change are soon evident. Paul, doubtless concluding would not have been counted meritorious and more
that Cyprus, the natural dependency of Syria and perfect for them to observe it, as the decree seemed to
C^cia, would embrace the faith of Cmist when these liken them to Jewish proselytes of the second class,
two countries should be Christian, chose Asia Minor Furthermore the Judeo-Chnstians, not having been
as the field of his apostolate and sailed for Perge in included in the verdict, were still free to consider them-
Pamphvlia, eight miles above the mouth of the Ces- selves bound to the observance of the law. This was
trus. It was uien that John Mark, cousin of Bama- the orij^ of the dispute which shortly afterwards arose
bas, dismayed perhaps by the daring projects of the at Antioch between Peter and Paul. The latter taught
Apostle, abandoned the expedition and returned to openly that the law was abolished for the Jews them-
Jerusalem, while Paul and Barnabas laboured alone selves. Peter did not think otherwise, but he consid-
among the rough mountains of Pisidia. which were in- ered it wise to avoid giving offence to the Judaizers
fested by brigands and crossed by frientful precii>ices. and to refrain from eating with the Gentiles who did
Their destination was the Roman colony of Antioch, not observe all the prescriptions of the law. As he
situated a seven days' journey from Perge. Here thus morally influenced the Gentiles to live as the
Paul spoke on the vocation of Israel and the providen- Jews did, Paul demonstrated to him that this disrimu-
tial sending of the Messias, a discourse which St. Luke lation or opportuneness prepared the way for future
reproduces in substance as an example of his preaching misunderstandings and connicts and even then had
in the synagogues (Acts, xiii^ 16-41). The sojourn of re^ttable consequences. His manner of relating this
the two missionaries in Antioch was long enough for incident leaves no room for doubt that Peter was per-
the word of the Lord to be published throughout the suaded by his ar(;uments (Gal., ii, 11-20^.
whole country (Acts, xiii, 49). When by their in- (2) Second mission (Acts, xv, 36-xviii, 22). — The
trigues the Jews nad obtained against them a decree of bennning of the second mission was marked by a
banishment, they went to Iconium, three or four days rather sharp discussion concerning Mark, whom St.
distant, where they met with the same persecution Paul this time refused to accept as travelling compan-
from the Jews and the same eager welcome from the ion. Consequently Barnabas set out with Mark for
Gentiles. The hostility of the Jews forced them to Cyprus and raul chose Silas or Silvanus, a Roman
take refuge in the Roman colony of Lystra, eighteen citixen like himself, and an influential member of the
miles (tistant. Here the Jews from Antioch and Iconium Church of Jerusalem, and sent by it to Antioch to
laid snares for Paul and having stoned him left him deliver the decrees of the Apostolic council. The two
for dead, but again he succeeded in escaping and this missionaries first went from Antioch to Tarsus,
time sought refuge in Derbe^tuated about forty miles stopping on the way in order to promulgate the deci-
away on the frontier of the Province of Galatia. Their sions of the Council of Jerusalem ; then they went from
circuit completed, the missionaries retraced their steps Tarsus to Derbe, through the Cilician Gates^ the de-
in order to visit their neophytes, ordained priests m files of Taurus, and the plains of Lycaonia. The
each Church founded by them at such great cost, and visitation of the Churches founded during his first
thus reached Perge where they halted to preach the mission passed without notable incidents except the
Gospel, perhaps while awaiting an opportunity to em- choice of Timothy, whom the Apostle while in Lystra
barkforAttaha, a port twelve miles distant. Onthdr persuaded to accompany him, and whom he caused
return to Antioch in S3rria after an absence of at least to be ciroumcised in order to facilitate his access to the
three vears, they were received with transports of joy Jews who were numerous in those places. It was
and thanksgiving, for God had opened the door of probably at Antioch of Pisidia, although the Acts
faith to the Gentiles. do not mention that citv, that the itinerary of the
The problem of the status of the Gentiles in the mission was altered by the intervention of uie Holy
Church now made itself felt with all its acuteness. Ghost. Paul thought to enter the Province of Ada
Some Judeo-Christians coming down from Jerusalem
claimed that the Gentiles must be submitted to cir-
cumcision and treated as the Jews treated proselytes.
Against this Paul and Barnabas protested and it was the Holy Ghost to preach the word of God in Asia
decided that a meeting should be held at Jerusalem in (Acts, xvi, 6). These words (r^v ^vylaw KtU TaXaruHiw
order to solve the question. At this assembly Paul x^^P^p) are variously interpreted, according as we
and Barnabas represented the community of Antioch. take them to mean the Galatians of the north or of
Peter pleaded the freedom of the Gentiles; James up- the south (see Galatians). Whatever the hypothe-
held him, at the same time demanding that the Gen- sis, the missionaries had to travd northwards in that
tiles should abstain from certain thines which espe- portion of Galatia properlv so called of which Pessi-
cially shocked the Jews. It was decided, first, that the nonte was the capital, and the only question is as to
Gentiles wero exempt from the Mosaic law. Secondly, whether or not tney preached thero. They did not
that those of Syria and (Dilicia must abstain from intend to do so, but as is known the evangelisation
things sacrificed to idols, from blood, from thin^ of the Galatians was due to an accident, namelv the
strangled, and from fornication. Thiidl^, that this illness of Paul (Gal., iv, 13); this fits ver^ well for
imunction was laid upon them, not in virtue of the Galatians in the nortn. In any case the missionaries
Nfosaic law, but in the name of the Holy Ghost. This having reached the upper part of Mysia (xard Uvfflav)^
meant the complete triumph of PauFs ideas. There- attempted to enter the rich Province of Bithynia
striction imposed on the Gentile converts of Syria and which lay before them, but the Holy Ghost prevented
Cilicia did not concern his Churches, and Titus, his them (Acts, xvi, 7). Therefore, passing through
companion, was not compelled to be circumcised, de- Mysia without stopping to preach (rapeXMrrft) they
Site the loud protests of the Judaizers (Gal., ii, 3-4). reached Alexandria of Troas, where God's will was
ere it is assumed that Gal., ii. and Acts, xv, relate to again made known to them in the vision of a Macedo-
PAUL 571 PAUL
nian who called them to come and help his country to imitate Paul's exorcisms, others from the super*
(Acts, xvi, 9-10). stition of the pagans, which was especiaUy rif e at
Paul continued to follow on European soil the Ephesus. So effectually did he triumph over it, how-
method of preaching he had employed from the be- ever, that books of superstition were burned to the
ginning. As far as possible he concentrated his value of 50,000 pieces of silver (about $9000). This
efforts in a metropolis from which the Faith would time the persecution was due to the Gentiles and in-
mre&d to cities of second rank and to the country spired by a motive of self-interest. The progress of
districts. Wherever there was a synagogue he first Christianity having ruined the sale of the little facsim-
took hb stand there and preached to the Jews and iles of the temple of Diana and statuettes of the god-
proselytes who would consent to listen to him. When dess, which devout pilgrims had been wont to pur-
the rupture with the Jews was irreparable, which chase, a certain Demetrius, at the head of the ^Id
always happened sooner or later, he founded a new of silversmiths, stirred up the crowd against Paul.
Church with his neophytes as a nucleus. He remained The scene which then transpired in the theatre is
in the same city until persecution, generally aroused described by St. Luke with memorable vividness and
bv the intrigues of the Jews, fon»d him to retire, pathos (Acts, xix, 23-40). The Apostle had to yield
lliere were, however, variations of this plan. At to the storm. After a stay at' Epnesus of two years
Philippi, wnere there was no synagogue, the first and a half, perhaps more (Acts, xx, 31: rpurlaw), he
preaching took place in the uncovered oratory called departed for Macedonia and thence for Corinth,
the jiroaeuchef which the Centiles made a reason for where he spent the winter. It was his intention in
stimng up the persecution. Paul and Silas, charged the following spring to go by sea to Jerusalem, doubt-
with disturbing public order, were beaten with rods, less for the Pasch; but learning that the Jews had
imprisoned, and finally expelled. But at Thessalo- planned his destruction, he did not wish, by going
nica and Berea, whither they successively repaired By sea, to afford them an opportunity to attempt his
after leavins Philippi, tlungs turned out almost as life. Therefore he returned b^ way of Maceaonia.
they had planned. The apostolate of Athens was Numerous disciples divided mto two groups, ao-
3uite exceptional. Here there was no question of companied him or awaited him at Troas. These
ews or s^magogue, Paul, contrary to his custom, was were Sopater of Berea, Aristarchus and Secundus of
alone (I Thess., iii, 1), and he delivered before the Thessalonica, Gains of Dorbe, Timothy, Tychicus
areopagus a specially framed discourse, a synopsis of and Trophimus of Asia, and finally Luke, the historian
whicn has been preserved by the Acts (xvii, 23-^1) as of the Acts, who gives us minutely all the stages of
a specimen of its kind. He seems to have left the this voyage: Philippi, Troas, Assos, Mitylene, Chios,
city of his own accord, without beinp forced to do so Samos, Nliletus, Cos, Rhodesl Patara, Tyre, Ptole-
by persecution. The mission to Connth on the other mais, Cssarea, Jerusalem. Three more remarkable
hand may be considered tvpical. Paul preached in facts should be noted in passing. At Troas Paul
the synagogue every Sabbath day, ana when the resuscitated the young Eutychus, who had fallen from
violent opposition of the Jews denied him entrance a third-storv window while Paul was preaching late
there he withdrew to an adjoining house which was the into the night. At Miletus he pronounced befo^ the
property of a proselyte named Titus Justus. He car- ancients of Ephesus the touching farewell discourse
ried on his apostotate in this manner for eighteen which drew manv tears (Acts, xx, 18-38). At C8&-
months, while the Jews vainly stormed agunst him; sarea the Holy Ghost by the mouth of Agabus, pre-
ho was able to withstand them owing to the impartial, dieted his coming arrest, but did not dissuade nim
if not actually favourable, attitude of the proconsul, from ^ing to Jerusalem.
Gallio. Finally he decided to go to Jerusalem in St. ram's four great Epistles were written during
fulfillment of a vow made perhaps in a moment of this third mission: the fiist to the Corinthians from
danger. From Jerusalem, according to his custom, Ephesus, about the time of the Pasch prior to his
he returned to Antioch. The two Epistles to the departure from that citv; the second to the Corin-
Thessalonians were written during the c»rly months th^ans from Macedonia, during the summer or autumn
of his sojourn at Corinth. For occasion, circum- of the same year; that to the Romans from Corinth,
stances, and analjrsis of these letters see Thessalo- in the following spring; the date of the Epistle to
NiANS. the Galatians is disputed. On the many questions oo-
(3) Third mission (Acts, xviii, 23-xxi, 26). — Paul's casioned by the despatch and the language of these
destination in his third joumey^ was obviously letters, or the situation assumed dther on the side of
Ephesus. There Aquila and Priscilla were awaiting the Apostle or his correspondents, see (Dorinthianb,
hun, he had promised the Ephesians to return and Epistle to the; "Galatians, Epistle to the;
evangelize them if it were the will of God (Acts, xviii, Romans, Epistle to the.
19-21), and the Holv Ghost no longer opposed his D. Captivity (Acts, xxi, 27-xxviii, 31). — Falsely
entry into Asia. Tnerefore, after a bnef rest at accused bv the Jews of having brought Gentiles into
Antioch he went through tne countries of Galatia the Temple, Paul was ill-treated by the populace and
and Phry^a (Acts, xviii, 23) and passing through ''the led in chains to the fortress Antonia by tne tribune
upper regions" of Central Asia he reached Ephesus Lysias. The latter having learned that the Jews had
(xix, 1). His method remained the same. In order conspired treacherously to slay the prisoner sent him
to earn his living and not be a burden to the faithful under strong escort to (Dsesarea, which was the resi-
he toiled every day for many hours at making tents, dence of the procurator Felix. Paul had little diffi-
but this did not prevent him from preaching the Gos- culty in confounding his accusers, but as he refused to
pel. As usual he beg^an with the synagogue where he purchase his liberty Felix kept him in chains for two
succeeded in remaimng for three months. At the years and even left him in prison, in order to please
end of this time he taught every day in a class-room the Jews, until the arrival of his successor^ Festus.
placed at his disposal by a certain Tyrannus ''from The new governor wished to send the prisoner to
the fifth hour to the tenth" (from eleven in the mom- Jerusalem there to be tried in the presence of his
ing till four in the afternoon), according te the inter- accusers; but Paul, who was acquainted with the snares
esting addition of the "Codex Bezsb" (Acts^ xix, 9). of his enemies, appealed to Caesar. Thenceforth his
This lasted two years, so that all the inhabitants of cause could be tncNd onl^ at Rome. This first period
Asia, Jews and Greeks, heard the word of the Lord of captivity is characterised by five discourses of the
(Acts, xix. 20). Apostle: The first was delivered in Hebrew on the
Naturally there were trials to be endured and obsta- steps of the Antonia before the threatening crowd:
des to be overcome. Some of these obstacles arose herein Paul relates his conversion and vocation to the
from the jealousy of the Jews, who vainly endeavoured Apostolate, but he wss interrupted by the hostile
PAUL 572 PAUL
shouts of the multitude (Acts, xzii, 1-22). In the his plan. When towards the end of his captivity he
second, delivered the next day b^ore the Sanhedrin announces his coming to Philemon (22) and to the
assembled at the command of Lysias, the Apostle Philippians (ii, 23-24), he does not seem to regard this
skillfully embroiled the Pharisees with the Sadducees visit as immediate since he promises the Philippians to
and no accusation could be brought. In the third, send them a messenger as soon as he learns the issue of
Paul, answering his accuser Tertuuus in the presence his trial; he therefore plans another journey before his
of the Governor Felix, nuJces known the facts which return to the East. .Finally, not to mention the later
had been distorted and proves his innocence (Acts, testimony of St. Cyril of Jerusalem, St. Epiphanius,
X3av, 10-21). The fourth discourse is merelv an ex- St. Jerome, St. Chrvsostom, and Theodoret, the well-
planatory summary of Uie Christian Faith delivered known text of St. Clement of Rome, the witness of the
before Felix and his wife Drusilla (Acts, xxiv, 24-25) . " Muratorian Canon ", and of the ** Acta Pauli " render
The fifth^ pronounced before the Governor Festus, probable Paul's journey to Spain. In any case he can
Kuig Agnppa, and his wife Berenice^ again relates the not have remuned there long, for he was in haste to
history of Paul's conversion, and is left unfinished revisit his Churches in the East. He may have re-
owing to the sarcastic interruptions of the governor turned from Spain through southern Gaiu if it was
and the embarrassed attitude of the king (Acts, xxvi). thither, as some Fathers have thou|dit, and not to
The journey of the captive Paul from Csesarea to Galatia, that Crescens was sent later (II Tim., iv, 10).
Rome is descnbed by St. Luke with an exactness and We may readily believe that he afterwards kept the
vividness of colours which leave nothing to be desired, promise made to his friend Philemon and that on this
For commentaries see Smith, '^Voysge and Ship- occasion he visited the churches of the valley of Ly-
wreck of St. Paul" (1806); Ramsay, "St. Paul the cus, Laodicea, Colossus, and Hierapolis.
Traveller and Roman Citisen" (London, 1908). The The itineraiy now becomes very uncertain, but the
centurion Julius had shipped Paul and his fellow-pria- following facts seem indicated by the Pastorids: Paul
oners on a merchant vessel on board which Luke and remained in Crete exactly long enough to found there
Aristarchus were able to take passage. As the season new churches, the care and ormiisation of which he
was advanced the voyage was slow and difficult. They confided to his fellow-worker Titus (Tit., i, 5). He
skirted the coasts of S^rria, Cilicia, and Pamphylia. then went to Ephesus, and besought Timothy, who
At Myra in Lycia the prisoners were transferred to an was already there, to remain until Ms return wiule he
Alexandrian vessel bound for Italy, but the winds be- i>roceeded to Macedonia'(I Tim., i, 3). On this occa-
ing persistently contrary a place in Crete called Good- sion he paid his promised visit to the Philippians
havens was reached with great difficulty and Paul ad- (Phil., iii 24). and naturally also saw the Theasalo-
vised that they should spend the winter there, but his nians. The letter to Titus and the First Epistle to
advice was not followed, and the vessel driven by the Timothy must date from this period; they seem to
tempest drifted aimlessly for fourteen whole d^^, have been written about the same time and shortly
being finally wrecked on the coast of Malta, llie after the departure from Ephesus. The question is
three months during which navigation was considered whether they were sent from Macedonia or, which
n^osl^ dangerous were spent there, but with the first seems more probable, from Corinth. The Apostle in-
days of spring all haste was made to resume the voy- structs Titus to join him at Nicopolis of Epirus where
age. Paul must have reached Rome some time m he intends to spend the winter (Titus, iii, 12). In the
March. "He remained two whole years in his own following spring he must have carried out his plan to
hired lod^jng . . . preaching the kingdom of God, return to Aem (I Tim., iii, 14-15). Here occurred the
and teaching the things which concern the Lord Jesus obscure episode of his arrest, which probably took
Christ, with all confidence, without prohibition'' place at Troas; this would explain his having left with
(Acts, xxviii, 30-31). With these words the Acts of Carpus a cloak and books which he needed (II Tim.,
the Apostles conclude. iv, 13). He was taken from there to Ephesus, capital
There is no doubt that Paul's trial terminated in a of the Province of Asia, where he was deserted by all
sentence of acquittal, for (1) thereport of the Governor those on whom he thought he could rely (II Tim., i,
Festus was certainly favourable as well as that of the 15). Being sent to Rome for trial he idft Trophimus
centurion. (2) The Jews seem to have abandoned sick at Mifetus, and Erastus, another of his compan-
their charge since their co-religionists in Rome were not ions, remained at Corinth, for what reason is not
informed of it (Acts, xxviii, 21) . (3) The course of the known (II Tim., iv, 20). When Paul wrote his Second
proceedings led Paul to hope for a release, of which he Epistle to Timothy from Rome he felt that all human
sometimes speaks as of a certainty (Phil., i, 25; ii, 24; hope wss lost (iv, 6) ; he begs his disciple to rejoin him
Philem., 22). (4) The pastorals n they are authentic as quickly as possible, for he is alone with Luke. We
assume a period of activity for Paul subsequent to his do not know it Timothy wss able to reach Rome before
captivity. The same conclusion is drawn from the the death of the Apostle.
h^x)thesis that they are not authentic^ for all agree Ancient tradition makes it possible to establish the
that the author wss well acquainted with the life of following points: (1) Paul suSffercd martyrdom near
the Apostle. It is the almost unanimous opinion that Rome at a place called Aqus Salviie (now Tre Fon-
the so-called Epistles of the captivity were sent from tane), somewhat east of the Ostian Way, about two
Rome. Some authors have attempted to prove that miles from the splendid Basilica of San Paolo fuori le
St. Paul wrote them during his detention at CsBsarea, mura which marks his burial place. (2) The martjrrdom
but they have found few to agree with them. The took place towards the end of the reigp of Nero, in the
Epistles to the Colossians, the Ephesians, and Phile- twelfth year (St. Epiphanius), the thirteenth (£uthar>
mon were despatched together and by the same messen- lius) , or the fourteenth (St. Jerome) . (3) According to
ger, Tychicus. It is a matter of controversy whether the most common opinion, Paul suffered in the same
the Epistle to the Philii)pians was prior or subsequent year and on the same day as Peter; several Latin Fa-
to these, and the question has not been answered by thers contend that it wss on the same day but not in the
decisive arguments (see Phiuppians, Epibtlb to the; same year; the oldest witness, St. Dionysius the Co-
Ephxbians, Epistle to the; Colossians, Epistle rinthian. savs only card r6y a^6r Kaip6w, which may be
TO the; PhilbmoNjiEfistle to). translated ''at the same time" or "about the same
E. Last Years. — ^This period is wrapped in deep ob- time". (4) From time immemorial the solemnity of
scurity for, lacldng the account of the Acts, we have the Apostles Peter and Paul has been celebrated on 29
no guide save an often uncertain tradition and the June, which is the anniversary either of their death or
brief references of the Pastoral epistles. Paul had of the translation of their relics. Formerly the pope,
long cherished the desire to go to Spain (Rom., xv, 24, after having pontificated in the Basilica of St. Peter,
28) and there is no evidence that he was led to change went with his attendants to that of St. Paul, but the
PAUL
673
PAUL
distance between the two basilicas (about five miles)
rendered the double ceremony too exhanisting. espe-
ciidly at that season of the year. Thus arose tne pre-
vailing custom of transferring to the next day (30
June) the Commemoration of St. Paul. The feast of
the Conversion of St. Paul (25 January) is of compara-
tively recent origin. There is reason for believing
that the day was first observed to mark the translation
of the relics of St. Paul at Rome, for so it appears in
the Hieronymian Martyrolofl^. It is unknown to the
Greek Church (Dowden, *'The Church Year and
Ka]endar'\ Cambridge, 1910, 69; cf. Duchesne, ''Ori-
dues du culte chr^tien", Paris, 1898, 265-72; Mo-
Clure, "Christian Worship", London, 1903. 277-^1).
F. Physical and Moral Portrait of St. Paul.— We
know from Eusebius (Hist, eccl., Vll, 18) that even
in his time there existed paintings representing Christ
and the Apostles Peter and Paul. Paul's features
have been preserved in three ancient monuments:
(1) A diptych which dates from not later than the
fourth century (Lewin, "The life and Epistles of St.
Paul". 1874^ frontispiece of Vol. I and Vol. II, 210).
(2) A large medallion found in the cemetery of Domi-
tilla, representing the Apostles Peter and Paul (Op.
cit., II, 411). (3) A glass dish in the British Museum,
depicting the same Apostles (Farrar, "life and Work
of St. Paul", 1891, 896). We have also the concor-
dant descriptions of the "Acta Pauli et Thecke", of
Pseudo-Lucian in Philopatris, of Malalas (Chronogr.,
x), and of Nicephorus (Hist, eccl., Ill, 37). Paul was
short of stature: the Pseudo-Chrysostom caUshim "the
man of three cubits " (Ai^/wrof rptviixvt) ; he was broad-
shouldered, somewhat bald, with slightly aquiline nose,
closely-knit eyebrows, thick, g^vi& beard, fair com-
plexion, and a pleasing and iSfable manner. He Was
afflicted with a malady which is difficult to diagnose
(cf. Menzies. "St. Paul's Infirmity" in the "Exposi-
tory limes . Jul^ and Sept., 1904), but despite this
painful and numiliating infirmity (II Cor., xii, 7-9;
Gal., iv, 13-14) and although his bearing was not im-
pressive (II Cor.. X, 10), Paul must undoubtedly have
Seen possessed of great physical strength to have su»-
tained so long such superhuman labours (II Cor., xi,
23-29). Pseudo-Chiysostom, "In princip. apostol.
Petnim et Paulum " (m P. G., LIX, 494-95), considers
that he died at the age of sixty-«ight after having
served the Lord for thirty-five years. The moral por-
trait is more difficult to draw because it is full of con-
trasts. Its elements will be found: in Lewin, op. cit.,
II, xi. 410-35 (Paul's Person a&l Character); in Far-
rar, Op. cit.. Appendix, Excursua I; and especially
in Newman, "Sermons preached on Various Occa-
sions", vii, viii.
III. Theology op St. Paul. — A. Paul and
Christ. — This question has passed through two dis-
tinct phases. According to the principal followers
of the Tubingen School, the Apostle had but a va^e
knowledge of the life and teaiching of the historical
Christ and even disdained such knowledge as inferior
and useless. Their only support is the misinterpreted
text: " Et si cognovimus secundum camem Chnstum,
sed nunc jam novimus" (II Cor., v, 16). The oppo-
sition noted in this text is not between the histoncal
and the glorified Christ, but between the Messias
such as the unbelieving Jews represented Him, such
perhaps as he was preached by certun Judaisers, and
the Messias as He manifested Himself in His death and
Resurrection, as He had been confessed by the con-
verted Paul. It is neither admissible nor probable
that Paul would be uninterested in the life ana preach-
ing of Him, Whom he loved passionately. Whom he
constantly held up for the imitation of 'his neophytes,
and Whose spirit he boasted of having. It is mcred-
ible that he would not question on this subject eye-
witnesses, such as BamaJ^as, Silas, or the future his-
torians of Christ, Sts. Mark and Luke, with whom he
was ao long associated. Careful examination of this
subject has brought out the three following conclu-
sions concerning which there is now general agree-
ment: (1) There are in St. Paul more allusions to the
life and teachings of Christ than would be suspected
at first sight, and the casual way in which they are
made shows tJiat the Apostle knew more on the subject
than he had the occasion or the wish to tell. (2)
These allusions are more fremient in St. Paul than
in all the other writings of the New Testament, except
the Gospels. (3) From Apostolic times there existed
a catecheaiSf treating among other things the life and
teachings of Christ, and as all neophytes were sup-
posed to possess a copy it was not necessary to refer
thereto save occasionaUy and in passing.
The second phase of the question is closely con-
nected wiUi the first. The same theologians, who
maintain that Paul was indifferent to the earthly life
and teaching of Christ, deliberately exaggerate his
originality and influence. According to them Paul
was the creator of theology, the f oimder of the Church,
the preacher of asceticism, the defender of the sacra-
ments and of the ecclesiastical system, the opponent
of the religion of love and liberty which Chnst came
to announce to the world. If, to do him honour, he is
called the second founder of Christianity, this must
be a degenerate and altered Christianity since it was at
least partially opposed to the primitive Christianity.
Paul is thus made responsible for every antipathy to
modem thought in traditional Christianity. This is
to a great extent the origin of the "Back to Christ"
movement, the strange wanderings of which we are now
witnessing. The chief reason for returning to Christ
is to escape Paul, the originator of dogma, the theolo-
glan of the faith. The cry "Zurfick zu Jesu" which
as resounded in Germany for thirty years, is inspired
by the ulterior motive, "Los von Paulus". The
problem is: Was Paul's relation to Christ that of a
disciple to his master? or was he absolutely auto-
didactic, independent alike of the Gospel of Cluistand
the preadune of the Twelve? It must be admitted
that most of the papers published shed little light
on the subject. However, the discussions have not
been useless, for they have shown that the most char-
acteristic Pauline doctrines, such as justifying faith,
the redeeming death of Christ, the universality of
salvation, are in accord with the writings of the first
Apostles, from which they are derived. Jiilicher in
particular has pointed out that Paul's Christology,
which is more exalted than that of his companions in
the apostolate. was never the object of controversy,
and that Paul was not conscious of being singular
in this respect from the other heralds of the Gospel,
a. Morgan, "Back to Christ" m "Diet, of Christ
and the Gospels", 1, 61-67; Sanday, "Paul", loc. dt.j
II, 886-^; Peine. "Jesus Christus imd Paulus'
(1002); Goguel, '^L'ap6tre Paul et J6sus-Christ"
(Paris, 1904); Jtilicher, "Paulus und Jesus" (1907).
B. The Root Idea of St. PauTe Theology. Several
modem authors consider that theodicy is at the
basC) centre, and summit of Pauline theology. "The
apostle's doctrine is theocentriCj not in reality anthro-
pocentric. What is styled his 'metaphysics' holds
for Paul the immediate i£nd soverei^ fact of the
universe; God, as he conceives Him, is all in all to
his reason and heart alike" (Findlay in Hastings,
"Diet, of the Bible", III, 718). Stevens begins the
exposition of his "Pauline Theolor^" with a chapter
entitled "The doctrine of God". Sabatier (L'apAtre
Paul, 1896, 297) also considers that "the last word
of Pauline theology is: God all in all", and he makes
the idea of God the crown of Paul's theological edifice.
But these authors have not reflected that though the
idea of God occupies so large a place in the teaching
of the Apostle, whose thou^t is deeply religious like
that of all his compatriots^ it is not characteristiG
of him, nor does it distinguish him from his oompan-
ions in the apostolate nor even from oontemporaiy
PAUL 574 PAUL
JewB. Many modem Protestant theolodans, es- knowledge of the truth'' (I Tim., ii, 4). Hub will is
pedally among the more or less faithful followers of necessarily subsequent to original sin since it concerns
the Tubingen School, maintain that Paul's doctrine man as he is at present. According to His merciful
is ^'anthropocentric", that it starts from his concep- desims God leads man step by step to salvation. To
tion of man's inability to fulfil the law of God without the Patriarchs, and especially to Abraham, He gave
the help of grace to such an extent that he is a slave his free and generous promise, confirmed by oath
of sin and must wage war against the flesh. But if (Rom., iv, 13-20: Gal., lii, 15-18), which anticipated
this be the genesis of Paul's idea it is astomshing that the Gospel. To Moses He gave His Law, the obeer-
he enunciates it only in one chapter (Rom.^ vii), the vation of which should be a means of salvation (Rom.,
sense of which is controverted, so that if this chapter vii, 10 1 x, 5), and which, even when violated, as it was
had not been written, or if it had been lost, we would in reahty, was no less a guide leading to Christ (Gal.,
have no means of recovering the key to his teaching, iii, 24) and an instrument of mercy in the hands of
However, most modem theologians now apee that God. The Law was a mere interlude until such time
St. Paul's doctrine is Christocentric, that it is at base as humanity should be ripe for a complete revelation
a soteriology, not from a subjective standpoint, accord- (Gal., iv, 1-7). In fact the Law brought notMng to
ing to the ancient prejudice of the founders of Protest- perfection (Heb., vii, 19) ; it heightened the offence
antism who made justification by faith the quintessente (Gal., iii, 19; Rom., v, 20), and thus provoked the
of Paulinism, but from the objective standpoint, em- Divine wrath (Rom., iv, 15). But good will arise from
bracing in a wide synthesis the person and work of the the excess of evil and ''the Scripture hath concluded
Redeemer. This may be proved empirically by the all under sin, that the promise, by tiie faith of Jesus
statement that eveiything in St. Paul converges Christ, xn^t be given to them uiat believe" (Gal.,
towards Jesus Christ, so much so, that abstractmg iii, 22). Inis would be fulfilled in the ''fulness of the
from Jesus Christ' it becomes, whether taken collec- time'' (Gal. iv, 4; Eph., i, 10), that is, at the time set
lively or in detail, absolutely incomprehensible. This by God foi' the execution of His merciful designs, when
is proved also by demonstrating that what Paul calls man's helplessness diould have been well manifested,
his (jrospel is the salvation of aU men through Christ Then "God sent his Son, made of a woman, made
and in (Jhrist. This is the standpoint of the following under the law: that he n^ght redeem them who were
rapid analyos: under the law: that we might receive the adoption of
C. Humanity wUhoui CkrUL — ^The first three chap- sons" (Gal., iv, 4).
ters of the Epistle to the Romans shows us human D. The Person of the Redeemer. — Nearly all state-
nature wholly under the dominion of sin. Neither ments relating to the person of Jesus Christ bear either
Gentiles nor Jews had withstood the torrent of evil, directly or indirectly on His r6]e as Saviour. With St.
The Mosaic Law was a futile barrier because it pre- Paul Christology is a function of soteriology. How-
scribed good without imparting the strength to do it. ever broad these outlines, the^r show us the faithful
The Apostle arrives at this moumful conclusion: image of Christ in Hispre-existenoe, in Hishistori-
" There is no distinction [between Jew and Gentilel: cal existence, and in His glorified life (see F. Prat,
for all have sinned, and do need the glory of God'' "Thtologie ae Saint Paul").
(Rom., iii, 22-23). He subsequently leads us back (1) Christ in His pre-existence. — (a) Christ is of an
to the historical cause of this disorder: "By one man order superior to all created beings (Eph., i, 21); He
sin entered into this world, and by sin death; and is the Creator and Preserver of the World (Col., i, 16-
so death passed upon all men, in whom all have 17); all is by Him, in Him, and for Him (Col., i, 16).
sinned" (Rom:, v, 12). This man is obviously Adam, (b) Christ is the image of the invisible Father (II Cor.,
the sin which he brought into the world is not only iv, 4; Col., 1, 15); He is the Son of God, but unlike
his peraonal sin, but a predominating sin which en- other sons is so in an incommunicable manner; He is
tered into all men and left in them the seed of the Son, the own Son, the well-Beloved^ and this He
death: "All sinned when Adam sinned; all sinned in has always been (II Cor., i, 19; Rom., viii, 3, 32; Col.,
and with his sin" (Stevens, "Pauline Theology", i. 13; Eph., i, 6; etc.). (c) Christ is the object of the
129). It remains to be seen how original sin which aoxologies reserved for God (II Tim., iv, 18; Rom.,
is our lot by natural generation, manifests itself xvi, 27); He is prayed to as the equal of the Father (II
outwardly and becomes the source of actual sins. Cor., xii, 8-9; Rom., x. 12; I Cor., i, 2); mfts are asked
This Paul teaches us in chap, vii, where describing of Him which it is in the power of uod fuone to grant,
the contest between the Law assisted by reason and namely, grace, mercy, salvation (Rom., i, 7; xvi, 20; I
human nature weakened by the flesh and the tendencr^ Cor., i, 3; xvi, 23; etc.) ; before Him every knee shall
to evil, he represents nature as inevitablv vanquished: bow in heaven, on earth, and under the earth (Phil.,
"For I am aelighted with the law of God, according ii, 10), as every head inclines in adoration of the
to the inward man : But I see another law in my mem- majesty of the Most Hi^. (d) Christ possesses all the
bers fighting against the law of my mind, and captivat- Divine attributes; He is eternal, since He is the "first
ing me in tne law of sin" (Rom., vii, 22-23). This bom of every creature" and exists before all ages
does not mean that the organism, the material sub- (Col., i, 15, 1/); He is immutable, since He exists 'in
stratum, is evil in itself, as some .theologians of the the form of God" (Phil., ii, 6); He is omnipotent, sinoe
Ttibingen School have claimed, for the fleSi of Christ. He has the power to bring forth bdng from nothing-
which was like unto ours, was exempt from sin, ana ness (Col.,i. 16); He is immense, since He fills all thin^
the Apostle wishes that otir bodies, which are des- with His plenitude (Eph., iv, 10; Col., ii, 10); He u
tined to rise again, be preserved free from stain, infinite, since "the fulness of the Godhead dwells in
The relation between sin and the flesh is neither in- Him" (Col., ii, 9). All that is the special property of
herent nor necessary ; it is accidental, determined bv God belongs of right to Him ; the judgment seat of God
an historical fact, and capable of disappearing throu^ is the judgment seat of Christ (Ilom., xiv, 10; II Cor.,
the intervention of the Holy Ghost, out it is none the v, 10); the Gospel of God is the Gospel of Christ
less tme that it is not in our power to overcome it (Rom., i, 1, 9; xv, 16, 19, etc.)j the Church of God is
unaided and that fallen man had need of a Saviour. the Chureh of Christ (I Cor., i. 2 and Rom., xvi, 16
Yet God did not abandon sinful man. He oontin- sqq.); the Kingdom of God is the Kingdom of Christ
ued to manifest Himself through this visible world (Eph., v, 5), the Spirit of God is the Spirit of Christ
(Rom., i, 19-20), through the light of conscience (Rom., viii. 9 bc\<\.). (e) Christ is the one Lord (I
(Rom., ii, 14-16), and finally through His ever active Cor., viii, 6) ; He is identified with Jehovah of the Old
and patemally benevolent Providence (Acts, xiv, 16; Covenant (I Cor., x, 4. 9; Rom., x, 13; cf. I Cor., ii, 16;
xvii, 26). Furthermore, in His untiring merey. He ix, 21); He is the Giod who has purchased the church
"will have all men to be saved, and to come to the "with his own blood" (Acts, xx, 28); He is our "great
PAUL 575 PAUL
God and Saviour Jesus Christ" (Tit., ii, 13); He is the mutable, that He can neither cease to be, nor limit
"God overall things'' (Rom., ix, 5), effacing bv Hisin- Himself, nor transform Himself, they reply that this
finite transcendency the sum and substance of created reasoning is on metaphysical hypotheses and concepts
things. without realiW. (For the various forms of Kenoeis
(2) Jesus Qirist as Man. — ^The other aspect of the see Bruce, "The Humiliation of Christ", p. 136.)
figure of Christ is drawn with no less finn a hand. All these systems are merely variations of Mono-
Jesus Christ is the second Adam (Rom., v, 14; I Cor., phyidtism. Unconsciously they assume that there is
XV, 45-49) ; " the mediator of God and men " (I Tim., m Christ but a single natiu*e as there is but a single per-
il, 5), and as such He must necessarily be man (dr^ponrot son. According to the Catholic doctrine, on the con-
xpiffrbs 'I1^rout). So He is the descendant of the Patri- trary, the union of the two natures in a single person
archs (Rom., ix, 5; Gal., iii, 16), He is "of the seed of ii^volves no change in the Divine nature and need in-
David, according to the flesh" (Kom.,i, 3), "bom of a volve no physical change of the human nature of
woman" (Gal., iv, 4), like all men; finally. He is Christ. Without doubt Christ is the Son and is mor-
known as a man by His appearance, which is exactly ally entitled even as man to the goods of His Father,
similar to that of men (Phil., ii, 7), save for sin, which viz. the immediate vision of God, eternal beatitude,
He did not and could not know (II Cor., v, 21). When the state of glory. He is temporarily deprived of a
St. Paul sa3rs that "God sent His Son in the likeness portion of these goods in order that he may fulfil His
of sinful flesh" (Roin^ viii, 3), he does not mean to mission as Redeemer. This is the abasement, the an-
deny the reality of Cnrist's flesh, but excludes only nihilation, of which St. Paul speaks, but it is a totally
sinful flesh. different thing from the Kenosis as described above.
Nowhere does the Apostle explain how the union of E. The Objectwe Redemption as the Work of ChHet. —
the Divine and the human natures is accomplished in We have seen that fallen man being unable to arise
Christ, being content to affirm that He who was "in a^n unaided, God in His mercy sent His Son to save
the form of God " took "the form of a servant " (Phil., him. It is an elementary and often repeated doctrine
ii, 6-7), or he states the Incarnation in this laconic of St. Paul that Jesus Christ saves us through the
formula: "For in him dwelleth all the fulness of the Cross, that we are "justified by his blood", that "we
Godhead corporeally" (CoL. ii, 9). What we see were reconciled to God by the death of his Son "(Rom.,
dearly is that there is in Cnrist a single Person to v, 9-10). What endowed the blood of Christ, His
whom are attributed, often in the same sentence, qual- death, His CrosSj with this redeeming virtue? Paul
ities proper to the Divine and the human nature, to never answers this question directly, but he shows us
the pre-existence, the historical existence, and the the drama of Calvary under three aspects, which
glorined life (Col., i, 15-19; Phil., ii, 5-11; etc.). Tlie there is danger in separating and whicn are better
theological explanation of the mysterv has given rise understood when compared: (a) at one time the death
to numerous errors. Denial was made of one of the of Christ is a sacrifice mtended. like the sacrifice of the
natures, either the human (Docetism), or the Divine Old Law, to expiate sin ana propitiate God. Cf.
(Arianism), or the two natures were considered to be SandayandHeamam, "Romans^'. 91-94, "The death
united in a purely accidental manner so as to produce of Chnst considered as a sacrifice". " It is imix)S8ible
two persons (Nestorianism), or the two natures were from this passage (Rom., iii, 25) to get rid of the
merged into one (Monophysitism), or on pretext of double idea: (1) of a sacrifice; (2) of a sacrifice which
uniting them in one person the heretics mutilated is propitiatbry . . . Quite apart from this passage
either the human nature (Apollinarianism), or the it is not difficult to prove that these two ideas of
J^vine, according to the strange modem heresy known sacrifice and propitiation lie at the root of the teaching
as Kenosis. not onlv of St. Paul but of the New Testament gen-
The last-mentioned requires a brief treatment, as it erally. The double danger of this idea is, first, to
is based on a saying of St. Paul " Being in the form of wish to apply to the sacrifice of Christ all the mode of
God . . . empti^ himself (Miwatw iavrh*^ hence action, real or Supposed, of the imperfect sacrifices
jc^MM'it) taking tne form of a servant" (Phil., ii. 6-7). of the Old Law; and, second^ to believe that God
Contrary to the common opinion, Luther appliea these is appeased by a sort of magical ^ect, in virtue
words not to the Word, but to Christ, the Incarnate of tnis sacrifice, whereas on the contrary it was
Word. Moreover he understood the communicatio He Who took the initiative of mercy^ instituted the
idiomtUum as a real possession by each of the two na- sacrifice of Calvary, and endowed it with its ex-
tures of the attributes of the other. According to this piatory value, (b) At another time the death of
the human nature of Christ would possess the Divine Christ is represented as a redemption, the paymenl^
attributes of ubiquity, omniscience, and omnipotence, of a ransom, as the result of which man was deliv-
There are two systems among Lutheran theologians, ered from all his past servitude (I Cor., vi, 20;
one asserting that the human nature of Christ was vol- vii, 23 [rcM^f iyopdaBfrre]; Gal., iii, 13; iv, 5 [fm rods
unatrily stripped of those attributes (WrcM-ct), the iw6 p6f»op i^yopdajt]; Rom., iii, 24; I Cor., i, 30; Eph.,
other that they were hidden during His mortal exist- i, 7, 14; Col., i, 14 [dro\6rp»cit] ; I Tim., ii, 6 [dvrlkvrpop] ;
ence (icp^cf). In modem times the doctrine of Ke^ etc.) This idea, correct as it is, may have incon-
nosis, while still restricted to Luthem theolo^, has veniences if isolated or exaggerated. Bv carrying
completely changed its opinions. Starting with the it beyond what was written, some of the Fathers put
philosophical idea that "personality "is identified with forth the strange suggestion of a ransom paid by
"consciousness", it is maintained that where there is Christ to the demon who held us in bondage. An-
only one person there can be onlv one consciousness; other mistake is to regard the death of Christ as hav-
but since the consciousness, of Cnrist was a truly hu- ing a value in itself, independent of Christ Who offered
man consciousness, the Divine consciousness must of it and God Who accepted it for the remission of our
necessity have ceased to exist or act in Him. Accord- sins.
ing to Tnomaaius, the theorist of the system, the Son (c) Often, too, Christ seems to substitute Himself
of God was stripped, not after the Incamation, as for us in oraer to undergo in our stead the chastise-
Luther asserted, out by the ver^ fact of the Incama- ment for sin. He suffers physical death to save us
tion, and what rendered possible the union of the from the moral death of sin and preserve us from
Logos with the humanity was the facult:^ possessed by eternal death. This idea of substitution appealed
the Divinity to limit itself both as to being and activ- so strongly to Lutheran theologians that they ad-
ity. The other partisans of the system express them- mitted quantitative equality between the sufferings
selves in a similar manner. Gess, for instance, says really endured by Chnst and the penalties deservra
that in Jesus Christ the Divine ego is changed into by our sins. They even maintained that Jesus under-
the human ego. When it is objected that God is im- went the penalty of loss (of the vision of God) and the
PAUL 576 PAUL
malediction of the Father. These are the esctrava- cation, for the latter is "a justification of life" (Rom.,
ganoes which have cast so much discredit on the v, 18) and every ''just man liveth bv faith" (Rom.,
theoiy of substitution. It has been rightly said that i, 17; Gal., iii, 11). (3) By faith and baptism we die
the transfer of a chastisement from one person to to the "old man , our former selves; now this is im-
another is an injustice and a contradiction, for the possible without banning to live as the new man,
chastisement is mseparable from the fault and an who "according to God, is created in justice and holi-
undeserved chastisement is no longer a chastisement, ness" (Rom., vi, 3-5; Eph., iv, 24; I Cor., i, 30; vi, 11).
Besides St. Paul never said that Christ died in our We may, therefore, establish a distinction in definition
stead (^^0) but only that he died for us (^^p) because and concept between justification and sanctification,
of our sins (vepQ. but we can neither separate them nor regard them as
In reality the three standpoints considered above separate,
are but three aspects of the Redemption which, far G. Moral Doctrine, — ^A remarkable characteristic
from excluding one another, should harmonize and of Paulinism is that it connects morsdity with the sub-
combine, modifying if necessiBLry all the other aspects jective redemption or justification. This is especially
of the problem. In the following text St. Paul as- striking in chap, vi of the Epistle to the Romans. In
sembles these various aspects with several others, baptism "our old man is crucified with [Christ] that
We are "justified freely p^ his grace, throu^ the the body of sin may be destroyed, to the end that
Redemption, that is in Chnst Jesus, whom God hath we may serve sin no longer'' (Rom.^ vi, 6). Our in-
proposed to be a propitiation, throu^ faith in his corporation with the mystical Chnst is not only a
olooc^ to the shewingj of his [hidden] justice, for the transformation and a metamorphosis, but a real ere-
remission of former sins, through the forbearance of ation, the production of a new being, subject to new
God, for the shewing of his justice in this time; that laws and consequently to new duties. To under-
of himself may be [known as] just, and the justifier of stand the extent of our obligations it is enough for us
him, who is in the faith of Jesus Christ" (Rom., iii. to know ourselves as Christians and to reflect on the
24-26). Herein are designated the part of Goo^ ot various relations which result from our supernatural
Christ, and of man: (1) God takes the initiative; it is birth: that of sonship to God the Father, of consecra-
He who offers His Son; He intends to manifest His tion to the Holy Ghost, of mystical identitv with our
justice, but is moved there^ by mercy. It is there- Saviour Jesus (Jhrist, of brotherly union with the other
fore incorrect or more or less inadequate to say that members of Christ. But this is not all. Paul sa3rB
God was angry with the human race and that He to the neophytes: "Thanks be to God, that you were
was only appeased by the death of His Son. (2) the servants of sin. but have obeyed from the heart
Christ is our Kedemption (droX^/MM-cf), He is the in- unto that form oi doctrine, into which you have
strument of expiation or propitiation (tXa^'r^ptor), been delivered. . . . But now being made free from
and is such by His Sacrifice (^i' r^ a^oO aI;^arc), which sin, an^ become servants to God, you have your fruit
does not resemble those of irrational animals; it de- unto sanctification, and the end life everlasting"
rives its value from dJhrist, who offers it for us to His (Rom., vi, 17, 22). By the act of faith and by bap-
Father through obedience and love (Phil., ii, 8; Gal., tism, its seal, the Christian freely makes himself the
ii, ^), (3) Man is not merely passive in the drama servant of God and the soldier of Christ. God's will,
of his salvation ; he must imderstand the lesson which which he accepts in advance in the measure in which it
(xod teaches, and appropriate by faith the fruit of the shall be manifested, becomes thenceforth his rule of
Redexnption. conduct. Thus Paul's moral code rests on the one
F. The Subjective Redemption. — Christ having; once hand on the positive will of God made known by
died and risen, the Redemption is completed in law Christ, promulgated by the Apostles, and virtually
and in principle for the whole human race. Each accepted by the neophyte in his first act of faith, and
man ma&es it his own in fact and in act by faith and on the other, in baptismal regeneration and the new
baptism which, by uniting him witli Christ, causes relations which it produces. All Paul's commands and
him to participate in His Divine life. Faith, accord- recommendations are merely applications of these
ing to St. Paul, is composed of several elements: it is principles.
the submission of the intellect to the word of God, the H. Eachatology. — (1) The gpiphic description of the
trusting abandonment of the believer to the Saviour Pauline parousia (I Thess., iv, 16-17; II Thess., i,
Who promises him assistance; it is also an act of obedi- 7-10) has nearly all its main points in Christ's great
ence oy which man accepts the Divine will. Such eschatolo^cal discourse (Matt., xxiv; Mark, xiii,
an act has a moral value, for it "gives glory to God" Luke, xxi). A common characteristic of all these
(Rom., iv, 20) in the measure in which it recognizes passages is the apparent nearness of the parouMa.
its own helplessness. That is whv "Abraham be- Paul does not assert that the coming of the Saviour
lieved God, and it was reputed to him unto iustice" is at hand. In each of the five epistles, wherein he
(Rom., iv, 3; Gal., iii, 6). The spiritual children of expresses the desire and the hope to witness in person
Abn^am are likewise "justified by faith, without the the return of Christ, he at the same, time considers
works of the law" (Rom., iii, 28; cf. Gal., ii, 16). the probability of the contrary hsrpothesis, proving that
Hence it follows: (1) That justice is granted by God he had neither revelation nor certainty on the point,
in consideration of futh. (2) That, nevertheless. He knows only that the day of the Lord will come un~
faith is not equivalent to justice, since man is justi- expectedly. luce a thief (I Thess., v, 2-3), and he
fied "by grace" (Rom., iv, 6). (3) That the justice counsels tne neophytes to make themselves ready
freely granted to man becomes his property and is in- without neglecting the duties of their state of life (A
herent in him. Protestants formerly asserted that Thess., iii, &-12). Although the coming of d^hrist will
the justice of Christ is imputed to us, but now they be sudden, it will be heralded by three signs: general
are generally agreed that this argument is unscrip- apostasy (II Thess., ii, 3), the appearance of Anti-
turaland lacks the guaranty of Paul ; but some, loth to cnrist (ii, 3-12), and the conversion of the Jews (Rom.,
base justification on a good work (If^or), deny a moral xi, 26). A particular circumstance of St. Paul's
value to faith and claim that justification is but a preaching is that the just who shall be living at
forensic judgment of God which alters absolutely Christ's second advent will pass to glorious immor-
nothing in the justified sinner. But this theory is un- tality without dying [I Thess., iv, 17; I Cor., xv, 61
tenable; for: (1) even admitting that "to justify" (Greek text); II Cor., v, 2-5].
signifies "to pronounce just", it is absurd to suppose (2). Owing to the doubts of the Corinthians Paul
that God really pronounces just anyone who is not treats the resurrection of the just at some length. He
already so or who is not rendered so by the declaration does not ignore the resurrection of the sinners, which
itself. (2) Justification is inseparable from sanctifi- he affirmed before the Governor Felix (ActSi xxiv, 15)«
PAUL 111 AND HIS NEPHEWS, ALESSANDRO AND OTTAVIO FARNESE
TITIAN, NATIONAL MUSEUM, NAPLES
PAxn.
577
PAm.
but he does not concern himself with it in his Epistles.
When he says that ''the dead who are in Christ shall
rise first" (rp&rop, I Thess., iv, 16, Greek) this "first"
offsets, not another resurrection of the dead, but the
glorious transformation of the living. In like man-
ner "the end" of which he speaks (rd rAof, I Cor.,
XV, 24) is not the end of the resurrection, but of the
present world and the beginning of a new order of
things. All the arguments which he advances in be-
half of the resurrection may be reduced to three: the
mystical union of the Christian with Christ, the
presence within us of the Spirit of Holiness, the in-
terior and supernatural conviction of the faithful and
the Apostles. It is evident that these arguments deal
only with the glorious resurrection of tne just. In
short, the resurrection of the wicked does not come
within his theological horizon. What is the condition
of the souls of the just between death and resurrec-
tion? These souls enjoy the presence of Christ (II
Cor., V, 8); their lot is enviable (Phil., i, 23); hence it
is impossible that they should be without life, activity,
or consciousness.
(3) The judgment according to St. Paul as accord-
ing to the Synoptics, is closely connected with the
parousia and the resurrection. They are the three
acts of the same drama which constitute the Day of
the Lord (I Cor., i, 8; II Cor., i, 14; Phil., i, 6,10; ii,
16) . " For we must all be manifested before the judg-
ment seat of Christ, that every one may receive the
proper things of the body, according as he hath done,
whether it be good or evil" (II Cor., v, 10). Two
conclusions are derived from this text: (1) The judg-
ment shall be universal, neither the good nor the
wicked shall escape (Rom., xiv, 10-12), nor even the
angels (I Cor., vi, 3); all who are brought to trial
must accotmt for the use of their liberty. (2) The
judgment shall be according to works: this is a truth
frequently reiterated by St. Paul, concerning sinners
(II Cor., xi, 15)^ the just (II Tim., iv, 14), and men in
general (Rom., li, 6-9). Many Protestants marvel at
this and claim that in St. Paul this doctrine is a sur-
vival of his rabbinical education (Pfleiderer), or that
he could not make it harmonize with his doctrine
of Kratuitous justification (Reuss), or that the reward
will be in proportion to the act, as the harvest is in
proportion to the sowing, but that it will not be be-
cause of or with a view to the act (Weiss). These
authors lose sight of the fact that St. Paul distin-
guishes between two justifications, the first necessarily
pratuitous since man was then incapable of meriting
It (Rom., iii, 28; Gal., ii, 16), the second in conformity
to his works (Rom., ii, 6 : card rd lfpya)f since man,
when adorned with sanctifying grace, is capable of
merit as the sinner is of demerit. Hence the celestial
recompense is "a crown of justice which the Lord the
lust jud^e will render" (II Tim., iv, 8) to whomsoever
has legitimately gained it.
Briefly, St. Paul's eschatology is not so distinctive
as it has been made to appear. Perhaps its most
original characteristic is the continuity between the
present and the future of the just, between grace and
glory, between salvation begun and salvation con-
summated. A large number of terms, redemption,
justification, salvation, kingdom, glory and especially
life, are conunon to the two states, or rather to the
two phases of the same existence linked by charity
which "never falleth away".
Of the innumermble worka dealinc directly with the Ufeordoo-
trine of St. Paul the reader is directed only to the following as
being most recent, accessible or useful:
BiooBAPHiBs: — Lewin, Life and BpitOet of St. Paul (London,
1851) : CoNTBBARS ANi> HowsoN, lAft and EpUtUt of St. Paul
(London, 1861) ; Fabbab, Lift and Works of St, Paul (London,
1879); these three works, especially the last, have since passed
through numerous editions. Fouabd, St. Paul, «e« munont
(1802), «e« derni^et annSet (1897). tr. English, Qbzfvitb (New
York— London. 1894); Ivkrach, St. Paul, hi$ Lift and Times
's. d.) ; Cone, Paul, the Man, the Mietionary and the Teacher (New
'ork, 1898).
Tbboloot:— Adbnbt. The Theology of the N, T. (New York.
XL— 37
V
1894) ; Stevens. Theology of the N. T. (Edinburgh. 1899) ; Ptiulino
Theology (New York. 1906) ; Weiss. Lehrbueh der bibl. Theol. dee
N. T. (Stuttgart. 1903). also Eng. tr.; Bbtschlao. Neuteetam.
Theologie (Halle. 1896); Sabatibb. L'ApMre Paul (Paris. 1896),
Eng. tr.; HoLTKiCANN, Lehrb. der neuteetam. Theologie (Freiburg,
1897); PruGioEBEB. Der Pauliniamua (Leipsig, 1890); Feinb,
Theologie dee N. T. (Leipsig. 19 id) ; Pbat. La thtologie de St, Paul
(Paris. 1908-11) ; there are also numerous other theologies Of the
N. T. such as those of Lutterbzcx (1852) ; Reuss (1852) ; Hahan
(1854): Mebsnkb (1856); Bchmio (1868); Oostbrsee (1867). tr.
Evans (1876); Immeb (1877) ; Baub (1864); Holsten (1898);
BovoN (1893-94); and of St. Paul in particular, Ustebi (1831);
Dabne (1835): Schbadeb (1833); and the Catholic Limab. Dm
theologie dee heiligen Paultu (Freibura. 1864; 2nd ed., 1883).
Special Questions: — Clabkb. The Idea* of the Apoetle Paul
translated into their modem e^ivalente (Boston, 1884) ; Evebbtt,
The Gospel o/ Paul (Boston, 1893); Bruce. St. Paul's Conception
of Christianity (Edinburgh, 1894) ; Somebville. St. PauTs Con-
ception of Christ (Edinburgh. 1897) ; Du Bose. The Gospel accord'
ino to St. Paul (London. 1907).
MiNiaoc, Le plchi et la redemption d'apris St. Paul (Paris,
1882); Lipsius. Die paulinische Rechtfertigungslehre (Leipsig,
1853) ; Tobac. Le probleme de la justification dans saint-Paul (Lou«
vain. 1908).
Dickson. St. Paul's use of the terms Flesh and Spirit (Glasgow.
1883); Simon. Die Psychologie des Apostels Paulus (ddttingen,
1897) ; SoKOLOWSKi. Die Begnffe Geist und Leben bei Paulus COAU
tingen. 1903).
Alexandeb. The Ethics of St. Paul (Glasgow. 1910) ; Ebnbsti,
Die Eihik des Apostels Paulus (Gdttingen, 1880); Junckeb. Die
Ethik des Apostels Paulus (1904).
Kennedy. St. Paul's Conceptions of the Last Things (London,
1904); Kabisch. Die Eschatologie des Patdus (Gdttingen. 1893):
TichmaKn, Die paulinischen Vorstellungen von Auferstehung und
Gericht (Leipsig. 1896) ; Tillmann. Die Wiederkunfl Christi naeh
deu paulin Briefen in Biblische Sludien, XIV, 1-2.
Ramsat. St. Paul the Traveller and the Roman Citisen (London,
1908) ; Idem. The Church in the Roman Empire; Idem, The Cities of
St. Paid.
F. Pbat.
Paul I, Pope, 757-67, date of birth unknown: d.
at Rome, 28 June, 767. He was a brother of Stephen
II. They had been educated for the priesthood at the
Lateran palace. Stephen entrusted nls brother, who
approved of the pope's course in respect to King
Pepin, with many unportant ecclesiastical affaits,
among others with the restoration to the Roman
States of the cities which had been seized by the
Lombard Kings Aistulf and Desiderius; these cities
Desiderius promised to give up. While Paul was
with his dying brother at the Lateran, a party of the
Romans gathered in the house of Archdeacon The-
ophylact in order to secure the latter's succession
to the papal see. However, inmiediately after the
burial of Stephen (d. 26 April, 757), Paul was
elected by a large maiority, and received epis*
copal consecration on the twenty-ninth of l^y.
Paul continued his predecessor's policy towards the
Prankish king, Pepm, and thereby continued the
papal supremacy over Rome and the districts of cen-
tral Italy in opposition to the efforts of the Lombards
and the Eastern Empire. Pepin sent a letter to the
Roman people, exhorting them to remain steadfast
to St. Peter. In the reply sent by the senate and the
people of Rome to the Prankish king, the latter was
urged to complete the enlargement of the Roman
province which he had wrested from the barbarians,
and to persevere in the work he had begun. In 758 a
daughter was bom to Pepin, and the king sent the pope
the cloth used at the baptism as a present, renewing in
this wav the papal sponsorship. Paul returned thanks
and informed Pepin of the hostile action of Deside-
rius, who had failed to deliver the cities of Imola,
Osimo, Ancona, and Bologna to Rome, and had also
devastated the Pentapolis on his expedition against
the rebellious Dukes of Spoleto and Benevento. The
two duchies were conquered and annexed by Deside-
rius (758) . At Benevento Desiderius had a conference
with the Greek ambassador Georgios, and aereed on
a mutual alliance of Byzantines and Lombards in
central Italy. On his way home Desiderius came to
Rome, and when the pope demanded the return of the
aforesaid cities, he refused to comply. He promised
to give back Imola, but on condition that the pope
should persuade Pepin to send back the Lomoard
hostages whom the Prankish king had carried off.
PAUL 5:
Bome time before, at the time of hia second victory
over the' Lombard Kiog Aistulf. If Paul would not
do thia, Desiderius threatened to go to war with him.
The pope was in great Btraits. He found it diffi-
cult evsn to get the Frankiah '""K informed df bia
poaition. He gave two letteia to Bishop Geot^e of
Oatia and the Romaa priest Stephen, hie ambassadora
to Pepin, who made the tourney with the Prankish
meaaenger Ruodpertus. In the one letter that waa
to secure the envoya a safe passage through Lombard
territory, he agreed to the demands of Dmderius and
begged Pepin to accede to the wishes of the Lombards
by making a treaty of peace and returning the hos-
tages. At the same time the envoys were to give the
Prankish king a second secret letter, in which the pope
communicated to him the latest occurrences, in-
formed him of the agreement of Dedderius with the
Byiantines (or the conouest of Ravenna, and im-
plored Pepin to come 1^ the aid of the pope, to punish
the Lombard king, and to force him to yield the towns
retained by him. Towards the close of 759 another
envoy was sent to Pepin. Early in 760 two Frsjikish
envoys, Bishop Remidius of Rouen, brother to Pepin,
and Duke Antschar, came to Desiderius, who prom-
ised to return its patrimony to the Roman Church in
April, and also to yield the towns demanded by the
pope. But he again refused to carry out his promises,
dallied, and even forced his way into Roman territory.
Once more Paul implored the Frankiah king's help.
The position of affairs was made even more threaten-
ing by Byiantine action. Geoivios had gone from
aouthem Italy to the court of Pepin and had here
won overa papal envoy, Marinua. With all his efforts
GeorgioB could not move Pepin. In 760 a report
spread through Italy that a large Byzantine fleet waa
under sail for Rome and the Frankiah kingdom. Later
it was reported that the Byzantines intended to send
an army to Rome and luivenna. The Archbishop
Sergiua of Ravenna received a tetter from the Byzan-
tine emperor, in which the latter sought to obtain the
voluntary submission of the inhabitants of Ravenna.
The same attempt was also made in Venice. Sei^us
sent the letterof the emperor to the pope, and the pope
notified Pepin. In case of a war with the Eastern
Empire it was important to make sure of tbesupport
of the Lombards, consequently Pepin desired to come
to an agreement with Desiderius, Thereuuon the
Lombard king showed more complaisance in t tte ques-
tion of the Roman patrimony included in the Lom-
bard territory, and when he visited Rome in 765, the
boundary disputes between him and the pope were ar-
ranged. The Frankiah king now directed Desiderius
to aid the pofK in recovering the Roman patrimony
in the regions in southern Italy under Byzantine rule,
and to support the ecclesiastical rights of thrt pope
a^^nat the bishops of these districts. Paul's opposi-
tion to the schemes of the Emperor Constantine
Copronymus had no real political basis. The pope's
aim was to defend ecclesiastical orthodoxy regarding
the doctrine of the Trinity and the veneration of
images against the Eastern emperor, Paul repeat-
edly dispatched legates and lettcra in regard to the
veneration of images to the emperor at Byzantium.
Constantine sent envoys to western Europe who in
coming to Kin^ Pepin aid not disguise tbcir intention
to negotiate with him concemine dogmatic queations,
also about the submission of the Exarchate of Ravenna
to Byzantine suzerainty. Papal legates also came to
Pepin in regard to these matters. On their return
the legates were able to reaasurc the pope as to the
views of the Prankish ruler, who kept two of the papal
envoys. Bishop George and the priest Peter, near him.
In 767 a Prankish synod was held at Gentilly, near
Paris, at which the Church doctrines concermn^ the
Trinity and the veneration of images were maintained.
Paul snowed great activity and zeal in encouraging re-
ligioiu life at Rome. He turned his patemad home
8 PAUL
into a monaf terjf, and near it built the church of San
Silveetro in Capite. The founding of thia church led
tohisholdingasynodat Homein761. To this church
and other churches of Rome, Paul transferred the
bones of numerous martyre from the decayed sanc-
tuaries in the catacombs devastated by the Lombards
in 756. He transferred the relics of St. Fetronilla
(q. V.) from the catacomb of St. Domitilla to a chapel
in St. Peter's erected by his predecessor for this pur-
pose. The legend of St, Petronilla caused her at that
be regarded as a daughter of St. Peter, and aa
jhe became the special Roman patroness of the
Prankish rulers. Paul also built an oratory of the
Blessed Virgin in St. Peter's, and a church in honour
of the Apostles on the Via Sacra beyond the Roman
Forum. He died near the church of San Paolo fuori
le mora, where be had gone during the heat of sum-
mer. He was buried in this church, but after three
months his body was transferred to St. Peter's. Tlie
"Liber Pontificalia" also praiaea the Christian cbaritv
and benevolence of the pope which he united with
firmness, Paul is venerated as a saint, Hia fe&st
ia celebrated on the twenty-eighth of June.
Liber PnnlifirBiU, ed, Dl'CHBlNi. 1, 483-48T; Ubrr Caraliim.
ed. Mot. Grrm. HM.: Epitl.. III. 507 aqq.; Khhb id NatMtIMn
der Caditcluifi dir Ww. ru Ceuinsto IISW), 103 aqcj.; Jirri.
Rttata Ram. Ptnl.. I. 277 aqq.; Lanqen. GachichU dtr ronudkst
Kirclu. II (Bonn, 1885), seS iqq.; Kinu. KmtitiinBackieliU.
2iid ed., III. i31 (qq., 002: BcnHflBEH. Dii EaUlehune da Kirtkm-
tlaota (Colaxnf, 1804); DimnHS, la jirrmiwrt Umpt it VBlat
ptnliflait (2nd ed.. Paris. IWH): di Rohi. /nnoni iceftrit lul
limiUro dtDomiliOa in Bull, di arcliial. rWif..»r. II, u. Vl (IgTS).
finq.. 46 aqq.: Imu. Sipolero di 8. PetToniOa mUa bantira in wia
ArdnUina t Mua IraiUtiiom nt Valiainc. HiiiL. HT. III. in. Ill
(1878). I2S aqq.; u. IV (18791. fi K|q.. 139 sqq.: Mardcchi, flori-
liaun a lalita di Rbhu (2iiii ed., Rome, 1908)1 MiHH. LtiH e/
Ou Popa (LondoD, 1902).
J. P. KlRBCa.
Fftul n, Pope (Pietso Barbo), b. at Venice, 1417:
elected 30 August, 1464; d. 26 July, 1471; son of
Niccolo Barbo and Polixena Condulmer
Eugene IV. Although he studied for a business career
he received an excellent rehgious education and, at
the elevation of his uncle to the papacy, entered the
ecclcsiBstical state. He became Archdeacon of Bo-
logna, Bishop of Cervia and of Vicenia, and in 1440
cardinal-deacon. Noted for his generowty and im-
posing appearance, the Cardinal of Venice, as he waa
called, was very influential under Eugene IV, Nicho-
las V, and Calixtua III, less so under Pius II. He be-
came the latter's successor, and owed his election
partly to the dissatisfaction of some of the cardinals
with the policy of his predecessor. To this could be
traced the oath which Barbo swore to at the conclave,
but which he rightfully set aside after election, nnce
it was opposed to the monarchial constitution of the
Church. Paul II delisted in disphq'. He iotro-
PADL
679
PAUL
duced splendid carnival festivitiee, built the palace of
8. Marco (now di Venezia), revised the municipal
statutes of Rome, organized relief work among the
poor, f^anted pensions to some cardinals, and to- all
the privilege of wearing the red biretta. His Bup-
presaton in 14^ of the college of abbreviators aroused
much opposition, intensified by a similar measure
asainst the Roman Academy. Platina, a member
of both organizations, who had been repeatedly im-
prisoned, r^aliated by writing a calumnious biography
of Paul II.
That Paul II was not opposed to Humanistic
'studies. Ha such, is evidenced by the fact that he pro-
tected universities, encouraged the art of printing,
and was himself a collector of works of ancient art.
The suppression of the Roman Academy was justified
by the moral degeneracy and pagan attitude which
it fostered. On the other hand the cha^e of immo-
rality brought agtunst Paul II by Gregory of Heim-
burg is untenable. The pope punished the Praticelli
in the Papal States^ prosecuted heretics in France and
Germany, decreed in 1470 the observance of the jubi-
lee every twenty-five years, and made an unaucc^sful
attempt at uniting Russia with the Church. The
Turkish question received his earnest attention, par-
ticularly after the fall of Ne^pont (1470). Finan-
ciat assistance was granted to Hungary and the Alba-
nian leader Scanderbeg. No gtnenil results were
obliuned, however, owing to the lack of co-operation
among the Christian powers: to disturbances in the
Papal States, where Paul 11 suppressed the robber
knights of Anguillara, and perhaps chiefly to the con-
flict between the papacy and King Geoi^ Podiebrad
of Bohemia.
Cankhbisb. Viia Pauli II (Rome. 1740): Oaspak Vebohen-
■IB. Dt Ottlii Pa-ali //. Mrtly in Mubatow, Bw. Iiat. Smp(., Ul.
tl. IOiS-53 IMilu, 1734): CBiiaim>H, lliltrs of the Fapart.
■WW cd., IV (New York, ig03). 3-fl3, 3IS-27; Ti^inos.flrichicMe
dv Patau. II (4th ed., Freitiurg. 1904). Z9I-44T, 757-79; u.
AMTmoatra, IV (LcmitDD, 1894). 3-IH. 476-504.
N. A. WSBER.
Paul m, Pope (Alessandro Farnbsb), b, at Rome
or Canino, 20 Feb., 1468; elected, 12 Oct., 1534; d. at
Rome, 10 Nov., 1549. The Famese were an ancient
Roman family whose possessions
clustered about the Lake of Bolsena.
Although counted among the Ro-
man aristocrats, they first appear in
tjt history associated with Viterbo and
'Vr Orvieto. Among the witnesses to
W / the Treaty of Venice between Bar-
barossa and the pope, we find the
signature of a Famese as Rector of
Orvieto; a Farneee bishop conse-
tracted thepeninsula, the Famese were consistently
Guelph. The grandfather of the future pontiff was
commandei^-^ef of the papa] troops under Euge-
niue IV ; his oldest son perished in the battle of For-
nuovo; the second, Rer Luigi, married Giovannella
Gaetani, sister to the Lord of Sermoneta. Amons
their children were the beautiful Giulia, who married
an Orsini, and Alessandro, later Paul III. Alessandro
received the best education that his age could offer;
first at Rome, where he had Pomponio Leto for a tutor;
later at Florence in the palace of Ixjrenzo the Magnifi-
cent, where he formed his friendship with the future
Leo X, six years his junior. His contemporaries
praise his proficiency in all the learning of the Renais-
sance, especially in his mastery of classical Latin and
Itahan. With such advantages of birth and t^ent,
his advancement in the ecclesiastical career was as-
sured and rapid. On 20 Sept., 1493 (Eubel), he was
created by Alexander VI cardinal-deacon with the
title SS. Cosmas and Damiau. He wore the purple
for over forty years, passing through the sev^al
gradations, until he became Dean of the Sacred Col-
lie. In accordance with the abuses of his time, he
accumulated a number of opulent benefices, and q>ent
his immense revenue with a generosity which won for
him the praises of artists and the affection of the Ro-
man populace. His native abihty and diplomatic skill,
acquired by long experience, made him tower above
his colleagues in the Sacred College, even as his Pa-
lazzo Famese excelled in magnificence all the other
Ealaces of Rome. That he continued to grow in
ivour under pontifTe bo different in character as the
Borgia, Rovcra, and Medici popes is a sufficient proof
of his tact.
He had already on two previous occasions, come
within measurable distance of the tiara, when the con-
clave of 1534, almost without the formsJity of a ballot,
proclaimed him successor to Clement VII. It was
creditable to his reputation and to the good will of the
cudinals, that the factions wl^ch divided the Sacred
College were concordant in electing him. He was
universally recognized as the man of uie hour; and the
piety and zeal, which had characterised him after he
was ordained priest, caused men to overlook the ex-
travagance of his earUer years.
The Roman people rejoiced at the elevation to the
tiara of the first citizen of their city since Martin V.
Paul HI waecrowned3Nov.,and lost no time in setting
about the most needed reforms. No one, who has once
studied his portrait by Titian, is likely to forget the
wonderful expression of countenance of that worn-out,
emaciated form. Those piercing little eyes, and that
peculiar attitude of one ready to bound or to shrink,
tell the story of a veteran diplomat who was not to 1m
deceived or taken off guanl. His extreme caution,
and the difiiculty of binding him down to a definite
obligation, drew from Pasquino the facetious remark
that the third Paul was a "Vas dilationis." The
elevation to the cardinalate of his grandsons, Alessan-
dro Fame8e,ased fourteen, and Guide AscaoioSforEa,
aged sixteen, Sspleased the reform party and drew a
protest from the emperor; but this was forgiven, when
shortly after, he introduced into the Sacred College
men of the calibre of Reginald Pole, Contanini, Sad-
oleto, and Caraffa.
Soon after his elevation, 2 June, 1536, Paul III sum-
moned a general council to meet at Mantua in the fol-
lowing May; but the opposition of the Protestant
princes and the refusal oi the Ehike of Mantua to b»-
sume the responsibility of muntaining order frustrated
the project. He issued a new bull, convoking a coun-
cil at Viccnza, 1 May, 1538; the chief otwtacle was the
renewed enmity of Charles V and Francis I. The
af;ed pontiff induced them to hold a conference with
him at Nizxa and conclude a ten years' truce. As a
token of good will, a granddaughter of Paul was mar>
ried to a French prince, and the emperor gave his
daughter, Margaret, to Otta\-io, the son of Pier Luigj,
founder of the Famese dynasty of Parma.
Many causes contributed to delay the opening of
PAOL 5
the ganeral council. The extennon of power which &
re-united CSermuiy would place in the hands of
Charles was so intolendile to Francis I, that he, who
persecuted hereey in his own realm with such cruelty
ttiat the pope appealed to him to mitigate his violence,
became the sworn all^ of the Smalcaldic League, en-
couragiDK them to reject all overtures to reconcilia-
tion. Charles himself was in no slight measure to
blame; for, notwithstanding his deure for the assem-
bling of a council, he was led into the belief that the re-
Kgioua diSeiencee of Germany might be settled by
oonferencee between the two parties. These coofei^
enoes', like all such attempts to settle differences out-
aide of the normal court of the Church, led to a waste
of time, and did far more harm than good. Charles
had a false idea of the office of a general council. In
his detdre to unite all par-
ties, he sought for vi^e
fonuulie to which all could
mibecribe, a relapse into the
miatakea of the Byiantine
emperors. A council of the
Church, on the other hand,
must f onnulate theFai th with
such precision that no heretic
con subscribe to it. It took
some years to convince the
emperor and his mediatizing
adviaoiB that CathoUeism
and Protestantism are as op-
Ssite as h^t and darkness.
eanwhilePaul III eet about
paved the way for the dia-
riplinory canons of Trent.
He appointed commissions to
report abuses of every kind;
he reformed the Apostolic
Camera, the tribunal of the
Rota, the Penitentisjia, and
the Chancery. He enhanced
the prestige of the papacy by
doing singie-handea what
his predecessors had reserved
to the action of a council.
In the constantly recurring
quarrels between Francis and
Chorlea, Paul III preserved
a strict neutrality, notwith-
standing that Charles urged
bim to support the empire and subject Francis to
the censures of the Church, Paul's attitude as a
patriotic Italian would have been sufficient to pre-
vent him from allowing the emperor to be sole
arbiter of Italy. It was as much for the purpose
of securing the integrity of the papal dominions, as
for the exaltation of his family, that Paul extorted
from Charles and his reluctant cardinals the erection
of Piacensa and Parma into a duchy for his son.
Pier Luigi. A feud arose with Gonzaga, the imperial
Governor of Milan, which ended later in the assassi-
nation of Pier I'Uid and the permanent alienation of
Piacenaa from the Papal States.
When the Treaty of Crespi (18 Sept., 1544) ended
the disastrous wars between Charles and Francis,
<r had formed a programme of his own, quite
uice in some important points with the pope's.
Since the Protestants repudiated a council presided
over by the Roman pontiff, Charles was resolved to
reduce the princes to obedience by force of arms. To
this Paul did not object, and promised to aid him with
three hundred thousand ducats and twenty thousand
infantry; but he wisely added the proviso, that
Chartes should enter into no separate treaties with
10 PAUL
the heretics and moke no agreement prejudicial to the
F^th or to the rights of the Holy See. Charles now
conteilded that the council should be prorogued, until
victory hod decided in favour of the CathoBcs. Fur-
thermore, foreseeing that the HtruEgle with the preach-
ers of heresy would be more stuESom thaa the con-
flict with the princes, he urged the pontiff to avoid
making dogmas of faith for the present and confine the
labours of the council to the enforcement of discipline.
To neither of these proposals could the pope agree.
Finally, aStei endless difficulties {13 Dec, 1645) the
Council of Trent held its first st
cipline. Without listening to the threats and expostu-
lations of the imperial party, they formulated for all
time the Catholic doctrine
on the Scriptures, original
sin, justification, and the
Socramenlfl. The work of
the. council was half ended,
when the outbreak of the
plague in Trent caused an
adjournment to Bologna.
Pope Paul was not the insti-
gator of the removal of the
council; he simply acquiesced
in the decision of the Fa-
thers. Fifteen prelates, de-
voted to the emperor, refused
to leave Trent. Charles de-
manded the return of the
council to German territory,
but the deliberations of the
council continued in Bologna,
until finally, 21 April, the
pope, in order to avert a
schism, prorogued the coun-
cil indefinitely. The wisdom
of the council's energetic
action, in establishing thus
early the fundamental truths
of the CathoUc creed, became
soon evident, when the em-
peror and his semi-Protes-
tant advisers inflicted upon
Germany their Interim re-
ligion, which was deepi^
by both parties. Pope Paul,
, .._, — who had given the emperor
Micheliumlo) essential aid in the Smalcal-
dic war, resented his dabbhng in theolc^iy, and their
estrangement continued until the death of the pontiff.
PauPs end came rather suddenly. After the assassi-
nation of Pier Luigi, he had struggled to retain Pia-
cenca and Parma for the Church and had deprived
Ottavio, Pier Luigi's son and Charles's son-in-law, of
these duchies. Ottavio, relying on the emperor's be-
nevolence, refused obedience; it broke the old man's
heart, when he learned that his favourite grandson.
Cardinal Farnese, was a party to the transaction. He
fell into a violent fever and died at the Quirinal, at
the age of eighty-two. He lies buried in St. Peter'f
in the tomb desimed by Michelangelo and erected by
Gugliehno della Porta. Not all the popes repose in
monuments corresponding to their importance in the
historyof the Church; but few will be disposed to con-
test the right of Farnese to rest directly under Peter's
chair. He had his faults; but they injured no one but
himself. The fifteen years of his pontificate saW the
complete restoration of CathoUc faith and piety. He
was succeeded by many saintly pontiffs, but not one
of them possessed all his commanding virtues. In
Rome his name is written all over the city he reno-
vated. The Pauline chapel, Michelangelo s work in
the Sistine, the streets of Rome, which he strughtened
and broadened, the numerous objects of art associated
PAUL
581
PAUL
with the name of Famese, all speak eloauently of the
remarkable personality of the pontiff who turned the
tide in favour of religion. If to this we add the favour
ac«orded by Paul to the new reli^ous orders then ap-
pearing, the Capuchins, Bamabites, Theatines, Jes-
uits, Ursulines, and many others, we are forced to con-
fess that his reign was one of the most fruitful in the
annals of the Church.
PAmriNiua, Pont. Romanarum vita; Pallavicini, Coneilio di
TretUo; Paitob, Oeaeh, dtr POptU, V; Ehsss, CondHvm Tridenr
Hnum, V; von Rakxb, HxU. of <Ae Pop- in Uu XVI-XVIII
Ctnturin; Abtaud db Montob, Hirt. <V tht Popea (New Yoric,
1867).
Jamxb F. Louohlin.
Paul IV, Pope (Giovanni Pibtro Caraffa), b.
near Benevento, 28 June, 1476; elected 23 Mav, 1555;
d. 18 Aug., 1559. The Caraffa were one of the most
illustrious of the noble families of Naples, and had
given distinguished scions to Church and State. The
name of Cardinal Oliviero Caraffa recurs frequently in
the history of the papacy during the days of the Ko-
naissance. One of the great cardinal's merits was that
of superintending the training of his young relative.
Giovanni Pietro, whom he introduced to the papal
Court in 1494, and in whose favour he resigned the See
of Chieti (in Latin, Tkeate). from which word he was
thenceforward known as Tneatinits. Leo X sent him
on an embassy to England and retained him for some
years as nuncio in spsun. His residence in Spain
served to accentuate that detestation of Spanish rule
in his native land which characterized his public policy
during his pontificate. From early childhood he led a
blamdess fife; and that lonnn^ for asceticism which
had prompted him to seek admission into the Domin-
ican and the Camaldolese Orders asserted itself in
1524 when he persuaded Clement VII, though with
difficulty, to accept the resignation of his benefices and
permit him to enter the congregation of clerics regular
founded by St. Cajetan, but popularly named "The-
atines", after Caraffa, their nrst general. The young
congregation suffered more than its share during the
sack of Rome in 1527, and its few members retired to
Venice. But the sharp intellect of Paul III had per-
ceived the importance of the institute in his projected
reform of the clergy, and he summoned the Theatines
back to Rome. Caraffa was placed by the pontiff on
the committee named to outhne the project of reform
of the papal Court j and on 22 Dec., 1536 he was
created cardinal with the title of San Pancrazio.
Later he was made Archbishop of Naples; but, owing
to the emperor's distrust and tear of him, it was only
with difficulty he could maintain his episcopal ri^ts.
Although Caraffa was highly educated and surpassed
most of his contemporaries in the knowleage of
Greek and Hebrew, still he remiuned throughout
medieval in life and thought. His favourite author
was St. Thomas Aquinas. The few opuscula which he
found time to write were Scholastic in character. For
the party of Pole, C])ontarini, and Morone he had the
most heartfelt detestation : and his elevation boded
them no happiness. Caraffa was the head and front
of every effort made by Paul III in the interest of re-
form. He reorganized the Inquisition in Italy on papal
lines and for a generation was the terror of misbeliev-
ers. How so austere a person could be chosen pope
was a mystery to everyone, especially to himself. ** I
have never conferred a favour on a human being'', he
said. It is most likely that the octogenarian would
have refused the dignitv, were it not that the emper-
or's agent, Cardinal Niendoza, had pronoimced de-
cidedly that Charles would not permit Caraffa to be
pope. This was to challenge ever]^ principle for which
the aged cardinal had stood during his long career.
He was elected in spite of the emperor, and for four
years held aloft the banner of the independence of
Italy. Historians seem to be unjust towards Paul IV.
That unbending Italian patriot, oom whilst Italy was
''a lyre with four strings", Naples, Rome, Florence,
and Venice, was certainly justified in using the pres-
tige of the papacy to preserve some relics of liberl^ for
his native country. The Austrian and Spanish Habs-
burgers treated Paul IV with studied contempt, and
thus forced him to enter an alliance with France.
Neither in the matter of the succession to the empire
nor in the conclusion of the reUgious peace were the
interests of the Holy See consulted in the slightest
degree.
Paul IV elevated to the cardinalate his nephew
Carlo Caraffa, a man utterly unworthy and without
any ecclesiastical training, and enriched other rela-
tives with benefices and estates taken from those who
favoured the Spaniards. At the end of the unfortunate
war with Phiup II the aged pope lost faith in his
nephews and banished them from the Court. Still
more disastrous were his relations with England, which
had been reconciled to Rome by Mary, and Cardinal
Pole. Paul IV refused to sanction Pole's settlement
in regard to the confiscated goods of the Church, and
demanded restitution. Pole himself was relieved by
the pontiff of his legatine office and ordered to come
to Rome to stand before the Inquisition. Upon the
(death of Mary and Pole, he rejected Elizabeth's claim
to the crown, on the proxind that she was of illegiti-
mate birth. His activity was more fruitful in the
spiritual concerns of the Qiurch. He could boast that
no day passed without seeing a new decree of rdform.
He made the Inquisition a powerful engine of govern-
ment^ and was no respecter of persons. The great
Cardmal Morone was brought before the tribunal on
suspicion of heresy and committed to prison. Paul
established the hierarchy in the Netherlands and in
the Orient.
The pontificate of Paul IV was a great disamx>int-
ment. He who at the beginning was honourea by a
Eublic statue, lived to see it thrown down and muti-
kted by the hostile populace. He was buried in St.
Peter's 19 Aug.^ 1559, and was later transferred to S.
Maria sopra Minerva.
Lives by Caracciou and Bbomato; von Ranub, Hiat. ofth*
Popea in the XVI-XVIII Centwiee; Rbumont, Qeeeh, dtr Stadt
Rom; Artaud db Montob, Hittory of the Popee (New York, 1867).
Jamiss F. Louohlin.
Paul V, Pope (Camillo Borghbsk), b. at Rome,
17 Sept.. 1550; elected 16 May, 1605; d. 28 Jan., 1621.
Although proud to call himself, as we read on the
facade of »t. Peter's and on his epitaph, a Roman,
Bori^ese was descended from a noble tamil>r of Siena
which held important positions in that city, and
claimed St. Catherine for a relative. Their removal to
Rome was caused by the endless distiu'bances which
made life in Siena unbearable. Camillo was carefully
trained in jurisprudence at Perugia and Padua, and
became a canomst of marked abiuty. He rose in the
ecclesiastical career steadily, if not rapidlv; in 1596 he
was made cardinal by Clement VIII, and became Car-
dinal-Vicar of Rome. He held aloof from all parties
and factions, devoting all his spare time to his law-
books. In consequence, on the death of Leo XI, all
eves were centred on him, and he ascended the papal
throne without engagement or obligation of any sort.
His legal training was soon visible in all his words and
actions. He knew nothing of compromises, and pro-
ceeded to rule the Church not from the standpoint of
diplomacy but from ihe decretals. He conceived it
his duty to maintain inviolate every right and claim
advanced by his predecessors. This made his charac-
ter at times assume a very stem and uncompromis-
ing aspect. His first pubhc act was to send home to
their sees the prelates and even the cardinals who were
sojourning at Rome upon one or other pretext. The
Council of Trent had declared it a grave sin for a
bishop to be an absentee. That he was engaged in
Rome doing the business of the Holy See made no dif-
ference. Paul was soon involved in controversy with
, . , _,v;'(-r» «iocwiiing ecclesi-
. K I'.Hti'.'OS between Church
, .,, ^.(,«tvt»-as with the proud
, ■ >.,.i iviUM^I tow^knowledge the
, ,>.<» ■■i\ia the jurisdiction of the
._,.*»; !«v> I»w8 obnoriouH to the Ro-
. !:^i ^i.>H^i<.liliiig the alienation of real
. , ,.,,., .4 ihe rlerg}-, the second demand-
......i-f ih*- civil power for the building of
■ \ ■!,.■.. ("huI demanded the repeal of these
. . . ^ .^rvhiuuires, and insisted that two clerics
1,,, 'wii ti'iumitted to prison should be surren-
,< ti,' ,^^'lt«iaHtical court. The dispute became
uioif bitter and ffraduatly developed into a
,lim-uiMi>o of the relative position of Church and
What gave the quarrel B European importance
was the ability of the champions who entered the field
on either wde. For the claims of the Church stood
Cardinals Baronius and Bellannine; the cause of
Venice was defended by the Servile Paolo Sarpi, a man
of wonderful literary skill and a sworn enemy of the
Roman Court. On 17 April, 1606, the pope pro-
nounced sentence of exconununi cation against the
doge, Senate, and Government collectively. He al-
lowed a very short space for submission, after which
he imposed an interdict on the city. The clcrfiy had
now to take sides for or against the pope. With the
exception of the JesuitSj the Theatines, and the Capu-
chins, who were immediately expelled, the entire body
of secular and regular clergy held with the Government
and continued to hold ser\-ice8, notwithstanding the
interdict. The festival of Corpus Christi was cele-
brated with unusual splendour, and Sarpi said
Mass for the first time in years. The schism lasted
aboat a year- and peace was patched up through the
mediation of France and Spain. The Republic refused
to repeal the obnoxious laws openly, but promised " to
conduct itself with its accustomed piety". With these
obscure words the pope was forcwl to be content; he
removed the censures 22 March, 1607. The Thea-
tines and Capuchins were permitted to return; an
exception was made against the Jesuits.
12 HVU.
The pope wat«hed vigilantly over the 'mteteeta of the
Church in every nation. On 9 July, 1606, he WTot« a
friendly letter to James I of Engltmd to confrratukte
him on his accession to the throne, and referred iJiUi
grief to the plot recently made against the life of the
monarch. But he prays him not to make the innocent
Catholics suffer for the crime of a few. He promises
to exhort all the CathoUcs of the realm to be submis-
sive and loyal to their sovereign in aS things not op-
posed to the honour of God. Unfortunately the oath
of allegiance James demanded of his subjects con-
tained clauses to which no Catholic could in con-
science subscribe. It was solemnly condemned in two
Briefs, 22 Sept., 1606. and 23 Aug., 1607. This con-
demnation occasionea the bitter dissensioD between
the party of the archpriest George Blackwell and the
CattiolicB who submitted to the decision of the Holy
See. In Austria the efforts of the pope were directed
to heahng the disputes among the Catholics and to
S'ving moral and material aid to the Catholic Union,
e survived the battle of Praf^ue, which put an end
to the short reign of the Calvinistic "winter-king".
Paul V was no more free from nepotism than the
other pontiffs 'of that century. But if he seemed to
show too many favours to his relatives, it must be said
that they were capable men of blameless lives, and
devoted their large revenues to the embellishment of
Rome. Paul haa the honour of putting the finishing
touches to St. Peter's, which had been Duilding for a
century. He enriched the Vatican Library, was fond
of art, and encouraged Guido Reni. He canoniied St.
Charles Borromeo and St. Frances of Rome. He
beatified St«. Ignatius Loyola, Francis Xavier, Philip
Neri, Theresa the Carmehto. Louis Bertrand. Thomas
of Villanova, and Isidore of Madrid. During his pon-
tificate a large number of new institutes for education
and charity added new lustre to rehgion. His remains
were placed in the magnificent Borghese chapel in
St. Mary Major's, where his monument is universally
admired!
Vili dri Panttgti CVcnice. 1730)': *k aJn ton RtH», HiHan, "ij
At Papa in tAi Siitenltl. tb:.. CmUuria: VOH Redkoht. Oemdt.
Jer Sladl Rom; Abtadd di Momoa. Hurory 0/ lie Pajta (New
York. 1887).
Jaues F, Loitohlin.
PmiI, Regular Clerics or Saint. See Barna^-
PtuU, Saint, b. in Rome, 347;d. at Bethlehem, 404.
She belonged to one of the firet families of Rome.
Left a widow in 379 at the age of 32 she became,
through the influence of St, Marcella and her group,
the model of Christian widows. In 382 took place
her decisive mootina with St. Jerome, who had come
to Rome with St. Lpiphanius and PauUnus of Anti-
oeh. These two bishops inspired her with an invinci-
ble desire to follow the monastic life in the East. Ai tor
their departure from Rome and at the request of
Marcella, Jerome gave readings from Holy Scripture
before the group of patrician women among whom St.
Paula held a position of honour. Paula was an ar-
dent student. She and her daughter, Eustochium,
studied and mastered Hebrew perfectly. By their
studies they aimed not so much to acquire knowledge,
as a fuller acquaintance with Christian perfection.
She did not, however, nef|lect her domestic duties.
A devoted mother, she mamed her daughter, Paulina
(d. 395), to the senator Pammachius; Blesilla soon
became a widow and died in 384. Of her two other
daughters, Rufina died in 386, and Eustochium ac~
companied her mother to the Orient where she died
in 419. Her son Toxotius, at first a pagan, but bap-
tised in 385, married in 389 Lffta, daughter of the
pagan priest Albinus. Of this marriage was bom
Paula the Younger, who in 404 rejoined Eustochium in
the East and in 420 closed the eyes of St. Jerome,
'niese are the names which recur frequently id the
PAUL!
583
PAULICIAN8
letters of St. Jerome, where they are inseparable
from that of Paula.
The death of Blesilla and that of Pope BamasuB in
384 completely changed the manner of life of Paula
and Jerome. In September, 385, Paula and Eusto-
chium left Rome to follow the monastic life in the East.
Jerome, who had preceded them thither by a month,
joined them at Antioch. Paula first made in great
detail the pilgrimage of all the famous places of the
Holy Land, sIterwSrd going to Eg3rpt to be edified by
the virtues of the anchorites and cenobites, and finally
took up her residence at Bethlehem, as did St. Jerome.
Then began for Paula, Eustochium, and Jerome their
definitive manner of life. The intellectual and spiritual
intercourse among these holy persons, begun at Rome,
continued and developed. Two monasteries were
founded, one for men, the other for women. Paula
and Eustochium took a larger share in the exegetical
labours of Jerome, and conformed themselves more
and more to his direction. An example of their man-
ner of thinking and writing may be seen in the letter
they wrote from Bethlehem about 386 to Marcella to
persuade her to leave Rome and join them; it is Letter
aLVI of the correspondence of Jerome. But God
was not sparine of trials to His servants. Their peace
was disturbed b^ constant annoyances, first the con-
troversy concerning Ongenism which aisturbed their
relations with John, Bishop of Jerusalem, and later
Paula's need of money, she naving been ruined by her
generosity. She died in the midst of these trials and
good works. The chief and almost the only source
of Paula's life is the correspondence of St. Jerome
(P. L., XXII). The Life of St. Paula is in Letter
UVIII, which, though somewhat rhetorical, is a won-
derful production. The other letters which speciallv
concern St. Paula and her family are XXII, XXX,
XXXI, XXXIII, XXXVIII, XXXIX, LXVI,
CVII.
LAQRANac, HUtotredeau PauU (2nded., Paru, 1868) ; Ada SS.,
Jan., Ill, 327-37; see also HiUoria lautiaea, Izxiz, in P. 0„
XXXIV, 1180; St. Jerome, De viria iUutHbu* in P. L.. XXIII,
719; Upton, The Houm on the Aventine in Catholie World, LXVlI,
633-643.
Louis Saltet.
Pauli« Johannes, b. about 1455; d. after 1530 in
the monastery at Thann in- Alsace. What little is
known of his life rests upon unreliable information:
Ludwig von Pastor rejects the story that he was of
Jewish descent, and baptised at an early age. taking
the name of Johannes Pauli from his godfatner (see
below). Pauli became Master of Arts in Strasburg,
entered the Franciscans (the "Barefooted"); and de-
livered his first sermon in Thann in 1479. Two years
later, he was sent to the convent at Oppenheim; in
1504 the conventual monastery at Bern desired him
as a guardian; he held the same office in Strasburg
1506-10; in 1516 he is mentioned as preacher in
Schlettstadt; later in Villingen in the Black Forest,
and finally in Thann. Prompted by his acquaintance
with Qeiler of Kaisersberg, he published in 1515 " Das
Evangelienbuch"; in 1516 "Die Emeis, Buch von der
Omeissen"; in 1517 "Die Brosamlin Geilers"; in 1520
"Das Narrenschifif, aus dem Latein ins Deutsch '
pebracht''. His own work, which assured him a last-
ing place in German literature, is the famous collec-
tion of farces and humorous stories " Schimpf (Scherz)
und Ernst'*. This a geniune "folk's book", written
in an easy and^ plain style, filled with humour and
pointed satire, intended to instruct while it amused.
"He did not desire," as Georg RoUenhagen says in his
preface to "Froechm&usler", "to make people laugh
without teaching them something; his book was like
the old legends and sa^as, full of fabulous happenings
and incidents, but wntten so that in them, as in a
comedy, there are combined with poetry and imagina-
tion the plain, unvarnished, bitter truths of life,
worded so as to tell serious things in a jocular manner,
with a laugh and a smile." Pauli drew his informa-
tion from a variety of sources, and his farces became
the inspiration, of the later German poets, especially
for Hans Sachs. He exercised a wide influence upon
the culture of the whole century.
Vkith, Ueber den BarfilMer Johannea Pauli (Vienna, 1839);
0£aTERLET, Johonnes Pavlie Schimpf und • Emat (Stuttgart,
1866) ; EuBEL, Geeeh. der oberdetUeehen Minoritenprovim (Wuri-
burg, 1886); Jansben, Geeeh. dee deuteehen VoUeee, ed. Pabtor,
VI (Freiburg, 1901); Bobebtao, Detdeehe NationaUitteratur
iKHrechner), XXIV; Weigert, DeuUche Volkeehwdnke dee 16,
Jahrhunderte (Kempten. 1909).
Nicholas Scheid.
Pmllclans, a duaUstic heretical sect, derived ori-
nnally from Manichseism. The origin of the name
Faulician is obscure. Gibbon (Decline and Fall, liv),
says it means "Disciples of St. Paul'' (Photius, op.
cit., II, 11; III, 10; VI, 4}. Their special veneration
for the Apostle, and their habit of renaming their
leaders after his disciples lend some colour to this
view. On the other hand, the form (IlavXiJci&roi. not
IlavXiawoi) is curious; and the name seems to have been
used only by their opponents, who held that they were
followers of Paul of Samosata (Conybeare, op. cit.,
cv). The birthplace of their founder evidently su^-
§eQted this; but there is no connexion between their
octrine and his. Photius relates that a certain Mani-
chee woman, named Kallinike, sent her two sons Paul
and John to Armenia to propagate this heresy; the
name is corrupted from UavXoiudppoi (Friedricn, op.
cit., I). The existence of such persons is now gene-
rally denied. The latest authority, Ter Mkrttschian
(Die Paulicianer, 63), says the name is an Armenian
diminutive and means "followers of little Paul", but
does not explain who little Paul may be. It occurs
first in the Acts of the Armenian Synod of Duin in 719,
a canon of which forbids any one to spend the night in
the house of "the wicked heretics called Pollikian"
(Ter Mkrttschian, 62).
I. Doctrine. — The cardinal point of the Paulician
heresy is a distinction between tnc God who made and
governs the material world and the God of heaven
who created souls, who alone should be adored. They
thought all matter bad. It seems therefore obvious to
count them as one of the many neo-Manichsean sects,
in spite of their own denial ana that of modem writers
(Ter Mkrttschian, Conybeare, Adenev, loc. cit.j Har-
nack, "Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte'^ TUbmgen,
1909, II, 528). But there is a strong Marcionite ele-
ment too. They rejected the Old Testament; there
was no Incarnation, Christ was an angel sent into the
world by God, his real mother was the heavenly Jeru-
salem. His work consisted only in his teaching; to be-
heve in him saves men from judgment. The true bap-
tism and Eucharist consist m hearing his word, as in
John, iv, 10. But many Paulicians, nevertheless, let
their children be baptized by the Catholic clergy.
They honoured not the Cross, but only the book of the
Gospel. They were Iconoclasts, rejecting all pictures.
Their Bible was a fragmentary New Testament.
They rejected St. Peter's epbtles because he had de-
nied Christ. They referred always to the * * Gospel and
Apostle'', apparently only St. Luke and St. Paul;
though they quoted other Gospels in controversy.
The whole ecclesiastical hierarchy is bad, as sSao all
Sacraments and ritual. They had a special aversion
to monks. Their own orgamzation consisted first of
the founders of their sect in various places. These
were apostles and prophets. They took new naines
after people mentioned by St. Paul, thus Constantine
called himself Silvanus: apparently they claimed to be
these persons come to life again. Under the apostles
and prophets were "fellow-workers" (avyixdiitun) who
formed a council, and "notaries" (wrdptoi), who
looked after the holy books and kept order at meet-
ings. Their conventicles were called, not churches,
but "prayer-houses" {wpoaevxcLl). They maintained
that it was lawful to-conceal or even deny their ideas
PAULICIAN8
OOTt
PAULIGIAN8
for fear of persecution : many of them lived exteriorly
as Catholics. Their iaeal was a purely spiritual com-
munion of faithful that should obliterate all distinc-
tions of race. Their enemies accuse them constantly
of gross immorality, even at their prayer-meetings.
One of their chief leaders, Baanes. seems to have ac-
Quired as a recognized surname tne epithet "filthy''
(6 ^ph^). They would recognize no other name for
themselves than '^Christians''; the Catholics were
"Romans" CPw^wSh), that is, people who obey the
Roman emperor, as the Monophysites called their
opponents Melchites. Hamack sums them up as
"oualistic Puritans and Individualists" and as "an
anti-hierarchic Christianity built up on the Gospel,
and Apostle, with emphatic rejection of Catholic
Christianity" (Dogmengeschichte, II, 528).
Since Gibbon the Paulicians have often been de-
scribed as a survival of early and pure Christianity,
godly folk who clung to the Gospel, rejecting later
superstitions, who were grossly calumniated by their
opponents. Conybeare (op. cit.) thinks they were
a continuation of the Adoptionists. Dr. Adeney calls
them "in many respects Protestants before Protes-
tantism" (The Greek and Eastern Churches, 219).
This idea accounts for the fact that the sect has met
among modem writers with more interest and cer-
tunly more sympathy than it deserves.
II. History. — Constantine of Mananalis, calling
himself Silyanus, founded what appears to be the first
Paulician community at Kibossa, near Colonia in Ar^
menia. He began to teach about 657. He wrote no
books and taught that the New Testament as he pre-
sented it (his "Gospel and Apostle") should be the
only text used by his followers (Georgios Monachos,
ed. Friedrich, 2). The other Paulician Apostles after
Constantine were Symeon (called Titus), sent by the
emperor Constantine Pogonatus (668-85) to put down
the sect, but converted to it; then Gegnesius an
Armenian (Timothy): Joseph (Epaphroditus) ; Zach-
ary, who was rejected by many ana called a hireling;
Baanes; Sergius (T]^chicus). They founded six con-
gregations in Armenia and Pontus, to which they gave
title names of Pauline Churches (Kibossa was "Mace-
donia", and BO on).
Constantine^ilvanus, after having preached for
twentv-seven years and having spread his sect into
the Western part of Asia Minor, was arrested by the
Imperial autnoritiea (by Symeon), tried for heresv
ana stoned to death. In 690 Symeon-Titus himself,
having become a Paulician, was also executed with
many others. The history of these people is divided
between their persecutions and their own quarrels.
An Armenian Paul (thought by some to have given his
name to the sect) set up a congregation at Episparis in
the (Armenian) district Phanaroea (d. c. 715). His
two sons Gegnesius^Timothy and Theodore quar-
relled about his succession. Gegnesius went to Con-
stantinople in 717 and persuaded the emperor Leo III
and the patriarch Germanus I that he was orthodox.
Armed with an imperial safe-conduct he came to
Mananalis and succeeded in crushing Theodore's op-
position. After his death his son Zachary (the "hire-
ling") and his son-in-law, Joseph-Epaphroditus. again
quarrelled and formed parties as to which should suc-
ceed. Zachary's party went under; many of them
were destroved by the Saracens.
Joseph (d. 775) founded communities all over Asia
Minor. Then came Baanes (Vahan; d. 801). Under
him the sect decreased in numbers and influence. But
a certain Sergius-Tychicus, who made a new schism,
reformed and strengthened the movement in his party.
The Paulicians were now either Baanites (the old
party), or Sergites (the reformed sect). Sergius was a
zealous propagator of the heresy; he boast^ that he
had spread his Gospel "from East to West, from
North to South" (Petrus Siculus, "Historia Mani-
ohsorum", op. cit., 45). The Sergitee meanwhUe
fought agiunst their rivals and nearly exterminated
them. From the Imperial government the Paulicians
met with alternate protection and persecution. Con-
stantine IV, and still more Justiman II, persecuted
them cruelly. The first Iconoclast emperors (Jj&o III
and his successors) protected them; Conybeare counts
these emperors as practicfdly Paulicians themselves
(op. cit.). Nicephorus I tolerated them in return for
their service as soldiers in Phiygia and Lycaonia.
Michael I began to persecute a^ain and his successor
Leo V, thoudi an Iconoclast^ tned to refute the accu-
sation that he was a Paulician by persecuting thenk
furiously. A great number of them at this tune re-
belled and fled to the Saracens. Sergius was killed ia
835. Theodora, recent for her son Michael III, con^
tinned the persecution; hence a second rebellion under
one Karbeas, who again led many of his followers
across the frontiers.
These PauUcians, now bitter enemies of the empire^
were encouraged by the khalifa. They fortifira a
place called Tephrike, and made it their headquarters.
From Tephrike they made continual raids mto Uie
empire; so that from this time they form a political
power, to be counted among the enemies of Rome.
We hear continually of wars against the Saracens^
Armenians^ and Paulicians. Under Basil I the Pauli-
cian army mvaded Asia Minor as far as Ephesus, and
almost to the coast opposite Constantinople. But
they were defeated, and Basil destroyed Tephrike in
871. This eliminated the sect as a military. power.
Meanwhile other PauUcians, heretics but not rebels,
lived in groups throughout the empire. Constantine
V had already transferred large numbers of them to
Thrace; John I Tzimiskes sent many more to the
same part to defend it against the Slavs. They
founded a new centre at Philippopolis, from which
they terrorized their neighbours. During the ninth
and. tenth centuries these heretics in Armenia, Asia
Minor, and Thrace constantly occupied the attention
of the government and the Church. The "Selicians",
converted by the Patriarch Methodius I (842-46).
were Paulicians. Photius wrote against them ana
boasts in his Encyclical (866) that he has converted a
sreat number. In Armenia the sect continued in the
"Thonraketzi" founded by a certain Smbat in the
ninth century. Conybeare attributes to this Smbat a
work, "The Key of Truth", which he has edited. It
accepts the Old Testament and the Sacraments of
Baptism, Penance, and the Eucharist. This work:
especially has persuaded many writers that the Pauli-
cians were much maligned people. But in any case it.
represents a very late stage of their history, and it is;
disputed whether it is r^BiUy Paulician at all. Con-
stantine IX persuaded or forced many thousands ta
renounce their errors.
The emperor Alexius Comnenus is credited witb
having put an end to the heresy. During a residence
at Philippopolis he^ argued with them and converted
all, or nearly all, back to the Church (so his dau^ter:
"Alexias", XV, 9). From this time the Paulicians
practically disappear from history. But they left
traces of their heresy. In Bulgaria the Boeomile sect,
which lasted throu^ the Middle A^ and spread to
the West in the form of Cathari, Albigenses, and other
Manichsean heresies, is a continuation of Paulicianism.
In Armenia, too, similar sects, derived from them,
continue till our own time.
There were Paulician communities in the part of
Armenia occupied by Russia after the war of 1828-29.
Conybeare publishes very curious documents of their
professions of faith and disputations with the Gre^
rian bishop about 1837 (Key of Truth, xxiii-xxviii)..
It is from these disputations and "The Key of Truth"'
that he draws his picture of the Paulicians as mmple,.
godly folk who had kept an earlier (sc. Adoptionistic)!
form of Christianity (ibid., introduction).
III. SouBCBs. — ^There are four cluef documents!:
PATJUNX
585
PAUUNini
•u
'«
((1) PhotiuSj. Four books against the PauIicians(Aci^i70'ct
'^€pl r^ tQp v&t^maw ftAPixaUap drnx/JXa^n^o-cwt), in
"P. G., CII, 15-264. (2) Euthymius Zigabenus, in his
Panoplia", XXIV [P. G., CXXX, 1189, sciq., sep-
arate edition of the part about the Paulicians, ed,
Gieseler (Gottingen, 1841)]. (3) Peter the Abbot,
"Concerning the Paulicians and Manichees", ed.
'Gieseler (Gottineen, 1849), who identifies the author
with Petrus Sicums, who wrote a ''Historia Manichte-
orum qui Pauliciani dicuntur", first published by
Rader (Ingolstadt, 1604), of which work Gieseler con-
siders '* Concerning the Paulicians" to be merely an
excerpt. (4) George Monachos, "Chronikon", ed.
Muralt (St. Petersburg. 1853).
Of Photius's work only book I contains the history;
the rest is a collection of homilies against the heresy.
There is interdependence between these four sources.
The present state of criticism (due chiefly to Karapet
Ter-Mkrttschian) is this: — Photius's account (book I)
falls into two parts. Chapters i~xiv are authentic,
xv-xxvii a later edition. The original source of all is
lost. George Monachos used this. Peter the Monk
either copied George or used the original work. Pho-
tius may have used Peter (so Ter-Mrkttschian) or
perhafM the original. Derived from these are Ziga-
benus and the spurious part of Photius-s book. Bon-
wetsch (Realencyklopadie ftir prot. Theol., 3rd ed.,
Leipzig, 1904, XV, 50) represents (according to Fried-
rich and as probable only) the order of denvation as:
O) An account contained in a MS. of the tenth cen-
<tury (Cod. Scorial., I, ♦, 1. fol. 164 sqq.), ed. Friedrich
:in the ''Sitzungsbericht aer Mtlnchener Akademie'^
<1896), 70-81; (2) Photius, i-x; (3) George Mona-
•chos; (4) Peter the Abbot; (5) Zigabdius; (6) Pseudo-
'Photius, x-xxvii; (7) Petrus Sicmus.
Other sources are the Armenian bishop, John
'Ozniensis [ed. by Aucher (Venice, 1834), and used by
DoUinger and (jonvbeare], and the "Key of Truth '^'
![Mrkttochian in "Zeitschnft ftbr Kirchengeschichte ",
1895, and Conybeare's edition, Armenian and English,
with introduction and notes (Oxford, 1898)].
TBB-MKRTTBCHiAir, DU PatUicianer im byxarUiniachen Kaieer^
reidi und venoandU ketMeritehe Ertcheinungen in Armenien (Leip-
as, 1803); DALUNasR, BeitrOge cwr SelUengeaehiehts de» MiUeU-
aUertt I (Munich. 1890). 1-31; Lombard, Paulicient, Bidffarea
§i BonMhommeM (Qeneva, 1879); HERGBNBfiTHEB, Photitu^ III
(RatisboD, 1869). 143-53; Gibbox» Dadine and FaU, ed. Bust,
VI (London. 1898), Uv, and appendix 6; Adknbt, The Greek and
Eastern Chwchea (Edinburgh. 1908). v.
Adrian Fortescue.
Pauline Privilege. See Divorce.
PaulinUB, Saint, Archbishop of York, d. at Roch-
ester, 10 Oct., 644. He was a Roman monk in St.
Andrew's monastery at Rome, and was sent bv St.
Gregory the Great in 601, with St. Mellitus and others,
to help St. Augustine and to carry the pallium to him.
He laSoured in Kent — with the possible exception of
a mission to East Anglia before 616— till 625, when he
accompanied Ethelburga (^thelburh), the sister of
King Eadbald of Kent, when she went to the Nor-
thumbrian Court to marry King Edwin, then a pagan
'(see Edwin, Saint). Before Teavine Kent, he was
(Consecrated bii^op by St. Justus, Archbishop of Can-
terbury. He was successful in converting Edwin and
large numbers of his people, the king's baptism taking
X|lace on 12 April, 627. With the assistance of St^
Edwin, he established his see at York and began to
tbuild a stone church there. His apostolic labours in
instructing and baptizing the people of the north
country were unceasing, and traoition perpetuates his
ministry at Yeaverine, Catterick Brioge, Dewsbury,
Easingjwold, Southwell, and elsewhere, while his own
name is preserved in the village of PalUngsbum in
Northumbria. On the defeat of St. Edwin in 633,
Paulinus carried the queen and her children safely to
Kent; and, as the heathen reaction under Penda inade
missionary work impossible in Northumbria, he de-
voted himself to the Diocese of Rochester^ then vacant.
It was after his flight that he received the pallium from
Rome (634). sent to him as Archbishop of York.
Though Anglican^writers have disagreed amon^ them*-
selves as to whether he was justified in leaving his
archbishopric. Catholic writers, following St. Bede,
have held that he had no choice and was the best
judge of what was advisable under the circumstances.
St. Bede describes him as tall and thin with a slightly
stooping figure; he had black hair and an aquiline
nose and was of venerable and awe-inspirins aspect.
He was buried in his church at Rochester, and, on the
rebuilding of the cathedral, his relics were translated
by Archbiship Lanfranc to a silver shrine where they
lay till the Reformation. His festival is observed in
England on 10 Oct., the anniversary of his death.
Bede, Hist. Ece,, II, tx, xii-xiv, xyi-xx; Anglo-Saxon Ckronide^
ann. 601, 625, 633, and 644: Regittrum Roffense (London, 1769);
Alcitin, De voniif. eed. Ebor. in P. L.. CI; CAPaRAVE, Nova
Legenda Anglioe (Oxford. 1901); Ada SS., V, October; BibL
fuigiog. UU. (Bruasels, 1901); Challoner, BrUannia Saneta (Lon-
don, 1745); BtTTLER, Lites of the Sainte, 10 Oct.; Kemblb, Code*
Dij^OTnatictu cm Saxoniei (London, 1839-48); Haddan and
Stubbs, EecUsiaetical DocumenU, I, III (Oxford, 1860-78);
Bright, Chapler$ of Early Eng. Church Hiet. (Oxford, 1878);
Raine, Historiana of the Church of York, Rolls Series (London,
1879-94); Birch. Cartularium Saxonicum (London, 1885-93);
Raine in Did. Chriet. Biog., s. v. Pautinue (20) ; Stanton, Mo'
nology (London, 1892), 10 C)ct.; Searlb, Anglo-Saxon Biahope,
Kinga and Noblea (Cambridge, 1899) ; Hunt in Did, Nat. Biog,,
8. v.; CABm>L, AngUterre cfuritienne avani lea Normanda (Pans,
1909).
Edwin BuBtpN.
Paulinus, Saint, Bishop op NoiiA (PoNTitm
MsROpms Aniciub Paulinus), b. at Bordeaux about
354; d. 22 June, 431 . He sprang from a distinguished
family of Aquitania and his education was entrusted to
the poet Ausonius. He became governor of the Prov-
ince of Campania, but he sooii realised that he could
not find in public life the happiness he sought. From
380 to 390 he lived almost entirely in his native land.
He married a Spanish lady, a Christian named Therasia.
To her, to Bishop Delphinus of Bordeaux and his
successor the Presbjrter Amandus, and to St. Martin
of Tours, who had cured him of some disease of the
eye, he owed his conversion. He and his brother were
baptized at the same time by Delphinus. When
Paulinus lost his only child eight days after birth, and
when he was threatened with the charge of having
murdered his brother, he and his wife decided to with-
draw from the world, and to enter the monastic life.
They went to Spain about 390.
At Christmas, 394, or 395, the inhabitants of Barce-
lona obliged him to be ordained, which was not ca-
nonical as he had not previouslv received the other
orders. Having had a special cfevotion to St. Felix,
who was buried at Nola in Campania, he laid out a
fine avenue leading ta the church containing Felix's
tomb, and beside it he erected a hospital. He decided
to settle down there with Therasia; and he distrib-
uted the largest part of his posseseions among the poor.
In 395 he removed to Nola, where he led a rigorous,
ascetic, and monastic life, at the same time contrib-
uting generously to the Church, the aoueduct at Nola,
and the construction of basilicas in Nola, Fondi etc.
The basilica at Nola counted five naves and had on
each side four additions or chapels icubicula)^ and an
apsis arranged in a clover shape. This was connected
with the old mortuary chapel of St. Felix by a gallery.
The side was richly decorated with marble, silver
lamps and lustres, paintings, statuaiy, and inscrip-
tions. In the apsis was a mosaic which represented
the Blessed Trinity, and of which in 1512 some rem-
nants were still found.
About 409 Paulinus was chosen Bishop of Nola.
For twenty years he discharged his duties in a most
pruseworthy manner. His letters contain numerous
Biblical quotations and allusions; everything he per-
formed in the spirit of the Bible and expressed in
Biblical lan(cuage. Gennadius mentions the writings
of Paulinus in his continuation of St. Jerome's "De
PAXTLXNUS
586
PAUUNXFS
Viris niustribus" (xlix). The panegjrric on the Em-
peror Theodisius is unfortunately lost^ as are also the
''Opus sacramentorum et hymnorum'^ the ''Epistol®
ad Sororem", the "Liber de Paenitentia", the "Liber
de Laude Generali Omnium Martjyrum", and a poeti-
cal treatment of the "De Regibus" of Suetonius
which Ausonius mentions. Forty-nine letters to
friends have been i)re8erved, as those to Sulpicius
Severus, St. Augustine, St. belphinus, Bishop Vic-
tricius of Rouen, Desiderius, Amandus, Pammachius
etc. Thirty-three poems are also extant. After 395
he composed annually a very long poem for the feast
of St. Felix, m which he principally glorified the hfe,
works, and miracles of his holy patron. Then going
further back he brought in various religious and poetic
motives. The ^ic parts are very vivid, the lyrics
full of real, unaffected enthusiasm and an ardent ap-
preciation of nature. Thirteen of these festal poems
and fragments of the fourteenth have been preserved.
Conspicuous among his other works are the poetic
epistles to Ausonius, the nuptial hymn to Juhanus,
which extols the dignity and sanctity of Christian mar-
riage, and the poem of comfort to the parents of Celsus
on the death of their child. Although Paulinus has
great versatiUty and nicety, still he is not entirely free
from the mannerisms and ornate culture of his period.
All his writines breathe a charming, ideal personality,
freed from all terrestrial attachments, ever striving
upward. According to Augustine, he also had an ex-
aggerated idea concerning the veneration of saints and
relics. His letter xxxii, written to Sulpicius Severus,
has received special attention because in it he de-
scribes the basilica of Nola, which he built, and gives
copious accounts of the existence, construction, and
purpose of Christian monuments. From Paulinus too
we nave information concerning St. Peter's in Rome.
During his lifetime Paulinus was looked upon as a
saint. His body was first interred in the catnedral of
Nola; later, in Benevento; thence it was conveyed b^
Otto III to S. Bartolomeo all' Isola, in Rome, and fi-
nally in compliance with the regulation of Pius X of
18 Sept., 1908 (Acta Apostolicse Sedis, I, 245 sq.) it
was restored to the cathedral of Nola. His feast, 22
June, was raised to the rank of a double.
Sancti Paulini Nolani Epiatola et Carmina, ed. Hartbl in CoT"
jnu aeriptorutn eeeUna^icorum latinorumt XXIX, XXX (Vienna,
1894): BUBB, Paulin, Buehof wm Nola, I. II (Ratisbon. 1856);
LAaRAMGB, Hiatoire de St. Paulin de NoU (2nd ed.. Paris, 1882) ;
Lavon, Paulin de NoU (Montauban, 1885) ; Baumgartneb, Ge-
eehiekU der WeUlUeratwr, IV (Freiburg, 1900); 143-51; Holt-
BiNGER, Die Baailika de* Pattlinue tu Nola in Zeitechrifl fUr bil^
dende Kunet, XX (Leipaig, 188^). 135-41; Adgusti, BeitrOge tur
chrisUichen KunttgeadtielUe tmd LUurffik, I (Leipsig, 1841), 14&-
79.
Klemens LQffler.
Paulinus n, Saint, Patriarch of Aqthleia, b. at
Premariacco, near Cividale, Italy, about 730-40; d. 802.
Bom probably of a Roman family during Longobardic
rule in Itdy, he was brought up in the patriarchal
schools at Cavidale. After ordination he became mas-
ter of the school. He acquired a thorough Latin
culture, pagan and Christian. He had also a deep
knowledge of jurisprudence, and extensive Scriptural,
theologi^, and patristic training. This learning won
him the favour of Charlemagne. After the destruction
of the Kingdom of the Longobards in 774, Charles
invited Paminus to France in 776, to be noyal master
of ''grammar". He assisted in restoring civiUzation
in the West.
In 777 Paulinus made his first acquaintance with
Petrus of Pisa, Alcuin, Amo, Albrico, Bona, Riculph,
Raefgot, Rado, Lullus, Bassinus, Fuldrad. Eginard,
Adalard, and Adelbert, the leading men of that age.
His devotion to Charlemagne was rewarded by manv
favours, amon^ them the gift of the property of Wai-
dand, son of Mimo of Lavariano, with a diploma dated
from Ivrea, and his appointment by Charles as Patri-
arch of Aquileia in 787. Paulinus took a prominent
part in the important matters of his day. In his rela-
tions with the churches of Istria, or with the Patriarch
of Grado, the representative of Byzantine interests,
he showed the greatest prudence and pastoral zeal.
Paulinus obtained diplomas for the free election of the
- future patriarchs, and other privileges for the Church
of Aquileia, viz. the monastery of St. Mary in Organo.
the church of St. Laurence of Buia, the hospitals of
St. John at Cividale and St. Mary at Verona. He
helped in preparing the new Christian legislation, and
amongst the ''ItaHc Capitularia" we find some canons
of his synods.
In 792 he was present at the Council of Ratisbon,
which condemned the heresy of Adoptionism taught
by Eliphand and Felix, Bishop of Urgel. In 794 he
took a leading part in the national Synod of Frank-
fort-on-the-Msun, where Adoptionism was again con-
demned, and wrote a book against it, which was sent
to Spain in the name of the council. Leaving Frank-
fort Paulinus paid a visit to Cividale and accompanied
Pepin against the Avars. At Salzburg he presided
over a synod of bishops, in which were cuscussed
the evangelization of the barbarians, and baptism, as
we learn from letters of Charles, Alcuin, Amo, and
Paulinus. Returning from the expedition the patriarch
once piore opposed the Adoptionists at the Synod of
Cividale in 796. Paulinus expounded the Catholic
doctrine about the Blessed Tnnity, esnecially about
the procession of the Holy Ghost from the Father and
the Son. At this synod fourteen ''canons" on eccle-
siastical discipline, and on the sacrament of marriage,
were framed and a copy of the Acts was sent to the
emperor. Paulinus is sud to have assisted at the
Council of Altinum, but Hefele has proved that a
council was never held there. In 798 he was "Missus
Dominicus" of Charlemagne at Pistoia, with Amo
and ten other bishops; and afterwards he went to
Rome as imperial legate to the pope. The activity of
Paulinus as metropolitan is clear from the "Sponsio
Episcoporum ad S. Aquileiensem Sedem".
Among his works are: "LibellusSacrosyllabus con-
tra EUpandum"; "Libri III contra Fehcem"; the
protocol of the conference with Pepin and the bishops
on the Danube, a work very important for the history
of that expedition. Paulinus was also a poet, and we
still possess some of his poetical productions: " Car-
men de regula fidei"; the "rythmus" or elegy for
the death of his friend. Puke Heric, killed in battle,
799; another rhythm on the destruction of Aquileia;
eight rhythms or hymns to be sung in his own church
for Chnstmas, the Purification, Lent, Easterj St.
Mark, Sts. Peter and Paul, the dedication, and " Ver^
sus de Lazaro " . He died revered as a saint. In MSS.
prior to the Mart3rrology of Usuard his feast is re-
corded on 11 Jan. In the calendars of saints of the
thirteenth, fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, used in
the Church of Aquileia and Cividale, his feast has a
special rubric. The first appearance of the name St.
raulinus in the Liturgy occurs in the "Litanis" of
Charles the Bald of the ninth century. It appears
also in the "Litanis Carolin^e", in the "LitanisB a S.
Patribus constitutse", and finally in the "Litanise" of
the Gertrudian MS. of the tenth century. Down to
he sixteenth century the feast was celebrated on 11
Jan., during the privileged octave of the Epiphany.
The patriarch Francesco Barbaro at the begmnins of
the seventeenth century translated the feast to 9 Feb.
The Church of Cividale keeps his feast on 2 March.
After several translations the relics of the saintly
patriarch were laid to rest under the altax of the crypt
of the basilica of Cividale del Friuli.
Ada 55., Jan., I, 713-18; Alcuin, Lettere and Poema in JaffA,
Bibl. Rer. Oerman., VI; Amelu, Paolo Diaeono, Carlomaono •
Paolino d* Aquileia (Mont« Caasino, 1899); BXbr, OeeehtdOe d,
R^hn. LiUeratur i. Karol. Zeitalter (KarisrQhe, 1840); Bblioni,
Pairiarchi Aquil^eai in Mdratori. Rer. Ital. Script., XVI, i, 32;
Bbaxdilconb, Note ad alcuni canoni (Cividale, 1900) : Caubsb,
San Paolino in Riv. Intern. (Sept., 1900); Cabouccx, La
PAUUNUS
587
PAUUSTS
Mione in A. Mantoni e in S. Paolino, vol. X (Bologna, 1898);
Centenario d* S, Paolino^ numero unieo (Cividale, 1906) ; Ceilt
UKB, HuloireginiraU de* auteura aacrit (Paris, 1862) ; de Rubeis,
Monumenta Sod. AquiUjentit (Strasburg, 1740); Idem, Disser-
tationM taria enidiiionU (Venioe, 1762); DiplomataofCharlet
the Great in P. L,\ DOmmlxr, Mon. Oerm. Hiat. : Poet. Lot.
en. Karol. J, 160-351 (Hanover, 187&-89): Ellbbo. S. Paolino
Pairiarca d'A^Heia (Cividale, 1901); Fobchia, S. Paolino
(Udine, 1884-); Giannoni, PatdinuM II Patriarch von AquiUja
(Vienna, 1896) ; Lbicht, Idiplomi imperiali eoneeeei ai Patriarchi
d* AquiUja (Udine. 1895) ; Hoepu, Miaceltanea per il XI Cente-
narto di S. Paolino (Milan, 1905); Takamxa, Paolo Diaeono
(Cividale. 1900); Tiraboscbi. Storia d. Utt. Ital., Ill (Rome,
1782) ; WiBGAND, PtnUinue von Aquileia.
Aluigi Cobbio.
Paulinus a S. Bartholomao (Philip Wesdin),
missionary and Orientalist, b. at Hoff in Lower Aus-
tria, 25 Apr., 1748; d. in Rome. 7 Jan., 1806. Having
entered the Carmelite Order, ne was sent in 1774 as
missionary to India (Malabar) and there was ap-
pointed vicar general of his order and Apostolic visitor.
Recalled in 1789 to Rome to giye an accoimt of the
state of that mission, he was charged with the edition
of books for the use of missionanes. On account of
g>litical troubles he stayed from 1798 to 18(X) at Vienna,
e returned to Rome as prefect of studies at the
Propaganda. Paulinus is the author of many learned
books on the East, which were highly valued in their
day and have contributed much to the study and
knowledge of Indian literature and Indian life. We
are indebted to him for the first printed Sanskrit gram-
mar. The following are some of his more important
works:
(1) "Systcmabrahmanicumliturjgicum, mythologi-
cum, civile, ex monumentis indicis musei Borgiani
Velitris dissertationibus historico-criticis illustratum"
(Rome. 1791), translated into German (Gotha. 1797);
(2) ^'Examen historico-criticum codicum indicorum
bibliothecsB S. C. de Propaganda" (Rome, 1792);
(3) ''Musei Borgiani Velitris codices manuscript!
avenses, Peguani, Siamici, Malabarici, Indostani . . .
illustrati" (Rome, 1793); (4) "Viaggio alle Indie
orientali" (Rome, 1796). translated into German by
Forster (Berlin, 1798); (5) "Sidharubam, seu Gram-
matica sanscridamica, cui accedit dissert, hist. crit. in
linguam sanscridamicam vulgo Samscret dictam"
(Rome, 1799). another edition of which appeared
under the title "Vyacaranam" (Rome, 1804); (6)
''India orientalis clmstiana" (Rome, 1794), an im-
S^rtant work for the history of. missions in India,
ther works bear on linguistics and church historv.
Baronb, Vita, preeursori ed opere di P. Paolino da S. BarloiO'
meo (Naples. 1888); Heimbucber, Die Orden und Konorega-
tionen der kalholiachen Kirche, II (2nd ed., Paderborn, 1907),
568-69.
LrVARIUS OUQER.
Paulinus of Antioch. See Meletius of Antioch.
Paulinus of Pella, Christian poet of the fifth
century; b. at Pella in Macedonia, but of a Bordelaise
family. He was the son of an official, which explains
his birth in Macedonia and his sojourn at Carthage
while he was a child. He soon returned to Bordeaux.
He was probably the grandson of the poet Ausonius.
At the age of eighty-three he composea an account of
his life: "Eucharisticon Deo sud ephemeridis mese
teztu". His autobiography is a thanksgiving, al-
though illness, loss of property, and dangers from in-
vasion occupy more space in it than do days of happi-
ness. The account is interesting, for it presents a
sincere picture of the period, ana the expression of
exalted sentiments. Unfortunately the st3rle and
versification do not always corr^pond to the sincerity
and the height of inspiration. The date is uncertain.
The passage which apparently gives it (474 sqq.) is
altered but may be between 459 and 466. The very
name of the author has not been preserved by the
single MS', of the poem. We know it only through
Margarin de La Bigne, the author of the "Bibliotheca
Patrum" (Paris, 1679, appendix, VIII), who had
handled another manuscript giving the name of Pau-
linus. The "Eucharisticon" was published by W.
Brandes in vol. I of "Poetse Christiani minores"
(1888).'
Teuftel, Geech. d. rdm. Literatur, {474, 4; Ebebt, O'eteft. dr
Literaturdea Mittelaltera, I (Leipzig. 1889), 405; DnCHESNX. Poet,
Spie. de Vaneienne Gaule, II (2nd ed., Paria, 1900), pt. II.
Paul Iejay.
Paulists. — ^From the time that the abode and vir-
tues of St. Paul the first hermit (q. v.) were revealed
to St. Anthony, various communities of hermits
adopted him as patron . The name Paulists, however,
was also applied to the members of congregations es-
tablished under the patronage of St. Pam the Apostle.
(See the articles on Barnabites; Minims; Piaribts;
and Theatines.)
(1) Hermits of St. Paid of Hungary, formed in 1260
by Blessed Eusebius of Gran, of two communities. One
founded at Patach in 1216 by Bishop Bartholomew
of Pecs who united the scattered hermits of his dio-
cese, and the other consisting of his own followers.
In 1246 Blessed Eusebius, canon of the cathedral of
Gran, resigned his dignities, distributed his ^oods
among the poor, and withdrew to the solitude of Pisilia,
a forest near Zante, to lead a life of penance with a
few companions. Four years later he is said to have
been admonished in a vision to gather into community
the other hermits living in the vicinity, for whom he
built a monastery and church. In the same year he
proposed and obtained affiliation with the Patach
communitv under the rule prescribed by its founder,
and was chosen superior. He received the approbi^
tion of Ladislaus, Bishop of Pecs, for the new congregi^
tion, but the publication of the decrees of the Lateran
Council at this time necessitated a journey to Rome
to secure the further sanction of the Holy See. In
1263 a new rule was given the congregation by the
Bishop of Pecs, which was superseded by still another
drawn up by Andrew, Bishop of Agria, after the
death of Eusebius (20 Jan., 1270)^ and this was fol-
lowed until 1308, when the permission of the Holy
See was obtained to adopt the Rule of St. Augustine.
The order was accorded many privileges by succeeding
pontiffs^ among others that of exemption from episco-
pal jurisdiction, and provisions were made for the
pursuit of higher studies in many of the monasteries,
one papskl regulation ordaining that no member coula
be raised to any dipiity in the order without the de-
gree of Doctor of Divinity, for which a rigid examina-
tion was prescribed.
The congregation spread rapidly through Hungary,
where alone it soon numberea 170 houses, and it at-
tained an equal degree of prosperity in other countries,
being divided into nve flourislung provinces : Hungary.
Germany (including Croatia), Poland, Istria, ana
Sweden. In 1381 the body of St. Paul, patron of the
order, was transferred from Venice to the monastery
of St. Laurence in Hungary, which thereby gained
greatly in prestige. Among the other famous houses
of the congregation were the historical Polish monas-
tery of Our Lady of Claremont (commonly called
Czestochovia), with its miraculous image of Our Lady
(according to legend the work of St. Luke and dis-
covered by St. Helena with the True Cross), and the
monasteries at Presburg and Neustadt near Vienna.
The church of San Stefano Rotondo at Rome was
attached to the Hungarian College by Gregory XIII.
In 1783 a number of houses in Austria, Bohemia,
Styria^ etc. were suppressed, and political disturb-
ances m Hungary brought the same fate to most of
the Hungarian convents, which had rendered in-
calculable services to religion and education. The
destruction of the annals of these houses left the his-
torical sources very meagre. There are still a few
houses of the congregation in Galicia and Russian
Poland, and the church connected with the monastery
at Kracow may be regarded as a national sanctuary.
PAUU8T8
588
PAUL
Among the members of the con^p^ation <o attain
prominence were George Martmiuzi, Bishop of
Grosswardein and cardinal (murdered 16 Dec., 1551),
an important figure in the history of Hungary; Mat-
tiuas Fuhrmann of Hemals (d. 1773), historian of
Austria and editor of the Acts of St. Paul of Thebes;
Fortunatus DOrich (1802). and Franz Faustin Pro-
chaska (d. 1809), editors ol a Czech translation of the
Scriptures. The garb was originally brown, but about
1341 white was aoopted, with a cincture, and over the
habit a scapular witn a hood. In choir a white mantle
is worn.
(2) HermiU ofSL Ptvl of France, also called Broth-
ers of Death. — There is much discussion as to the ori-
gin of this congregation, but it was probably founded
about 1620 by Gmllaume Callier, whose constitutions
for it were approved by Paul V (18 Dec, 1620) and
later by Louis XIII (May, 1621). There were two
classes of monasteries, those in the cities, obliged to
maintain at least twelve members, who visit^ the
poor, the sick, and prisoners, attended those con-
demned to death, and ouried the dead; and the houses
outside the. city, with which were connected separate
cells in which solitaries lived, the whole community
assembling weekly for choir and monthly in chapter
to confess their sins. Severe fasts and disciplines were
prescribed. The name Brothers of Death originated
m the fact that the thought of death was constantly
before the religious. At their profession the prayers
for the dead were recited; their scapular bore the skuU:
their salutation was Memento mcri; the death's heaa
was set before them at table and in their cells. This
congreffation was suppressed by Urban VIII in 1633.
(3) BermUs of St. Paul of Portugal. — Among the con-
flicting accounts of the foundation of this congrega-
tion, the most credible seems to be that it was estab-
lished about 1420 by Mendo Gomez, a nobleman of
Simbria, who resigned dearlv bousht military laurels
to retire to a solitude near ^tuvai, where he built an
oratory and gave himself up to prayer and penance,
gradually assuming the leadership of a number of
other hermits in the vicinity. Later a community
of hermits of Sierra de Ossa, the date of whose f oimda-
tion is also in dispute, being left without a superior,
prevailed on Menao Gomez to unite the two communi-
ties, under the patronage of St. Paul, first hermit. At
the chapter hdd after the death of the founder (24
Jan., 1^1), constitutions were drawn up, which at a
later date were approved, with some alterations, by
Gr^ory XIII (1578), at the request of Cardinal Henry
of R)rtugal, who also obtained for the congregation
the privilege of adopting the Rule of St. Augustine.
This congregation was later suppressed. Probably
the most celebrated member was Antonius a Matre
Dei, author of ''Apis Libani'', a commentary on the
Proverbs of Solomon.
(4) Blind Sisters of St. Pauly founded at Paris in
1852, by A. F. ViUemain (d. 1870), Anne Bergunion
(d. 1863), and the Abb^ Jug^, to enable blind women
to lead a religious life, and to facilitate the training of
blind childr^ in useful occupations. A home was
established for blind women and girls with defective
sight.
(5) SUters of St. Paul of Chartree (also called to St.
Maurice) known also as Hospitallers of Chartres,
founded in the latter part of the seventeenth century
for teaching and the care of the poor and sick. After
the Revolution the congregation was revived, was
authorized b^ the Government in 1811, and soon num-
bered 1200 sisters and over 100 houses in Exigland,
Guadeloupe, Martinique, French Guiana, Corea,
China, Japan, Further India, the Philippines, etc.
In China a novitiate has been established for native
subjects, and in Hong-Kong a school for European
children, besides various benevolent institutions. In
Further India there are thirty institutions, chiefly of
a benevolent Dature, in addition to a novitiate, which
has already admitted a number of native postulants.
In the Philippines are schools and a leper hospital.
Hkucbuchbb, Orden und KmiQregationen (I^erbom, 1907);
HiLTOT, Ordre* reUginux (Paris, 1859), a. v. Eoobhsb, Frog-
men panit Coroi prolo-tremttici (Vieanm, 1663) ; cont. by Bokko-
vxcH AND Bbnobb (Preflbunc. 1743) ; Mallbchich, Quadriparti'
turn regtdarium a. de jfrifiUgiit tt iuribue O. a. Fauli (VieniiA,
1708); ReffttUs a. conatUutionea monachorum exealeeatorum a.
Patdi primi eremiUe eong. Luaiiana (Lisbon, 1785); Nicolab
DB Maria, Chron. da ord. doa Conegoa Rttponi, de 8. AffotHno;
La eonffrfgaiion dea aatara aveuglea de Si Payl pendant eon pr^
mier demi-aiMe (Paria, 1903).
Florence Rttbob McGahan.
Paulists. See Missionart Socibtt of Saint
Paul the Apostle.
Paul of BuiYOS (Paul de Santa Marla.; Jewish
name, Solomon ha-Levi)) a Spanish archbishop, lord
chancellor and exegete, b. at Burgos about 1351 ; d. 29
Aug., 1435. He was the most wealthy and influential
Jew of Burgos, a scholar of the first rank in Talmudic
and rabbimcal literature, and a Rabbi of the Jewi^
community. The irresbtible logic of the Summa of
St. Thomas led him to the Faith of Christ. He re-
ceived Baptism, 21 Jul^, 1390. His brothers Pedro
Suarez and Alvar Garcia, together with his daughter
and four boys, a^ged from three to twelve years, were
baptized with him. His wife Joanna died a Jewess
shortly after. Paul de Santa Maria, as he was called,
spent some years at the University of Paris, where he
took his degree of doctor in theology. His sincerity,
keen insight into human nature, thorough education,
and soul-«tirring eloquence marked him out as a prom-
inent churchman of the future. In 1405 he became
Bbhop of Cartagena; in 1415, Archbishop of Burgos.
In 1416 King Henry of Castile named him lord c£ui-
cellor. After the king's death Archbishop Paul was
a member of the council which ruled Castile in the
name of the regent Dofia Catalina, and by the will
of the deceased king he was tutor to the heir to the
throne — ^later John II of Castile. The published
writings of Archbishop Paul were: — (1) Dialogus
Pauli et Sauli contra Judseos, sive Scrutinium scrip-
turarum'' (Mantua, 1475; Mainz, 1478; Paris, 1507,
1535; Burgos, 1591). (2) "Additiones" to the "Pos-
tilla" of Nicholas of Lyra (Nuremberg, 1481; 1485;
1487, etc.; Venice, 1481, 1482, etc.). It is chiefly on
the latter work that Paul's reputation as an exegete
rests. The ''Additiones'' were originally mere mar^
ginal notes written in a volume of the ** Postilla" whidi
he sent to his son Alfonso. Their publication aroused
Matthias Dorin^, the provincial of the Saxon Fran-
ciscans, to publish his ''RepliciB''{ a bitter rejection
of almost half of the 1100 suggestions and additions
Paul had made. The converted Jew was superior
to Nicholas of Lyra in Hebrew, but not in Biblical
interpretations; in fact, Paul erred in not admitting
an inspired allegorical meaning of Holy Writ, preju-
diced against it, no doubt, by the extravagance of
Talmudic allegorical fancies. (3) '^ De nomine divino
qusstionesduodecim'' (Utrecht, 1707). These tracts
are excerpts from the '^Additiones" in rewd to
Exod., iii, and are joined to the scholia of J. Drusius
on the correct pronunciation of the name of Jahwch.
Archbishop Paul was succeeded in the See of Bui^gos
by his second son, Alfonso.
Sanctotib, Vita d. Patdi epiacopi Burgenaia; Mabiana, Hiaioria
general de SapaAa, IV (Barcelona, 1839), 324; Antoicio. BibliaUL
hiapan. vetua, II (Madrid, 1788). 237.
Walter Drum.
Paul of Middelburg, scientist and bishop, b. in
1446 at Middelburg, the ancient capital of the prov-
ince of Zealand, belonging then to the German Em-
pire, now to Holland; d. in Rome, 13 December^ 1534.
After finishing his studies in Louvain he received a
canonry in his native town, of which he was after-
wards deprived. The circumstances of this fact are
not known, but in his apologetic letter on the celebra-
tion of Easter he calls it a usurpation, and shows great
PAUL
589
PAUL
bittemeBB agiunst his country, calling it ''barbara
ZelanduB insula ", ''vervecum patria^, "cerdonum
regio", etc. He then taught for a while in Louvain,
was invited by the Signoria of Venice to take a chair
for sciences in Padua (1480), travelled through Italy,
became physician to Francesco Maria della Rovere,
Duke of iJrbino, and friend to Maximilian, Archduke
of Austria, afterwards emperor. By the former he
was endowed with the Benedictine Abbey St. Christ-
ophorus in Castel Durante (1488), and by the latter
he was recommended to Alexander VI for the Bishop-
ric of Fossombrone (Moroni, LXXXV, 314). Beinff
nominated to that see, in 1494, he destroyed some of
his former publications; first ^'Giudizio dell' anno
1480", in which he had censured a number of mathe-
maticians: then a ''Practica de pravis Constellation-
ibus", ana a defence of that work against the nephew
of Paul II (1484): and finally an ''Invectiva in super-
stitiosum Vatem . He chose for himself an astro-
nomical coat of arms, and, in 1497, enlarged and em-
bellished the episcopal palace. Besides some smaller
treatises against usurers and against the superstitious
fear of a flood in 1524 (Fossoxnbrone, 1523), he wrote
important works on the reform of the Calendar, which
procured for him invitations by Julius II and Leo
X to the Fifth Lateran Council (1512-1518). His
'' Epistola ad Universitatem Lovaniensem de Paschate
recte observando" (1487) was followed by an "Epis-
tola apologetica" (1488), and finallv by his prin^al
work ^'Paulina, de recta Paschse celebratione" (Fos-
sombrone, 1513). The contents and result of the
work are described under the article Lilius. He died
while assisting at the Divine Office in Rome, and was
buried in S. Maria dell' Anima. His family name is
unknown, but in one place he is called Paolo di
Adriano (Moroni, XLIV, 120). Scaliger, who calls
him'' Omnium suisseculimathematicorum . . . facile
princeps^', was his godson.
ScHMioLiN, Oeach. der deuUchen Naiumaikirche in Rom (Frei-
burg, 1906), 349.
J. G. Hagen.
Paul of Samosata, Bishop of Antioch. Several
synods, probably three, were held against him about
264-66. St. Dionvsius of Alexandria had desired to
attend the first of these, but was prevented bvhis
infirmities. Firmilian of Csesarea, St. Gregory Thau-
maturgus, his brother Athenodorus, and many others,
were present. Paul held the civil office of Procurator
ducenariii8f and was protected by Zenobia, the famous
Queen of Palmyra. He was a wealthy man, and
had many obsequious followers among neighbouring
bishops. Many defended his doctrine, and he de-
clarea himself orthodox. In the first meetings the bish-
ops were satisfied. At another Paul was condemned,
but promised to retract his errors. This he failed to
do. A final council was summoned. Firmilian died
on the way to it. The principal part was taken by a
priest of ^tioch, Malchion, who was an accomplisned
man of letters and head of the school of Greek liteni^
ture at Antioch. In disputation with Paul he plainly
convicted him of heresv, and procured his deposition.
A letter written by Malchion in the name of the synod
and addressed to Pope Dionvsius of Rome, Maximus
of Alexandria, and all the bishops and clenry through-
out the world, has been preserved by Eusebius in
part; a few fragments only remain of the shorthand
report of the disputation.
The letter accuses Paul of acquiring great wealth by
illicit means, of showing haughtiness and worldliness,
of having set up for nimseu a lofty pulpit in the
church, and of insulting those who did not applaud
him and wave their handkerchiefs, and so fortn. He
had caused scandal by admitting women to live in his
house, and had permitted the same to his clergy. Paul
could not be driven from his see until the emperor
Aurelian took possession of Antioch in 272. Even
then he refused to vacate the house belonging to the
church. An appeal was made to Aurelian, and the
pagan emperor, who was at this time favourable to
Christians, decided most justly, says Eusebius (vii, 30,
19), that the house should be given up to those to
whom the bii^ops in Italy and the dtv of Rome diould
write; — evidently it had been argued before him that
the question of legitimacy depended on communion
with Rome, to be granted after examination by the
pope and his council. Paul was driven out in utter
disgrace by the civil power. Of his life no more is
known to us. His doctrine was akin to the dynamistic
Monarchianism of Theodoltus, and he was mcknamed
a follower of Artemas. We can gather these points:
the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost are but a single Per-
son {wp6ff<airop). The Son or Logos is without hyposta-
sis, being merely the wisdom and science of God.
which is in Him as reason is in a man. Before all
worlds He was bom as Son {A6yof rpo^pucSt) without
a virgin; he is without shape and cannot be made vis-
ible to men. He worked in the Prophets, especially in
Moses Get us remember that Zenobia was a Jewess,
and that this monarchianism may have been intended
to please her), and in a far hi^er way in the Son of
David who was bom by the Holy Ghost of a Virgin.
The Christ, the Saviour, is essentially a man, but the
Holy Ghost inspired Him from above. The Father
and the Son are one God, whereas Christ is from the
earth with a personality of his own. Thus there are
two Persons m Christ. The Logos as Wisdom dwelt
in the man Jesus, as we live in houses, and worked in
EUm as inspiration, teaching Him and being with Him,
and was united with Him not substantially (or es-
sentially, oiJa'twJwf), but oualitatively (KerA wotirifra),
Mary did not bring fortn the Word, for she did not
exist before the worlds, but a man like to us. Paul
denied the inference that there are two Sons. The Son
of the Virgin is great by Wisdom, who dwelt in no
other so.
Union of two Persons is possible only by agreement
of will, issuing in unity of action, and originating by
love. By this kind of union Christ had merit; ne
could have had none had the union been by nature.
By the unchangeableness of His will He is like God,
and was united to Him by remaining pure from sin.
By striving and suffering He conqueiea the sin of our
first parent, and was joined to (jiod, being one with
£Qm m intention and action. God worked in Him to
do miracles in order to prove Him the Redeemer and
Saviour of the race. By the ever growing and neye^
ceasing movement of friendship He has joined Him-
self to God so that He can never be separated through
all eternity, and His Name is above every Name as a
reward of love. Judgment is made. over to Him; He
may be called "God from the Virgin", "God from
Nazareth". He is said to havepre-existed, but liiis
means by predestination only. The bapUsm of Christ,
as usuiJ. was regarded by Paul as a step in His junc-
tion with the Logos. If He had been God by nature,
Paul argued, there would be two Gods. He forbade
hymns to Christ, and openly attacked the older (Alex-
andrian) interpretations of Scripture.
The party of Paul did not at once disappear. The
Council of Nicsea declared the baptism conferred by
the Paulianists to be invalid. Thero is something,
though not much, of his teaching in the Lucianist and
Arian systems which issued from Antioch. But their
Christology was the very opposite of hicLwhich was
rather to reappear in a mocuned form in Theodore of
Mopsuestia, Diodorus, Nestorius, and even Theo-
doret, though these later Antiochenes warmly rejected
the imputation of any agreement with the heretic
Paul, even in Christology.
It must be regardecT as certain that the council
which condemned Paul rejected the term 6/iooiJtf'iof;
but naturally only in a false sense used by Paul; not,
it seems because he meant by it an unity of Hyposta-
sis in the Trinity (so St. HiJaiy)| but because ne in-
«( irMtiBir, (Ptna, It
PAUL
tended bjr it a comrooQ subatanc'e out of which Iiotli
Father and Son proceeded, or which it divided be-
tween them, — BO St. Basil and St. Athanasius; but the
ration is not clear. The objectore to the Nicene
tiine in the fourth century made copiouB uae of this
disapproval <^ the Nioene word by a famous council.
The fragments are beat collected by Routh, " Retl.
8S.", III. I^irther fragments in Pitra, "Analectasa-
cra", III-IV. The letter of St. Dionysius is spuriouB.
That of six bishopB to Paul is usually rejected, but
Hamack thinks it genuine, following Uasemann.
HUHici, Ottck. dtr ASlclirM. LiU., I (1893); Babdehhewib.
Oack. da AUktrMiclitn liU., II (1903) ; Heiile. CounoJi, I [ti.
1SS3): IUtillx, La CliHtlaliiaie <U Paul dt SomoDtU in Btudti dt
■ (PwiMSM).
John Chapuan.
Fftul of the Crou, Saint (Paul Francis Danxi),
b. at Ovada, Genoa, Italy 3 Jan., 1694; d. in Rome, IS
Oct., 1775. lliB parents, Luke Danei and Anna Maria
Massari, were exemplary Catbohcs. From his ear-
liest years the crucifix was his book, and the Cruci-
fied his model. Paul received his early education from
a priest who kept a ecfaool for boys, in Cremolino,
Lombardy. Ue made great progress in study and vir-
tue; spent much
time m pr^er,
heard daily Mass,
frequently re-
ceived the Sacra-
ments, faithfully
attended to his
school duties, and
^ve his spare
time to reading
good books and
churches, where
he spent much
time before the
Blessed Sacra^
ment, to which
he had an ardent
devotion. At the
age of fifteen he
left school and re-
turned to his home
at Castellasso,
. . full of trials. In early
manhood he renounced the offer of an honourable
marriage; also a good inheritance left him by an
uncle who was a priest. He kept for himself only the
priest's Breviary.
Inflamed with a desire for God's glory he formed the
idea of instituting a religious order in honour of the
Passion. Vested in a black tunic by the Bishop of Ales-
sandria, his director, bearing the emblem of our Lord's
Passion, baref6ot«d, and bareheaded, he retired to a
narrow cell where he drew up the Rules of the new
congregation according to the plan made known to
him in a vision, which he relates in the introduc*
tion to the orifpnal copy of the Rules, For the ac-
count of his ordination to the priesthood, of the foun-
dation of the Congregation of the Passion, and the
approbation of the Rules, see Passionibts. After the
approbation of the Rules and the institute the first
general chapter was held at the Retreat of the Pres-
entation on Mount Ai^ntaro on 10 A;>ril, 1747,
At this chapter, St. Paul, agunst hie wishes, was
unanimously elected first superior general, which
office he held until the day of his death. In all virtues
and in the observance of regular discipline, he became
a model to his companions. "Although continual!^
occupied with the cares of governing his religious soci-
ety, and of founding everywhere new houses for it, yet
henever left ofTpr^chingthe word of God, burning as
he did with awondroua desire tor the salvation of aouls "
CBrid of Pius IX for St. Paul's Beatification, 1 Oct.,
and from this time his life
PAtTL
1852). Sacred missions were instituted and numeroiu
COD versions were made. Ue was untiring in his Apos-
tolic labours and never, even to his last hour, remitted
anything of his austere manner of life, finally suc-
cumbing to a severe illnesa, worn out as much oy his
austerities as by old age.
Among the aistingvushed assodatee of St. Paul in
the formation and extension of the oongregatioo
were: John Baptist, his younger brother and constant
companion from childhood, who shared all his laboura
and BufTcrings and equalled hitn in the practice of
virtue; Father Mark Aureliua (Pastorelli), Father
Thomas Struuieri (subsequently Bishop ol Amelia
and afterwards of 'Todi), and Father Fulgentius of
Jesus, all remarkable for learning, piety, and missioii-
aty aeal; Venerable Strambi, Bishop of Macerata,
and Tolentino, his biographer. Constant personal
union with the Cross and Passion of our Lord was the
prominent feature of St. Paul's sanctity. But devo-
tion to the Pasuon did not stand alone, for he carried
to a heroic degree ^ the other virtues of a Christian
life. Numerous miracles, beades those special ones
brought forward at his beatification and canonization,
attested the favour he enjoyed with God. Miracles of
grace abounded, as witnessed ia the converuon of sin-
ners seemingly hardened and hopeless. For fifty
t'cors be prayed for the conversion of England, and
eft the devotion as a legacy to his sons. The body of
St.Paullicsin the Basilica of SS. John and Paul, Rome.
He was beatified on 1 October, 1852, and canonized on
29 June 1867. His feast occurs on 28 April. The
fame of his sanctity, which had spread far and wide in
Italy during his uie, increased after his death and
spread into all countries. Great devotion to him is
practised by the faithful wherever Passionista are es-
tablished.
LJKiDf St. Paul by.BiKAMBiiaOrolman Stria 13 volt.. Lon-
doD, 18531 ; Fn. Pitta oi thi Nike or Mart, li. by »>. laHATici
Bpshces ILoDdDDUid Nsw¥ark);PinBASi'iErnTSAMCTO{LoD-
don, 1868); udFH. Locu or Juo AoaMttNo IBotdnnii); Fi.
LfEE C. P„ A trait ApoMt o/lhe CneijUd (Roiik).
Arthcr Devink.
Puil the Hermit, Saint. — There are three im-
portant versions of the Life of 8t, Paul: (1) the Latin
- " (H) of St, Jerome; (2) a Greek version (6),
of 6 by means of H. The Question is whether H o. .
is the original. Both a and b were published for the
first time by Bidez in 1900 ("Deux versions grecques
inMtesdela vie des.PauldeTh&bes", Ghent). Bide»
maintains that H was the original Life. This view
has been attacked by Nau, who makes 6 the original
in the "Analect. BoUand.'' of 1901 (XX, 121-157).
The Life, minor dettuls excepted, is the same b
When a youns man of nxteen Paul fled into the des-
ert of the Thebaid during the Decian persecution.
He lived in a cave in the mountain-aide till he was
one-hundred-and-thirteen. The mountain, odds St.
Jerome, was honeycombed with caves.
When he was ninety St, Anthony was tempt«d to
v^n-glory, thinking he was the first to dwell in the
desert. In obedience to a vision he set forth to find
his predecessor. On his road he met with a demon
in the form of a centaur. Later on he spied a tiny
old man with horns on his head. "Who are you? '
asked Antony. "I am a corpse, one of those whom
the heathen call satyiB, and by them were snared into
idolatry," This is the Greek story (6) which makes
both centaur and sktyr unmistakably demons, one of
which tries to terrify the saint, while the other acknowl-
edges the overthrow of the gods. With St. Jerome the
centaur may have been a demon; and may also have
been ' ' one of those monsters of which the desert is so
prolific," At all events he tries to show the stunt the
way. As for tJie satyr he is a harmless little mortal d^
PAUL 5!
puted by his brethren to ask the saint's blessing. One
aaks, on the suppomtion that the Greek la the original,
why St. Jerome changes devils into centaurs and
satyrs. It is not surprising that stories of St. Anthony
meeting f^ulous beasts in his mysterious journey
should spring up among people with whom belief in
such creatures Imgered on, aa belief in fairies does^to
bread, St. Anthony being sent to fetch the cloak
S'vea him by "Athanasiua the bishop" to bury St.
ttul's body in, St. Paul's death before he returned,
the grave dug by lions, are among the ramiliar legends
of the Life. It only remains to add that belief in the
existence of St, Paul seems
to have existed iguite inde-
pendently of the Life.
Beada the irricinEi at Bidbi Knii
Latin. Id yaurn. if Theolag. Stiutiri
=f- "'"
151), vhile BliU incTuuiut to hii oLc
opLoiaa. hfi lAyd that «tar rBHdinf
fauod in Analad. Boi.. XI, 5fl3),
maiaUiaina it wu the oHginai.
FuiiaiiiHH in ITSO (.Acta Siacera
S. Pavll, tCc) publiihsd, aa Cha
oricinal. uuthar Qreeli version,
F. J. Bacchus.
PmU tb* Simple, Saint.
—The story of Paul, aa Pal-
ladius heard it from men who
had known St. Anthony, wos
as follows: Paul was a hus-
bandman, very simple and
guileless. One day, on dis-
covering the infidelity of his
wife, he set off to be a c
the door of St, Anthony'
"PaHadius", but the atmosphere is different. In "Pal-
ladius" St. Anthony is living quite alone; inthe"Bis-
toria" he is akind of abbot of hermits. In " Pslladius"
heisreluctanttoaccept Paul;in the"Historia" he in-
vites him to be a monk. In"pBlladiue"St. AnthoDv's
purpose is to show Paul just what a hermit's life really
WBs; in the "Historia" he eubjccte him to the i&ther
conventional kinds of testa which any abbot might ap-
pl^ to any postulant. The ditference seems to amount
chjefly to this; — "Palladius" apparentlj^ places the
storv in the time before, and the Historia after St.
Antnony began to have disciples. For different
anecdotes concerning Paul
tjie reader may be referred to
Butler's "Lives of the Saints"
or to Tillemont.
Bdtleb, Laatia/ »ut. of FaOa-
h!k,.VI1,'im: Bvaat.Paradutaf
F. J. Bacchus.
aonk. He knocked at
— J, This is the substance
of the dialogue which ensued: A. "What do you
want7" P. "To be a monk." A. " It is quite impos-
sible for you, a man of sixty. Be content with the
life of a labourer, giving thanks to God." P. "What^
soever you teach me I will do." A. "If a monk you
must be, go to a cenobium. I Lve here alone only eat-
ing once in five days." With this St. Anthony shut the
door, and Paul remained outside. On the fourth day
St. Anthony, fearing Imt he should die, took him in.
He set him to work weaving a rope out of palm
leaves, made him undo what he had done, and do it
again. When it was evening he asked him if he was
ready to eat. Just as St. Anthony liked, was the re-
Ely. St. Anthony produced some crusts, took one
imself, and gave the old man three. Then followed a
long grace — one Psalm said twelve times over, and as
many prayers. When each had eat«n a crust Paul was
told to take another. P. " If you do, I will^ if you don't,
I won't," A, "I am a monk, and one is enough for
me," P. " It is enough for me, for I am going to be a
monk," Then came twelve prayers and as many
PsalniiS, followed by a little sleep till midnight, and
then again psalms were recited till it was day. Fi-
nallv Paul got what he wanted. After hehadlived with
Anthony some months, the saint gave him a cell for
himself some miles from his own. In a year's time the
grace of healing and casting out devils was bestowed
upon Paul. Then foUows a story of how he was able to
exorcize a fiend over whom even St. Anthony had no
Pauliu DUconiu, also
called Casinenbis, Levita,
and Warnefridi, historian,
b. at Friuli about 720: d. 13
April, probably 799. He was
a descendant of a noble Lom-
bard family, and it is not un-
likely that he was educated
at the court of King Rachis
at Pavia, under the direction
of Flavianus the grammarian.
In 763 we find him at the
court of Duke A re his at
Bencvento, after the collapse
of the Lombard kingdom, a
monk in the monastery of
Monte Cassino, and in 7S2 in
the suite of Charlemagne,
from whom he obtaineaby
means of an elegy the release
of a brother taken prisoner
in 776 in tmnsequence of the Friuli insurrection.
After 7S7 he was again at Monte Cossino, where
in all probabilitv he died. His first literary work,
evidently wliile ne was still at Benevento, and done
at the request of the Duchess Adelperga, was the
"Historia Romana", on amplified and extended
version of the Roman history of Eutropius, whose
work he continued independently in Books XI to XVI,
up to the time of Justinian. 'This compilation, now
of no value, but during the Middle Ages diffused in
many manuscript editions and frequently consulted,
was edited^ with the work of Eutropius oy Droysen
rL THl BlBHIt.
of Metz, he compiled a history of the bishops of
Meti "Liber deepiscopis Mett«nsibus", or " Liber de
ordine et numero episcoporum in civitate Mettenu"
extending to 706, in which he gives a circumstantial
account of the family and ancestors of Charlemagne,
especially Amulf (P. L., XCV, 699-722).
The most important historical work which has come
down to us from his pen is the histon^ of the Lombards,
" Historia gcntis Langobsidonim. Libri VI", the beet
of the many editions of this work being that of Beth-
mann and Waiti in " Mon. Germ, Hist. ; Script, renim
Langobardamm", (1878), 45-187; school ed. (Han-
over, 1878) ; Ger. tr. Abel (Beriin, 1849: 2nd ed., Leip-
zig, 1878): Faubert (Paris, 1603) ; It. tr. Viviani (Udine,
1826). Despite many defects, eepecially in the chro-
nology, the unfinished work, embracing onl^ the
periM between 568 and 744, is still of the highest
importance, setting forth as it does in lucid style and
PAULU8
592
PAJFUl
Bimple diction the most important facts, and pre-
serving for us many ancient m^^hs and popular tra-
ditions replete with an enthusiastic interest in the
changing fortunes of the Lombard people. That this
work was in constant use until well into the fifteenth
centuiy is evident from the numerous manuscript
copies, excerpts, and continuations extant. In ad-
dition to these historical works, Paulus also wrote a
commentary on the Rule of St. Benedict, and a widely-
used collection of homiUes entitled ''Homiliarium'',
both of which have been preserved only in revised
form. Several letters, epitaphs, and poems are still
extant, and have been eoitea by Dtimmler in ''Mon.
Germ. Hist.: Poetse lat. sevi Carolini'', I, 1881.
Bbthmann, Patdita DuieonuB leben und aenriften und die g^-
eehichttchreUmng der Langobarden in Archiv der GeteUaehafl fUr
dUer deuUdie Oeschichiakunde, X (Hanover, 1851) ; Wattcitbacb,
DetdMcfdafuU GMchiehttquelUn, I (Berlin, 1803), 163-71 ; Potthast.
BUdiotheoa hutOriea, II (Berlin, 1896), 898-905.
Patricius Schlageb.
Paulus Venetus, theologian of the Hermits of the
Order of Saint Augustine, b. according to the chron-
iclers of his order, at Udine, about 1368; d. at Venice,
15 June, 1428. He made hiis religious profession in the
Convent of Saint Stephen, Venice, whence the name,
Venetus. In 1390 he is said to have been sent to Ox-
ford for his studies in theology, but returned to ItsJy,
and finished his course at Padua. He lectured in the
University at Padua during the first quarter of the
fifteenth century. His writings, aside from any ques-
tion of their present worth, show a wide knowleage and
interest in the scientific problems of his time. Besides
the usual lectures on the four books of '^ Sentences",
•sermons, and instructions, he wrote ''De Conceptione
B. Marine Virginis", '*De quadratura circuli", "De
circulis componentibus mundum". " Logica parva et
logica magna''. This. last, also known as ''Logica
Duplex", was largely used as a textbook during the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries, and was several
times reprinted. Paulus was one of the theologians
called to Rome in 1427, by Martin V, to take comi-
zance of the charges brought against St. Bemardine
of Siena, occasioned by the preaching of the "new
devotion" to the Holy Name.
Lantebi, Posirema $aeiaa sex religumia AuauetiniawB (Tolen-
tino, 1858); Abpx, Pantheon Augiutinianum (Genoa, 1709).
Francis E. Toubscher.
Pavia, Diocese of (Papia). in Lombardy, North-
em Italy. It is situated in a tertile plain; the city is
connected with Milan by the Navigho canal. It was
once famous for the manufacture of organs. Of its
many medieval towers, which gave to it the name of
"city of the hundred towers", few remain; a covered
bridge dating from the fourteenth century is worthy of
note. The cathedral was built by Rocchi and Omodeo
(1488) on the site of the churches of San Stefano and
-Santa Maria del Popolo; it contains paintings by
Crespi, Gatti, and others; a beautiful silver reliquary
of the Holy Thorns, and a carved pulpit by Zanella; the
altar of St. Syrus, in the crypt, is oy Orseolo. The
Church of San Pietro in Ciel d Oro is the former cathe-
dral, restored in the twelfth century; it receives its
present name from the golden background of its mosa-
ics; the body of St. Augustine is preserved in this
church; King Luitprand brought it here from Sardinia
and concealed it. It was r^iscovered in 1695 in a
casket of lead and silver, within a marble enclosure;
there were lengthy proceedings for its identification;
the marble tomb is an exquisite production of the four-
teenth century, ordered by the prior Bonifacio, of the
family of the marouesses Bottigello; it is adorned with
60 bas-reliefs ana 95 statuettes. Boethius is also
buried there. Other churches are: Santa Maria del
Carmine (1376), a Gothic structure, contains beauti-
ful paintings; San Francesco (1260), also Gothic;
Santa Maria di Canepanova (1492), planned by Bra-
mante, an octagonal building with a cupola and beau-
tiful frescoes, contains the mausoleum of the Duke of
Brunswick; San Teodoro, Lombaiti period, under its
altar are St. Theodore's relics: San Michele Maogiore
(seventh century), where the kings were crowned^ the
most notable monument of Lombard architecture,
contains a crucifix of the eighth centuiy; San Marino,
built by Kmg Astolfo, and restored m 1481 ; Sts. Primo
and Feliciano; Santa Maria in Bethlem, a Lombatd
structure: San Salvatore (seventh century), contains
tombs or several Lombard kings; San Lanfranoo
(1237), contains the tomb of its patron saint, made by
order of Cardinal Pallavicino in 1498. Outside the
city is the famous Certosa, founded by Gian Galeazio
Visconti; its fagade (1491) reflects the Lombard style,
but with a marvellous variety of ornament and sculp-
ture; it is divided into three naves by Gothic pillan:
the baldachina of the altars of the side chapels are all
of costly mosaics; the paintings are mostly by Bor-
gognone, although there are some by Perugino, Man-
tegna, Pordenone, and others: the choir steJls are of
inlaid work; the tomb of Gian Galeazzo and the figures
taken from the tombs of Lodovico il Moio and of his
wife are the most beautiful productions of Lombard
sculpture.
Among the secular buildings are: the Castello Vi&-
conteo (1360), despoiled by Louis XII, who carried
away its Hbrary : the university, which wrew out of the
grammar schools and the schools of Koman and of
Lombard law, enlarged by Maria Theresa and Joseph
II. with several collepes connected with it, via. the
Ghislieri college (St. Pius V). the Borromeo college (St.
Charles), the Gandini college (St. Augustine), and
others; and the Museo Civico has a picture gallery, a
library, and a collection of copper engravings.
Pavia is the ancient Ticinum. founded by the Laevi
and Marici, two Ligurian peoples; at a date not well
determined it came under Roman power, and was
given to the Papia tribe, whence the name of Papia,
which, however, does not occur before the time ot
Paulus Diaconus. In a. d. 271, Emperor Aurelian
inflicted there a decisive defeat upon the Alamanni; the
city was destroyed by Alaric (452); Odoacer, however,
transformed it into a stronghold, and^stationed there
his Heruli and Rugii; Theodoric built a royal palace at
Pavia, also an amphitheatre, therms etc. Through-
out the Gothic War, the city was held by the Goths,
although they were defeated in a battle near there in
538. Pavia resisted Alboin, King of the Lombards,
for three years, and then became the capital of the
Lombard Kingdom, and when it was taken from the
Lombards by Charlemagne (battles of Pavia of 754,
755, and 774), it remain^ the capital of the Kinsdom
of Italy, where the diets of that realm were held. In
the tenth century, the Hungarians brought devasta-
tion upon the city on several occasions, especially in
924.
The schools of Pavia were famous in the time of
Charlemagne, who took from there the grammarian
Petrus Pisanus ; in 825 a palatine schoolwas estab-
lished in the monastery oi San Agostino, under the
Irishman Dungal. In 901 Berengarius besieged Louis
of Provence in Pavia. When Emperor St. Heniy
II, after defeating Arduin of Ivrea in 1004, was
crowned King of Italy at Pavia, the citizens roee
against him, and set £u:e to the town. At his death
they destroyed the imperial palace, and resisted Con-
rad the Salian for two years. The republican Govern-
ment of the city b^an at this time, out the period of
continual wars against neighbouring cities continued:
Milan (1061, 1100), Piacenza, Tortona (1109); Pavia,
however, was almost always in alliance with Cremona.
On the other hand, it gave assistance to Milan in 1110
against Emperor Henry V, and also in the war of
Como, in 1127; but from the be^nnin^ of the reign of
Barbarossa, it became strongly imperialist, while the
emperors were prodigal in b^towing rights and privi-
leges upon the city, e. g. allowing it to elect its own
i
PATU
593
PAVU
Mnsuls. The coins of Psvia were in great demand,
whileitsoKricultureanditaindustriee flourished. The
city waa able in war-time to arm 15,000 infantry and
3000 mounted troope. Pavia remaned GhiSelline
even under Frederick II (1227), and in 1241 its forces
defeated the Pontifical Crusaders under Gregorio da
Montelongo. In the second half of the tlurteenth cen-
tury contentions for the lordship of the city arose be-
tween the LangoBco and the Beccaria families; and
this made it possible for Mattea Visconti (1315) to oc-
cupy the town, for which, however, the marquesses of
Montferrat also contendnl, until Galeazto II Visconti
in 1359 suppressed the brief popular government that
was eetabUahed by the Augustinitui preacher, Jaccpo
BuMolari (1350-59). From that time on, Pavia be-
longed to the Duchy of Milan; the Sforaas, however,
gave it a Government of its own. In 1499 Louis XIl
took the city, and thereafter severely punished an in-
surrection of the town against him. In 1524 Pavia
was again besieged unsuccessfully by the French; and,
in the following year, the battle that decided the Span-
I dom
I of
Milan was fought
there, for the taking
of Pavia by Lautrec
in 1527 had no impor-
The town underwent
another siege by the
French in 1655. It
was taken by the Aus-
triana in 1706, and
again by the French in
1733 and in 1745; tbe
latter, however, were
obliged to leave it to
the Austrians in 1746,
and Pavia followed the
fortunes of Lombardy.
In 1786, Joseph II
established there one
ailed
Of 1
"general
suppressed in 1761
Pavia is the birthplace of: the historian Liutprand,
Bishop of Cremona; St. Bernardo Balbi, a collector of
decretals; the paint«r Andreino d'Eklesia, a cont«m-
porary of Giotto; the canon Zanella, inventor of the
Daasoon. The Gospel was brought to this city by St.
Syrus, according to legend a disciple of St. Pet«r; but
according to the martymlogy of Ado, on the author- yi
ity of an Aquileian martyrology, he was sent by St. 11
Hermafcoraa, first Bishop of Aquileia. Admitting ~'
that Evuntius, present at the Council of Aquileia in
381, was the sixth Bishop of Pavia, it may well be that
this diocese dates from the second half of the third cen-
tury; among its other bishops
(884), obtained the use of the croee and of the wbit«
horse; Pietro Canepanova (978), chancellor of Otto
II, became Pope JoBn XIV; Guliehno (1073), followed
the antipope Guibert, and was deposed; Guido Pipari
(1100), more of a warrior than a prelate; Pietro Tos-
cano (1148), a Cistercian, friend of St. Bernard and of
St. Thomaa k Becket, expelled by Barbaroesa, who
held the Conciliabulum of Pavia against Alexander III
in 1159; St. Lanfranc (1180) and St. Bernardo Balbi
(1198), famous jurists and canonists; St. Fulco Scotti
(1216); Guido de Langosco (1266), also a canonist;
lanardo Tocconi, O.F., administrator of the diocese
from 1311 to 1320 and imprisoned as a suspect of
heresy, but acquitted; Gulielmo Centuaria (1386), O.
Min., notfd for his apostolic leal; Francesco Picco-
pasio (1427), took a^peat part in the Council of Basle:
Giovamii Castiglioni (1464), became cardinal, and
served on severtd occasions as pontifical legate; Car-
dinal Jacopo Ammannati (1460), distinguished him-
self in the defence of the Marches against Sigismondo
Malatesta, also a protector of belles-lettres; Cardinal
AscaiuoSfona(1479);
Cardinal Francesco
Alidosio (1505), killed
at Ravenna in 1511;
Gian M. del Monto
(1520), became Pope
Juhus III ; [ppolito
de Rubeis (1564), re-
stored the cathedral,
founded the seminary,
and introduced the
reforms of the Coun-
cil of Trent; he had
disputes with St.
Charles Borromeo in
regard to metropolitan
rights, and later be-
came cardinal; St.
Alessandro Sauli
(1591-93); Jacopo
Antonio Morigia
(1701); Lui^ Toai
(1822), who gave t
i St. L. ,-.,-- -
providential blessine to Italy in the time of Ricimer,
Odoacer, and Theodoric; St, Maximus (496); Enno-
dius (511), a famous orator and poet, decorated by St.
Hormisdas with the pallium.
After the Lombard occupation, there was also an
Arian bishop at Pavia; he had the church o( San Euse-
bio as cathedral; the last one of these was St. Anas-
tasius, who became a Catholic and sole bishop of the
see. After him were: St. Damianua, Biscoesia (680),
author of a letter against the Monothelites; Armen-
tarius (seventh century) who contended with the
Archbishop of Milan regarding metropolitan jurisdic-
tion; St. Petrus (726), a relative of King Aripert, and
therefore exiled in his youth by Grimoald; St, Theo-
donis (745), exiled for unknown reasons, returned
only after the victories of Charlemagne; Waldo (791),
formerly Abbot of Reichenau; St. Joannes (801);
Joannes II (874), to whom John VIII gave the pal-
lium, thereafter ^ven to his successors; Joannes III
XI.— 38
prevented by the new Government from taking pi
sion of his diocese; Lucido M. Parrochi (1871-77), be-
came a cardinal and Vicar Apostolic of Rome,
The councils of Pavia were held in the following
;ars: 850, 855, 876, 879, 889, 997, 998, 1018, 1046,
114, 1128, 1423, which last was transferred tat«r to
Pisa.
The diocese is a Euffragan of Milan; it has 82 par-
ishes, 110,300 inhabitants, 4 reliraous houses of men,
and 19 of women, 2 educational eatabUshments for
boys, 4 for girls, and 1 tri-weekiy publication.
Ctrni-imTi. U CSianrilalia. X; Cinom, UimorH Uor, di
~ ' (1TS2): MxRBOM. Dt tceltno d tpiicopM Patntniibm
"■ -■- -siiMBidpi. Uoftii«i(P«vUiuid
1757): Mono
U. Bbnioni,
UNivEBBriT OF Pavia. — Pavia was, even in Ro-
man times, a literary centre (Ennodius); aa the capi-
tal of the Lombard kingdom it had its "grammar"
schools, and Emperor Lothair erected a "central"
school there (825). In the tenth and twelfth centu-
ries there were professors of dialectic and law as well aa
of literature, and, although the authority of Boli^na
was then incontestable, tne opinions of the "Papien-
ses" were cited with respect. One of these was a cer-
tain Lanfranco. Another Lanfranco, who died bisht^
of the city, had been professor of arts and tJieolo^.
Until 1361 there was no Sludium Generait at Pavia;
whoever sou^t legal honours went to Bok^na. There
were other schools, however, at tbe bepimins of the
fourteentit century. In 1361 Galeaiio II obtained
PAVILLON
594
from Charles IV a studium generale with the privileges
accorded to the most renowned universities. I^mo-
tions were made by the bishop, who issued the licence
to teach. Galeazso forbade nis subjects to study in
any other university. In 1389 Boniface IX confirmed
its rights and privileges. In 1398 it was transferred to
Piacenza, and from 1404 to 1412 it was suspended on
account of continued warfare. Re-established by
Filippo Maria Visconti in 1412, it excelled in Roman
Law, soon surpassing Bologna.
Among the professors of the first epoch may be men-
tioned:'£e jurisconsults Cristoforo Castiglioni {legum
moncarca); Castiglione Branda, afterwards cardinal,
founder of the CoUegio Branda; Catone Sacco.
founder of a college for poor students; Giasone del
Maino the Magnificent (aV century) ; Aiidrea Alciato
(from 1536); Gasp. Visconti, afterwards cardinal; Fi-
lippo Portalupi, first professor of criminology (1678);
Ajit, Merenda (1633) ; the canonists Francesco Bossi,
afterwards Bishop of Como, and Trivulzio Scaramuc-
cia, afterwards cardinal. The first teacher of medicine
was Augusto Toscani (from 1370); in 1389 the chair of
surgery was founded. Other celebrated professors
were Giovanni Dondi, who constructed the clock in
the Torrione of Padua; Marsiglio S. Sofia (medicina
monarca, XIV century); Francesco Vittuone (1442-
43), philosopher and physician; Benedetto da Norcia
(1455); Cxerolamo Cordano, naturalist and astrologer
(d. 1576) ; Gabriele Carcano, first professor of anatomy.
Lectures in astrology (astronomy) were held from 1374.
The first to teach mathematics was Francesco Pella^
cani (1425); in the seventeenth century the professors
of mathematics were often chosen from the religious,
e. g. the Servites Fil. Ferrari (1646), and Gio. Batt.
Diiisiano, who first taught military architecture
(1645) and assisted in the defence of the city during
the French siege of 1655.
Philosophical branches were tau^t from 1374, the
professors of which also taught medicine; in the seven-
teenth and ei^teenth centuries the professors were
mostly religious. . The study of rhetoric and the
classics began in 1389, and in 1399 a chair of Dante
was instituted and was held by Filippo da Reggio.
Lorenzo ViJla, Francesco Filelfo, Giorgio Valla (first
professor of Greek literature, 1466), and Demetrios
Chalcocondylas (1492) shed lustre on the university
during the Renaissance. Hebrew was first taught by
Benedetto di Spagna (1491); Bernardo Regazzola
(1500), the Antiquary, was one of the founders of
archaeology. The first professor of theology was the
Franciscan Pietro Filargo, afterwards Alexander V;
after this many of the professors were Augustinians, as
Bonifacio Bottigella; Alberto Crespi (1432), promi-
nent at the Council of Basle; and Blessed Giovanni
Porzio, author of many commentaries on the Bible.
Others were Francesco della Rovere (1444), after-
wards Sixtus IV; Cardinal Gaetano (1498-99); the
Orientalist Enrico della Porta, O.P. (1751).
The fame of the university diminished greatly from
1600. In 1763 Maria Theresa reorganized the courses,
especially by increasing the number of chairs and add-
ing various institutes and collections. But the theo-
logical faculty then became a source of anti-Roman-
ism through the professors Tamburini and Zola; in
1859 it was suppressed Among the professors of this
second epoch were Gandolfi; the rjrnsecologist Porro;
the physiologist Mantegazza; Cesare Lombroso;
Golgi, award^ the Nobel prize for his studies on the
nervous system; in jurisprudence: Giovanni Silva;
Luigi Cremani (1775) ; Domenico Vario; Romagnosi,
the reformer of public law; in the natural sciences: the
Abbate Spailanzani (1769); and Alessandro Volta; in
mathematics: the Jesuit Boscovich; Mascheroni; Co-
dazza, renowned for his researches on heat and mag-
netism; in philosophy: the Olivetan Baldinotti (1783);
and Ruggero Bou^i; in literature: Vincenzo Monti:
Uco Foacolo; aod the Orientalist Hager. Connected
with the university are a museum of mineralogy, zo-
ology, and comparative anatomy, cabinets of physics,
of normal anatomv, and pathology, of physiology, and
experimental patnology, various climes, a chemical
laboratory, and a cabinet of numismatics and archieol*
ogy. There are ei^teen burses for graduate study.
Two colleges — Ghislieri and Borromeo — are under
university supervision. A school of applied engineer-
ing and a school of pharmacy are also connected wiUi
the university. In 1910 there were 50 professors hold-
ing 102 different chairs, besides 1(X) tutors; the stu-
dents numbered 1507.
MetnorU « doeumenti per .la ^oria ddT Uniwerntd di Pawia
(Pavia, 1878); DcNirLB, Die UnivereitMen dee Mitteialtera, I, 572.
aqq.; Cenni etcriei euUa R, Unieereitd di Pavia (Pavia, 1873).
U. Beniqni.
PaTlllon, Nicolas, Bishop of Alet, b. at Paris,
1597; d. at Alet. 1677. lie joined the community of
St-Lazare, founded by St. Vincent de Paul, and, for a
time, devoted himself to charities and preaching.
His zeal and eloquence caused Richelieu to appoint
him to the See of Alet. The thirty-seven years of his
episcopate were filled with ceaseless labours for the re-
ligious and moral improvement of his diocese; visita-
tion of parishes, holding of svnods. foundation of
schools, etc. An exaggerated iciea of nis episcopal re-
sponsibilities caused him to oppose pope and king. He
Vras one of the four bishops who refused to sign the
formulary imposed by Alexander VII, on the plea that
the pope cannot pronounce on facts but only on rights.
When Louis XIV commanded submission to the papal
order, Pavilion in "Lettre au roi" (1664) declined to
reco^ze his interference. The royal attempt at ex-
tending to all the provinces of France the so-called
droit & rigcde found in Pavilion a sturdy opponent.
He spumed royal threats and ecclesiastical censures
and appealed to the pope against both the King of
France and the Metropolitan of Narbonne.
His attitude against Alexander VII won him the ad-
miration of Port-Ro}ral. Alet became the Mecca of the
Jansenists and the bishop imbibed the errors of Jan-
senism. From the data of a contemporary pamphlet
(''Factum de Messire Vincent Ragot", Paris, 1766)
Toreilles shows the strange effects of Jansenist princi-
ples on every branch of Pavilion's otherwise zealous
administration and on his relations with the nobility,
the clergy, the regulars, and the peasantry. He wrote
"Rituel d^Alet" (Paris, 1666), condemned by Clem-
ent IX, and ''Ordonnances et status synodaux" (Paris,
1675).
Pabm, Vie de M. Pavittan (Paria. 1738); Sn-BBXiTB, PWi-
Royal (Paria, 1900), index, a. v.; Maiuoic, Hietoire de FBgUee,
III (Paria, 1008). 369; Torullbs, Nieoiae Patilhn in Rnw dm
CUrgi francaie (Oct., 1902).
J. F. SOLLIEB.
Pawn Shops. See Montbs Pistaits.
Pax (OscuLATORiuM, Tabula pacis, Lapis pacib),
a tablet to be kissed. The primitive usag;e in the
Church was for the ''holy kiss to be given promiscu-
ously. Later (Const. Apostol., VIII, xxix) men of the
laity saluted men with the kiss, while women kissed
women. This latter manner of giving the peace
among the laity seems to have been maintained tul Uie
thirteenth century, when a substitute for the actual
kiss was introduced in the shape of a small wooden
tablet, or plate of metal {aaculaloriumy deosaUaiarium.
asaer ad pacem etc.) bearing an image of the Blessed
Virgin, of the titular of the church, or other saint, or
more frequently of the crucifixion. The earliest notice
of these instruments is in the records of Knglish coun-
cils of the thirteenth century (Scudamore, ''Notit.
Eucharist.'^ 438). This departure from the prevail-
ing usage is attributed by Cuxlinal Bona (Rer. Liturg.,
II, xvi, $7) to the Franciscans. Kissed by the celebrant
and cleansed with a linen cloth, the tablet or plate was
carried to others to be likewise kissed by them. Thia
PIX 5
eeremonv still obtsiiu in low maases (Rubr. Mis., X
n. 3), wuen the peace is thus given to prelates &na
princes, not to others except in rare cases established
By custom. The itcolyt« or server kneeling at the
right of the oelebrant presents the tablet. The cele-
brant kissing it
"Pax t»-
; thew
cum"; tni
answers: "Et cum
spiritutuo". The
serverthen carries
the instrument in
turn to those who
peace, saying to
each: "Fax te-
eponds, "Et cum
spiritu tuo", and
genuflects.
«iiLH in Dia.
Chrut. AiUui.,
15 PiZHilfT
stances of the use of the word Pax. In Christian ejA-
graphy there is a variety of fonnulte : pax ; in pace ; pax
tecum; vivos in pace; reguiescat in pace; pax Chnsti
tecum sit; anima dulcissuna requiescss in pace; dor-
mit in pace; in locum refriserii, lucis et pacis (from the
formula in the Mass at the Memento of the Dead).
See Inbcbiptionb, Eablt Chsistun; Le Blant, "In-
scriptions chr^t.de la Gaule" I 364, ot«.; Northcote,
"Epitaphsof the Catacombs'' (London, 1878), V, and
bibliogrtmby.
la uddiuon ui tba woiki luid urticle* eilvd in chg tait, eonnit:
PxTDK Dahiah, u opuKulum On Domitut Vabitaim in J*. L.,
CXLV. 13*-. Zacciux, Onomtuticon. a. w, Pu •abii ud Saht-
bMa tp^coratii: BOHA. Rerum titiirg., Ill, 12, 88 iqil.; Bum,
Did. o/CAritl. >«ifl„». y. Poi (of. DMtniu BoMKum); Dt dig-
lerbert™. in pf L., * XVIlTstW.Ind CXxJlX.
2M: M*«rtK« " "'
Spkemtridv lil
tiaw. 104, 40
A. B, Meehan.
Orattdiriftin (Colof^E, iSOT)
cum}, like the
other liturgical
salutations (e. g.
Dominua vobis-
eum), is of Scrip-
tural origin. The
Gospels contain
such forms as;
"veniet pax ves-
P*a (w Tss XV CaNTCBT tra", "paxvestra
ClTiUiB) revertetur ad
tob" (Matt., X, 13), "Pax huic domui" (Luke, x, 5),
"Pax vobis" (Luke, xxiv, 36; John, xx, 21, 26). The
salutation, "Gratia voliii et pax" or "Gratia miseri-
cordia et pax", is the opening formula of most of the
Epistles of St. Paul and of St, Peter, and occurs also
in those of St. John as well as in the Apocalypse, The
formula was quoted from the Old Testoment by
Our Lord and His Apostles (cf. especially "Paivobis-
cum", "Pax tecum'' Gen., xliii, 23; Judges, vi, 23),
and was thus naturally preserved in the litui^ and in
Christian epigraphy as a memorial of Apostolic times.
Like the Dominua vobiicum, it was first used in the
liturgy (in the form of Pax vobis) by the bishiMi in wel-
coming the faithful at the beginning of the M sss be-
fore the Collect or the Oraiio. When the CanfiUcr, In-
frotl,Giori(iinezceisM were added at a later period, the
Pax vobU or the Dominus vobiscum was jireaerved.
The form Pax voba is now employed by bishops and
prelates only — Dominui vobtieum being used by
priests— at the first Collect. Hence the Dominui vo-
biaeum became the ordinary introduction to all the
orations and most of the prayers. The Greeks have
preserved the Pax omnibus or Pax vo&ucum. There
wBs formerly a certain rivalry between the two tor-
mule. Pax itohit and Dominut vobUeum, and some coun-
cils (notably that of Braga in 563) ordained that both
bishops and priests should employ the same form of
salutation (for the texts, see the bibliography). Be-
sidee this ^iscopal or sacerdotal salutation, the words
Pax tecum, Pax vobit, or Pax tobiscum are used in the
Liturgy at the kiss of peace. On such occasions the
Litur^ contains prayers or collects ad pacem (at.
Kiss; Cabrol in "Diet, d'archfiol. et de litui^e", s. v.
"Baiser de Paix", where all references are pven). In
the Ambrosian Liturgy, at the end of the Mass, the
Epie are dismissed with the words; "Ite in pace"
"Auctarium Soleamense", 9S). Dom Mart^ne
. dt. in bibliogn^ihy, III, 171, 174) givw other in-
Ooniniu Vabua.n.V. lU; Cin
V. Aetlamatimi. For the fonmila fat
iTal episrmpby. of, iNscmipnoNA. Eari.t
' Aalamaliimn u. GibtU da aAeArtttl.
trraoac/mfien w^iatnK, iSOT^; iDEir. La acfJowuiinu d€M tpi-
lapJut tAfil. <fi CanatuiliitltipniTa liiyro. fiourlttdlfunlMiBtVt
Cimirit tdmlijiipu dtt Catkatiqua (Fribouri, ISSS), I13-2S;
Stito. NMionrt ardiaet. chrut., 11, ffpiarapAia, M nq,; Cabbol.
La priira pour Itt morU in /{out d'liBoliwttwiu (IS Sipt., 1909)1
Ideu, Lim dt la firiirt anJigu, 87, 69,
FXHNAND Cabroi.,
Pu Tocum. See Kisa.
Pu VobU. See Pax in tbe LrrunaT,
Payoru, Masiano, b. 10 Oct,, 1769, at luca.
Island of Majorca; d, 28 April, 1823, He received the
habit of St. Francis at Palma, 6 Sept,, 1784; left Spain
in Feb., 1793, to join the College of San Fernando,
Mexico, which provided mianonaries for the Indian
missions in California. He was sent to Monterey and
stationed at San Carlos, 1796-1798; at Soledad, 1798-
1803; at San Diego, 1803-1804; at Purisima Concep-
cion, 1804-1823. From July, 1816, to April, 1820,
Father Payeras held the offices of vretidtntt of the mis-
sione and vicario iora/MO of the Bisbop of Sonora, to
whose jurisdiction California belonged. In 1819 the
Collie of San Fernando elected him comiMrio-pre-
/«cto of the missions, in which capacity he, at various
times, visited the twenty miswons then existingfrom
San Diego to San Rafael, a distance of more than six
hundred miles. The lealous prelate also headed vari-
ous expeditions to the territory of the savages for the
purpose of findiD|( suitable sites for new missions. Six
months before his death he accompanied an expedi-
tion to the Russian settlements in the wilds of Sonoma
CouDty, and thereby most probably hsstened his de-
mise. In 1819 Ft. Payeras received the thanks of the
King of Spsin for his services during the Bouchard re-
volt. While in charge of Purisima he compiled a cate-
chism in die language of the Indians, which was put to
use but never published. "There was no friar of bet-
ter and more evenly balanced abibty", says H. H.
Bancroft, "It was impossible to quarrel with him.
He had extraordinary business ability, was a clear and
forcible, as well as a voluminous writer, and withal a
man of great strength of mind and firmness of charac-
t«r".
Ba,n)x Barbara Viutoi Artkittt; Jfiinm Riceti* of Puntima
--- TSt Francitaiiu in Califtmiia (Bu-
Pu, La. See La Paz, Diocbsb of.
TIjaalaj, Pbteb, famous Hungarian ecclemastic of
the ssventeenth centu^; d. 19 March, 1637. He was
bom of noble blood. His parents were Calvinists; his
stepmother, who was a Catholic, turned the boy^s
3iirit towards the Catholic Church. After making his
ementaiy studies in NagyvteKl, where two Jesuit!
PAZZZ 596 PIACK
exercised great influence over him, he went to the crowned with such great success that we may say that
Jesuit college in Kolozsvdr. At the age of thirteen he he was bom in l^testant, but died in Catholic,
became a Catholic, and at seventeen entered the Jesuit Hungary,
novitiate. Proceeding to Rome for his higher studies, Fbaknoi Vilmos, Pdtmdny Ptur ia kora (P. Pdamdny and ku
he rtu^ed for four yea« under Bellan^ After- ^'^^^ ll^^-^i^jti^^it^i^'Si^^J^
wards he taught philosophv and theology m Gratz, o/ BeUarmine, Kmbs, 190S).
and in 1601 returned to Hungary. He successively A. Bangha.
became Provost of Tur6c, Bishop of Nyitra, in 1616 ©.,_i xji^^^ jut.r.^^^^^ ^^> fl*T«« o^ tlt.-^
Archbishop of Esstergom, and lastly Cai^al Primate i^^*"' ^^^ Magdalen db , Saint. See Mart
of all Hungary. Pdzm^y engaffi^ in a literary war- J**agdalen.
fare with Stephen Magyary, a Protestant preacher, Peace Congresses. I. Early Hibtort. — The
who in a book entitled "The causes of the country's genesis of the idea of a meeting of representatives of
ruin" ^Az orsz^kban val6 sok romlisoknak okai- different nations to obtain by peacefiU arbitrament a
r61), published in 1602, declared the Catholic reli^on settlement of differences has been traced to the year
to be the principal cause. PAzmAny answered him m a 1623 in modem history, to a French monk, Em^ric
work entitled ''Reply to Stephen Magyary" (Felelet Cruc^, who wrote a work entitled "The New Cyneas",
Magyary IstvAnnak), proving that the Protestant re- a discourse showing the opportunities and the means
ligion, and not the Catholic, was the cause. He trans- for establishing a general peace and liberty of con-
lated the "Imitation of Christ" and also compiled a science to all the world and addressed to the monarch
prayer-book, still in popular use. In 1605 appeared and the sovereign princes of the time. He proposed
^*Ten arguments proving the falsity of the present that a city, preferably Venice, should be selected
science"; in 1609, "Five famous letters to Peter Al- where all Uie rowers liad ambassadors and that there
vinczy"; in 1613 his great theological and apologetical should be a universal union, including all peoples,
work, "Hodoegus, or Guide to God's truths" (Sodoe- He suggested careful arrangement as to priority, giv-
Kus, vagy Isteni igazs^ra vez^rld, Kalauz). The ing the first place to the pope. Two years after this
first part of the last work was dogmatic, the second publication, appeared inLatm the work of Hugo Gro-
part polemical. With unanswerable arguments he tius "On the Right of War and Peace", pleading for a
showed the truth of the Catholic religion, whose vie- mitigation of some of the barbarous usages of war.
tory in Hungary he secured by this work. Hence- WiUiam Penn, the founder of Pennsylvania, had a
forth Protestantism was reduced to personal recrim- plan for the establishment of a "European Dyet,
inations and force of arms. In 1636 he published Parliament or Estates". He was followed by other
his sermons, which became a model for the priest- writers of different nationalities,
hood. Immediately after the dethronement of Napoleon
P^miLny belongs to the first rank of preachers, his the First a congress of the great European powers
discourses being notable for thdr logic, rather than met in Vienna, but it could hardly be called a peace
Zrinyi,
N^asdy, Rdk6czy etc.). These families spent most emperor. From time to time differences between
of their money in converting the people of the lower individual nations or the citizens of one nation and the
classes, whom the Reformation had seduced from the government of another have been settled by arbitra-
true Faith. As archbishop, P^bm^y put into effect the tion, but the idea of a World Congress to bring about
decrees of the Council of Trent. He introduced the a reduction of armament and a universal peace ia of
Miasale Romanunif and was the great apostle of the eel- recent origin.
ibacy of the clergy. He also displayed great activity In 1826, a congress composed of representatives
in founding schools, building many seminaries for the of Spanish-American countries was planned bv Bolivar
education of poor students who aspired to the priest- for military as well as political purposes. One of its
hood, and also many elementary and hi^ schools. In decliu^ objects was "to promote the peace and union
1623 he gave 46,000 dollars toward the building in of American nations and establish amicable methcxls for
Vienna of a seminary for Hungarians (the Pazmaneum) , the settlement of disputes between them * * . This con-
which is to-day in a very flourishing condition. In gress failed, as only four Spanish-American countries
1626 he built a college in Pozsony, the direction of were represented and only one ratified the agreement,
wluch he placed in the hands of the Jesuits. In 1635 In 1831, however, Mexico took up the subject and
he built an elementary school in the same place, and in proposed a conference of American Republics "for the
1627 he gave 533 dollars that Hungarian seminarians purpose of bringing about not only a union and close
might be sent to Rome to finish their theological alliance for defence, but also the acceptance of friendly
studies. In Nagyszombat he built a seminary and mediation for the settlement of disputes between
also a college for the children of impoverished nobles, them, and the framing and promulgation of a code of
In 1635 he founded the first Hungarian unive^ty for penal laws to regulate their mutual relations". It
the furthering of Catholic Ideab; this institution is in does not appear that anything came of this congress,
Budapest, and is at present (1910) attended by 5000 and in 1847 another was held at Lima, attended
students. P^zmdny ordered that the bishops every bv representatives of Bolivia, Chili, Ecuador, New
year, and the archbishops every four years, should hold Granada, and Peru, for the purpose of forming an
a conference, and that the deans and pastors should alliance of American republics. The United States
take an examination every year. As a politician, was invited but as it was then at war with Mexico
P&zmdny desired Hungaiy to be a kingdom with a it sent no representative. Another congress was held
Catholic ruler, and that Hungary and Austria should by representatives from the Argentine Republic,
work together in all dealings with foreign powers, Eiolivia, Chili, Colombia, Ecuador, Guatemala, Peru,
Transylvania being independent. PdzD^y's idea and Venezuela, in 1864. An effort to hold a congress
was that, with a Catholic Hungarian king, the country was made by the governments of Chili and Colombia
would be well protected from the Turks. It was to in 1880, "to the end that the settlement by arbitrar
his earnest efforts that Ferdinand II was partially en- tion of each and every international controversv
debted for his succession to the throne. In 1622 he should become a principle of Amercian public law* .
brought about peace between Gabriel Bethlen (ruler This congress did not meet, however, owing to a war
of Transylvania) and Ferdinand II, religious freedom between Chili and Peru.
being granted to the Protestants. He battled so long In 1881, the President of the United States invited
and nobly for Catholicism, and his efforts were the independent countries of North and South Amer-
PEASANTS 597 PBA8A1IT8
lea to meet in a general congress at Washin^n on Citv of Mexico, 22 October, 1901, to 31 January, 1902,
24 November, 1882, ''for the purpose of considering a plan was adopted looking to adhesion to The Hague
and discussing methods ofpreventin^ war between the convention, the protocol bemg signed by all of the dele-
nations of iUnerica'\ This meeting did not take gations except Chili and Ecuador, who subsequently
Elace owing to a variety of reasons, but subseouently, gave their adhesion. The conference authorized the
y virtue of an Act of Congress of the United States Governments of the United States and Mexico to
an invitation was issued by the president to Mexico, negotiate with the other signatory powers for the ad-
the Central and South American Republics, Ha3rti, herenoe of other American nations. At this confer-
Dominican Republic, and Brazil to join in a conference ence the project of a treaty for the arbitration of
to be held in the city of Washington, the project being pecuniary claims was adopted, and the sienatories
to consider: (1) measures tending to preserve the agreed for a term of five years to submit to aroitration
peace and promote the prosperity of the South Amer- (preferably to the permanent court at The Hague) all
lean States; (2) measures looking to the formation of claims for pecuniary loss or damage presented bv their
an American Customs Union; (3) the establishment of respective citizens and not capable of settlement
regular and frequent communication between the throu^ diplomatic channels, where they were of suf-
various countries; (4) the establishment of a uniform ficient importance to warrant the expense of a court
svstem of customs relations, invoices, sanitation of of arbitration.
ships, and quarantine: (5) the adoption of a uniform B. Second Hague Conference, — A second intema-
system of weights ana measures, and of laws to pro- tional peace conference was held at The Hague from 15
tect patent ri^ts, copyrights, and trade marks, and Jime to 18 October, 1907. Forty-four States were
for the extradition ot criminals; (6) the adoption of represented, indudins the principal nations of £u-
a common silver coin; (7) the adoption of a definite rope. North and Soutn America, and Asia. The con-
plan of arbitration of all questions, disputes, and dif- ference drew up thirteen conventions and one declara-
ferences; and (8) such other subjects relating to the tion. They are as follows: for the pacific settlement of
welfare of the several States as might be presented by international disputes; respecting the limitation of the
any of them. The coxigress assembled at Washington employment of force for the recovery of contract debts;
on 2 October, 1889. Eighteen American nations, in- relative to the opening of hostilities; respectini^ the
eluding the United States, had their representatives, laws and customs of war on land; respecting the rights
The conference adopted a plan of arbitration of in- and duties of neutral powers and persons in case of
temational differences, tosether with various recom- war on land; relative to the status of enemy merchant-
mendations relating to trade, law, extradition, patents, i^ps at the outbreak of hostilities; relative to the oon-
customs, and samtary regulations. It further de- version of merchant-ships into war-ships; relative to
clared arbitration to be a principle of American the laying of automatic submarine contact mines; re-
International Law and obligatory ^' in all controver- specting bombardment by naval forces in time of war;
sies concerning diplomatic and consular privileges, for the adaptation to naval war of the principles of the
boundaries, territories, indemnities, the right of Geneva convention; relative to certain restrictions
navigation, and the validity, construction and en- with regard to the exercise of the ri^t of capture in
forcement of treaties; and that it should be equally naval war; relative to the creation of an International
obligatory in all other cases, whatever might be their Prize Court; concerning the rights and duties of neu-
origm, nature or object, with the sole exception of tral powers in naval war; and a declaration prohibit-
those which in the judgment of one of the nations ing the discharge of projectiles and exjdosives from
involved in the controversy, might imperil its inde- biSloons.
pendence; but that even in this case^ while arbitration The movement towards the settlement of intemsr
tor that nation should be optional, it should be obli- tional difficulties by arbitration has made great ad-
gitory on the adversary power" (7 Moore Int. Law vances, as will be seen by the foregoing summary,
ig. p. 7). One notable result of the conference was None, however, have attempted to settle by such
the establishment of the Bureau of the American methods any questions which may touch upon "the
Republics. All the republics of South America are vitalinterests, the independence or the honour "of the
represented in this bureau, which continues for periods different States.
of ten years subject to renewal. President Taft, in a recent address, has made a plea
II. Latest Developments. — ^A. First Hague Conn for negotiation even of the excepted questions, so that
ference, — On 12 August, 1898, in a circular letter ad- there may be an ''adjudication of an international ar-
dressed to the representatives of different nations, the bitration court in every issue which cannot be settled
Emperor of Russia proposed to all governments, which by negotiation no matter what it involves, whether
had duly accredited representatives at the imperial honour, territory or money". The public sentiment of
court, the holding of a conference to consider the prob- the world upon this subject is crystallizing, and an-
lem of the preservation of peace among nations. Dur- other decade may witness results perhaps even more
ing the summer of 1900 the conference assembled at far-reaching than those that have Been already
The Ha^e and on 4 Sept. formal notification of the attidned.
ratification of the convention for the pacific settle- Balch, The New Cynme ofEmtric Crud (Philaddphia, 1900);
ment of international disputes was given by the United !'>"«• c;ruc<, VhxAxUion de ^£'-J^~<'« »'»'«™<^';Mook^^^ l^
a^»4-.»^ A .i<^..:« Ti«i«:,i«» tv,»««^«-i; i?..»i^^^ -c^^.^^^ nahonal Lav (from this work the facta relating to Amencan peace
States, AUStna, Belgium, Denmark, ifiUgland, l<Tanoe, oongreflsea have been taken) : Moors, DigeU cllrUemaiumdl Lata;
Germany, Italy, Persia, Portugal, Rumania, Russia, Wiijaov, Hand Book of JnUtwuional Law (St, Tanl, Mam., I9l0)i
Siam, Spain, Sweden, Norway, and the Netherlands, ^""^'rt^a ^ pSS C^IS^S!^ "* "^^ ^°^ 1907-1909; Hio-
and subsequently by Japan. A permanent court of ^"'^* °^^ *"** ^ ^^Walter George Smith.
arbitration was established at The Hague, composed of
representatives of each of the signatory powers ap- Peasants, War of the (1524-25), a revolt of the
pointed for a term of six years. Arbitrators called peasants of southern and central Germany, the causes
upon to form a competent tribunal may be chosen of which are disputed as a result of religious and politi-
from a general list of the members of the court when cal prejudice. At present the opinion prevails that
any of the signatory powers desire to have recourse to the revolt was brought about mainlv by economic dis-
the court for a settlement of any difference between tress. The conditions which must here be taken into
them. consideration are the following. Up to the end of the
The South and Central American republics were fourteenth century the peasants enjoyed a relatively
not represented at the conference, but at the second advantageous position, even though they did not own
International Conference of American States which their land in fee simple, but held it at a rental, either
was initiated by President McKinley and held in tb^ hereditary or fia^e^ fpr certain periods* ConditiQn3,
PEASANTS
598
PEASANTS
however, g^rew worse. The increase of population due
to prosperity coincided in point of time with the de-
velopment of the economic use of money and its injuri-
ous influences. The city overshadowed the country,
and at times even exerted dominion over the country
districts. International economic conditions also
were detrimental to the peasant class. Large quanti-
ties of precious metals were drawn from the mines of
Peru, Mexico, and Germany, so that the value of
money sank about mty per cent, while prices rose:
thus in Thuringia the price of wool was doubled, ana
the price of merchandise was increased fivefold. On
the other hand leases were not reduced or wages
raised, but the lords of the land sought to make up
their losses by unusually heavy taxation. Thev ex-
tended their authority, increased the services and bur-
dens of the serfs, sought to annul the rights of the
market associations, and to do away with the peas-
ants' hereditary lease of their farms, only granting the
use of woodland, water, and pasture on condition of
heavy rents. Roman law favoured these exactions.
Moreover, the military needs and the growine costs of
the local governments led to an increase of tne taxes.
This caused great bitterness of feeling, especially in
WUrtemberg and Bavaria. To the burdens imposed
by the landlord and the territorial sovereign were
added imperial taxes, regardless of the economic con-
dition of the poorer ciao^. The position of the peas-
ants was at its worst in the very nxxsAI German states,
where the landlord was also the sovereign and desirea
to live like a prince.
Not only peasants but also cities and nobles took
part in the great uprising that is known as the War of
the Peasants. Of the eities only the smaller were eco-
nomically connected with the peasants. Laree cities,
like Frankfort, Wtlrzburg, and Mainz, joined the up-
rising; but economic conditions do not fully explam
their action. It must be assumed, therefore, that
external reasons induced the nobility and the cities to
combine temporarily with the peasants in the great
uprising and that the causes of (uscontent, which were
numerous, varied in the different States. From the
end of the fifteenth century great movements for polit-
ical reform had been in progress, but on account of the
selfish policy of the territorial princes all attempts
to strengthen the central power had failed, and the
Nuremberg Diet of 1524 had completely paralyzed the
imperial acuninistration. Part of^the rebels desired to
reform the empire. Political disorders were intensified
by religious. For eight years Luther's attitude had
dis(^uieted the people and shaken their reli^ous con-
victions to their foundations. His declamations about
Christian liberty, even if meant in a different sense,
increased the ferment. The opponents of the new
doctrine regarded Luther, and in part still regard him,
as the real instigator of the revolt; the rebels them-
selves appealed to him in the conviction that they
were only carrying out his teachings. It is not sur-
prising that the outbreak took place just at the end of
the year 1524. The hope of a national settlement of
ecclesiastical reform had come to nought, and the
emperor had countermanded the national council,
which had been called to meet at Speyer, 1 Sept., 1524.
The failure of the efforts for political and ecclesiastical
reform must also be included among the causes of the
outbreak. Before it is possible to pass a final judg-
ment upon the causes, there must be a wider and more
thorough investigation of the religious and intellectual
life of the German people before the Reformation.
During the years 1492-1500 there had been sporadic
outbreaks in Alg&u, Alsace, and in the Diocese of
Speyer, but they had been betrajred and suppressed.
Tne revolt of "poor Conrad" against the extortionate
taxation of Duke Ulrich of WOrtemberg, and the con-
federation of the Wendic peasants in Carinthia, Cami-
ola, and Stvria had also been crushed by the rulers and
nobility of these states. The great uprising of t^e
peasants in the second decade of the sixteenth century
Degan in the southern part of the Black Forest. The
revolt was under the daring and clear-sighted guidance
of Hans MUller of Bulgenbach and, as the rebellion
spread over Swabia, Franconia. and Alsace, the power
of the rebels steadily grew. They stirred up the peo*
pie to disorder by means of promises contained in the
so-called "Twelve Articles , of which the author is
uncertain. They have been ascribed to Pastor Schap-
pler of Memmingen, to Sebastian Lotzer, and to the
Pastor of Waldshut, Balthasar Hubmaier, who was
under the influence of Mtlnzer. Their demands were
economic, social, and religious. The rate of interest,
compulsory service to the lord of the manor, and le^
penalties they wished mitigated. Other articles de-
manded the restoration of old German economic con-
ditions, such as the unions of the old marches and the
free right of pasturage, fishing, and hunting. Social
reform was to culminate in the abolition of serfdom,
because Christ made all men free, but obedience to the
authorities appointed by God was to be maintained.
As regards religion they demanded the right to choose
their pastors and to guarantee that the clergy should
preacn the pure and true Gospel. Thus the moderate
element that had a share in preparing these articles
had no thought of a radical overthrow of all existing
conditions. But in this case, as in all great popular
upheavals, the moderation expressed in theory was not
carried out.
The mobs that were commanded by the tavern-
keeper George Metzler, by Florian Geyer, Wcndel Hip-
ler, J&cklein Rohrbach, and even by the kni^t, Gdtz
von Berlichineen, often indulged in an unbridled lust
of murder and destruction. The best known of these
outrages is the horrible murder of Count von Helf en-
stein on 16 April, 1525. Early in May, 1525, the peas-
ants were everywhere victorious over the nobility.
The Bishops of Bamberg and Speyer, the Abbots of
Hersfeld and Fulda, the Elector of the Palatinate, and
others made concessions of all kinds to their demands.
The revolt, however, was at its height and its leaders
thought themselves able to carry out their political
aims. Several cities joined the uprising, which was to
be under the direction of a vigorous and well-organized
bouxi of peasants; at Heilbronn a common chancery
was to be established for all the rebel bands; the great
majority of the rebels imder arms were to go home and
only a select body was to keep the field. The peasants
sought to overthrow their real political opponents, the
territorial princes. They planned to reorganize the
entire constitution of the empire, a scheme that had
been repeatedly discussed since the fourteenth cen-
tury. The object of their plans of reform was to
strengthen the empire and to weaken the power of the
territorial princes. The property of the Church was
to be secularized, and then used to compensate the
feudal lords for tne abolition of the feudal burdens.
The reforms were then to be carried out under the au-
thority of the empire, such as uniformity of weights
and coinage, suppression of custom-duty, restoration
of the German law in the courts, etc.
The petty sovereigns now combined and Luther
encouraged their intention to crush the rebdlion. In
April he had advocated peace and had distinguished
between justifiable and unjustifiable demands. He
now took a different view of the matter. The fanatical
mobs directed by Thomas MUnzer and Heinrich Pfei-
fer were spreading destruction in Thuringia by fire
and sword, and hiul destroyed the monasteries of the
Harz distnct and the Thuringian Forest (Michaelstein,
Ilsenburg, Walkenried, Kelbra, Donndorf , Rossleben,
Memleben, and Reinhardsbninn). Luther now fore-
saw the overthrow of State and Church, property and
family. Accordingly on 6 May he violently and pas-
sionately ursed the princes to smite the "murdering
and robbing oand of the peasants ''. The hordes com-
manded by Mttnzer were defeated on 15 May, 1525,
PEBA 599 PSCHAM
near Frankenhausen by the confederated princes service in the Amason forests, was sent to restoro
of Saxony, Brunswick, Hesse, and Mansfeld. The order, and under his kindlv promises and treatment
prophet Mttnzer was executed. At about the same the fugitives returned and the mission doubled its
time the uprising in southern Germany was subdued, former number. In spite of smallpox, other epidemic
In Alsace the peasants were conquered on 17 Mav by visitations, and the raids of Portuguese slave hunters
the united forces of Duke Anton of Lorraine ancf the from Brazil, the mission of San Ignacio de Pebas held
Governor of M5rsperg; in WUrtemberg they were over- its rank until the expulsion of the Jesuits in 1768.
thrown near Sindemngen by the commander of the It then stood fifth in the list of 33 missions of the
forces of the Swabian League. The mobs of Odenwald Mainas province, with 700 souls. Father Vaha-
and Rothenbu^ were utterly crushedon 2 and 4 June; monde being still in chargje. Others of the same
and on 7 June Wtirzburg had to surrender. The over- tribid group were at the mission of San Ignacio de
throw of the peasants on the upper and middle Rhine Mainas, and possibly at other missions. On account
reouired more time. The revolt had taken a more of the great cuversitv of diaJects the missionaries had
oraerly course in Upper Swabia, the Black Forest, and introduced the Quicnua language of Peru as the com-
in Switzerland. The north-west and the east were mon medium of communication. After the expulsion
entirely free from the insurrection, for at that time the of the Jesuits the missions were continued under
position of the peasants there was more favourable. Franciscan auspices with some success. When Peru
Formerly it was thought that after this uprising the became a separate government in 1821, the missions
condition of the peasants became worse than bSore, were neglected and fell into dec^. The mission
but this view is incorrect. At first, it is true, the Indians, who had steadily dwindl^ in number, bc^-
severity of martial law had absolute sway; thus, there came scattered and either lost their identity in the
were60executionsinWUrzburg, and 211 in the whole mixed population or joined their still wild forest
of Franconia. But the period of terror had also been kindred. The small town of Pebas, on the Amazon,
a lesson to the victors. The condition of the peasants now occupies the site of the old mission. The former
did not grow essentially worse, though it did not tribes are extinct or assimilated, with the exception
greatly improve. Only in a few exceptional cases were of a renmant of the Yagua. noted for their fine phy-
reforms introduced, as in Baden and the Tyrol. sique, some of whom are aoout Pebas and the Napo
ZxMMBBMANN. GMchidue d— Battemkriege* (Stuttgart. 1846); while Others dwell on the lower Javari. The greater
5^1 TA« Pff^n^* ^^•?r?.*^?^,^^°4®^'oi®^i' i^^?^^* portion of their tribe was destroyed by smallpox in
OesehtchU de9 deuUehen Volke* (17th and 18th ed. Freiburg, 1077 ^ ^ x-
1897): STOLiB,X)«r rf«i/»cfce Bau«mJbvg (Halle. 1908); SoioiBB- *°:o',« » «. .
LAD, Bauemkrieo in Uandto&rterbtMh der Staatnoisteruehanen, (See also JtBABO INDIANS ; MAIN A INDIANS; MaMS-
II (Srded. Jena. 1909). 653-62: Wolit. DerdeuUche Bauemkneg lTJCO* Pano InDIANB )
in DeuUehe GeschichUhlOtUr, XI (Gotha, 1909). 61-72. Cn^iimB t Hkrrxra. Hist, de Uu Miswnes de la Compaliia de
KliEMENS LOFFUCB. Jmim en el Marahon Eepaliol, 1637-1767 (Madrid. 1901) ; Hssvab.
Catdlooo de ku Lmquae, 1 (NIadrid, 1800) : Okton. The Andee and
_^._., , — .^, ..•• „ tA< ilmaa<m (3rd ed., New York, 1876) : Brditon, rA« AmmoM*
Peba mdlaiUI (oB Peva), the pnncipal of a small Race (New York. 1891): Mabkham, Tribea in the VaUey of the
g-OUp of cognate tribes, comprising the Peba proper, Amasm inJow. ^^op- Intt., XXIV (London, 1896); Galt,
A,.«no»: OAiik..aAk; 13«#.«^.^ »«JT v»«P..« /»7«„« u« Indtanao/PerumRepl, 3m%ih$on%anIn$tn. for 1877 (yfManmgion,
auman, Cauhuachi, Pacaya, and Yagua (Zava by igys); Obdinaim. t« Sauvagee du Piriu in Remu d^thwi-
error m Chantre y Herrera), together constituting the graphie, VI (Paria. 1887).
JPeban linguistic stock, and formerly occupyins tiie Jameb Moonet.
country about the confluence of the Javan witE the p^^j Gioacchino. See Leo XIII, Pope.
Amazon, m territory held by Peru, but m part ' v.*vAv,^n*«v. v^^ *^v .«.xxx,
claimed also by Ecuador and Colombia. In tneir Pecham (Peccham), John, Archbishop of Canter^
primitive condition they resembled the neighbouring bury, b. about 1240; d. 6 December, 1292. His birth-
Jivaro and Pano, though of less fierce and warlike place was Patcham in Sussex, called in the Middle
temper. Th^ held a close friendship with the power- Ages Pecham (Peccham), in common with Peckham
ful Omagua of Southern Colombia, and in the eigh- in Surrev and Kent. He received his education from
teenth century formed an important element in the the monks of Lewes, but it is doubtful whether he was
celebrated Jesuit missions of the ''Mainas province'' a student at Merton College, Oxford. He also studied
of the upper Amason region. In 1735 (or 1736) the at Paris, was tutor to the nephew of H. de Andegavia,
Jesuit Ft. Singler of the Omagua mission with a few and later entered the Order of Friars Minor. He suo-
Indlan companions reached the main village of ^e ceeded Thomas de Bun^y, O.F.M., and taught divin-
Caumari and later that of the Peba, who received him ity, being the first to dispute de Quolibet at Oxford;
with good will and presented him with their most Pecham became ninth Provincial of England (Parkin-
precious gifts, viz. jars filled with the deadly curari son says twelfth), and was called to Rome in 1276 and
poison used by the hunters for tipping their blowgun appointed lector sacri palatii. When Robert Kil-
arrows. They allowed him to set up a cross in the vil- wardby resigned the See of Canterbury, Edward I re-
lage and listened with resp>ect to his teaching. Some quested Pecham to take up the cause of Robert Bur-
of both tribes accompanied him to the Oma^a nell. Bishop of Bath ana Wells, and Chancellor of
mission of San Joaquin, but, their health suffering, England, but in January, 1279, Pecham himself was
they were soon brought back and established in a elected to that see, and consecrated by Nicholas III.
separate mission called San Ignacio de Pebas, which He held a Provincial Coimcil at Reading, 31 July,
was i^laced in charge of Fr. Adan Vidman. Some of 1279, in which he carried out the pope's verbal in-
the kindred Cauhuachi (Covachi), formerly attached struct ions and published fresh enactments against
to another Omagua mission, were also brought to pluralities. In October 1281, he summoned another
San Ignacio, as were later the Yagua. Al&ou^ ftovinciaJ Council to Lambeth, where among other
nearly related, the tribes differed greatly in tempera- matters his solicitude for the Holy Eucharist is note-
ment. The Peba, according to Fr. Chantre y Herrera, worthy. His zeal prompted him to visit every part of
were active and vigorous but rough in manner: the his province, uprooting abuses wherever he found
Cauhuachi were equally rude, but more industnous; them. He compelled the royal chapels which claimed
the Caumari were the neatest and most intelligent; exemption to submit to the visitation. On this oo-
while the Yagua were of restless habit. casion he proved that he had inherited the fearless
In 1754, tribal dissensions culminated in the murder courage of his predecessors, yet retained the royal
of the resident missionary, Fr. Jos^ Casado, by two favour. He intervened with success in behalf of Al-
brothers of the Caumari tribe, resulting in the tem- meric de Montfort, and had Llewellyn listened to him,
porary desertion of the mission of all but the Peba. he might have averted his own fate and that of his
Fr. Jos^ de Vahamonde, a veteran of seventeen years' count^^. His suffragans complained that his seal had
PECOCK
600
PECTORAL
led -him b^ond the limits of his jurisdiction, and de-
puted St. Thomas of Hereford to carry their joint ap-
peal to Rome, where apparently it was upheld. At
Oxford he renewed the condemnation of certain errors
already censured by Robert Kilwardby, many of them
containing errors of Averroes, but several of them
enundat^ by St. Thomas Aquinas, and afterwards
conunonly accepted in Catholic schools. ('' Nine-
teenth C^tury and after'', January, 1911, p. 74.) In
forming an estimate of his character a complete ab-
sence of subserviency and an unswerving adherence to
principle come into view, but his frequent exertions in
favour of the poor and agunst anvthin^ like oppres-
sion must not be overlooked. His humihty, sinceritv,
and constancy in the duties of his office, ana strict ob-
servance of his rule, won for him the admiration of his
contemporaries. As the Apostolic protector of his
order he defended it and other Mendicant Orders
against their enemies. His remains rest in Canter-
bury Cathedral, but his heart was buried in the church
of the Grey Friars, London. A complete list of his
writings is published in "British Society of Franciscan
Studies'' (vol. II, 1909), his letters (720) are found in
Martin's "Registrum Epistolarum Fr. Joannis Peck-
hajgi". He was an excellent poet, some of his poems
being attributed to St. Bonaventure, as was also his
''Life of St. Antony of Padua" written as Glasberger
states, at the bidding of Jerome of Ascoli, and recently
identified b^ F. Hilary, O.S.F.C., in a manuscript in
the Capuchm library at Lucerne.
KxNOBroRD in Diet. N<U, Biog.; Waddinq; Tbivst; Rodoi/-
PHiUB, Hittoria Serat^iece Religtonit; Sbarauba; LirrLSt Grey-
frion at Oxford; Dkniflb, Charttd, Univer. Pari*.
Andrew Eoan.
Pecoek (Peacock), Rbginald, Bishop of Chiches-
ter, b. in North Wales about 1395; d. at Thomey Ab-
bey about 1460. He was educated at Oriel College,
Oxford, where he obtained a fellowship in 1417. Dur-
ing the following years he taup;ht in the schools belong-
ing to Exeter College, obtaimng a wide reputation for
learning and scholarship. He was orduned priest on
8 March. 1421, and took the degree of bachelor in
divinit^r tour years later, about which time he left the
university for the court where he won the favour of
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. In 1431 he was ap-
pointed master of Whittington College, London, and
rector of St. Michael's-in-IUola. The activity of the
London Lollards drew him into controversy against
them and at this time he wrote ''The Book or Rule of
Christian Religion" and ''Donet", an introduction to
Christian doctrine which was published about 1440.
In 1444 he was made Bishop of St. A^ph by papal
provision dated 22 April, and on 14 June he was conse-
crated by Archbishop Stafford. At the same time he
took the de^ee of doctor in divinity at Oxford without
any academic act. The bishop's troubles began with a
sermon which he preached at St. Paul's Cross in 1447
which gave general offence because of his attempt to
justify the bishops for not preaching. The manner of
this offended both the agitators whom he attacked
and the ecclesiastics whom he defended. Undaunted
by the opposition, he summarized his argument in a
tract called ''Aboreviatio Reginaldi Pecoek." It is
noteworthy that he incurred in a special degree the re-
sentment of the religious orders. It was unfortunate
for Pecoek that he was befriended by the unpopular
Duke of Suffolk, one of whose last acts before his as-
sassination was to procure the translation of Pecoek
from St. Asaph's to Chichester, an appointment by
which the bishop was attached to the falling house of
Lancaster. Soon after he was made a privy councillor,
and he was among those who signed tne appointment
of Richard, Duke of York, as protector during the
king's illness.
About 1455 he completed and published his best
known work, "The Repressor of Over Much Blamine
of the Clergy", written against LoUard doctrine, and
about a year later he issued his " Book of Faith ". The
tendency of these works afforded ground for an attack
on him oy his theological and political opponents, and
on 22 Oct., 1457, Archbishop Bourchier cited Pecoek
and his accusers to appear before him on 11 Nov.
Nine books which he produced were submitted to a
commission of theologians who reported adversely on
them on the grounds among other reasons that he set
the natural law above the authority of the Scriptures,
denied the necessity of believing Christ's descent into
hell, and belittled the authorit)r of the Church. On
28 Nov., Pecoek was sentenced either, to complete pub-
lic abjuration or degradation and death at the stake.
Pecoek, who all his life had been defending the doc-
trines of the Church, though possibly in an unwise
way, had no intention of a conflict with authority, and
abjured first privately, then in public at St. Paul's
Cross, a list of errors most of which he had neither
held nor taught. The whole proceeding was iUe^ ac-
cording to canon law, which required uie authority of
the Holy See for such a process. This became clear
when Pecoek appealed to the pope, for Callistus III
sent back Bulls of restitution which were equivalent to
a condemnation of the Lambeth court. Archbishop
Bourchier received these Bulls but refused to act on
them and the king was advised to despatch an ambas-
sador to Rome to obtain their revocation. Unfortu-
nately for Pecoek Callistus died, and the new pope,
Pius II, acting on Pecock's confession, ordered a new
trial with the express instructions that in case of con-
viction he was to be sent to Rome for punishment, or
if that were impossible, he was to be degraded and
punished in En^and as the canons decreed. In this
document Pecoek is said to have already resigned his
see of his own accord. His successor John Arundel
was appointed on 26 March. 1459, which was before
the amval of the papal briet. There is no indication
either that he was sent to Rome or degraded, but there
is a document which shows that he was confined in the
Abbey of Thomey. There probably he died, though,
reports differ, but no certain account of his death luis
been recorded. Space does not permit a statement of
Pecock's doctrine, but his intentions were orthodox,
and his indiscretions would certidnly not have been
visited by such severe treatment had it not been for
the intrigues of his political enemies. Irregularly they
forced from him under fear of death a confession,
which Pope Pius, taking; it on its merits, naturally re-
garded as evidence of his guilt.
Bishop Peeoekt hit Character and ForUmn in Dvhiin Rnitw
(January, 1875); Lewis, Life of Reynold Peeodt (London, 1744);
Babinqton, Introduction to The Represeor of Over Much BlaminQ
of the Clergy in RoUe Series (London, 1860). 2 vola.; Cooks in
Diet. Nat. Biog.^ giving exhaustive list of contemporary and later
references; Waoer in Mod, Lang. Aiotet, IX, iv (1894); Gaibd-
NER, LoUardy and the Reformation in England (London, 1906).
Edwin Burton.
P6cs. See Ft)NFKiBCHEN, Diocese of.
Pectoral C^n t:Ctf?2n ^tn^ "pectoral of judg-
ment").— The original meaning of the Hebrew teim
has been lost, and little light is thrown upon it by the
early translations. The prevailing equivalent in the
Sept. is X^ior; the Vu^te has rationakf whence the
literal "rational" of the Douay Version; the render-
ing in the Authorized Version is "breastplate". In
the minute directions given for the distinctive official
dress of the high priest in Exodus, xxviii, a section be-
longing to the priestly code (cf. also Ex., xxxix, 8-21),
special prominence is nven to the breastplate or pec-
toral. The divergent description of the same recorded
by Josephus (" Antiq.", Ill, vii. 5 and "Bell.", V, v. 7)
is considered less reliable. The main reason of the
importance attached to the construction of the pec^
toral seems to be the fact that it was the receptacle of
the sacred oracular lotj the myst^ous Urim and
Thummim (q. v.), a consideration which renders prob-
able the tentative etymological signification of the
origlpf^ term proposed b^ Ewald ("Antiquities oC
PICTORALB 6<
Israel", 294), vi«., "the pouch of the Oracle". From
Exodus we learn that the materia employed was the
-le flubetantially as for the ephod (q. v.), vis., gold,
blue, purple, and
BcartetoQ Si ground-
work of fine twined
linen, which are the
finest and most
artistic textile fab-
rics (cf. also Eo-
cluB., xlv). The
f onn of the pectoral
was a square made
by the folding in
two of the niat«tial
messuring a cubit
in length and a half
cubit in breadth.
Int« this square
fitted by
w. On
ea<ii jewel was in-
Pktoui, oTtmBiam Pbihi gcnbed the name
of one of the twelve tribes of Israel, whose niemoi;
was thus borne continually before the Lord by the
high priest in his official functions (seeEx., xxviii, 20).
BtBdei the ordioKry ComnieiiUri<a on the Book of Eiodug.
■K AHcmii, VEmpIt it Jtfutji (Paru. I87£], cbipUi: Lei
VlltmtiUi du Graiid JVIIri; Kehhedt in HianNQB. Dirt, of lA>
Sreoifplala af the Hi«h Pritil: Bkadh, VaU Sactnl.
._■ — ..on. James F. Dhiscou..
Htb. [AmMerdui
P«CtoraI» (Crux Pectoraus) is the name of the
cross used by the pope, cardinals, bishops, abbots, and
other prelates entitled to use the pontifical innDiis.
It is worn on the breast attached to a chain or ulken
eord, the colour differing, according to the dignity of
the wearer, i. e. green, violet, or black. It is made of
precious metal, ornamented, more or lew, with dis^
monds, pearls, or similar embellishment, and con-
tains either the relics of some saint, or a particle of
the Holy Cross. It is worn over the alb during liturgi-
cal functions. The prelate should kiss the cross before
putting it on his neck, and while putting it on eay the
Srayer "Munire me digneris" (the origin of which
atea back to the Middle Ages), in which he petitions
God for protection against his enemies, and begs to
bear in mind continually the Passion of Our Lord, and
the triumphs of the confessora of the Faith. The
pontifical pectoral cross is distiact from the nmple
cross, the use of which is often permitted by the pope
to members of cathedral chapters. Canons, to whom
this privilege hss been granted, are permitted to wear
the croBB at choir service only, and not over the alb at
liturgical services, unless specially permitted. The
¥!ctoral is the latest addition to episcopal ornaments.
he custom, however, of wearing a cross on the breast
dther with or without holy rehcs, dates back to an-
raent time and was observed not only by bishops, but
also by priests and lay people. The firat mention
made of thepect«ral cross as a part of pontifical orna-
ment is by uinocent III, and its use as such only be-
came customary toward the close of the Middle A^.
As an adornment for bishops we meet it the first tune
toward the end of the thirteenth century (Durandus),
but at that time it was not generally worn b]| bishops.
As Durandus says : "it was left to the discretion of the
individual bishop to wear it or not". The Greek
Usbops also wear a pectoral cross but only over their
liturgical vestments (chasuble or aalkos),
RoBAULT Di Pleitrt, la Mail. VIII (Psiii. 1886): Bock,
Hitltn of Lilureitai Vtumcnli.U (Bonn, isas); KirthmUiiran,
Lv. JTmu. i Dai PedaraUertut: TsAtMOrix. IMur^ik, I (Frei-
bnn. 1BS3): Boha, Rmim lUurg. liM duo. II (Zsd ad. Turia,
Joseph Bradn.
Pectoiitu. See AiTTUN, Diocxoi or.
PMlneUuuB (Petneubsus), a titular see in Pam-
phylia Secunda, suffragan of Perge. In ancient timea
this city was a part of Pisidia. It is mentioned by
Btrabo, XII, 570, XIV, 667; Ptolemy, V, 5, 8; Pliny,
V, 26, 1; StephanuB Byzantius, b. v.; in the sixth cen-
tury by Hierocles, " Synecdemus", 681, 12, who locatw
it in Pamphylia. It is important for its frequent wars
with Seke (Polybius, V, 72, etc.). lu coins have two
forms of the name, as above (Head, "Historia numo-
rum", 591); other documents (rec|uently give very
corrupted forms. The "NotitiffiEpiscopatuum" men-
tion the see as late as the thirteenth century; but only-
two bishops are known; Beraclidee, present at the (Ecu-
menical Council of Constantinople, 381, and Mar-
tinuB, who signed the letter of the oishops of Pamphy-
lia to Emperor Leo (Le Quien, "Oriens chriatianus", I,
1023). The exact site of the city is unknown and it
is identified with several localities; the most' probable
identification is with the remains of a group of ruins to
the south of Tchaudir and to the east of Kiiil Keui in
Pambouk ova (cotton field), vilayet of Koniah.
Bhith, Ditl. if Grixt and Boman Otogr., «. v.; RmsT, Lei nAn
d* PitidiiiaRttiu arcUoloBivae (Puii. lS93|,S*q.; nalgotba
■toUa ol MCUJCB on Ptoiemy. ed. Didot, I, SM.
S. PtTRIDks.
Pedro d« CordoT», b. at Cordova, Andalusia,
Spain, about 1460: d. on the Island of Santo Domingo,
1525. He studied theoli^y at the Tlniversity of Sala-
manca and there joined the Dominicans. About 1610
he went to Santo Domingo, founding the Santa Crui
province of the order. He was a f ealous protector
of the Indians and a friend of Las Casas. His book,
"Doctrina cristiana para instruccion 6 informacion
de los IndioB por manera de historia", was printed
in 1544 at Mexico by directions of Bishop Zumdrraga.
It was destined for the education of the Indians,
chiefly of the islands, and is one of the earliest books
of catechism known to have been composed in Amer-
ica. Fray Fedro was the first inquisitor appointed
in the New World. He enjoyed tlie replitation of a
model priest^ highly respected by the clergy, the Wy,
and the Indians.
Lu Caias, HiUmai de lot Indiai (Madrid, lS76-Te) ; Dlvtu
PiDTLlui, Hittaria <U la i'linitiinm y /Mimrn dl la Fmintia dt
SanHaop di Utiieo (Mudrid, 1S96: BnuKli, 1626); YcaoiIi-
CBTi, BMiagrafla miitana (Meiiiw, ISSe).
Ad. F. Bands lieb.
TiDicT XIII). See LtFNA,
PeUnf. See China.
Pfllmilk, the name of several saints. The old
Syrian martyrolocr (ed. De Roesi-Duchesne, in "Acta
8S.", Nov,, II; "Martyrol. Hieronym.", bd) nves the
feastof aSt. Pelagiaof Antiocb (in AntiochiaPela^s)
under the date of 8 October. Further information
concerning this martyr, undoubtedly an historical
person, is given in a homily of St. John ChryBoetom
[P. G., L, 479 sqq.; Ruinart,'"Acta mart, dncera"
(ed. Ratisbon], MO sqq.]. Pelagia was a Christian
viripn fifteen years of age. Soldiers came in search of
her, evidently during the Diocletian persecution, in
order to force her to of^er publicly a heathen sacrifice.
She was alone in the house, no one b^ng there to aid
her. She came out to the soldiers sent after her and
when she learned the order the}[ had to execute, she
requested permission to go again into the house in
order to put on other clothing. This was granted to
her. The vir^ who probably knew what was before
her was not willing to expose herself to the danger of
being dishonoured. She therefore went up to the roof
of the house and threw herself into the sea. Thus she
died, as St. ChrysOBtom says, as virpn and martyr,
and WBs honour^ as such by the Antiochene Church.
St. Ambrose also mentions this St. Pelagia of Antioch
("De virginibus", III, vii, in P. L., XVI, 229;
VKLkQim 602 PELAQimi
Epifit. XXVIIy "Ad Simplicianum", xxxviii, ibid., The following year, after having broua^t about the
1^3). condemnation of Origen, he returned to Kome. After
There is a later legend of a Pelagia who is said to Justinian published (about 544) his decree on the
have led the life of a prostitute at Antioch and to have "Three Chapters'' (i. e. brief statements of anath*
been converted by a oishop named Nonnus. Accord- ema upon Tneodore of Mopsuestia and his writings,
ing to the story i^e went to Jerusalem where disguised upon Theodoret of Cyrus and his writings against
as a man and under the name of Pelagius she led a life St. Cyril of Alexandria and the Council^ ot Ephesus,
of self-mortification in a grotto on the Mount of and upon the letter written by Ibas of Edessa to Maris,
Olives. Hie author of this legend who calls himself Bishop of Hardaschir in Persia) ^ we find Pelagius
the Deacon Jacob has drawn the essential part of , his writing to Ferrandus for his opimon on it, and when
narrative from the forty-eiehth homily of St. Cliry- Vigilius went to Constantinople (Nov., 545) in obe-
sostom on the Gospel of St. Matthew. In this homily dience to the emperor's orders, he remained as his repre-
the preacher relates the conversion of a celebrated sentative in Rome. The times were hard, for Totila,
actress of Antioch whose name he does not give. As King of the Goths, had begun to blockade the city,
no old authority makes any mention of a Pelagia in The deacon poured out his private fortune for the
Jerusalem, no doubt the ^eged converted woman is a benefit of the famine-stricken people, and endeavoured
purely legendarv recasting of the historical Pelagia. to induce the Gothic kinp to grant a truce. Though
In the East the feast of this second Pelagia is observed he failed, he afterwards mduced Totila to spare the
on the same day (8 October) ; in the present Roman lives of the people when he became master of Rome in
martjrrology the feast of the martyr is observed on 9 Dec., 546. That prince conceived so great an admira-
June, that of the penitent on 8 October. tion for the Roman deacon that he sent him to Con-
On the latter date the Greek Church also celebrates stantinople in order to arrange a peace with Justinian,
as virgin and martyr still another Pelagia of Tarsus, but the emperor sent him back to say that his general
The Roman martyrology places the feast of this Pela- Belisarius was in command in Italy, and that he would
^a on 4 May. There is a legend of later date concern- decide all questions of peace or war.
mg her. As Tarsus was near Antioch St. Pelagia of Once more the energetic deacon returned to Con-
Tarsus should probably be identified with the Anti- stantinople, this time to support Vigitius, who was
ochene martsrr, whose feast was also observed in being shamefully treated by the emperor, with a
Tarsus and who was afterwards turned into a martyr view of making him do his will in the matter of the
of Tarsus. Usener's opinion that all these different Three Chapters. Encouraged by Pelagius, Vigilius
saints are only a Christian reconstruction of Aphro- began to offer a stout resistance to Justinian (551) and
dite has been completely disproved by Delehaye. issued his first ''Constitutum" (May, 553). But in
In addition to St. Pelagia of Antioch, tidcen from June, after the Fifth General Council of Constanti-
the Syrian martyrology, the ''Martyrologium Hi&- nople, which had condenmed the Three Chapters, was
ronymianum" also mentions on 11 July a martyr over and Pelagius and other supporters of the pope
Pelagia, the companion in martyrdom of a Januarius, had been thrown into prison, the unfortunate Vifldlius
naming Nicopolis in Armenia as the place of martyr- gave way, and in his second ''Constitutum" (Feb.,
dom, and giving a brief account of this saint. She is 554) confirmed the decrees of the Council. Pelagius
plainly a different person from the martyr of Antioch. did not submit at once, but wrote against the oppo-
Her name was included b^ Bede in his martyrology nents of the Three Chapters and blamed the subservi*
and was adopted from this into the present Roman ence of his superior. At length however he rallied to
list of saints. the pope's side, either because he saw that opposition
iicto 55., May, I, 747 sg. (Pelagia of Tareus); Ada 88.^ Oct., to him was endangering the unity of the Church,
Ki.Si<i°*lf • SiS^^SS!';S^^t^^)^f^iSr^ f »>?e»"*. " ^ aJvereariee eaid, he ijiBhed to reg«i.
gioffr- lot.. II. 959 sq.; Ubener, Legeruien der hi. Pdagia (Bonn. JustUUan's favOUr, and by it tO SUCOeed VlgillUS aS
1879); DsLBHATs, LnUgende* haouvraphiquea (BruMels, 1906), pope. It is Certain that he did re-enter into the em-
^^ ■**• • T P TT nar« peroPs good graces, shortly before he left Constanti-
j. r. AJB8CH. j^Qpig ^^jj ^^ p^pg^ ^Y^^^ ^jj^ beginning of 555.
Vigilius died at Syracuse during his return journey
Pelagius I, Pope, date of birth unknown; d. 3 (7 June, 555), but it was* not till the next year that
March, 561, was a Roman of noble family; his father. Pelagius was elected his successor, and consecrated
John, seems tp have been vicar of one of the two civil (16 April. 556).
"dioceses'', or districts, into which Italy was then He had no Uttle difficulty in procuring bishops to
divided. We first meet with him at Constantinople, consecrate him, for there was great opposition to him
in the company of Agapitus I, who^ just before his on account of his change of front regarding the con-
death in that city, appointed Pelagius apocrisiariua demnation of the Three Chapters. Some of his
or nuncio of the Roman Church (536). When, enemies even accused him of being responsible for the
throui^h the intrigues of the Empress Theodora, ever death of his predecessor. With a view to lessen the
schenuiuK for the advancement of the Monophysite ill-feeling against him, he went with the ''patrician",
heresy, Silverius, the successor of Agapitus in the See Narses, to St. Peter's, and, holdins the Gospels and
of Rome, had been forcibly deposed and banished 'Hhe Cross of Christ" above his head, he solemnly
from Italy by the Greek general Belisarius, the Em- averred that he had wrought no harm to Vigihus.
peror Justiman issued strict orders that Silverius Then, indirectly to assert the purity of his conduct
should be recalled to Rome, and decreed that, if with reference to his accession to the papacy, he pro-
g roved innocent, he should be reinstated. If we are to ceeded to denounce simony. His principsJ aims dur-
eheve Liberatus, an historian opposed to the Fifth ing his five years' pontificate were to overcome oppoei-
General Council, and hence to Popes Vigilius and tion, if not now so much to himself, at any rate to the
Pelagius. the latter was prevailed upon by the empress Fifth General Council, in the West; and to make good
to travel post haste in order to prevent if possible Sil- the material damage to the Church's propertv in Italy,
▼mus's return to Italy. In this mission, however, he brought about by the campaigns between the Greeks
failed. Nevertheless, the empress accomplished her and the Goths. Of his personal worth the Romans
will, which resulted in the death of Silverius and the were again soon convinced, when they saw him use his
accession of Vigilius, of whom she hoped to make a wealth for their advantage, in the same generaiu
tool. Pelagius meanwhile acquired great influence with manner as he had done when Totila's blockade had
Justinian. He selected the orthodox Paul for the See reduced them to the last extremity; as, for example,
of Alexandria (540), and had to depose him, and when they saw him repairing and refurnishing the
choose a successor two years later (542). churches, and reorganizing for the benefit of the poor
nLkQim 603 piLAaiUB
the poasefisions and revenues of the Church which the earrit, in P. L.. LXVII; the lettera «^ Pbi^qius m F. l^ LXIX;
HrkfKin war unH fho \nr\a tthtu^nof^ of thp TiAHAS from -"<^- ^•'^- ^**'"' ^7>^*^ola, III (Berlin, 1882); JafvC. i^MMto. I
Uotmc wax, ana tne long aosence oi Lne popes irom ^^^ ^^ Leipiig, 1888). Modern works: e^Mcudiy Dxbbi^
Rome, had thrown mto great confusion. JuHiwi^n KPariB. 1901). 340 etc.; Gbuab, Hitt. de Ronu ^ dM
But Pelagius was not so successful in extinguishing Pbpm (Pane. 1906), I, pt. II, pMnm; Honanir. Ifalv and hfr
m Italy the schism which the «,ndeamation of the iS^^^^'^iV .^IS^i? ffi. ^JITSJ P^"S!"S;'^
Three Chapters had excited in the West, as he was in Middle Ag«a, III. 233.
winning the confidence of the Romans. The vacilla- Horacb K. Mann.
tion of Vigilius, and his submission to the will of Jus^
tinian, the persecution to which he had been exposed, Pelagiiu II, date of whose birth is unknown, seem-
and the final adhesion of Pelagius himself to his pred- ingly a native of Rome, but of Gothic descent, as his
ecessor's decree confirming the Council of Constanti- father's name was Wimnld, d. in Rome, 7 Feb., 500.
nople, embittered the minds of many of the Westerns He succeeded Benedict I, when the Lombards were
against the East. They were too angry at the emper- besieging Rome, but his consecration was ddaved in
or's conduct to realize that with both Vigilius and Pe- the hope of securing the confirmation of the election
lagius the whole question was rather one of poUc;y and by the emperor. But the blockade of Rome by the
expediency than of religion. Pelagius did all m his Lombards, and their control of the great thorough-
power to convince the bishops of Northern Italy, fares was effective and, after four months, he was
where the schism had taken the deepest hold, that he consecrated (26 Nov., 579). The most important
accepted the first four General Coimcils as unreserv- acts of Pelagius have relation to the Lombaros, or to
edly as they did, and that the decrees of the recent the Istrian schieon of the Three Chapters (q. v.).
Council of (jonstantinople were in no way in real op- Moved, it would seem, by the words of the new pope,
position to those of Chalcedon. He pointed out and probably still more by his money and that of the
clearly to them that the differences between the two emperor, the Lombards at length dtrew off from the
Councils were only on the surface, and not real, and neighbourhood of Rome. Thereupon, Pelagius at
that even if it was not advisable, under the circum- once sent an embassy (in which the deacon Gregory
stances, to condemn the writings of Theodoret, Theo- was apparently included) to Constantinople to ex-
dore, and Ibas, still, as the^ were de facto heretical, pbun the circumstances of his election, and to ask
there could be no harm in officially declaring that they that succour should be sent to save Rome from the
were such. But the feelings of many had been so barbarians. But not very much in the way of help
aroused that it was impossible to get them to listen for Italv was forthcoming at this period from the ex-
to reason. The pope grew impatient, especially when hausted Eastern Roman Empire. Emperor Maurice.
PaulinuS; Bishop of Aquileia, had in synod renounced it is true, sent somewhat later (c. 584) a new official
commumon with Rome, and excommunicated the to Italy with the title of exarch, and with combined
great general Narses, the hope of Italy. In several civil and military authority over the whole peninsula,
letters he exhorted the "patrician'' to use his military But, when he caine to Ravenna, this new functionary
power to suppress the schism, and to seize Paulinus. brought with him only an insufficient military force,
r^arses, however, probably on account of the political and meanwhile both emperor and pope had turned to
difficulties with which he was beset, did not move, the Franks.
and it was not till the seventh century that the schism Towards the beginning of his pontificate (Oct., 580
caused in Italy bv the condenmation of the Three or 581) Pelagius wrote to Aunacnarius (or Aunarius),
Chapters was nnafly healed. Bishop of Auxerre, a man of great influence with the
Pdagius, however, in the matter of the Council of different Prankish kings, ana begged him to give a
Constantinople was more successful in Gaul than in practical proof of the zeal he had professed for thfe
Italv. In reply to a request from the Prankish King Roman Church, by uiving them to come to the assiat-
Childebert, he sent him a profession of faith, in which ance of Rome. " We believe ", he wrote, " that it has
he proclidmed his entire agreement with the doctrines been brought about by a special dispensation of Divine
of Leo I, and trusted that no untruths about himself Providence, that the Frankish Princes should profess
might cause a schism in Gaul. Further, in response the orthodox faith; like the Roman Emperors, in order
to a request from the same kins, and from Sapaudus. that they may help this citv, whence it took its rise.
Bishop of Aries, he granted the latter the pallium, ana .... Persuade them with all earnestness to keep from
constituted him his vicar over all the churches of any friendship and alliance with our most unspeakable
Gaul, as his predecessors had been in the habit of enemies, the Lombards." At length either the prayers
so honouring the See of Aries. Bjr these means he of Pelagius, or the political arts of the emperor, in-
prevented any schism from arising in Gaul. duced the Franks to attack the Lombards in Italy.
Making use of the "Pragmatic Sanction", which But their zeal for the papal or imperial cause was soon
Justinian issued in August, 554, to regulate the affairs exhausted, and they allow^l themselves to be bribed to
of Italy, thrown into hopeless disorder by the Cxothic retire from the peninsula. The distress of the Italians
war, Pelagius was able to remedy many of the evils deepened. Pelagius had already sent to Constanti-
which it had caused. Fragments of a number of his nople the ablest of his clergy, the deacon Gregory,
letters, which were brought to light by E. Bishop com- afterwards Gre|;ory I, the Great. As the pope's apoc-
paratively recently, give us an insight into his extraor- risiary, or nuncio, the deacon had been conmiissioned
dinary activitv in this direction. They reveal him to haunt the imperial palace day and night, never to
organizing ecclesiastical tribunals, suppressing abuses be absent from it for an hour, and to strain every
among clerics, to which the disoraers of the times had nerve to induce the emperor to send help to Rome. To
given rise, putting the patrimonies of the Church on a him Pelagius now dispatched letter after letter urging
new footing, and meanwhile gathering money and him to increased exertion. He also implored the new
clothes for the poor from Gaul and from "distant Exarch of Ravenna, Decius (584), to succour Rome,
islands and countries". Before he died his regulations but was told that he was unable to protect the
for the management of the ecclesiastical es^tes had exarchate, still less Rome.
Y)egan to bear fruit, and we read of revenues bepnning Failing to get help from Ravenna he sent a fresh
to come in to him from various quarters. This "Fa- embassy to Constantinople and exhorted Gregory
ther of the poor and of his country" was buried'in St. to act along with it in endeavouring to obtain the
Peter's the day after his death, in front of the sacristy, desired help. "Here", he wrote, "we are in such
lAber p<mt%fiealu, ed. Duchunb, I (Paris, 1886), Vit. Vigiiii et Struts that unless (jrod move the heart of the emperor
Pdoffii; LiBBBATus. Breviarium, o. joU etc. in P. L., Lxviii; to have pity on US, and send US a Master of the
aohieo, ed. DiKDOBF (Bonn. 1833) ; or in Latin. kuBATOBi. soldiery {mogister miMum) and a duJce, we snau oe en-
Strum itaUearum Seriptoret, I. pt. I; Facundub. d$ defmt, tnum tirely at the mercy of OUT enemies, as most of the our*
PELAQIUS 604 PELAOIXrS
0
trict round Rome is without protection; and the army cognomen of Brito or Britannicus, Jerome (Pnef. in
of these most unspeakable people will take possession Jerem., lib. I and III) ridicules him as a ''Scot" (loc.
of the places still held for the empire/' Though no cit., "habet enim progeniem Scotics gentis de Britao-
imperisu troops came to Rome, the exarch succeeded norum vicinia"), who being "stuffed with Scottish
in concluding a truce with the Lombards. Taking ad- porridge '' (Scotorum puUibus proBgravatus) suffers from
vantage of this ''peace and quief , Pelagius II re- a weak memory. Rightly arguing that the "Scots" of
newea the exertions of his namesake to put an end to those davs were really the Iri^, H. Zimmer (" Pelagius
the schism caused in Italy by the condemnation of the in Irland", p, 20, Berlin, 1901) has recently advanced
Three Chapters by Vigilius. The deacon Gregory was weighty reasons for the hypothesis that the true home
recalled from Constantinople, and assisted the pope of Pelagius must be sought in Ireland, and that he
in the correspondence which was forthwith initiated journeyed through the southwest of Britain to Rome,
with Bishop Elias of Grado and the bishops of Istria. Tall in stature and portly in appearance (Jerome, loc.
In one letter after another the pope bade them remem- cit., "grandis et corpulentus ), Pelagius was highlv
ber that the fiuth of Peter could not be crushed nor educated, spoke and wrote Latin as wdl as Greek with
changed, and that that faith which he held was the great fluency and was well versed in theology^. Thou^
faith of the Council of Chalcedon, as well as of the a monk and consequently devoted to practical asceti-
fiist three general councils; and. in the most touching cism, he never was a clenc; for both Orosius and Pope
terms, he exhorted them to hold to that glorious ec- Zosimus simply call him a "layman". In Rome itself
clesiastical unity which they were breaking "for the he enjoyed the reputation of austerity, while St. Au-
sake of superfluous questions and of defendmg hereti- gustine called him even a "saintly man", vir sanctua:
csA chapters". The words of the pope were, however, with St. Paulinus of Nola (405) and other prominent
lost upon the schismatics, and equally without effect bishops, he kept up an edifying correspondence, which
was the violence of the Exarch Smaragdus, who seized he used later for his personal defence.
Severus, the successor of Elias, and, by threats, com- During his sojourn in Rome he composed several
pelled him to enter into communion with the orthodox works: "De fide Trinitatis libri III", now lost, but
bishop, John of Ravenna (588). But as soon as Sev- extolled by Gennadius as "indispensable reading-
erus returned to his see, he repudiated what he had matter for students": "Eclogarum ex divinis Scrip-
done, and the schism continued for some two hun- tuns liber imus", in tne main collection of Bible pas-
dred years longer. sages based on Cyi)rian's "Testimoniorum libri III",
Pelagius was one of the popes who laboured to pro- of which St. Augustine has preserved a niunber of f rag-
mote the celibacy of the clergy, and he issued such ments; "Commentarii in epistolas S. Pauli", elabo-
Btringent regulations on this matter, with regard to the rated no doubt before the destruction of Rome by
subdeacons in the island of Sicily, that his successor Alaric (410) and known to St. Augustine in 412.
Gregory I thought them too strict, and modified them Zimmer (loc. cit.) deserves credit for naving rediscov-
to some extent. But if Gregory had to check the zeal ered in this commentary on St. Paul the original work
of Pelagius in one direction he emulated it in another, of Pelagius, which had, in the course of time, been
The protest of Pelagius against the assumption of the attributed to St. Jerome (P. L., XXX, 645-902). A
title "oecumenical by the Patriarch of Constanti- closer examination of this work, so suddenly become
nople was repeated with added emphasis by his former famous, brou^t to light the fact that it contained the
secretary. Among the works of piety recorded of fundamental ideas which the Church afterwards con-
Pelagius may be noted his adorning of the Shrine of demned as "Pelagian heresy". In it Pelagius denied
St. Peter, turning his own house into a hospital for the the primitive state in paradise and original sin (cf .
poor, and rebuilding the Church of St. Lawrence, P. L., XXX, 678, "Insaniunt, quide Adampertradu-
where may still be seen a mosaic (probably executed by cem asserunt ad nos venire peccatum"), insisted on
Pelagius) depicting St. Lawrence as standing on the the naturalness of concupiscence and the death of the
right side of Our Lord. Pelagius fell a victim to the body, and ascribed the actuid existence and univer-
terrible plague that devastated Rx>me at the end of sality of sin to the bad example which Adam set by his
689 and was buried in St. Peter's. first sin. As all his ideas were chiefly rooted in the old-
Liber Pmuif. ed. Duchesnb, I (Paris, 1886), 309; Paul thb pagan philosophy, especially in the popular system ot
^'^^^.^^J^'^^'^i^^^^ 1879) : for the jetterB of P^la-; • the Stoics, rather than in Christianity, he regarded the
oiUB and Grboort I aee Jwon. Werm. xf pp., 11, 111 (lierun, 1892 — j; , , » _., - , .,, ,,., •" t -j ^^ \ i _
Gbibar. Hitt. de* papee, I, pt. U (Paris. 1906).— an Engliah moral strength of man s Will (tU)crum orDUnwm), when
translation of this work is to be published shortly; Hodqkin, steeled by asceticism, as suflicient in itself to desire
g^i t?il:SJ'ittl\^i^n.'?U?^iT\lr^i:Zlil !S ??'*.*?,''»*«'' the lofUest ideal of virtue The value <rf
see Mann, Live* of the Popes in the Early MiddU Ages, I (London. Chnst 8 redemption was, in hlS opUUOn, limited mamlj
1902). to instruction (docirina) and example (exemplum),
HoBACE K. Mann. which the Saviour threw into the balance as a counter-
weight against Adam's wicked example, so that nature
Pelagius and Pelagianiazn. — Pelagianism re- retains the abiUty to conquer sin and to ^n eternal
ceived its name from Pelagius and designates a heresv life even without the aid of grace. By justification we
of the fifth century, which denied original sin as well are indeed cleansed of our personal sins through faith
as Christian grace. alone (loc. cit., 6G3. ''per solam fidem iustificat Deus
I. Life and Writings op Pelagius. — Apart from impium convertenaum*'), but this pardon (gratia re-
the chief episodes of the Pelagian controversy, little or misaionis) implies no interior renovation or sanctifica-
nothing is known about the personal career of Pela- tion of the soul. How far the sola-fides doctrine "had
gius. It is only after he bade a lasting farewell to no stouter champion before Luther than Pelagius"
Rome in a. d. 411 that the sources become more abun- and whether, in particular, the Protestant conception
dant; but from 418 on history is again silent about his of fiducial faith dawned iipon him many centuries
gerson. As St. Augustine (Depeccat. orig., xxiv) testi- before Luther, as Loofs ("Realencyklopadie fiir pro-
es that he lived in Rome "for a very long time", we test. Theologie", XV, 753, Leipzig, 1904) assumes,
may presume that he resided there at least since the probably needs more careful investigation. For the
reign of Pope Anastasius (398-401). But about his rest, Pela^us would have announced nothing new by
long life prior to the year 400 and above all about his this doctnne, since the Antinomists of the eany Apos-
youth, we are left wholly in the dark. Even the tolic Church were already familiar with "justification
country of his birth is disputed. While the most trust- by faith alone" (cf. Justification); on the other
worthy witnesses, such as Augustine, Orosius, Prosper, hand, Luther's boast of having been the first to pro-
and Marius Mereator, are quite explicit in assigning claim the doctrine of abiding faith, might well arouse
Britain as his native country, as is apparent from his opposition. However, Pela^us insists expressly (loc.
PKLAonrs 605 nLAOius
cit., 812), ^'Ceterum sine operibus fidei, non legis. fall. (4) The whole human race neither dies through
mortua est fides''. But the commentary on St. Paul Adam's sin or death, nor rises again through the
is sil«it on one chief point of doctrine, i. e. the sigpifi- resurrection of Christ. (5) The (Mosaic) Law is as
cance of infant baptism, which supposed that the good a guide to heaven as the Gospel. (6) Even be*
faithful were even then clearly conscious of the exist- fore the advent of Christ there were men who were
ence of ori^al sin in children. withput sin. On accoimt of these doctrines, which
To explain psychologically Pelagius's whole line of clearly contain the quintessence of Pelagianism, Ce-
thought, it does not suffice to go back to the ideal lestius was summoned to appear before a synod at
of the wise man, which he fashioned after the ethical Carthage (411); but he refused to retract them, alleg-
principles of the Stoics and upon which his vision was ing that the inheritance of Adam's sin was an open
centred. We must also take into account that his question and hence its denial was no heresy. As a
intimacy with the Greeks developed in him, though result he was not only excluded from ordination, but
imknown to himself, a one-sidedness, which at first his six theses were condemned. He declared his
sight appears pardonable. The g^ravest error into intention of appealing to tiie pope in Rome, but with-
which he and the rest of the Pelagians fell, was that out executing his design went to Ephesus in Asia
they did not submit to the doctrinal decisions of the Minor, where he was ordained a priest.
Church. While the Latins had emphasized the ^It Meanwhile the Pelaaan ideas nad infected a wide
rather than its punishment, as the chief characteristic area, especiallv arouna Carthage, so that Augustine
of original sin, the Greeks on the other hand (even and other bisnops were compelled to take a resolute
Chrysostom) laid ^eater stress on the punishment stand against them in sermons and private conver-
than on the guilt. Theodore of Mopsuestia went even sations. Urged by his friend Marcellinus. who "daily
so far a§ to deny the possibility of original guilt and endured the most annojring debates witn the erring
consequently the penal character of the death of the brethren", St. Augustine in 412 wrote the two famous
body. Besides, at that time, the doctrine of Chris- works r^'Depeccatorummeritisetremissionelibri III"
tian grace was everywhere vague and undefined ; even (P. L., XLIV, 109 sqq.) and ''De spiritu et litera" (ibid.,
the West was convinced of nothing more than that 201 sqq.), in which ne positively established the ex-
some sort of assistance was necessary to salvation and istence of ori^nal sin, the necessity of infant baptism,
was given gratuitously, while the nature of this assist- the im^xissibility of a life without sin, and the neces-
ance was but little imderstood. In the East, more- sity of interior grace (spiritua) in opposition to the
over, as an offset to widespread fatalism, the moral exterior grace of the law (litera). Wnen in 414 dis-
power and freedom of the will were at times very quieting rumours arrived from Sicily and the so-called
strongly or even too strongly insisted on, assisting '^Definitiones Ca^lestii" (reconstructed in Gamier,
grace oeing spoken of more frequently than yreveniing **Marii Mercatoris OpKera", I, 384 sqq., Paris, 1673),
grace (see Grace). It was due to the intervention said to be the work of Cselestius, were sent to him,
of St. Augustine and the Church, that greater clear- he at once (414 or 415) published the rejoinder, "De
ness was gradually reached in the disputed questions perfectione justitise hominis" (P. L., XLIV^ 291 sqq.),
and that the first impulse was given towards a more m which he again demolished the illusion of the
careful development of the do^as of original sin and possibility of complete freedom from sin. Out of
grace (cf . Mausbach, ''Die Ethik des hi. Augustinus", charity and in order to win back the erring the more
II, 1 sqq., Freiburg, 1909). effectually, Augustine, in idl these writings, never
II. FteLAGius AND Cjblestiub (411-5). — Of far- mentioned the two authors of the heresy by name,
reaching influence upon the further process of Meanwhile Pela^us, who was sojourning in Pales-
Felagianism was the friendship which Pelagius con- tine, did not remain idle; to a noble Roman virgin,
tracted in Rome with Cselestius, a lawyer of noble named Demetrias, who at Alaric's coming had fled to
(probably Italian) descent. A eunuch by birth, but Carthage, he wrote a letter which is stiU extant (in
endowed with no mean talents, Cselestius had been P. L., XXX, 15-45) and in which he again inculcated
won over to asceticism by his enthusiasm for the his Stoic principles of the unlimited energy of nature,
monastic life, and in the capacity of a la3r-monk he Moreover, he published in 415 a work, now lost, ''De
endeavoured to convert the practical maxims learnt natura", in which he attempted to prove his doctrine
from Pelagius, into theoretical principles, which he from authorities, appealing not only to the writings of
successfully propagated in Rome. St. Augustine, Hilary and Ambrose, but also to the earlier works of
while charging Pelagius with mysteriousness, men- Jerome and Augustine, both of whom were still alive,
dacity, andf shrewdness, calls Cselestius (De peccat. The latter answered at once (415) by his treatise ''De
orig., xv) not only ^'incredibly loquacious''^ but also natura et gratia" (P. L., XLIV, 247 sqq.). Jerome,
open-hearted, obstinate, and free in social inter- however, to whom Augustine's pupil Orosius, a
course. Even if their secret or open intrigues did not Spanish priest, personally explained the danger of the
escape notice, still the two friends were not molest^ new heresy, and who had been chagrinea by the
by the official Roman circles. But matters changed severity with which Pelagius had criticized his com-
when in 411 they left the hospitable soil of the me- mentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians, thought the
tropolis, which had been sacked by Alaric (410), and time ripe to enter the lists; this he did by his letter to
set sail for North Africa. When they landed on the Ctesiphon (Ep. cxxliii) and by his graceful "Dialogus
coast near Hippo, Augustine, the bishop of that city, contra Pelagianos" (P. L., XXIII, 495 sqq.). He was
was absent, being fully occupied in settungthe Dona- assisted by Orosius, who, forthwith accused Pelagius
tist disputes in Africa. Later, he met Pelagius in in Jerusalem of heresy. Thereupon^ Bishop John of
Carthage several times^ without, however, coming into Jerusalem "dearly loved" (St. Augustine, "Ep. clxxix")
closer contact with him. After a brief sojourn in Pelagius and had him at the time as his guest. He con-
North Africa, Pelagius travelled on to Palestine, while voked in July, 415, a diocesan council for the investi-
Cselestius tried to have himself made a presbyter gation of the charge. The proceedings were hampered
in Carthage. But this plan was frustrated by the by the fact that Orosius, the accusing party, did not
deacon Paulinus of Milan, who submitted to the understand Greek and had engaged a poor interpreter,
bishop, Aurelius, a memorial in which six theses of while the defendant Pelagius was quite able to defend
Cselestius — perhaps literal extracts from his lost work himself in Greek and uphold his orthodoxy. How-
"Contra traiducem peccati" — were branded as hereti- ever, according to the personal account (written at
cal. These theses ran as follows: (1) Even if Adam the close of 415) of Orosius (Liber apolog. contra
had not sinned, he would have died. (2) Adam's sin Pelagium, P. L., XXXI, 1173), the contesting parties
harmed only himself, not the human race. (3) Chil- at last agreed to leave the final Judgment on all ques-
dren just bom are in the samestate as Adam before his tions to uie Latins, since both Pelagius and his adversar
PKLAOIU8
606
PELAQIUS
ftries were Latins, and to invoke the decision of
Innocent I; meanwhile silence was imposed on both
parties.
But Pelagius was granted only a short respite. For
in the veiy same year^ the GfJlic bishops. Heros of
Aries and Lazarus of Aix, who, after the defeat of .the
usurper Constantine (411), had resigned their bishop-
rics and gone to Palestine, brought the matter before
Bishop 'Eulogius of Csesarea, with the result that the
latter summoned Pelagius in December, 415, before a
s^od of fourteen bishops, held in Diospolis, the an-
cient Lydda. But fortune again favoured the heresi->
arch. About the proceeding and the issue we are ex-
ceptionally well informed through the account of St.
Augustine, "De gestis Pelagii" (P. L., XLI V, 319 sqq.),
' written in 417 and based on the acts of the sjmod.
Pelagius punctually obeyed the summons, but the
principal complainants, Heros and Lazarus, failed to
make their appearance, one of them beins prevented
by ill-health. And as Orosius, too. derided and perse-
cuted by Bishop John of Jerusalem, had departed,
Pelagius met no personal plaintiff, while he found at
the same time a s&ilf ul advocate in the deacon Anianus
of Celeda (cf. Hieronym., "Ep. cxliii", ed. Vallarsi, I,
1067). The principal points of the petition were trans-
lated by an interpreter into Greek and read only in
an extract. Pela^us, having won the ^ood-will of the
assembly by reading to them some pnvate letters of
prominent oishops — among them one of Augustine
(Bjp. cxlvi) — bepan to explidn away and disprove the
various accusations. Thus from the charge that he
made the possibility of a sinless life solel^r dependent
on free will, he exonerated himself by saying that, on
the contrary, he required the help of God (jt^tUarium
Dei) for it, though by this he meant nothing else than
the g^ace of creation (gratia creatiania). Of other
doctrines with which he had been charged, he said
that, formulated as they were in the complaint, they
did not originate from him. but from CsBlestius, and
that he also repudiated them. After this hearing
there was nothing left for the sjmod but to discharge
the defendant and to announce him as worthy of
communion with the Church. The Orient had now
spoken twice and had foimd nothing to blame in
Pelagius, because he had hidden his real sentiments
from his judges.
III. CONTINn ATION AND EnD OF THE CONTROVERST
(415-8) . — The new acquittal of Pelagius did not fail to
cause excitement and alarm in North Africa, whither
Orosius had hastened in 416 with letters from Bishops
Heros and Lazarus. To parry the blow, something
decisive had to be done. In autumn, 416, 67 bishops
from Proconsular Africa assembled in a synod at
Carthage, which was presided over by Aurelius, while
fifty-nine bishops of the ecclesiastical province of
Numidia, to which the See of Hippo, St. Augustine's
see, belonged, held a synod in Mileve. In both places
the doctnnes of Pelagius and Cselestius were af ain
rejected as contradictory to the Catholic faith. How-
everj in order to secure for their decisions ''the au-
thonty of the Apostolic See", both sjmods wrote to
Innocent I, requesting his supreme sanction. And in
order to impress upon him more strongly the serious-
ness of the situation, five bishops (Augustine, Aure-
lius, Alypius, Evodius, and Possidius) forwarded to
him a joint letter, in which they detailed the doctrine
of original sin, infant baptism, and Christian grace
(St. Augustine, "Epp. clxxv-vii"). In three sepa-
rate epistles, dated 27 Jan.. 417, the pope answered
the synodal letters of Cartnage and Mileve as well
as that of the five bishops (Jaff^, ''Regest.", 2nd
ed., nn. 321-323, Leipzig, 1885). Starting from the
Principle that the resolutions of provincial synods
ave no binding force until they are confirmed by
the supreme authority of the Apostolic See, the
pope developed the Catholic teaching on ori^nal sin
and grace, and excluded Pelagius and Cslestius, who
were reported to have rejected these doctrines, from
communion with the Church until they should come
to their senses {donee reeipiscant). In Africa, where
the decision was received with unfeigned joy, the
whole controversy was now regarded as clpsed, and
Augustine, on 23 September, 417, announced from
the pulpit (Serm., cxxxi, 10, in P. L., XXXVIIL 734),
''Jam de hac causa duo concilia missa sunt ad oedem
apostolicam, inde etiam rescripta venerunt; causa
finita est''. (Two synods have written to the Apos-
tolic See about this matter: the replies have come
back; the question is settled.) But he was mistaken;
the matter was not yet settled.
Innocent I died on 12 March, 417, and Zosimus, a
Greek by birth, succeeded him. Before his tribunal
the whole Pelagian question was now opened once
more and discussed in all its bearings. Tne occasion
for this was the statements which TOth Pelagius and
Cselestius submitted to the Roman See in order to jus-
tify themselves. Though the previous decisions of
Innocent I had removed all doubts about the matter
itself, yet the question of the persons involved was un-
decided, viz. Did Pelagius and Cselestius reidly teach
the theses condenmed as heretical? Zosimus' sense of
justice forbade him to punish any one with excom-
munication before he was duly convicted of his error.
And if the steps recently taken by the two defendants
were considered, the doubts which might arise on this
point, were not wholly groundless. In 416 Pelagius
had published a new work, now lost, "De libero arbi-
trio libri IV", which in its phraseology seemed to
vexve towards the Augustinian conception of grace
and infant baptism, even if in principle it did not
abandon the author's earlier stanapoint. Speaking of
Christian grace, he admitted not only a Divme revela-
tion, but also a sort of interior grace, vis. an illumina-
tion of the mind (through sermons, reading of the
Bible, etc.). adding, however, that the latter served not
to make salutary works possible, but only to facilitate
their performance. As to infant baptism he granted
that it ought to be administered in the same form as in
the case of adults, not in order to cleanse the children
from a real original guilt, but to secure to them en-
trance into the "kingdom of God". Unbaptised chil-
dren, he thought, would after their death be excluded
from the "kingdom of God"^ but not from "eternal
life". This work, together with a still extant confes-
sion of faith, which bears witness to his childlike
obedience, Pelagius sent to Rome, humbly begging at
the same time that chance inaccuracies mightbe cor-
rected by him who "holds the faith and the see of
Peter". All this was addressed to Innocent I, of
whose death Pelagius had not yet heard. Cselestius,
also, who meanwhile had changed his residence from
Ephesus to Constantinople, but had been banished
thence by the anti-Pelagian Bishop Atticus, took ac-
tive steps towards his own rehabihtation. In 417 he
went to Home in person and laid at the feet of Zoeimus
a detailed confession of faith (Fragments, P. L., XLV,
1718), in which he affirmed his belief in all doctrines,
"from the Trinity of one God to the resurrection of
the dead " (cf . St. Augustine, " De peccato orig.", xxiii) .
Highly pleased with this Catholic faith and obedi-
ence, Zosimus sent two different letters (P. L., XLV,
1719 sqq.) to the African bishops, saying that in the
case of Cselestius Bishops Heros and Lazarus had pro-
ceeded without due circumspection, suid that Pela^us
too. as was proved by his recent confession of faith,
haa not swerved from the Catholic truth. As to Cseles-
tius, who was then in Rome, the pope charged the
Africans either to revise their former sentence or to
convict him of heresy in his own (the pope's) presence
within two months. The papal command struck
Africa like a bomb-shell. In great haste a synod was
convened at Carthaj^e in November, 417, and writing
to 2iOsimus, the>r urgently begged mm not to rescind
the sentence which his predecessor, Innocent I, had
PKLiOIUS , 607 PKLAOIUS
pronounced against Pelagius and Cselestius, until his office and banished. A second and harsher re-
both had confessed the necessity of interior giace for script, issued by the emperor on 9 June, 419, and
all salutary thoughts, words, and deeds. At last addressed to Bishop Aurelius of Carthage (r. L.,
Zosimus came to a halt. By a rescript of 21 March. XLV, 1731), gave additional force to this measure.
418, he assured them that he had not yet pronounced Augustine's triumph was complete. In 418, drawing
definitively, but that he was transmitting to Africa all the balance, as it were^ of the whole controversy, he
documents bearing on Pelagianism in order to pave wrote against the heresiarchs his last great work, "De
the way for a new, joint investigation. Pursuant to gratia Christi et de peccato originali" (P. L., ALIV,
the papal conmiand, there was held on 1 Mav, 418, in 359 sqq.).
the presence of 200 bishops, the famous douncU of IV. — ^Thb Dispute op St. Augustine with Jxtliak
Cartha^, which again branded Pelagianism as a of Eclanum (419-28). — ^Throu^ the vigorous meas-
heresym eight (or nine) canons (Denzinger,"Enchir.'\ ures adopted in 418, Pelagiamsm was indeed con-
10th ed., 1908, 101-8). Owing to their importance demned, out not crushed. A^ong the eighteen bishops
they may be summarized: (1) Death did not come to of Italy who were exil^ on account of their refusal to
Adam from a phvsical necessity, but through sin. sign the papal decree, Julian, Bishop of Eclanum, a
(2) New-bom children must be baptized on account of city of Apulia now deserted, was the first to protest
original sin. (3) Justifying grace not only avails for the against the ** Tractoria '' of Zosimus. Highly eaucated
forgiveness of past sins, but also gives assistance for the and skilled in philosophy and dialectics, he assumed
avoidance of future sins. (4) The grace of Christ not the leadership among the Pelagians. But to fight for
only discloses the knowledge of God s commandments, Pelagianism now meant to fight against Augustine,
but also imparts strength to will and execute them .The literary feud set in at once. It was probably
(5) Without God's grace it is not merely more difficult, Julian himself who denounced St. Augustine as dam-
but absolutelv impossible to perform good works, nator nuptiarum to the influential comes Valerian in
(6) Not out 01 humility, but in truth must we confess Ravenna, a nobleman, who was very happily married,
ourselves to be sinners. (7) The saints refer the peti- To meet the accusation, Augustine wrote, at the be-
tion of the Our Father, "Forgive us our trespasses'', ginning of 419, an apology, "De nuptiis et concu-
not only to others, but also to themselves. (8) The piscentia libri II" (P. L.^XLIV, 413 sqq.) and ad-
saints pronounce the same supplication not from mere dressed it to Valerian, immediately after (419 or
humiUt]^, but from truthfulness. Some codices con- 420), Julian published a reply which attacked the first
tain a ninth canon (Denzinger. loc. cit., note 3): Chil- book of Augustine's work and bore the title, "Libri
dren dying without baptism do not go to a "middle IV ad Turbantium". But Augustine refuted it in his
place" (fneditM 2ocu«), smce the non-reception of bap- famous rejoinder, written in 421 or 422, "Contra
tism excludes both from "the kingdom of heaven" lulianum ubri VI" (P. L.^ XLIV, 640 sqq.). When
and from "eternal life". These clearly-worded canons, two Pelanan circulars, written by Julian and scourg-
which (except the last-named) afterwards came to be ing the " Manichsan views" of the Antipelagians, feu
articles of faith binding the universal Church, gave the into his hands, he attacked them energeticidly (420 or
death-blow to Pelagianism; sooner or later it would 421) in a work, dedicated to Boniface I, "Contra duas
bleed to death. epistolas Pelagianorum libri IV" (P. L., XLIV, 549
Meanwhile, urged by the Africans (probably sqq.). Being driven from Rome, Julian had foimd
through a certain Valerian, who as cornea held an (not later than 421) a place of refuge in Cilicia with
Influential position in Ravenna), the secular power Theodore^f Mopsuestia. Here he employed his leis-
also took a hand in the dispute, the Emperor Honorius, ure in elaborating an extensive work, " Libri VIII ad
bv rescript of 30 April, 418, from Ravenna, banishing Florum", which was wholly devoted to refuting the
aU Pelagians from tiie cities of Italy. Whether Cseles- second book of Augustine s "De nuptiis et concu-
tius evaded the hearing before Zosimus, to which he piscentia". Though composed shortly aHer 421, it
was now boimd, "by fleeing from Rome" (St. Augufr- did not come to the notice of St. Au^;ustine until 427.
tine, "Contra duas epist. Pelag.", II, 5), or whether The latter's reply, which quotes Julian's argumenta-
he was one of the first to fall a victim to the imperial tions sentence for sentence and refutes them, was
decree of exile, cannot be satisfactorily settled from completed only as far as the sixth book, whence it is
the sources. With regard to his later lue, we are told cited in patristic literature as "Opus imperfectum
that in 421 he again haunted Rome or its vicinity, but contra lulianum" (P. L., XLV, 1049 sc^q.). A oom-
was expelled a second time by an imperial rescript (cf . prehensive account of Pelagiamsm, which brings out
P. L., aLV, 1750). It is further related that m 425. mto strong relief the diametrically opposed views of
his petition for an audience with Celestine I was an- the author, was furnished by Augustine in 428 in the
swered by a third banishment (cf. P. L., LI, 271). final chapter of his work, "De hsresibus" (P. L..
He then sought refuge in the Orient, where we shall XLII, 21 sqq.). Augustine's last writings published
meet him later. Pelagius could not have been in- before his death (430) were no longer aimed agunst
eluded in the imperial decree of exile from Rome. Pelagianism, but against Semipelaraanism.
For at that time he undoubtedly resided in the Orient. After the death of Theodore of Mopsuestia (428),
since, as late as the summer of 418, he communicatea Julian of Eclanum left the hospitable city of Cilicia
with Pinianus and his wife Melania, who lived in and in 429 we meet him unexpectedly in companv with
Palestine (cf. Card. Rampolla, "Santa Melania ^u- his fellow exiles Bishops Florus, Orontius, and Fabius,
niore", Rome, 1905). But this is the last information at the Court of the Patriarch Nestorius of Constanti-
we have about him; he probably died in the Orient, nople, who willingly supported the fugitives. It was
Having received the Acts of the Council of Carthage, here, too, in 429, that Cfselestius emerged again as the
Zosimus sent to all the bishops of the world his famous vroUgi of the patriarch ; this is his last appearance in
"Epistola tractoria" (418) of which unfortunately history; for from now onidl trace of him is lost. But
only fragments have come down to us. This papaJ the eioled bishops did not Ions enjoy the protection of
encyclical, a lengthv document, ^ves a minute ac- Nestorius. When Marius Mercator, a layman and
coimt of the entire "causa Cslestii et Pelagii", from friend of St. Augustine, who was then present in Con-
whose works it quotes abundantly, and categorically stantinople, he^ of the machinations of the Pela-
demands the condemnation of Pelagianism as a her- gians in the imperial city, he composed towards the
esy. The assertion that eveir bishop of the world was end of 429 his "Commonitorium super nomine Cs-
obliged to confirm this circular by his own signature, lestii" (P. L., XLVIII. 63 sqq.), in which he exposed
cannot be proved, it is more probable that the bishops the shameful life and tne heretical character of Nesto-
were reauired to transmit to Rome a written agree- rius' wards. The result was that the Emperor Theo-
ment; ii a bishop refused to sign, he was deposed from dosius II decreed their banishment in 430. WheaUie
i
PELARGXrS 608 PELLA
CEcomenical Council of Epheaus (431) repeated the "» Rnl^uydoiadieffr ^auu- TheoiogU, XV (LeipM«. i«M). 7«
condemnation pronounced by the West (TMansi. ~'^- Koch m Jf trc«. &andter»*on, .. v.
"Ck)ncU. coUect.", IV, 1337), Pelagianiam was crushed Joseph roHi*.
in the East. According to the trustworthy report of PelargUB, Aiibrose, theologian, b. at Nidda,
Prosper of Aquitaine (*nchronic."^ ad a. 439, in P. L.. Hesse, about 1488; d. at Trier, 1557. Stork (Greek
LI, 598), Julian of Eclanum,feignmg repentance, tried pdargan, whence Pelwgus) entered the Dominican
to regam possesmon of his former bishopric, a plan order probably at Freiburg, Breisgau. He was famed
which Sixtus III (432-40) courageously frustrated, for his eloquence and adnm«d for the elegance of his
The year of his death is uncertam. He seems to have writings, being skilled in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew,
^ed in Italy between 441 and 455 during the reign of His polemical efforts were directed principaDy against
Valentiman III. the Anabaptists, the Iconoclasts, and those who re-
V. LastTracbs OP Pblagianism (429-529.)— After jected the Mass. He attended the Diet of Worms
the Council of Ephesus (431), Pelagianism no more dis- (1540) and the CouncU of Trent in 1546, as theologian
turbed the Greek Church, so that the Greek histonans and procurator of the Archbishop of Trier. On 10
of the fifth century do not even mention either the May, 1546, he addressed the assembled Fathers,
controversy or the names of the heresiarchs. But the when the council was transferred to Bologna in
heresy continued to smoulder in the West and died out 1547^ Charles V, incensed against Pelargus because
very slowly. The main centres were Gaul and Bntam. he had favoured the transfer, induced the archbishop
About Gaul we are told that a synod, held probably at to recall him, but the latter chose him again as his
Troyes in 429, was compelled to take steps against the theologian in 1561. His principal works are: " Apol-
Pelagians. It also sent Bishops Germanus of Auxerre ogia sacrificii eucharisti« contra (Ecolampadium"
pd Lupus of Troyes to Britwn to fight the rampant (gasle, 1528); "Hyperaspismus, seu apologiie pro-
heresy, which received powerful support from two pugnatio . . ." (Basle, 1529); "Opuscula", agamst
pupils of PelagiU8,AgnTOla and Fa8tidiU8(cf.Ca8imri, Anabaptists and Iconoclasts (Freiburg, 1534); "Di-
" Letters, Treatises and Sermons fro"* ♦>»« ♦^«'" »•»«♦ _- « » . ^. * .. . °^ 'V ..
Centuries of Ecclesiastical Antiquit
Christiania, 1891). Almost a century !
the centre of Pelagian intrigues. For the saintly Arch- (Cologne r539) .
bishop David of Menevia participated in 519 in the Qvtnr and Echard, Script, Ord. Prod., II (Paris, I72i). 158;
Synod of Brefy^ which directed its attacks against the Pallavicini, h%»l Cone. Trid. (Antwerp, 1670), pt. II. bk. X, ii. 6.
Pelagians residing there, and after he was made Pri- D. J. Kenedt.
mate of Cambria, he himself convened a sjmod against
them. In Ireland also Pelagius's "Commentary on Pelisaon-Fontamer, Paul, a French writer, b.
St. Paul", described in the beginning of this article, at B^siers in 1624, of Protestant parents; d. at Vcr-
was in use long afterwards, as is proved by many Irish sailles, 7 February, 1693. He finished ms classical
quotations from it. Even m Italy traces can be found, studies at the age of eleven at Castres, studied phil-
not only in the Diocese of Aquileia (cf. Gamier, osophy at Montauban, law at Toulouse, and, when
"Opera Marii Mercat.", I, 319 sqq., Paris. 1673), but only nineteen years old, published a Latin translation
also in Middle Italy; for the so-c«Jled " Liber Praedes- of, and a commentary on, the first book of Justinian's
tinatus'', written about 440 perhai3s in Rome itself, "Institutes". In 1653 he wrote his" HistoiredeTAca-
bears not so much the stamp of Semipelagianism as 01 d6mie fran9aise"y which procured his election to that
genuine Pelagianism (cf. von Schubert, "Der sog. body. He became secretary to Superintendent Fou-
NARIANI8M. It was uot Until the Second Synod of was imprisoned in the BastiUe (1661), where he re-
Orange (529) that Pelagianism breathed its last in the mained four years. There he wrote his three "M6-
West, though that convention aimed its decisions pri- moires" in defence of Fouquet. Liberated in 1666 ho
marily against Semipelagianism (q. v.). was named royal historian by Louis XIV. In 1670
All the works of Pelagius. Cnlestiiu and Julian as well as ^® abjured the Protestant religion, received minor
the writincs of their adversaries Jerome, Augustine, Orosius, orders and subdiaconate, was given the Abbey
J?*^'S;^®"***'^**°a''***°^*'*''®*^'*u*'Ii°**^*?it*^V~°' of Guieont, and made admmistrator of divert
the article, are also the source* of the history of the Pelaeian k-«.«««^«« ««^ ^;«U».c.^« r^f ♦k^ ^^^^^-^ ^.»<^;.%.^' r^-
berasy. To these must be added the synodal acts of the different benefices and disburser Of the money destmed for
councils as far as they are extant. A Cor|m« Petai^wsnum for later needy converts. The charge that he refused the
^^ILI^JS^Ia^ 5^ **** above-mentioned work of CAsrABi. A laat sacraments on his deathbed is false; he attended to
collection of older documents 18 found m F. L., XL V, 1609 sqq.; !• i- • j a* i.^ j.u i -«. xi: _ i • i j .
cf. Bbucknsb, QueUen tut GetchictUc dea PelagianumuB in TezU hl8 relipoUS duties tO the last. His WOrkS mcludc:
vndC/fitcrniMunaen, byGEBHABOTANoHABMACK.xv.3(Leipsig, "Histoire de Louis XIV ' (published by Lemascrier,
}S^)\.^^^^S^<>^''T^'^*S?'^'''i^''^-^V'''''''7^ 1749); "Reflexions sur les diflf^rends en mati^re de
M get>lt€ben€ FragmenU des PeUigtua-Komtnentars zu den Paultnt- ^i; •' ' »> /iaQA\ a».a;,.<.4. T.i*;^.« ««^ T ^:i>««;4^.. *tn^^UA
sehm Briefen (Leipsi^, 1906); against its genuineness, cf. Klasen r?"g?2P , (1686), against JuneU and Leibmts; TraitS
an TUbinger Theologuche QuariaUchriA (1885), 244 sqa., 631 sqq.; de TEuchanstie ' (Pans, 1694), these two WOrks are
itogenuiMness (with unessential changes^^ in Migne, "Demonstrations evangeiiques", III;
PetagtuM tn Irland {Berlin, 1901) ',c{.8oxjtkh. The Commentary of k-d -a™ „„ G«;«* G^^^^^^^* ** /^'70A\^ n d^aLw. «.i
Pelaotue on the SpieOee o/ St. Paul: the Problem of He Reetoraiion , PnereS au Samt-Sacrement (1734); Pneres BUT
\uper< _
iuble U C. W. f. Wam:h. £n<«mr/ etner tollsU[n^en Hietorie der GbORGB M. SaUVAGB.
Kettereien, IV (Leipsig, 1768) ; J. 0. Walch. De Pelaguiniemo ante
Pelagium (Jena, 1738) ; Wioqebs, Praomalieche DarUeUung dee . , «- *«*,..
Auguttiniemue und Pelagianiemu* (Hamburg, 1833) ; Jacobi, Die P6lla» a titular see and SUnragan 01 ScythopoUS m
t^^^Z'^"^ (Lcipys. 1842) ; WowrBB, Der PejagianUmue Palffistina Secunda. According to Stephanus Bysan-
fUUM «etn«m c/r«pru7H7 und «nner LeArs (Freiburg, 1874) ; Klaben, x: / \ au x au u ^ /^ .«j j i^ ai
DieinnereBniwiMungdeePelagianiemueiTrexhS^, 1882): Ebnst. ^^US (s. V.), the tOWn mUSt have been founded by Alex-
Pelagianieehe studienva Katholikj II (1884), 225 sqq.; I (1885), ander; in any case it is a Macedonian foundation.
5*.L'^5* ^^^7"?*i ^?~ n"^^ •'* ^<iL^ii^ ""^ ^?**7?f ' Alexander Janneus captured it, and as he was unable
Auguattne and the Pelag%an Controverey; The Detdovment of the a, _ j .» •! \J. ^ ^ i .. t j^r j
I>octHne of infani Salvation (New York. 1897); Bbucknbb. Julian ^ persuade the inhabitants to embrace Judaism, de-
9on Belanum, aein Leben und eeine Lehre (Leipsig. 1897) ; Hefblb. Stroved it (Josephus, " Bel. Jud.", I, iv, 8; ** Ant. Jud.
n!^^!!!*^!^*! Vir ^^r'*!?74oiP^.^°* "^ai Schwanb, XIII, XV, 4) ; Pompey rebuilt it and reunited it to the
Dogmmgeeehichte^ II (Freiburg. 1895); Hbbgbkb5tbeb-Kib8ch. !>,.« ' '^/is :„ /uq^\ t..j » t ,,;: y. " a«* t..^ >»
XirchengeechichU,, I (Freiburg, 1902); TixBBOirp. HieUrire dei ^^Y^^^e of Syria ("Bel. Jud. I, VU, 7, Ant. Jud.' ,
dogms», II (Paris. 1909); Pbtbbb in Kirehgnksnkw, a. v.; LootB XiV, IV, 4); it became then a part ol Deci^xniS, I^
PSLLKTZUt 609 P1LUS8IIE
muned always a Greek town, and formed the northern literary organ, voiced the doctrines of the Romantf e
boundanrof Jewish Parens C'Bel.Jud.'', Ill, iii, 3). As writers as opposed to those of the Classicist school,
a part of the kingdom of Agrippa it offered in a. d. 66 and, as a political ornm, combatted all foreign domi-
a safe refuge to the little Christian community of Mt. nation in Italy. PelBco played an important part in
Sion who, imder the leadership of St. Simeon, took the editing of this periodical. In 182K), with a fellow*
refuge there during the revolt of the Jews, and the worker, Pietro Maroncelli, he incurrecl suspicion as a
siege of Jerusalem by the Romans (Eusebius, ''H. E.'', member of the Carbonari, and, having been arrested
III, v; Epiphanius, "Haer.", xxix, 7). When, after by order of the Austrians, was imprisoned first in the
three years of war and massacres, the second Jewish Piombi at Venice and next in tne dungeon of San
revolt had been suppressed by Rome (132-5), and Michele di Murano. After a perfunctory trial he and
Emperor Adrian had rebuilt Jerusalem under the name Maroncelli were condemned to death, but tlds penalty
of ''iElia Capotolina'^ a part of the community living was soon commuted into one of imprisonment with
at Fella re-established themselves by order of the un- hard labour, and they were taken to the fortress of
circumcised bi^op, Mark, on Mount Sion. Never- Spielberg in Moravia. After eight years of incarcera-
theless Christianity persevered at Pella, as testified by tion and much suffering. Pellico was released (1830).
Ariston (bom there m the second century, and author During the remainder of his life, broken down by the
of the ''Dialogue of Jason and Papiscos ), numerous hardships of imprisonment, he remained entirely aloof
Christian tombs and some inscriptions ("Revue from politics, and preferred a life of seclusion,
biblique*', 1899, VIII, 22). Le Quien (Oriens chris- Pellico is not one of the great Italian authors of the
tianus. III, 697-700) mentions only three bishops: nineteenth century; yet he is one who has endeared
Zebennus in 4^9; Paul in 518; and Zachaiy in 532. himself permanently to the Italian heart by a sindle
Tlie ruins of Pella may be seen at Tabakat-Fahil document, his orison diary, "Le mie Prigioni". In
beyond the Jordan and opposite Scythopolis or Beisan; this work, which rapidly became popular and passed
the necropolis and a Christian basihca with three into foreign languages, he relates in simple and unaf-
naves are noteworthy. fected prose his experiences and emotions during the
Smith. Did, of Greek and Roman Geog., II. 570; Shuhmaxbb, whole period of his Confinement. There is no tone of
Ftila (London. l88SUSchoe d'OrUnt. Ill (1899). 83. bitterness in his manner; his attitude throughout is
&. VAiLHB ^jjj^^ q£ ^jjg genuinely devout and resigned Cathohc,
Pelletler. PiermkFosbph, b. m Paris, 22 March, f^^ ^? records with infinite detail and often with pro-
17887rK 19 My, 1842. His father, Bertrand ^T^iL^nt^^^^^^^
Pelletier, a pharmacist and a foUower of Lavoisier, ?^. PJ??^- ,9"^ ^^Jl® *«^,^* °^ ^^f^^'^^J^"^^ ^®
mXierJ^^^ent offices in France after the &^„^i!l!^^
?TlfV&rw^^ Se^r^hL'efiif^^^^^
his father the son «^«^«i P^^^y^"^,^^^^ ?' Prigioni " the favourite that it is, and well has it been
lowed m his steps m^docm^^of^^^^^^ ^£ He^^^^^^^ ......_....
loids. He was associated, with Ca, 5!^/r;?^h"e^''tu^^^^^ ^
Novellepoetiche". roman-
Lh medieval life and
Doveri degli uo-
waa awarded to him by the Pari Academy of Science t^^^ K^hSt liv?M toX^v^Z*^ ^^^rl
for the discovery, this being the sole reward for so "7^!i!lSrP ?^Fn7rf^ario"? «nTf n^^i
great an acWeveiJent. Strychnine was another of his S^nTl^n V' mLW^ Onlv etft oF^^
discoveries and his memoir on the sub ect was pub- !Sm havTbSsn oublShSl the SKmoT tl^
lish^ in Paris.in 1818. He w« pH.f^sor in the ^cote J?^f,n^^'r&t^'?^iSLg*^tLXTi.tt
de pharmacie m Pans and m 1832 became one of ite tradition, was performed succeifully in 1818; itJn.
adjunct directoni. He was. appomW a m«^ ^ at once the attention of Byfon and he tnaui--
(^nseildesdubnWofPamaadhe^^^^ Eted it into English. The "Francisca" ranks next in
of honour. ^ 1840 he was elected ^ the Academy of i^Dortance among his works to the "Prigioni".
Sciences. The naturaJ alkaloid— pcdletiwme— and g^, (Mii„. isiS); BputoUtHo (Florence, ilse): u mU
three others were named after him by their discoverer, frvimi, ed. Pakatia, Soniooho, and othen; PottU » uutn
Tauret. Among his works may be cited: "Notice but ff***^ <^'S*' i^'^'i n^*" * j'-'^'^S* /J"*^ (Milan, isw);
, ^i .* J . ...i. „•' • «„ii_L„„t;„_ _:tu RlwtBB!, DMa nia t deUe optrt di S. P. (3 vols., Tunn, 18BS-
la matifere verte dee feuilles", m collaboration with looi); 610*1.0.8. P. (Turin.Tsei); PaAiu.inRmuCoktem«>-
Caventou (Pans, 1817); "Analyse chinuque des qum- raint, 1853-4; Didibb in Rmu du Dtuz Uond— (Sept., 184S).
quinas" (Paris, 1821); "Notice sur les recherches J. D. M. Fobd.
ciiinuques" (Paris, 18»), etc. PeUetier, as Cauchy pelUwler (Pblucier), GvoA^jna, b. at Mel-
testifies, was a convinced Cathohc. eij j^ Languedoc, about 1490; d. at the castle of
Ki?uSt'^a.'^:Sr«(iSXS&i£5rr9Mr """"* MontfermutC ises.' Hemadealtrilliantooiirseinlaw
T. O'CoNOR Sloane. ai^d theology and travelled m France and Italy. In
1527 his uncle. Bishop of Maguelonne, appointed him
PeliioOf Silvio, Italian author and patriot, b. at canon and shortly afterwards his coadjutor. He be-
ing also a four-dears' sojourn in Lyons. At the age of eluded peace
twenty he was m Milan, where he made the acquaint- he arranged with Clement VII for the marriage of the
ance of several of the best Italian writers, among whom Due d'Orl^ans (Henri II) and Catherine de' Medici,
were Monti, Foscolo, and Manzoni. Here he taught He obtained permission for the translation of his ^is-
French in a school, conducted by the Government, for copal see from Maguelonne to Montpellier from Paul
soldiers' orphans, and when the Austrian authonties Hi in 1536. Four vears later he was sent as ambassa-
deprived him of this post, he served |us a private tutor dor to Venice, and brought back a large number of
in different families, especially in that of Count Luigi Greek, S3rriac, and Hebrew MSS. An ardent Human-
Porro Lfuoabertenghi, one of the leading opponents of ist, he was arrested on suspicion of heresy by order of
Austrian dominion in the land. Lambertengni founded the Parliament of Toulouse, and imprisoned in the
In 1819 the periodical "II ConcUiatore", which, as a castle of Beaucaire, though he easily freed himself
XI.— 39
PKL0TA8
610
PKLU81UM
from the charae and passed the remainder of his days
combatting the Protestant heresy. He was obliged
more than once to quit Montpellier, for Aigues-
MorteSy and Maguelonne. In 1567 the Protestants
destroyed his cathedral. His corl^espondence was
published at Paris (1900) ; his commentaries on Tao-
itus are unpublished.
Vaxbsebb and Dbmx, H%9t. gtnirdU de LanQuedoc.
T. Lataste.
Pelotas, DiocESB of (Pelotasensis), in Brazil,
suffragan to Porto Alegre. By a decree of Pius X,
dated 15 Aug., 1910^ the See of Sfto Pedro do Rio
Grande was erected mto an archbishopric under the
title of Porto Alegre (a. v.) and given four suffragansi
three of which were detached mm the old diocese.
One of these. Pelotas, was formed from twenty-four
parishes in tne south-eastern portion of Rio Grande
do Sul. It includes most of the territory lying near the
Lag6a Miri, and the lower half of the LagOa dos PatOs.
The cathedral church of the new diocese, dedicated to
St. Francis of Paula, is at Pelotas, a well-constructed,
handsome city, situated on the Sfio Goncalo. Pelotas,
a centre of conunercial activity^ especially in the cattle
trade, contains about 25,000 mhabitants, and has a
Jesuit college. Rio Grande, its seaport, twentyndx
miles to the south-east, has about 20,000 inhabitants.
The other chief centres of population are at Bag^, S&o
Louren^o, Sfio Jos^ do Norte, and Boqueirfto. The
population is almost entirely Catholic.
(iALANTi, Compendia de hittoria do Bnuil, III, IV (Sfto Paulo,
1002-06). A. A. MacErlean.
Peloiue, ThAofhilb- Jules, scientist, b. at Va-
lognes. La Manche. 26 Feb., 1807; d. in Paris, 31 May
or 1 June, 1867. He began his career as a pharmacist,
studying at La F^re. In 1827 he went to Paris and be-
came an assistant to Gay Lussac and Lessaigne. At this
period he also occupied a position in the hospital of La
Salpfttri^e, but resigned to p;et back to his researches.
In 1830 he was a professor m the University of Lille;
in 1833 assayer to the Mint, and on the staff of the
Polytechnic School in Paris: and later was engaged in
the College de France, holoing the title of professor
there untU 1851. In 1836 he visited Germany and was
associated in his work in organic chemistry with Li&-
big. In 1837 he succeeded Deyeux as a member of the
Academy of Sciences of France. In 1848 he was made
president of the Mint Ck>Qmii88ion, and in 1849 became
' a member of the Municipal G>mmi8sion at Paris. He
resigned his public positions in 1852.
His work with Liebig included investigations on
oenanthic ether, tannic acid, stearin, sugar, etc., and
with Fr^my, CiJiours, and G61is, on a series ot vegetable
acids, including mallic and gallic acids, and on petro-
leum and butyric fermentation. He was the first to
S3rnthe8ize a tatty substance from glycerine and an
acid; to isolate tannic acid; to identify beet-root
and caneHSUgar as beinp the same; and to make gun-
cotton or nitrocellulose m France. Other work by him
was devoted to anal^rtical chemistry and the deter-
mination of the atomic weights of several of the ele-
ments. Discovering a new class of salts (nitro-sul-
phates) he based thereon a new analytical method for
the determination of copper. In 1850 as consulting
chemist of the St. Gobain glass works he introduced
sodium sulphate as a constituent in glaschmaking. pro-
ducing artificial aventurine with chromium as a basis,
studymg the effect of sunlight on coloured glass, ana
worlung on enamels. Manv of his papers have been
publi^ed in the '^ Annales cfe Chimie et de Phvsique"
and in the ' * Comptes Rendus ' ' . He published several
works: ''Trait6 ae Chimie G^n^rale, analytique, In-
dustrielle et agricole'' (3 vols., Paris, 1847), in collab-
oration with Frtmy; "Abr6g^ de Chimie" (Paris,
1848); ''Notions g^ndrales de Chimie" (Paris, 1853).
According to his friend, the Abb6 Moigno, he died an
edifying Christian death.
PoooBNDOBFV, Bioffniphueh^LiUmnadiet HandwMertuek wm
QtuchidAe der exaeten Wtaaentehaflen (Leipsig, 1863); FiomxBi
L'AnnSe Scientifique {XII Annie)^ Comptet Rendus Hdtdomadaire§
des S4aneu de VAeadhnii de* Sdeneee, LXIV (Paris, 1867).
T. O'CoNOR Sloans.
PeltriOy Madeleinb de la, nie Chauvigny, a
French noblewoman, and foundress, b. at Caen, 1603;
d. at Quebec, 18 November, 1671. In spite of her
monastic inclionations, she was forced to wea, at seven-
teen, Charles de la Peltrie, who died five years later.
After ten years of widowhood spent in piety and alms-
deeds, Lejeune's ''Relation" awakenea in her soul an
ardent desire for the Canadian mission, which she
strove to accomplish notwithstandins fresh opposition
from her father. To overcome this, while seem-
ingly complying with her parent's wish to see her re-
married, it was arranged that the saintly de Bemi^re-
Louvigny would ask her hand, leaving her free to
pursue her generous design. Her father's death inter-
vening, the union was cancelled, though her friend
espoused the realisation of her plans, duly approved
by de Condren and St. Vincent de Paul. She corre-
sponded with the Venerable Marie de I'lncamation.
who recognized her as the soul providentially destined
to seconof her zeal. They reached Quebec, 1 August,
1639, and began together a life of pnvations and mer-
its inseparable from the rude condition of the colony
and the savage nature of their wards. Madame de la
Peltrie's charitv exerted itself at Sillery, where she
stood sponsor for manv a dark neophyte. Her inti-
macy with Jeanne Mance, Maisonneuve. and the
other prospective founders of Ville Marie, auring the
first winter spent near Quebec (1641-42), prompted
her to follow them to Montreal, where she was the fij^
communicant at the first Mass celebrated by Father
Vimont, S.J. (1642). Deterred from her apparently
eccentric plan of visiting the Huron missions, die
finally returned to Quebec after an absence of eighteen
months, and devoted herself and her fortune wholly
and irrevocably to the work of Marie de I'lncamation.
In spite of her entreaties she was never formally ad-
mitted to the novitiate, but led the himible andf aus-
tere life of a true religious, scrupulously following
every detail of the observances, and reaching a high
degree of contemplative prayer. Governor Cour-
celles, Intendant Talon, the Indians, and the poor
attended her fimeral. Besides contributing to the
foundation of the Ursuline monastery, she had in-
augurated in Quebec, the admirable mission of charity
for women of society.
DiOMNB, ServUeura et Senantee de Dieu au Canada (Quebec,
1004) ; La VhUrabUMarie de V Incarnation (Paris. 1010) ; Moisbb
8tb. Croix, Glimpeee of the Monastery (Quebec, 1807).
Lionel Lindsay.
Pelusiuzn, titular metropolitan see of Augustam-
nica Prima in Egypt, mentioned in Esech., xxx, 15 sq.,
(A. V. Sin), as the strength or rampart of Egypt
against his enemies from Asia, which clearly outlines
the eastern frontier of the Delta. Sin in Chaldaic,
and SeyAn in Aramaic, means mire, like the Greek
TLfiSowrlov^ which is a translation of it and which, ao-
cording to Strabo (XVII, i, 21), refers to the mire and
the marshes which surrounded the town. The latter
was very important, being on the route of the cara-
vans from Africa to Asia, also because its harbour
joined the sea to the branch of the Nile called Pelusiac
The Pharaohs put it in a good state of defence.
Among its sieges or battles were: the expedition of
Nabuchodonosor, 583 b. c; that of Camoyses who
stormed it, 525 b. c. (Herod., Ill, 10-12); that of
Xerxes, 490 b. c, and of Artaxerxes, 460 b. c; the
battle of 373 b. c. between Nectanebus King of Egypt,
Phamabasus, Satrap of Phrygia, and Iphicrates, gen-
eral of the Athenians. In 333 b. c. the city opened its
gates to Alexander; in 173 b. c. Antiochus Epiphanes
triumphed under its walls over Ptolemey Philimetor;
In 55 B. c. Anthony captured it; and in 31 b. c. Augua*
611
PENAL
tu8 occupied it. The Shah Choeroes took it in a. d.
616, Amru in 640: Baldwin I Kin^ of Jerusalem burned
it in 1117. The branch of the Nile became choked up
and the sea overflowed the region and transformed it
into a desert of mud. A hill, covered with ruins of
the Roman or Byzantine period and called Tell
Farameh, marks the site. There are also the ruins
of a fort called Tineh.
The first known bishop is Callinicus, a partisan of
Meletium: Dorotheus assisted at the Council of
NicsBa; Marcus, Pancratius, and Ammonius (fourth
century); Eusebius (first half of the fifth century);
GeoTfffi (sixth century). Pelusium became the met-
ropohtan see of Augustanmica when that province
was created, mentioned first in an imperial edict of
342 (Cod. Theod., XII, i, 34). The greatest glory
of Pelusium is &t. Isidore, d. 450. Under the name of
Farmah, Pelusium is mentioned in the "Chronicle" of
John of Nikiu in the seventh century (ed. Zottenberg,
392, 396, 407. 695).
Lb Quisn, Orient diri$iianu8, II, 531-34; AiiiuKSAU, La
oiograj^U de VBgypte d Vipomu copU (Paris, 1893), 317; Bourr,
2)« tando Indoro Peluaiota (Ntmes, 1884).
8. VailhA.
Pembroke, Diocese of (Pembrokiensis), suffra-
gan of Ottawa, in Canada. The town of Pembroke
has a beautiful location on the Ottawa River, about
one hundred miles west of the City of Ottawa, in the
midst of a rich farming and lumbering district. The
locality is mentioned m the early hi^ry of Indian
missions in Upper Canada; Champlain, when on a
voyage of exploration of the Upper Ottawa, pitched
his tent where now stands the Pembroke court house.
The names of the early missionaries are lost, the first
known h&ng those of Fathers Dupins and Belief euille,
Sulpicians of Montreal, who preached to the Indians
of this region in 1836. The foundation of the mission
there is ascribed to Father Ljmch, and the first resident
griest was Father Gillie, under whose direction the
rst church was begun in 1847. This soon proved
inadequate and a more extensive stone structure was
erectea on a new site. In 1882 when -Pembroke was
chosen as the see of the new vicariate, plans, eventu-
ally carried out, were prepared to transform this
church into the Cathedral of St. Columba. The dio-
cese of Pembroke comprises the county of Renfrew,
part of each of the counties of Frontenac, Addington,
Hastinm, and Haliburton, of the district of Nipissins
in the Province of Ontario, and the southern jpart of
the county of Pontiac in the Province of Quebec.
This territory was separated from the Dioceses of
Ottawa, Three Rivers, and St. Boniface, and erected
into the Vicariate of Pontiac, 11 July, 1882. This im-
mense district comprised a great portion of northern
Ontario and Quebec, extending as far north as Hudson
Bay, and east to the district of Keewatin. The work
of colonization and development progressed so rapidly
that, 4 May, 1898, the vicariate was erected into the
Diocese of Pembroke with episcopal see at Pembroke.
The remarkable growth of the northern districts, prin-
cipallv through the discovery of immense mineral
wealth of gold and silver in the now renowned cobidt
region, led to the formation of a new vicariate at Ten-
niscanning, 22 September, 1908.
Narcisse Zephyrin Lorrain, first Bishop of Pem-
broke, was bom at St. Martin, Laval Countv, Quebec,
13 June, 1842. His early education was obtamed in
his own parish school and in 1855 he bepm his classi- •
cal studies in the College of St. Ther&se, from which
he entered the Seminary of St. Ther^. Ordained at
Montreal, 4 August, 1867, by Bishop Bourget, for two
vears he filled the duties of professor and director of
his Alma Mater. In 1869 with Bishop Bourget's con-
sent, he was appointed parish priest of Redford then
in the Diocese of Albany, New York. He was recalled
to Montreal in 1879 and in the following year was
appointed vicar-general of that diocese. Two years
later he was chosen vicar-general of the new Vicari-
ate of P6ntiac, and consecrated Bishop of Cythera,
21 September. 1882, in the church of Notre Dame,
Montreal, ana on the following day entered Pembroke,
where he was to take his residence as Vicar ApoB-
tolic of Pontiac. When the vicariate was erected into
a diocese he became its first bishop. The works and
progress of the diocese under the administration of
Bishop Lorrain are proofs of his untiring energ^yr, apos-
tolic seal, and keen business ability. He visited the
Indian missions of the north five times. In 1884 he
covered a distance of fifteen hundred miles to the mia-
sions of Abbitibbi, Moose Factory, and Albany, and
in 1887 in visiting the missions of the St. Maurice he
made a voyage of seventeen hundred miles, which like
the first and the other three, was for the most part
made in canoe or on foot.
The diocese numbers: about 37,000 Catholics; 27
parishes with resident priests, and 15 assistant priests;
missions, 34; stations, 17: chapels, 7. Of the clergy
38 are seculars and 4 Oblates of Mary Immaculate.
Among the communities of women connected with
works of charity and education are: the Grey Nuns
of the Cross, Sisters of St. Joseph, Sisters of Provi-
dence, Sisters of the Holy Cross, Sisters of the Holy
Family. Two large and well-equipped hospitals are
conducted by the first mentioned community. The
separate school system enjoyed throughout the dio-
cese gives to all a good opportunity for primary and
religious instruction, while the higher education ' of
young men is obtained principally at the University
of Ottawa. There are 5 academies with 1200 pupils;
71 parochial schools with 13,270 pupils.
H. E. Letang.
Peiia (Pbgna), Francisco, canonist, b. at Villaroya
de los Pinares, near Saragossa, about 1540; d. at
Rome, in 1612. He devoted himself to the study of
law at Valencia. Later Philip II appointed him audi-
tor of the Rota for Spun, and while at Rome he per-
formed great services not only for his fellow-country-
men but also for the Holy See. He formed one of the
commission charged with the preparation of the offi-
cial edition of the "Corpus juris canonic!", published
in 1582, and the anonymous notes appended to the
edition of the Decretals are attributed to him: he was
also concerned in the canonisation of several saints:
Didacus, Hyacinth, Raymond, Charles Borromeo,
and Frances of Rome, publishing bioja;aphie8 of sev-
eral. His principal works are: '*In Directorium In-
quisitorum a Nicolao Eimerico conscriptum commen-
taria" (Rome, 1578); ''De officio Inquisitionis"
(Cremona, 1655) ; '' In Ambrosii de Vignate tractatum
de hseresi commentaria et in Pauli Grillandi de h»-
reticis et eorum poenis notse" (Rome, 1581); "In
Bemardi Comensis Dominicani Lucemam inquisi-
torum notffi et ejusdem tractatum de stri^ous"
(Rome, 1584); "Responsio canonica ad scnptum
nuper editum in causa Henrici Borbonii quo illius
fauntores persuadere nituntur episcopos in Francia
jure illos absolvere potuisse" (Rome, 1595); "Cen-
sura in arrestum Parlamentale dkirise criminalis Pari-
siensis contra Joannem Castellum et patres Societatis
Jesu" (Rome, 1595); "De temporah reano Christi"
(Rome, 1611). His "Decisiones sacrse Kotae" were
published by Urritigoiti (2 vols., Saragossa, 1648-50),
NicoLAUB Antonius. Btbltolheca Hitpana nova, I (Madrid,
1783). 467-58; Schttlts, Du Ge»ch der Quellen und Lit, det
oannmitckm ReehU, III (Stuttgart, 1880), 734.
A. Van Hove.
Penal Laws. — This article treats of penal legisla-
tion affecting Catholics in English-flpeaking countries
since the Reformation. Separate heads are devoted to
the penal laws: I. In England; II. In Scotland; HI.
In Ireland: IV. In the American Colonies.
I. In England. — By a series of statutes sucoe»-
mve sovereigns and Parliaments from Elizabeth to
PENAL
612
FINAL
George III, sought to prevent the practice of the
Catholic Faith in England. To the sanguinary laws
passed by Elizabeth further measures, sometimes
mflicting new disqualifications and penalties, some-
times reiterating previous enactments, were added,
until this persecuting legislation made its effects
felt in every department of human life. Catholics
lost not only freedom of worship, but civil rights
as well; their estates, property, and sometimes even
lives were at the mercy of any informer. The fact
that these laws were passed as political occasion de-
manded deprived them of any coherence or consist-
ency; nor was any codification ever attempted, so that
the task of sunmiing up this long and complicated
course of legislation is a aifficult one. In his historical
account of the penal laws, published at the time when
partial relief had only just been sranted (see bibliog-
raphy at end of this section), the eminent lawyer,
Charles Butler, the first Catholic to be called to the
Bar after the Catholic Relief Act of 1791, and the
first to be appointed King's Counsel after the Cath-
olic Emancipation Act, thought it heat to group these
laws under five heads: (1) Those which subjected
Catholics to penalties and punishments for practising
their religious worship; (2) those which punished them
for not conforming to the Established Church (Stat-
utes of Recusancy); (3) those regulating the penalties
or disabilities attending the refusal to take the Oath
of Supremacy Q559; 1605; 1689), the declarations
against Transubstantiation (Test Act. 1673) and
against Poperv (1678); (4) the act passed with respect
to receiviiUE the sacrament of the Lord's Supper; (5)
statutes affecting landed property. For the present
piupose, however, it seems preferable to adopt a
chronological arrangement, wnich more clearly ex-
hibits the historical development of the code and the
state of the law at any particular period.
The Penal Laws began with the two Statutes of
Supremacy and Uniformity by which Queen Elizabeth,
in 1559, initiated her religious settlement; and her
legislation falls into three divisions corresponding to
tm'ee definitely marked periods: (1) 1558-70, when the
Government trusted to the policy of enforcing con-
formity by fines and deprivations; (2) 1570-80, from
the date of the queen's exconmiunication to the time
when the Government recognized the Catholic re-
action due to the seminary priests and Jesuits; (3)
from 1580 to the end of the reign. To the first period
belong the Acts of Supremacy and Unifonmty (I
Eliz. 1 and 2) and the amending statute (5 Eliz. c. 1).
B^ the Act of Supremacy all who maintained the
spiritual or ecclesiastical authority of any foreign prel-
ate were to forfeit all goods and chattels, both real
and personal, and all benefices for the first offence,
or in case the value of these was below £20, to be im-
prisoned for one year; they were liable to the for-
feitures of Praemunire for the second offence, and to
the penalties of high treason for the third offence.
These penalties of Prsmunire were: exclusion from
the sovereign's protection, forfe;iture of all lands and
goods, arrest to answer to the sovereign and Council.
The penalties assigned for high treason were draw-
ing^ hanging, and quartering: corruption of blood, by
which heirs became incapable of inheriting honours
and offices, and, lastly, forfeiture of all property.
These first statutes were made stricter bv the amend-
ing act (5 Eliz. c. 1), which declared that to main-
tam the authority of the pope in anv way was punish-
able bv penalties of Prsmunire for the first offence and
of high treason, though without corruption of blood,
for the second. All who refused the Oath of Suprem-
acy were subjected to the like penalties. The Act of
Uniformity, primarily designed to secure outward con-
formity in the use of the Anglican Book of Common
Prater, was in effect a penal statute, as it punished all
denes who used any other service by deprivation and
imprisonment, and everyone who refused to attend
the Anglican service by a fine of twelve pence for each
omission. It should be remembered that the amount
of these fines must be multiplied by ten or more to
give their modem equivalent.
Coming to the legislation of the second period, there
are two acts direct^ against the Bull of C^xoommuni-
cation: 13 Eliz. c. 1, which, among other enactments,
made it high treason to affirm tluit the queen ought
not to enjoy the Crown, or to declare her to be a here-
tic or schismatic, and 13 Eliz. c. 2, which made it high
treason to put into effect any papal Bull of absolution,
to absolve or reconcile any person to the Catholic
Church, or to be so abM>lvea or reconciled, or to pro-
cure or publish any papal Bull or writing whatsoever.
The penalties of Prsemunire were enacted against all
who Drought into England or who gave to others
Agnits Dei or articles blessed by the pope or by an;y-
one through faculties from him. A third act, 13 Ehz.
c. 3, which was designed to stop Catholics from taking
refuge abroad, decl^^ that any subject departing the
realm without the queen's licence, and not returning
within six months, should forfeit the profits of his
lands during life and all his goods and chattels. The
third and most severe group of statutes begins with
the ''Act to retain the Queen's Majesty's subjects in
their obedience" (23 Eliz. c. 1), passed in 1581. This
made it high treason to reconcile anyone or to be re-
conciled to 'Hhe Romish religion", prohibited Mass
under penalty of a fine of two hundred marks and im-
prisonment for one year for the celebrant, and a fine of
one hundred marks and the same imprisonment for
those who heard the Mass. This act also increased
the penaltv for not attending the Anglican service to
the sum of twenty pounds a month, or imprisonment
till the fine be paid, or till the offender went to the
Protestant Church. A further penalty of ten pounds a
month was inflicted on anyone keeping a schoolmaster
who did not attend the Protestant service. The
schoolmaster himself was to be imprisoned for one
year.
The climax of Elizabeth's persecution was reached
in 1585 by the ''Act against Jesuits, Seminary priests
and other such like disobedient persons" (27 Eliz. c.
2). Thb statute, under which most of Uie English
martyrs suffered, made it high treason for any Jesuit
or any seminary priest to be in En(|land at all, and
felonv for any one to harbour or relieve them. The
penalties of Prsemunire were imposed on all who sent
assistance to the seminaries abroad, and a fine of £100
for each offence on those who sent tneir children over-
seas without the royal licence.
So far as priests were concerned, the effect of all this
le^lation may be summed up as follows: For an^
pnest ordained before the accession of Elizabeth it
was hi^ treason i^ter 1563 to maintain the authority
of the pope for the second time, or to refuse the oath of
supremacy for the second time; a^ter 1571, to receive
or use any Bull or form of reconciliation; after 1581, to
absolve or reconcile anyone to the Church or to be ab-
solved or reconciled. For seminary priests it was hig^
treason to be in England at all after 1585. Under tms
statute, over 150 Catholics died on the scaffold be-
tween 1581 and 1603, exclusive of Elizabeth's earlier
victims.
The last of Elizabeth's laws was the "Act for the
better discovery of wicked and seditious persons tenn-
ing themselves Catholics, but being rebellious and
traitorous subjects" (35 Eliz. c. 2). Its effect was to
prohibit all recusants from removing more than five
miles from their place of abode, and to order all per-
sons suspected of being Jesuits or seminary priests,
and not answering sati^actorily, to be imprisoned till
they cfid so.
The hopes of the Catholics on the accession of James
I were soon dispelled, and during his reign (1603-25)
five very oppressive measures were added to the
statute-book. In the first year of his reign there waa
PENAL 613 PENAL
paased the "Act for the due execution of the statutes courts. Their houses were liable to be searched at any
against Jesuits^ seminary priests, etc" (I Jac. I, iv), time, their arms and ammunition to be seised, and any
by which all Ebzabeth's statutes were confirmed with bookis or furniture which were deemed superstitious to
additional aggravations. Thus persons going beyond be destroyed.
seas to any Jesuit seminary were rendered incapable of The two remaining statutes of James I were "An
purchasing or retaining any lands or goods in England ; Act to cause persons to be naturalized or restored in
the penalty of £100 on everyone sending a child or blood to conform and take the oath of allegiance and
ward out of the realm, which had been enacted only supremacy" (7 Jac. I, ii) and "An Act for the ref-
for Elizabeth's reign, was now made perpetual; and ormation of married recusant women, and admin-
Catholic schoolmasters not holding a licence from istration of the oath of aUegiance to all civil, militat-jr,
the Anglican bishop of the diocese were fined forty ecclesiastical and professional persons" (7 Jac. I, vi).
shillings a day, as were their employers. One slight re- The chief effect of this latter act was to cause the oath
lief was obtamed in the exemption of one-third of the to be offered to all persons over eighteen, and to em-
estate of a convicted recusant from liabilities to penal- power the conmiittai to prison of any recusant married
ties; but against this must be set the provision that re- woman, unless her husband paid £10 a month for her
tained the remiunin^ two-thirds alter the owner's Uberty.
death till all his previous fines had been paid. Even During the reign of Charles I the only penal statute
then these two-thirds were onlv to be restored to the was a short "Act to restrain the passing or sending of
heir provided he was not himself a recusant. any to be Popishly bred beyond the S^" (3 Car. I,
The carefully arranged "discovery" of the Gun- iii), which re-enacted the provisions in 3 Jac. I, c. 5,
powder Plot in 1605 was followed by two statutes of adding that offenders shoiild be disabled from prose-
particularly savage character. These were "An Act cuting any civil actions in law or equity; from acting
for the better discovering and repressing of Pppish Re- as guardian, executor, or administrator ; receiving any
cusants" (3 Jac. I, iv) and "An Act to prevent and legacy or deed of gift, or bearing any office within the
avoid dangers which may grow by Popish Hecusants" realm. Moreover, such offender was to forfeit aU his
(3 Jac. I, v). The first of these two wicked laws en- lands and personal property.
acted that all convicted recusants should communi- After the Restoration in 1660 an attempt was made
cate once a vear in the Anglican church imder penal- by Charles II, not unmindfuLof the sacnfices Catho-
ties of £20 for the first omission, £40 for the second, lies had made in the Stuart cause, to obtain a repeal
and £60 for the third. Moreover the king was to be of the Penal Laws, and a committee of the House of
allowed to refuse the penalty of £20 per month for Lords was appointed to examine and report on the
non-attendance at the Anglican church, and to take in question. Tne matter, however, was allowed to drop ;
its place ^1 the personal property and two-thirds of and in the following year both Houses of Parliament
the real property of the offender. But the main point joined in petitioning; the king to issue a proclamation
of this Act was the new Oath of Allegiance which it against the Cathohcs. Further efforts on the part
prescribed, and which was subsequently condemned of the king came to nothing, and matters remainea on
oy the Holv See. Yet aU who refused it were to be sub- the same footing till the latter part of his reign, when
jected to the penalties of Praemunire, except married new statutes of a harassing nature were paraed. With
women, who were to be imprisoned in the common the exception of the Corporation Act (13 Car. II, St.
jail. Finally, every householder of whatever religion 2, c. 1), which was not aimed against Catholics di-
was liable to a fine of £10 a month for each guest or rectly, but which provided that no person could hold
servant who failed to attend the Anglican church. anv municipal omce without takmg the Oaths of
The second Act was even worse, and the Catholic Allegiance and Supremacy and receiving the sacrament
historian Tiemey justly says of it that it "exceeded in in the Protestant church, no new measures were intro-
cruelty all that had hitherto been devised for the op- duced till 1673, when Parliament passed the Test Act
pression of the devoted Catholics". It prohibited (25 Car. II, ii). This required ail officers, civil and
recusants from remaining within ten miles of the city military, to take the same oaths and to make the Dec-
of London, a provision which it was impossible to laration ag^nst Transubstantiation. Five years later
carry out; or to remove more than five miles from their another Act was passed (30 Car. II, St. 2), which ex-
usual place of residence till they hakl obtained licence eluded all Catholics from sitting or voting in Parlia-
from four magistrates and the bishop of the diocese or ment, by requiring every member of either House to
lieutenant of the county. They were disabled from take the two oaths and to make the blasphemous Deo-
Eractising as lawyers, physicians, apothecaries; from laration against Popery. From this statute, which was
olding office in any court or corporation; from hold- entitled "An Act for the more effectual preserving the
ing commissions in the army or navy, or any office of King's person and government, by disabling Papists
emolument under the State; from discharging the du- from sitting in either House of Parliament", a special
ties of executors, administrators, or guardians. Any exception was made in favour of the Duke of York,
married woman who had not received the sacrament afterwards James II.
in the Anglican church for a vear before her husband's With the Revolution of 1688 began a new era of
death forfeited two-thirds of her dower, two-thirds of persecution. The "Act for further preventing the
her jointure, and was debarred from acting as execu- growth of Popery" (11 & 12 Gul. Ill, 4). pasi^ in
trix to her husband or claiming any part of his goods. 1699, introduced a fresh hardship into the lives of the
Husbands and wives, if married otherwise than by a clergy by offering a reward of £100 for the apprehen-
Protestant minister in a Protestant church, were each sion of any priest, with the result that Catholics
deprived of all interest in the lands or property of the were placed at the mercy of common informers who
other. They were fined £100 for omitting to have harassed them for the sake of gain, even when the
each of their childem baptized by the Protestant min- Government would have left them in peace. It was
ister within a month of oirth. All Catholics going or further enacted that any bishop or priest exercisixig
being sent b^ond the seas without a special licence episcopal or sacerdotal functions, or any Catholic
from kin^ or Privy Council were incapable of benefit- keeping a school, should be imprisoned for life; that
ting by gift, descent, or devise, till they returned and any Catholic over eighteen not taking the Oaths of
took the oath of allegiance; and in the meantime the Supremacy and Allegiance, or making the Declaration
Eroperty was to be held by the nearest Protestant against Popery, should be incapable of inheriting or
eir. And, lastly, every convicted recusant was ex- purchasing any lands; and any lands devised to a
communicated from the Established Church, with the Catholic who refused to take the oaths should pass to
resuU that they were debarred from maintaining or the next of kin who happened to be a Protestant. A
defending any personal action or suit in the civil reward of £100 was also offered for the conviction of
7KNAL 614 PINAL
any Catholic sending children to be educated abroad. Auf;ust, passed three statutes; the first abolishing the
The cruel operation of this Act, which made itself jurisdiction of the pope, the second repealing all for-
feit throughout the ensuing century, was extended by mer statutes in favour of the Cathohc Church, the
a measure paceed under Queen Anne (12 Anne, St. third providing that all who said or heard Mass should
2, c. 14), though Catholics were not generally molested be punished for the first offence by the confiscation of
during her reign. their eooda and by corporal penalties, for the second by
The last penal statutes to be enacted were those of banishment from Scotland, for the third by death. A
George I. oy I Greo., I, St. 2, c. 13, the Hanoverian temporary relaxation of these laws was due to Mary
Succession Oaths were to be taken by all Catholics to ^ueen of Scots, and a statute was even passed in 1567
whom they were tendered, under penalty of all the giving Hberty to every Scotsman to live according to
forfeitures to wldch "popiw recusant con^cts" were his own religion; but shortly after the Queen's mar-
liable. The Stuart rising of 1715 was followed by an- riage with Bothwell a proclamation was extorted from
other Act (I Geo., I, St. 2, c. 50) appointing commis- her on 23 May, 1567. by which severe penalties were re-
sioneiB to inquire into the estates of popish recusants newed against all wno refused to conform to Protes-
with a view to confiscating two-thiros of each estate, tantism. After Mary's deposition the Parliament of
The scope of "An Act to oblige Papists to roister 1568 passed further acts ratifying the establishment of
their names and real estates" (I Geo., I. St. 2, c. 55) is I^t^tantism, and prohibiting the exercise of any^
sufficiently indicated by its title. It added to the ex- other ecclesiastical jurisdiction. Lennox's Parliament
Dense of all transactions in land, the more galling as (1571) decreed the apprehension of aJl persons poe-
Catholics were doubly taxed under the annualland-tax sessing papal Bulls or dispensations or gifts and pro-
acts. (See also 4 Geo., Ill, c. 60.) In 1722 was passed visions of benefices.
"An Act for wanting an aid to lus Majesty by levying The persecution carried on under these statutes by
a Tax upon Papists" (9 Geo., I, 18), by which the the Priv;)r Council and by the General Assembly was
sum of one hundred thousand bounds was wrung from very severe. The Privy Council issued several procla-
the impoverished Catholics. Throughout the reign of mationa during the next half-century enforcing the
George II (1727-^) there were no further additions to penal statutes, forbidding the harbourine of Catholic
the penal code and under his successor, George III priests, ordering parents to withdraw their children
(1760-1820), the work of repeal was begun. ' from Catholic colleges abroad, and rendering hua-
Even this lengthy enumeration is not. absolutely bands liable for the acts of their wives done in support
exhaustive, and the Acts here cited contain many of the Catholic cause. A commission issued in July,
minor enactments of a vexatious nature. The task of 1629, ordered that, should persecuted Catholics take
repeal was a long, slow, gradual, and complicated one, refuge in fortified places, the commissioners should
the chief measures or relief being three: The First "follow, hunt and pursue them with fire and sword".
Catholic Relief Act of 1778, which enabled Catholics Though in Scotland there were fewer martyrdoms
to inherit and purchase land and repealed the Act of than m England or Ireland, yet the persecution fell
William III, rewarding the conviction of priests (see even more heavily on the rank and file of Catholics,
Burton, "Life and Times of Bishop Challoner", ch. and in some respects they suffered outrages not paral-
zxxi); the second Catholic Relief Act of 1791, which leled in England, such as the simultaneous expulsion
relieved all Catholics who took the oath therein pre- of aU Catholics from their homes which was ordered
scribed from the operation of the Penal Code (see and carri^ out in 1629-30. But there were times of
Ward, " Dawn of the Catholic Revival ", viii, xiv-xvi) ; comparative tranquillity when the rigour of the law
and the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829. The was not enforced.
onlv disqualifications against Catholics which appear At the close of the seventeenth century fresh stat-
to be still in force are those which prohibit the sov- utes were passed. In Mav, 1700, an Act of Parlia-
ereign from being or marrying a Catholic, or any Cath- ment offered a reward of five hundred merks for the
olic subject from holding the offices of Lord Chan- conviction of any priest or Jesuit; the same statute
cellor, or Lord Lieutenant of Ireland. disabled Catholics from inheriting property or edu-
Tiu Stafu^ at ijirj^e (vanoua e^uoM. that here mted being ^^ting thdr children. After the Act of Union, in 1707,
LoDdoii. 1768); ChroruHog%eal Tabu and Index of the StatuUa *^«»"b v"^^"*****^**- '••Y^: •'"^'**'-"^» \ ^yJr*. '^'*
(London, 1881); Butlbb, Hietorieal Account of the Law againat the Penal Laws were Still enforcea. In addition tO
ttormin CaiKoLice and of the Laweifoeeed for their relief {ji.^.tV7^)\ the provisions already recorded and Other sufferings
iDMii, HMtofioai Mem^e reev^%nQ the BngUeh Jrieh, and SaMieh ^^^^h they shared with English CathoUcs, there were
CathtAice (London, 1819); Anstby, A Guide to the Lam of Eng- m- ""^'J "r "f *^ «»•/»* .*^» i^«ou ^»viiwu«^, vu«c wuv
land affetiino Roman Caiholice (London. 1842); Maodbn. THm galhng restrictions peculiar tO Scotland. The DUT-
Hietory of the Penal Law enacted againet Roman Catholice (Lon- chase or dissemination of Catholic books was foibid-
^E^^S^i:i:2i::^^^Z'::i^::::t^.^S!^'. ^en under pain of baniAment and forfeiture of
For the practical working of the Penal Laws and the hardehipe personal property. lliey COUld not be governors,
they inflicted on Catholics reference must be made to English Bchool-masters, guardians or factors, and any one who
CathoUc literature p««m. The following of the richest employed them as such was fined a thousand merks.
sources of information: Bridobwatiir, Coneertatio Eccleata Ca^ mv ^ jx: u.jj i# ± t* tT^^
thoiiea, in Anglia (Trier. 1588) ; Dodd, Church Hietory (Brussels. They were fined five hundred merks for teachmg "any
vere Wolverhampton. 1737-42), and much additional information art, science or exercise of any SOrt . Any Protestaht
in Ti»»M«T'8 edition (London. 1839^3) ; Ckallonm. Memoire who became a Catholic forfeited his whole hereditable
«/ Mteeionary Prxeete (London. 1740-41); Bebinoton, StaU and ^^^.^^ 4.^ i.u^ •»«-.«*»*.♦ T>«^4««4^»»« k^;-
Behaviour of Englieh Catholice from the Reformation to the Year «8*SJ® <? **^e nearest P^tMtant heiT.
1781 (London, 1781); Mobris, Troubiee of Our Catholic Fore- The first repeal of the Penal Code was effected by
fjuhere (London 1872-77); Idbm. TluLifeofFath^John Gerard thft Act for the relief of Scottish Catholics, which re-
{fc±S; l^i'As!^)rhu^^ H^iZ^^'oT'^hZ^^ ceived the joyal assent in May, 1793, and practically
tion (London, 1886); Pollen, Aete of Englieh Martyre (London, complete liberty was granted tO them Under the pro-
1891); M0BBI8, Catholic England in Modem Timee (London, visions of the Catholic Emancipation Act of 1829.
1892) ; Anon, T*« Poettxon of the Cathclxc Chur^jn England and Stothebt, ed. Gobdon. Catholic Church in Scotland, published
Waleedunng the lael two Centurvee (London 1892) ; Thaddbus. anonymously (Glasgow. 1869); Bellesheiii. tr. HuN^ik-BLAiB,
Tj^Frane^Acar^xnEnglar^i^^min^n, 1898); Patne. Recorde Hietory of the Cathoiie Church in Scotland (Edinburgh. 1887-90);
of the Engheh Catholice of 1716 (LonlSS* *2?°^ ' S,^""' ^^ ""l Stewart. The Church of Scotland 1070-1660 (Paisley. 1892). 3M
^ ?^'^^^.l'^^^^ ^^°**°°Voi2?*^iS^' u^"*?' ?i*^"''i'"**( «J<1- Forbes-Lexth. Memoire of ScoUieh Catholice dwiJi the
Engluh Catholice (I^ndon 1909). Much valuable incidental SeventeefUh and Eighteenth Ctnturiu (London. 1909).
information on the Penal Code is also to be found in Gillow. ^ t?J„„*, t>„.,>«^«.
BiJU. Diet, of Eng. Cath. Publicatione of the Catholic Record So- IfiDWIN liURTON.
eiely (London. 1905—) include prison lists, lists of recusants etc.
Edwin Burton. III. In Ireland. — Although the penal laws of
Ireland were passed by a Protestant Parliament
II. In Scotland. — ^The first penal statutes were en- and aimed at aepriving Catholics of their faith, such
acted by the Scottish Parliament of 1560, which, on 14 laws were not the outcome of religious motives 'only.
PSNAL 615 PENAL
They often came from a desire to poesees the lands of short-lived. But even when William of Orange had
the Irish, from impatience at their long resistance, triumphed, toleration of Catholicity was expected,
from the contempt of a ruling for a subject race. For the Treaty of Limerick (1691) gave the Catholics
(See Ireland, Tm AngUhNormans.) When Henry ''such privileges as they enjoyed in the reign of
VIII broke with Rome sectarian rancour came Charles II "; and William was to obtain from the Irish
to embitter racial differences. The English Parlia- Parliament a further relaxation of the penal laws in
ment passed the Act of Supremacy, making Henry existence. The treaty was soon broken. The Eng-
head of the Church; but the Irish Parliament was less lish Parliament, presuming to legislate for Ireland,
coDH>liant, and did not pass the bill till the legislative enacted that no one should sit in the Irish Parliament
powers of the representatives of the clergy had been without taking the Oath of Supremacy and subscribing -
taken away. And though the Act of Supremacy to a declaration against Transubstantiation; and the
(1536) was accepted by so many Irish chiefs, they Irish Parliament, filled with slaves and bigots, ac-
were not followed by the clergy or people in their cepted this legislation. Catholics were thus exclude;
apostasy. The suppression of monasteries followed, and in spite of the declared wishes of King William,
entailing the loss of so much property and even of the Irish Parliament not only refused to relax the
many lives. Yet httle progress was made with the Penal Laws in existence but embarked on fresh penal
new doctrines either in Henry's reign or in that of his legislation. Session after session, for' nearly fifty
successor, and Mary's restoration of the Faith led the years, new and more galling fetters were foreed, until
Protestant Elizabeth to again resort to penal laws, at last the Penal (Dode was complete, and weD merited
In 1559 the Irish Parliament passed both the Act the description of Burke: "as well fitted for the op-
of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity, the former pression, impoverishment and degradation of a feeble
{)rescribing to all officers the Oath of Supremacy, the people and the debasement in them of human nature
atterproybitingthe Mass and oommandms the public itself as ever proceeded from the perverted ingenu-
use of the Book of Common Prayer. Whoever re- ity of man". All bishops, deans, vicars-general, and
fused the Oath of Supremacy was dismissed from fnars were to leave the country and if they returned,
office, and whoever refused to attend the Protestant to be put to death. Secular priests at home could
service was fined 12 pence for each offence. A subse- remain if they were registered; m 1700, however, they
quent viceregal proclamation ordered all priests to were required to take an oath of abjuration which no
leave Dublin and prohibited the use of images, can- priest could conscientiously take, so that registration
dleSj and beads. For some time these Acts and procla- ceased to be a protection. They could not set up
mations were not rigorously enforced; but after 1570, schools at home nor resort to Catholic schools abroad,
when Elizabeth was excommunicated by the pope, nor could they receive legacies for Catholic charities,
toleration ceased; and the hunting down of the £farl nor have on their churches steeple, cross, or bell,
of Desmond, the desolation of Munster, the torturing The Isdty were no better off than the clergy in the
of O'Hurley ajid others, showed how merciless the matter of civil rights. They could not set up Catho-
?ueen and her ministers could be. Elizabeth disliked lie schools, nor teach in such, nor go abroad to
'arliaments and had but two in her reign in Ireland. Catholic schools. They were excluded from Parlia-
She governed by proclamation, as did her successor ment, from the corporations, from the army and navy,
James, and it was under a proclamation (1611) that from the legal profession, and from all civil offices,
the blood of O'Devany, Bishop of Down, was shed. They could not act as sheriffs, or imder sheriffs, or as
In the next reign there were periods ot toleration jurors, or even as constables. They could not have
followed by the false promises of Strafford and the more than two Catholic apprentices in their trade;
attempted spoliation of Connaught, until at last the they could not carry arms, nor own a horse worth
Catholics took up arms. more than £5; they were excluded even from residence
Cromwell disliked Parliaments as much as Eliza^ in the larger corporate towns. To bury their dead
beth or James, and when he had extinguished the in an old ruined abbey or monastery involved a pen-
Rebellion of 1641, he abolished the Irish Parliament, alty of ten pounds. A Catholic workman refusing
fiving Ireland a smaU representation at Westminster, to work on Cfatholic holy days was to be whipped; and
t was by Acts of this Westminster Parliament that there was the same punidmient for those wno made
the Cromwellian settlement was carried out, and that pilgrimages to holy wells. No Catholic could act as
so many Catholics were outlawed. As for ecclesias- guardian to an infant, nor as director of the Bank of
tics, no mercy was shown them under Cromwellian Ireland; nor could he marry a Protestant, and the
rule. They were ordered to leave Ireland, and put to priest who performed such a marriage ceremony was
death if they refused, or deported to the Arran Isles to be put to death. A Catholic could not acquire land,
or to Barbadoes, and those who sheltered them at norbuy it, nor hold a mortgage on it; and the Catholic
home were liable to the penalty of death. To such landlord was bound at death to leave his estate to his
an extent was the persecution carried that the Cath- children in eoual shares. During life, if the wife
olic churches were soon in ruins, a thousand priests or son of such oecame a Protestant, she or he at once
were driven into exile, and not a single bishop re- obtained separate maintenance. The law presumed
mained in Ireland but the old and helpless Bishop every Catholic to be faithless, disloyal, and imtruthful,
of Kilmore. With the accession of Charles II the assumed him to exist only to be punished, and the
Irish Catholics looked for a restoration of lands and ingenuity of the Legislature was exhausted in discover-
liberties;butthehopesraisedby the Act of Settlement ing new methods of repression. Viceroys were con-
(1663) were finally dissipated by the Act of Explaiui- stantly appealed to to give no countenance to Popery;
tion (1665), and the Catholics, plundered by the Crom- magistrates, to execute the penal laws; degraded
wellians, were denied even the justice of a trial. The Iriwmen called priest-hunters were rewarded for
English Parliament at the same time prohibited the spying upon Uieir priests, and degraded priests who
importation into England of Irish cattle, sheep, or ^ostatized were rewarded with a government pension,
pigs. The king favoured toleration of Cathohcity, llie wife was thus encouraged to disobey her husband,
but was overruled by the bigotry of the Parliament m the child to flout his parents, the friend to turn traitor
England and of the viceroy, Ormond, in Ireland; and to his friend. These Protestant legislators in posses-
if the rei^ of Charles saw some toleration, it dso saw sion of Catholic lands willed to make all Catholics
the judicial murder of Venerable Oliver Plunkett and a helpless and poor. Without bishops they must soon
proclamation by Ormond, in 1678, ordering that all be without priests, and without schools they must
priests should leave the country, and that all Catholic necessarily go to the Protestant schools. These hopes
churches and convents should be closed. however proved vain. Students went to foreign
The triumph of the Catholics under James II was colleges, and bishops came from abroad, facing im-
manAL
616
PENAL
priflonment and death. The schoolmaster taukht
under a sheltering hedge, and the priest said Mass oy
stealth, watched over by the people, and in spite of
priest-hunter and penal laws. Nor were the Catholics
won over by such Protestant ministers as they saw,
men without zeal and often without faith, not unlike
those described by Spenser in Elizabeth's day — *'of
Seshy incontinency, greedy avarice and disordered
ves". In other respects the Penal Laws succeeded.
' They made the Catholics helpless, ignorant, and poor,
without the strength to rebel, the hope of redress,
or even the courage to complain.
At last the tide turned. Too poor to excite the
cupidity of their oppressors, too ^ble to rebel, the
Cathohcs had nevertheless shown that they would
not become Protestants; and the repression of a feeble
people, merely for the sake of repression, had tar-
nished the name of England, and ahenated her friends
amon^ the Catholic nations. In these circumstances
the Irish Parliament began to retrace its steps, and
concessions were made, slowly and grudgingly. At
first the Penal Laws ceased to be rigorously enforced,
and then, in 1771, Catholics were allowed to take
leases of unreclaimed bog for sixty-one years. Three
years later they were allowed to substitute an Oath
of Allegiance for the Oath of Supremacy; and in 1778
Gardiner's Act allowed them to take leases of land for
999 years, and also allowed Catholic landlords to
leave their estates to one son, instead of having, as
hitherto, to divide between all. In 1782 a further
Act enabled Catholics to set up schools, with the leave
of the Protestant bishop of tne place, enabling them
idso to own horses in the same way as Prot^tants,
and furtiier permitting bishops and priests to reside
in Ireland. Catholics were also allowed to act as
guardians to children. Grattan favoured complete
equality between Catholics and Protestants, but the
bigots in Parliament were too strong, and among them
were the so-called patriot leaders, Charlemont and
Flood. Not tni 1792 was there a further Act allowing
Catholics to many Protestants, to practise at the bar,
and to set up Catholic schools without obtaining a
licence from the Protestant bishop. These conce»-
sions were scorned by the Catholic Committee, Ions
charged with the care of Catholic interests, and which
had lately passed from the feeble leadership of Lord
Kenmare to the more capable leadership of John
Keogh. Tlie new French Kepublic had also become
a menace to England, and English ministers dreaded
having Ireland discontented. For these reasons the
Catholic Relief Bill of 1793 became law. This gave
Catholics the parliamentary and municipal franchise,
enabled them to become jurors, magstrates, sheriffs,
and officers in the army and navy. They might carry
arms under certain conditions, and they were ad-
mitted to the degrees of Trinity College, though not to
its emoluments or hi^er honours. Two years later
the advent of Lord Fitzwilliam as viceroy was re-
girded as the herald of complete religious equality,
ut Pitt suddenly changed his mind, and, having
resolved on a l^slative union, it suited his purpose
better to stop further concession. Then came the
recall of Fitzwilliam, the rapid rise of the United
Irish Society with revolutionary objects, the rebellion
of 1798, and the Union of 1800.
From the Imperial Parliament the Catholics ex-
pected immediate emancipation, remembering the
promises of British and Irish ministers, but Pitt
shamefully broke his word, and emancipation was de-
layed till 1829. Nor would it have come even then
but for the matchless leadership of O'Connell, and
because the only alternative to concession was civil
war. The manner of concession was grudging. Catho-
lics were admitted to Parliament, but the forty-shilling
free-holders were difitfranchised, Jesuits banished,
other religious orders made incapable of receiving
charitable bequests, bishops penalised for assum-
ing ecclesiastical titles, and priests for appearing ont-
side their churches in their vestments. Catholics
were debarred from being either viceroy or lord
chancellor of Ireland. The law regarding Jesuits has
not been enforced, but the viceroy must still be a
Protestant. Nor was it till the last hidf -century that
a Catholic could be lord chancellor, Lord O'Hagan,
who died in 1880, bein^ the first Catholic to fill that
ofiice since the Revolution of 1688.
O'DONOYAN (ed.). Annala of the Four MomUtm (Dublin, 1860);
D' Alton, History of Ireland (London, 1910) ; Gilbkst, ViceroM
of Ireland (Dublin. 1866); Hamdiuah, StaiuU of Kilkenny (Dub-
lin, 1843); Scully. Penal fjaw (Dublin. 1812); Lbckt. Hietory
of Ireland (London, 1897); CaUndare of StaU Papers, 1509-1660;
Joumale of the Irish House of Commons; Irish Piwliameniary I>^
bates, 1781-97; Moran. Persecutions of the Irish Catholics (Lou-
don, 1900). — See also the authorities quoted in Act op Sbt-
tlbioent; Ireland ; O'Connkll. Danibl; PLUNKBTr, Olitbs,
Vbnbbablb; O'Nbill, Hugb.
E. A. D' Alton.
Penal Laws in the Englibh Colonies in Amer-
ica.— Anglican EstMishmerUs. — ^Tlie first Virginia
Charter in 1606 established the Anglican Church.
The second, in 1609, repeated the terms of the es-
tablishment and prescribed the Oath of Supremacy.
In support of the Establishment, ^e draoonian laws
of Governor Dale in 1611 were directed mainly against
the moral laxity of the colonists and were soon ab-
rogated. When lawmaking passed to the Colonial
Assembly the Establishment was maintiuned, but
penalising laws were still directed towards the moral
uplift of tae church. Intolerance of dissent was latent
and implicit. Lord Baltimore, refusing as a Catholic
to acknowledge the ecclesiastical supremacy of the
king, in 1628 was denied temporary residence in the
colony. Following this incident a new Act of Uni-
formity passed the Assembly, fining absentees from
service. Another, in 1642, specifically dis^ifranchised
Catholics and enforced the expulsion, within five days^
of a priest coming to the colony. Under Governor
Berkeley an Act, directed mainly against the Puritan
influx, made mandatory the expulsion of Nonconform-
ists; but Puritanism remained, affecting even the
Anglican clergy, and gaining a first step toward dia-
establishment in coercing the Assembler of 1642 to
pass a law conferring upon vestries the nght of choos-
ing ministers. Under Cromwell this law was con-
firmed. Toleration was further established^ an ex-
ception being made against Quakers who, m 1659.
were banished and, upon return, were proceeded
against as felons. Indeed, their consciences were not
rdieved from taking oaths and military service until
the next century.
The Restoration ended this qualified' liberty. In
1661 the old Law of 1642 was revived. The liturgy
of the Anglican Church and the catechisms of the
canons were prescribed; only ministers ordained by
English bishops were allowed in the colony, who alone
were to perform marriage services. Children bom
of marriages otherwise performed were declared illegit-
imate. Grudgingly enough Viramia recogniiced the
Toleration Act of 1689, and from that time to the Revo-
lution dissenting sects gradually merged into an anti*
Britii^ political party arrayed against a Tory Estab-
lishment, though the prejudice against Catholics in no
wise diminished, persisting almost to the Revolution
in the curious Act of 1755, ''for Disarming Papists '*,
during the French and Indian Wars. Other colonies
maintaining the Establishment were North and Soutii
CaroUna. Penalizing laws were here almost exclu-
sively directed towaird enforcing the Establishment
upon a ^wing class of wealthy landowners whose
religious indifference to the Tory Church soon arrogated
to itself political rather than spiritual independence.
Intolerance of Catholics was legally expressed.
Puritan Establiahments. — Massachusetts's charter
made no mention of religion, and the Puritans were free
to construct their absolute theocracy. EiNsoopacy was
repudiated and Congregationalism established. Hie
PINAL 617 PINAL
franchise was limited to church members. Men tolerant attitude is due to the older Dutch foundation,
making active profession of an alien faith were It was renewed in the ''Charter of Liberties'', passed
banished. The General Court made provision for a by the Assembly in 1683. When the Duke of Yoric
general church tax to be levied and collected by civil came to the throne a faint attempt was made to
officers. In 1631 came the famous law admitting establish the Anglican Church. Later the council
only church members to civic freedom. In 1635 the suspended ''all Roman Catholics from Command and
magistrates were given inquisitional powers over the Places of Trust", and the franchise was soon confined
churches themselves. Congregationalism became law to Protestants. This attitude was given universal
and Church and State were identical. Colonists royal warrant under the Great Toleration Act, and
were compelled to live within easy distance of meeting- a supposititious Established Church existed in New
houses. Heresy was punished bv banishment. Con- York to the American Revolution, suffering the same
tempt toward ministers merited magisterial reproof, kind of political opposition that the Establishment
a fine, or stancting placarded on a block. In 1656 endured m Vir^ia and the Carolinas. The Estab-
denial of the Bible meant whipping or banishment, lishment seized church property and banished Mora^
and as late as 1697 a law agamst ^'Blasphemy ana vians, under the belief that they were "disguised
Atheism '' mentions as penalties the pillory, whipping, Papists", though its powers began to wane befpre its
and boring the tongue with red-hot irons. Catholics downfall with the American Revolution,
of course were not suffered to Uve in the colony, and The Palatinate of Maryland imder the Baltimores
Jesuits, if banished, were to be put to death on return, furnishes^ with the Colony of Rhode Island, the fiist
The latter law was never enforced, thou^ latent example m history of a complete separation of Church
intolerance may be detected in such an ordmance as and State with religious tolerance. Religious free-
that of 1659 making the observance of Christmas a dom was proclaimed in the famous "Act for Church
punishable offence. The persecution of Quakers and Liberties , passed by the assembly and practically
the inflicting of the death penalty in four instances carried out. Under this Catholic toleration a Catho-
brought about a rebellion within the colony which, Uc was fined for "interferidgbvopprobious reproaches
with the endeavour of the Crown to force recognition with two Protestants'', and Jesuits were refused the
of the AngUcan Church, worked the initial movement privileges of the canon law. The Toleration Act of
in imdermining the theocracy. With the appoint- 1649 denied toleration only to non-Christians and
ment of a royal governor the franchise was broaoened. Unitarians, and imposed upon every resident an oath
Episcopalianism was established, and it was decreed declaring for liberty of conscience. The outcome of
in 1691 that "forever hereafter there shall be libertv the disgraceful Puritan "Plot" resulted in the voiding
of conscience allowed in the worship of God to aU of the charter, the erection of Maryland as a royd
Christians (except Papists) ". province, and the Episcopal Establishment in 1692.
In Connecticut, CengregationaUsm under its famous The majority of the colonists were so overwhelmingly
instrument, the Saybrook Platform, became the State non-episcopal that the legiriatures never seem to have
religion. But toleration was unstintingly allowed to insisted upon conformity, though they compelled
everv other licensed religion. Even laws against church support. Against Catholics alone persecution
Quakers, apparently unenforced, imposed penalties endured. They were deprived of all civil and religious
not upon them but upon the communities uiat har- rights — the latter only in private homes; the Law of
boured them; while the universal "except Papists" 1704 laid a tax of twenty shillings on every Irish serv-
phrase is significantlv lacking, though in 1743 a law ant imported; while in 1715 it was enacted that
allowed dis^ters "being Protestants" to apply for children of a Protestant father and a Catholic mother
rdief . could, in case of the father's death, be taken from the
The short-lived attempt of the settlement at New mother. However, the first Catholic church of Balti-
Haven to found a theocratic colony based upon the more was erected without opposition in 1763, though
Mossuc Law is interesting only in its failure. The the rights of the franchise were not extended to Cath-
famous "Blue Laws", now known to be ironic for- olics until the American Revolution put an end to all
geries, were not much more severe than the Mosaic penal enactments.
p^ialties enforced by the New Haven L^slature, The Presbyterian and Quaker settlers of the Jersesrs,
according to their own records. The colony was soon under their proprietors, were granted entire liberty
incorporated with that of Connecticut, in whose of conscience. But with the assumption of the prov-
democratic tolerance it was speedily absorbed. inces, the Crown seems to have assumed thatj per
The first settlers of New Hampshire established a 8e, the Anglican Church was established, thou^ no
broadly tolerant con^pregationalism, which allowed specific act to that effect seems to have been passed,
civil privileges to be mdependent of religious belief. At anv rate, excepting troubles with Quakers in tiie
but the Puritan establishment was firmly planted French Wars^ the annals of New Jersey are free from
throughout the years of the colony's union with records of official persecution, though Catholics were
Massachusetts. To the influence of tins union, per- disenfranchised when Jersey became a ro^al province,
hi^, may be traced the single example of persecution Georgia with its twoscore years of provincial history
in the colony, that against three Quakers in 1659. In excluded "Papists" from its confines. The Anglican
1679 the umon with Massachusetts was dissolved, and Church entered with the Crown and was formally,
a royal governor sought, unsuccessfully, to enforce the though unsuccessfully, established by the colonial
establi^ment of the Aiiglican Church. The assem- legislature in 1758, the settlement remaining from the
bly of 1680 fixed the Congregational Establishment, begnning indifferent toward Dissent.
The franchise was limited to Protestants, and subse- The Free Coloniea, — Two colonies, those of Rhode
auent laws, notably those of 1692, 1702, 1714, defined Island and Pennsylvania (with its offspring, Delaware)
be union of Church and State, allowing the con- proclaimed absolute separation of Church and State.
stable to collect the church tax— that from dissenters The former laboured for long under the accusation
to go to the support of their own ministers. Under the of denying citizenship <o Catholics, but this charge is
Toleration Act of 1689 all citizens were obliged to probably based on an error of the committee that
make a declaration agunst the pope and the doctrines prepareci the revised statutes for the public printer;
of the Catholic Church. while the Pennsylvania commonwealth departs from
Changing Establishments.— Vnder the Duke of York the principles of Rhode Island in restricting the right
all churches were established with governmental to hold office to Christians and those who believe in
rights, though those of power and induction were the existence of God. In spite of the protest of Penn,
pficea in the governor's hands. Persecution for that part of the Test Oath required under the great
oonacience's sake seems unrecorded* Much of tlus Toleration Act| excluding Catholics from civil rights,
PBNALTY 618 FINANCE
was adopted by the colonial assembly in 1705 and en- deeds on account of the mental or physical suffering,
dured until the Revolution, while the Disanning Act the social loss, or the action of human justice whidi
was passed, but never enforced. thev entail, is natural; but such sorrow does not
The onlv authentic and satiafactoiy sources for the religious suffice for penance. On the Other hand, the reeolve
S?Sie^'.rtS7^°J?n'?2.tS!SSrii^c31^,-&T„g! »« «»e?d.. wWle wrtainlv n^esary, fa not mifBcient
lieations. See also Srsa, HitUfry of tlu Catholic Church in the Of itself, 1. e., Without hatred for sm already COm-
United State* (New York. 1888) ; f^bhbb, Colonial Bra; Anoebson. mitted ; such a resol ve, in fact, would be meanmslees:
f^«'^i2'of ^*f ^"'^i^*9k'iS,S^£%t;'<^;itSi >t ^o-W profe* obedience, to God's Uw in the future
o/ReliQioue Liberty in America (New York. 1902); Huorss, Hie- While disregardmg the Claims of God's JUStlce in the
tory of the Society of Jeau* in'North America iClevelKadt 1910), matter of past transgression. "Be converted, and
Jarvis Keilbt. do penance for all your ini(]|uitie8. . . . Cast away
Penalty. See Censures, Ecclesiastical. ^S^ZZZU^ ^^^^!^!S''^^^T1t ' ' ' "^^^ f^"" ^
* ' yourselves a new heart, and a new spint (Esech.,
PefialTW 7 Gardenas, Luis Ignatius, Bishop of xviii, 30-31: cf. Joel, li, 12; Jer., vui, 6). In the
New Orleans, Archbishop of Guatemala, son of a same spirit St. John the Baptist exhorts his hearers:
wealthyandnoblefainily,b. at Havana, 3 April, 1749; "Bring forth therefore fruit worthy of penance"
d. there. 17 July^ 1810. After studving belles-lettres (Matt., iii, 8). Such too is the teaching of Christ
and philosophy in St. Ignatius College of his native as expressed in the parables of tiie Prodigal Son and
city, he followed there the courses of the University of of the Publican: while the Magdalen who "washed
St. Jerome and in 1771 obtained the decree of Doctor out her sins witn her tears" of sorrow, has been for
of Theology. Having distinguished himself by his all ages the type of the repentant sinner. Theologians,
learning and charity, nis bishop entrusted him with following the doctrine of 3t. Thomas (Summa^ III,
several missions of an administrative nature, and in O. Ixxxv. a. 1), reread penance as truly a virtue,
1773 appointed him provisor and vicar^neral. When though tney have disputed much regarding its place
Pius V I, in deference to th^ prayer of Carlos VI, King among the virtues. Some have clawed it with the
of Spain, created Louisiana and the Floridas a diocese, virtue of charity, others with the virtue of religion,
distmct from that of Santiago de Cuba, Luis Pefialver others again as a part of justice. Cajetan seems to
was made its first bishop. He made his entrance into have considered it as belonging to all three; but most
New Orleans on 17 Julv, 1795, took formal possession theologians agree with St. Thomas (ibid., a. 2) that
of his see, and in the following December published penance is a distinct virtue (virtus specialis). The
an " Instrucci6n para el goviemo de los pdrrocos de la detestation of sin is a praiseworthy act, and in penance
di6cesis de la Luisiana". He soon began the visita- this detestation proceeds from a special motive, i. e.,
tionof his diocese, whichthen extended over the coun- because sin offends God (cf. De Lugo, "De poeniten-
try known later as the "Louisiana Purchase Terri- ties virtute"*; Pidmieri, "De poenitentia , Rome,
tory". On 21 April, 1796, he was at Iberville, on 8 1579; theses I-VII.).
November of the same year at Natchitoches, and at Necessity, — The Council of Trent expressly declares
Pensacola on 7 May, 1798. Upon his return in 1799. (Sess. Xlv, o. i) that penance was at all times neces-
he drew up a report in which he complained bitterly ot sary for the remission of grievous sin. Theologians
the ignorance, irreligion, and the want of discipline have questioned whether this necessity obtains in
which then prevailed in tiouisiana. virtue of the poeitive command of God or independ-
Bishop PefisJver was promoted to the Archiepiscopal ently of such positive precept. The weight of author-
See of Cmatemida on 20 July, 1801, and by a Rescnpt ity is in favour of the latter opinion; moreover, theo-
from Rome was empowered to transfer his authority logians state that in the present order of Divine
in Louisiana and the Floridas to Canon Thomas Providence God Himself cannot forgive sins, if there
Hasset, his vicar-general, and to Rev. Patrick Walsh, be no real repentance (St. Thomas, III, Q. Ixxxvi,
After a chase by an English war-vessel. Archbishop a. 2; Cajetan, ibid.; Palmieri, op. cit., thesis VII).
Pefialver arrived, at Guatemala, where he soon attained In the Old Law (Ezech., xviii, 24) fife is denied to the
to prominence through the interest he manifested in man who does iniquity; even "his justices which he
questions that concerned education and the public has done, shall not be remembered"; and Christ
good. At his own expense he built a hospital and restates the doctrine of the Old Testament, saying
various schools. He resigned his see on 1 March, (Luke, xiii, 5) : "except you do penance, you shall aU
1806, and, returning to Havana, devoted the last years likewise perish." In the New Law. therefore, re-
of his life to charitable works. At his death he be- pentance is as necessary as it was in the Old, repent-
queathed $200,000 to the poor and several important ance that includes reformation of life, grief for sin,
legacies to educational institutions. and willingness to perform satisfaction. In the Chrie-
Srba, History of the Catholic Church in the u. 5., 1763-1816 tian Dispensation this act of rep>entance has been
(New York, 1888). t*„«« xt n,».T^ subjected by Christ to the judgment and jurisdiction
JAMES U. BLENK. ^^ f^^ Church, whensoever there is juestion of sin
Penance (poBnitentia) designates (1) a virtue; (2) committed after the reception of Baptism (Council of
a sacrament of the New Law; (3) a canonical punish- Trent, sess. XIV, c. i), and the Church acting in the
ment inflicted according to the earlier discipline of the name of Christ not only declares that sins are for-
Church; (4) a work of satiftf action enjoincMi upon the given, but actually anci judicially forgives them, if
recipient of the sacrament. These have as their com- the sinner already repentant subjects his sins to the
mon centre the truth that he who sins must repent "power of the keys'\ and is willing to make condign
and as far as possible make reparation to Divine jus- satisfaction for the wrong he has done,
tice. Repentance, i. e., heartfelt sorrow with the firm II. The Sacrament of PENANCE.—Penance is a
purpose of sinning no more, is thus the prime condi- sacrament of the New Law instituted by Christ in
tion on which depends the value of whatever the sinner which forgiveness of sins committed after baptism is
may do or suffer by way of expiation. granted through the priest's absolution to those who
I. The Virtue op Penance. — Penance is a super- with true sorrow confess their sins and promise to
natural moral virtue whereby the sinner is disposed satisfy for the same. It is called a "sacrainent" not
to hatred of his sin as an offence against God and to a simply a function or ceremony, because it is an out-
firm purpose of amendment and satisfaction. The wara sign instituted by Christ to impart grace to the
principal act in the exercise of this virtue is the dete&- soul. As an outward sij^ it comprises the actions of
tation of sin, not of sin in general nor of that which the penitent in presenting himself to the priest and
others commit, but of one's own sin. The motive of accusing himself of his sins, and the actions of the
this detestation is that sin offends God: to regret evil priest in pronouncing absolution and imposing sati^
619
faction. This whole procedure is usually called, from
one of its parts, ''confession''; and it is said to take
place in the "tribunal of penance'', because it is a
judicial process in which the penitent is at once the
accuser, the person accused, and the witness, while
the priest pronounces judgment and sentence. The
grace conferred is deliverance from the guilt of sin
and, in the case of mortal sin, from its etenial punish-
ment; hence also reconciliation with Qod, justifica^
tion. Finally, the confession is made not in the
secrecy of the penitent's heart nor to a lasrman as
friend and advocate, nor to a representative of human
authority^ but to a duly ordained priest with requis-
ite jurisdiction and with the "power of the keys",
i. e., the power to forgive sins which Christ granted
to His Church.
By way of further explanation it is needful to cor-
rect certain erroneious views regarding this sacrament
which not only misrepresent the actusJ practice of the
Church but also lead to a false interpretation of
theological statement and historical evidence. From
what has been said it should be clear: (1) that pen-
ance is not a mere human invention devised by the
Church to secure power over consciences or to relieve
the emotional strain of troubled souls; it is the or-
dinary means appointed by Christ for the remission
of sin. Man incleed is free to obey or disobey, but
once he has sinned, he must seek pardon not on con-
ditions of his own choosing but on those which God
has determined, and these for the Christian are em-
bodied in the Sacrament of Penance. (2) NoCathoUo
believes that a priest simply as an individual man,
however pious or learned, has power to forgive sins.
This power belongs to Qod alone; but He can and
does exercise it through the ministration of men.
Since He has seen fit to exercise it by means of this
sacrament, it cannot be said that the Church or the
priest interferes between the soul and God; on the
contrary, penance is the removal of the one obstacle
that keeps the soul away from God. (3) It is not
true that for the Catholic the mere "telling of one's
sins" suffices to obtain their forgiveness. Without
sincere sorrow and purpose of amendment, confession
avails nothing, the pronouncement of absolution is
of no effect, and the guilt of the sinner is greater than
before. (4) While this sacrament as a dispensation
of Divine mercy facilitates the pardoning of sin, it
by no means renders sin less hateful or its conse-
quences less dreadful to the Christian mind; much
less does it imply permission to commit sin in the
future. In paying ordinary debts, as e. f;., by monthly
settlements, the mtention of contractmg new debts
with the same creditor is perfectly legitimate; a
similar intention on the part of him who confesses
his sins would not only be wrong in itself but would
nullif V the sacrament and prevent the forgiveness of
sins then and there confessed. (5) Strangely enough,
the opposite charge is often heard, viz., that the con-
fession of sin is intolerable and hard and therefore
alien to the spirit of Christianity^ and the loving kind-
ness of its Founder. But this view, in the first place,
overlooks the fact that Christ, though merciful,
is also just and exacting. Furthermore, however
gainful or humiliating confession may be, it is
ut a light penalty for the violation of God's
law. Filially, those who are in earnest about their
salvation count no hardship too great whereby they
can win back God's friendship. Both these accusa-
tions, of too great leniency and too great severity,
proceed as a mle from those who have no experience
with the sacrament and only the vaguest ideas of
what the Church teaches or of the power to forgive
sins which the Church received from Christ.
Teaching of the Church.— The Council of Trent
(1551) declares: "As a means of regaining grace and
justice, penance was at all times necessary for those
who had defiled their souls with any mortal sin.
. . . Before th^ coming of Christ, penance was not a
sacrament, nor is it since His coming a sacrament for
those who are not baptised. But the Lord then prin-
cipally instituted the Sacrament of Penance, when,
being raised from the dead, he breathed upon His
disciples sa3ring: 'Receive ye the Holy Ghost.
Whose sins 3rou shall forgive, they are forgiven them :
and whose sins you shaU retain, they are retained'
(John, XX, 22-23). By which action so signal and
words so clear the consent of all the Fathers has ever
imderstood that the power of forgiving and retaining
sins was communicated to the Apostles and to their
lawful successors, for the reconciling of the faithful
who have fallen after Baptism" (Sess. XIV, c. i).
Farther on (c. v) the council expressly states that
Christ "left priests, His own vicars, as iudges (^ce-
sides etjudicea), unto whom all the mortal crimes into
which the faithful may have fallen should be revealed
in order that, in accordance with the power of the
keys, they may pronounce the sentence of forgiveness
or retention of sins".
Power to Forawe Sins. — ^It is noteworthy that the
fundamental objection so often urged against the
Sacrament of Penance was first thought of by the
Scribes when Christ s^d to the sick man of the palsy:
' ' Thy sins are forgiven thee. " " And there were some
of the scribes sitting there, and thinking in their
hearts: Why doth this man speak thus? he blas-
Shemeth. Who can forgive sins, but Cjod only?" But
tsus seeing their thou^ts, said to them: "Which is
easier to say to the sick of the palsy: Thy sins are
forsdven thee: or to say. Arise, take up thy bed and
wiok? But tnat you may know that the Son of man
hath power on earth to forgive sins, (he saith to the
sick of the palsy,) I say to thee: Arise, take up thy
bed, and go into thy house" (Mark, ii, 5-11; Matt.,
ix, 2-7). Christ wrou^t a miracle to show that He
had power to forgive sins and that this power could
be exerted not only in heaven but also on earth. This
power, moreover. He transmitted to Peter and the
other Apostles. To Peter He says: "And I will give
to thee the keys of the kingdom oi heaven. And what-
soever thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be bound
also in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose on
earth, it shall be loosed also in heaven" (Matt.,
xvi, 19). Later He says to all the Apostles: "Amen
I say to you, whatsoever you shall bind upon earth,
shall be Bound also in heaven: and whatsoever you
shall loose upon earth, shall be loosed also in heaven"
(Matt., xviii, 18). As to the meaning of these texts,
it should be noted: (a) that the binding;" ana
"loosing" refers not to physical but to spintual or
moral bonds among which sin is certainly included;
the more so because (b) the power here granted is
unlimited — "whcUaoiever you shall bind^ . . . what-
soever you shall loose" : (c) the power is judicial, i. e.,
the Apostles are authorized to bind and to loose;
(d) whether they bind or loose, their action is ratified
in heaven. In healing the palsied man Christ de-
clared that "the Son of man has power on earth to
forgive sins " ; here He promises that what these men,
the Apostles, bind or loose on earth, Crod in heaven
will likewise bind or loose. (Cf . also Ksts, Power of
THE.)
But as the Council of Trent declares, Christ prin-
cipally instituted tl^ Sacrament of Penance after His
Resurrection, a miracle greater th^i that of healing
the sick. "As the Father hath sent me, I also send
you. When he had said this, he breathed on them;
and he said to them: Receive ye the Holy Ghost.
Whose sins you shall forgive, they are forgiven them:
and whose sins you shall retain, they are retained'
(John, XX, 21-23). While the sense of these words
is quite obvious, the following points are to be con-
sidered: (a) Christ here reiterates in the plainest
terms — "sins", "forrive", "retain" — ^what He had
previously stated in figurative language, "bind" and
PSNANGl
620
PBNANGB
''loose''. 80 that this text specifies and distinctly
applies to sin the power of loosing and binding, (b)
He prefaces this grant of power by declaring that the
mission of the Apostles is similar to that which He
had received from the Father and which He had ful-
filled: ''As the Father hath sent me". Now it is
beyond doubt that He came into the world to destroy
sin and that on various occasions He explicitly forpave
sin (Matt., ix, 2-8; Luke, v, 20; vii, 47; Apoc, i, 6),
hence the forgiving of sin is to be included in the
mission of the Apostles, (c) Christ not only declared
that sins were forgiven, but really and actuidly for-
gave them; hence, the Apostles are empowerea not
merely to announce to the sinner that his sins are
forgiven but to grant him forgiveness — "whose nns
you shall forgive". If their power were limited to the
declaration ''God pardons you", they would need a
special revelation in each case to make the declara-
tion valid, (d) The power is twofold — to forgive or
to retain, i. e., the Apostles are not told to grant or
withhold forgiven^ indiscriminately; they must act
judicially, forgiving or retaining according as the
sinner deserves, (e) The exercise of this power in
either form (forgiving or retaining) is not restricted:
no distinction is made or even suggested between one
kind of sin and another, or between one class of sinners
and all the rest: Christ simply says "whose sins".
(f) The sentence pronounced by the Apostles (re-
mission or retention) is also God^s sentence — "thev
are forgiven . . . they are retained".
It is therefore clear from the words of Christ that
the Apostles had power to forgive sins. But this was
not a personal prerosative that was to cease at their
death ; it was granted to them in their official capacity
and hence as a permanent institution in the Church —
no less permanent than the mission to teach and
baptize all nations. Christ foresaw that even those
who received faith and baptism, whether during the
lifetime of the Apostles or later, would fall into sin
and therefore would need forgiveness in order to be
saved. He must, then, have intended that the power
to forp^ive should be transmitted from the Apostles
to their successors and be used as long as there would
be sinners in the Churchy and that means to the end
of time. It is true that in baptism also sins are for-
given, but this does not warrant the view that the
power to forgive is simply the power to baptize. In
the first place, as appears from the texts cited above,
the power to forgive is also the power to retain; its
exercise involves a judicial action. But no such action
is implied in the commission to baptize (Matt., xxviii,
18-20); in fact, as the Council of Trent affirms, the
Church does not pass judgment on those who are
not yet members of the Church, and membership is
obtained through baptism. Fiulhermore, baptism,
because it is a new birth, cannot be repeated, wnereas
the power to forgive sins (penance) is to be used as
often as the sinner may need it. Hence the condemna-
tion, by the same Council, of any one "who, con-
founding the sacraments, should say that baptism
itself is the Sacrament of Penance, as though these
two sacraments were not distinct and as though
penance were not righthr called the second plank
after shipwreck" (Sess. XIV, can. 2 de sac. poen.).
These pronouncements were directed against the
Protestant teaching which held that penance was
merely a sort of repeated baptism; and as baptism
effected no real forgiveness of sin but only an external
covering over of sin through faith alone, the same, it
was alleged, must be the case with penance. This,
then, as a sacrament is superfluous; absolution is
only a declaration that sin is forgiven through faith,
and satisfaction is needless because Christ has satis-
fied once for all men. This was the first sweeping and
radical denial of the Sacrament of Penance. Some
of the earlier sects had claimed that only priests in
the state of grace could validly absolve, but they had
not denied the existence of the power to torpve.
During all the preceding centuries. Catholic belief in
this power had been so clear and strong that in order
to set it aside Protestantism was obliged to strike at
the very constitution of the Church and reject the
whole content of Tradition.
Belief and Practice of the Early Church. — Among the
modernistic propositions condemned by Pius X in the
Decree "Lamentabiii sane" (3 July. 1907) are the
following: "In the primitive Churcn there was no
concept of the reconciliation of the Christian sinner
by the authority of the Church, but the Church by
veiy slow degrees only grew accustomed to this con-
cept. Moreover, even after penance came to be recog-
nized as an institution of the Church, it was not call^
by the name of sacrament, because it was reguxled
as an odious sacrament" (46): and: "The Lord's
words: 'Receive ye the Holy Ghost, whose sins you
shall forgive, they are forgiven them, and whose
sins you shall retain they are retained' (John xx,
22-23), in no way refer to the Sacrament of Penance,
whatever the Fathers of Trent may have been pleased
to assert" (47). According to the Council of Trent,
the consensus of all the Fathers always imderstood
that by the words of Christ just cited, the power of
forgiving and retaining sins was communicated to
the Apostles and their lawful successors (Sess. XIV,
c. i). It is therefore Catholic doctrine that the
Church from the earliest times believed in the power
to forgive sins as granted by Christ to the Apostles.
Such a belief in fact was clearl> inculcated by the
words with which Christ granted the power, and it
would have been inexplicable to the early Christians
if any one who professed faith in Christ had questioned
the existence of that power in the Church. But if,
contrariwise, we suppose that no such belief existed
from the beginning, we encounter a still greater diffi-
culty: the first mention of that power would have
been r^arded as an innovation both needless and
intolerable; it would have shown little practical
wisdom on the part of those who were endeavouring
to draw men to Christ; and it would have raised a
Erotest or led to a schism which would certainly
ave gone on record as plainly at least as did early
divisions on matters of less importance. Yet no
such record is found; even those who sought to limit
the power itself presupposed its existence, and their
very attempt at limitation put them in opposition
to the prevalent Catholic belief.
Turning now to evidence of a positive sort, we have
to note that the statements of any Father or orthodox
ecclesiastical writer regarding penance present not
merely his own personal view, but the commonly
accepted belief; and furthermore that the belief which
they record was no novelty at the time, but was the
traditional doctrine handed down by the regular
teaching of the Church and embodied in her practice.
In other words, each witness speaks for a pa^t that
reaches back to the beginning, even when he does not
expressly appeal to tradition. St. Augustine (d. 430)
warns the faithful: "Let us not listen to those who
deny that the Church of God has power to foraive all
sins" (De agon. Christ., iii). St. Ambrose (d. 397)
rebukes the Novatianists who "professed to show
reverence for the Lord by reserving to Him alone
the power of forgiving sins. Greater wrong could
not be done than what they do in seeking to rescind
His commands and fling back the office He bestowed.
. . . The Church obeys Him in both respects, by
binding sin and by loosing it; for the Lord willed
that for both the power should be equal" (De poenit.,
I, ii, 6). Again ne teaches that this power was to
be a function of the priesthood. "It seemed im-
possible that sins should be forgiven through penance;
Christ granted this f power) to the Apostles and from
the Apostles it has Been transmitted to the office of
priests" (op. cH., II, ii, 12). The power to forgive
PBNANCI
621
PENANGl
extends to all sins: ''God makes no distinction; He
promised mercy to all and to His priests He granted
the authority to pardon without any exception** (op.
cit.. I, iii, 10). Against the same heretics St. Pacian,
Bisnop of Barcelona (d. 390), wrote to Sympronianus,
one of their leaders: "This (forgiving sins), you say,
only God can do. Quite true: but what He does
through His priests is the doing of His own power''
(Ep. lad Sympron, 6 in P. L., XIII, 1057).
In the East during the same period we have the tes-
timony of St. Cyril of Alexandria (d. 447) : " Men filled
with the spirit of God (i. e. priests) forgive sins in two
ways, either by admitting to baptism those who are
worthy or by pardoning the pemtent children of the
Church" (In Joan., 1, 12 in P. G., LXXIV. 722). St.
John Chrysostom (d. 407) after declaring tnat neither
angels nor the archangels have received such power,
and after showing that earthly rulers can bind only
the bodies of men, declares that the priest's power of
forgiving sins ''penetrates to the soul and reaches up
to heaven". Wherefore, he concludes, "it were mam-
f est folly to condemn so great a power without which
we can neither obtain heaven nor come to the fulfil-
ment of the promises. . . . Not only when they (the
griests) regenerate us (baptism), but also after our new
irth, they can forgive us our sins" (De sacerd.. Ill,
5 sq.). St. Athanasius (d. 373): "As the man whom
the priest baptizes is enlightened by the grace of the
Holy Ghost, so does he wno in penance confesses his
sins, receive through the priest forgiveness in virtue
of the grace of Chnst" (Frag, contra Novat. in P. G.,
XXVI, 1315).
These extracts show that the Fathers recognised in
penance a power and a utility quite distinct from that
of baptism. Repeatedly they compare in figurative
language the two means of obtaining pardon as two
gates of the Church, two beacons of salvation; or,
regarding baptism as spiritual birth, they describe
penance as the remedy for the ills of the soul con-
tracted after that birth. But a more important fact
is that both in the West and in the East, the Fathers
constantly appeal to the words of Christ and give them
the same interpretation that was given eleven cen-
turies later by the Council of Trent. In this respect
they simply echoed the teachings of the earlier Fatners
who had defended Catholic doctrine against the here-
tics of the third and second centunes. Thus St.
Cyprian (a. v.) in his "De lapsis" (a. d. 251) rebukes
those who had fallen away in time of persecution, but
he also exhorts them to penance: "Let each confess
his sin while he is still in this world, while his con-
fession can be received, while satisfaction and the for-
giveness granted by the priests is acceptable to God"
(c. xxix). (See Lapsi.) The heretic Novatian, on the
contrary, asserted that "it is unlawful to readmit
apostates to the communion of the Church; their for-
^veness must be left with God who alone can grant
It " (Socrates, " Hist. eccl. ", V, xxviii). Novatian and
his party did not at first deny the power of the Church
to absolve from sin; they affinned that apostasy
placed the sinner beyond the reach of that power — an
error which was condemned by a synod at Rome in
251. (See Novatianism.)
The distinction between sins that could be forgiven
and others that could not, originated in the latter half
of the second century as the doctrine of the Montan-
ists (q. v.), and especially of TertuUian (q. v.). While
still a Catholic, Tertullian wrote (a. d. 200-6) his
"De poenitentia" in which he distinguishes two kinds
of penance, one as a preparation for baptism, the
other to obtain forgiveness of certain grievous sins
committed after baptism, i. e., apostasv, murder, and
adultery. For these, however, he allows only one
forgiveness: "Foreseeing these poisons of the Evil
One, God, although the gate of forgiveness has been
shut and fastened up with the bar of oaptism, has per-
mitted it bUU to stand somewhat open. In the vesti-
bule He has stationed a second repentance for opening
to such as knock; but now once for all, because now
for the second time; but never more, because the last
time it had been in vain. . . . However, if any do
incur the debt of a second repentance, his spirit is
not to be forthwith cut down and undermined by
despair. Let it be irksome to sin again, but let it not
be irksome to repent again; let it be irksome to im-
peril oneself a^^ain, but let no one be ashamed to
be set free a^ain. Repeated sickness must have re-
peated medicme" (De poen., VII). Tertullian does
not deny that the Church can forgive sins; he warns
sinners against relapse, yet exhorts them to repent in
case they should fall. His attitude at the time was
not surprising, since in the early days the sins above
mentioned were severely dealt with; this was done
for disciplinary reasons, not because the Church
lacked power to forgive.
In the minds, however, of some people the idea was
developing that not only the exercise of the power but
the power itself was limited. Against this false notion
Pope Callistus (218-22) publiuied his "peremptory
edict" in which he declares: "I forgive the sins both
of adultery and of fornication to those who have done
penance. Thereupon Tertullian, now become a
Montanist, wrote his "De pudicitia" (a. d. 217-22).
In this work he rejects without scruple what he had
taught as a Catholic: "I blush not at an error which
I have cast off because I am delighted at being rid of
it . . . one is not ashamed of his own improve-
ment." The "error" which he imputes to Callistus
and the Catholics was that the Church could forgive
all sins: thisj therefore, was the orthodox doctrine
which Tertullian the heretic denied. In place of it he
sets up the distinction between lighter sins which the
bishop could forgave and more grievous sins which Crod
alone could forgive. Though in an earlier treatise,
"Scorpiace", he had said (c. x) that "the Lord left
here to Peter and through him to the Church the keys
of heaven", he now denies that the power granted to
Peter had been transmitted to the Church, i. e., to the
numerua epiacoporum or body of bishops. Yet he
claims this power for the "spirituals" {jmeunuUici)^
althou^ these, for prudential reasons, do not make
use of it. To the arguments of the " Psychici", as he
termed the Catholics, he replies: "But the Church,
you say, has the power to forgive sin. This I, even
more than you, acknowledge and adjudge. I who in
the new prophets have the Paraclete saying: 'The
Church can forgive sin, but I will not do that (forgive)
lest they (who are forgiven) fall into other sins' (De
pud., aXI, vii). Thus Tertullian, by the accusation
which he makes against the pope and by the restric-
tion which he places upon the exercise of the power of
forgiving sin, Dears witness to the existence of that
power in the Church which he had abandoned.
Not content with assailing Callistus and his doc-
trine, Tertullian refers to the "Shepherd" {Pastor), a
work written a. d. 140-54, and takes its author Her-
mas (q. v.) to task for favouring the pardon of adul-
terers. In the days of Hermas there was evidently a
school of rigorists who insisted that there was no par-
don for sin committed after baptism (Simil. VIII, vi).
Against this school the author of the " Pastor" takes a
resolute stand . He teaches that by penance the sinner
may hope for reconciliation with Uod and with the
Church. "Go and tell all to repent and they shall live
unto God. Because the Lord having had compassion,
has sent me to give repentance to all men, although
some are not worthy of it on account of their works"
(Simil. VIII, ii). Hermas, however, seems to give but
one opportunity for such reconciliation, for in Man-
date iV, i, he seems to state categorically that "there
is but one repentance for the servants of God", and
further on in c. iii he says the Lord has had mercy on
the work of his hands and hath set repentance for
them; "and he has entrusted to me the power of this
piHANci 6:
rqMDtance. And therefore I say to you, if any one
hu sinned ... be has opportunity to repent
once". Repentance ia therefore poeaibt« at least once
in virtue of a power vested in the priest of God. That
Hennas here utends to say that the sinner could be
absolved only once in his whole life is by no me&ns a
neceaaary conoluuon. His words may well be under-
stood as referring to public penance (see below), and
as thus undefBtm>d thev imply no liinitation on the
sacramental power itself. The
'' ' ^he statement of Cl<
,_. ._. J. 21fi); "For God being very merciful has
vouchsafed in the case of those who, though in faith,
have fallen into transgreaaion, a second repentance,
so tlkat should anyone be
tempt«d after bis calling,
he may still receive a pen-
ance not to be repented of "
(Stromata, II, nii).
Tbe existence of a resu-
lor system of penance is also
hint«d at in the work of
Clement, "Who ia the rich
man that shall be saved? ",
where he tells the story of
the Apostle John and his
{'oumey after the young
landit. John pledged his
word tbat the youthlul rob-
ber would find for^venees
from the Saviour; but even
then a long serious penance
waa neceaaary before he
could be restored to the
Church. And when Clem-
ent concludes that "he who
welcomee the an^el of pen-
ance . . . will- not be
ashamed when he aeee the
Saviour", most commen-
tators think he alludes to
the bishop or priest who
presided over the ceremony
of pubhc penance. Even
earlier, Dionysius of Cor-
inth (d. circa a. o. 170),
setting himself against cer-
tain growing Marcioniatic
traditiooB, taught not only
that Christ haa left to Hia
Church the power of pBr<
don, but that no sin ia so
great aa to be excluded
from the exercise of that
power. For this we have the
authority of Eusebiua, who says (Hist, eccl., IV, xxiii) ;
"And writing to the Church which ia in Amastris, to-
gether with those in Fontus, he commands them to
receive those who come back after any fall, whether it
be deliyupiency or heray" .
The "Didaehe" (q, v.) written at the close of the
first centuiy or early in the second, in IV, jdv, and
agtun in XIV, i, commands an individual confession
in the congregation: "In the congregation thou ahalt
confess thy tranagreesiona"; or again: "UntheLord's
Day come together and break bread . . . having
confessed your tranagreasions that your sacrifice may
be pure," Clement I (d. 99) in his epistle to the Corin-
thians not only exhorts to repentance, but bega the
seditious to "submit themselves to the preabyters
and receive correction ao as to repent" (c. Ivii), and
Ignatius of Antioch at the cloae of the nrst century
speaks of the mercy of God to sinners, provided they
return "with one consent to the unity of Christ and
the communion of the bishop". The clauae "com-
iDunion of the bishop" evidently means the blahop
with hia oouncil of preabyters aa assessors. He also
says (Ad Philadel.) "that the bishop presides orer
B<riliuol
The tranamiaaion of thia power is plainly expreeeed
m the prayer used at the consecration of a bishop aa
recorded in the Canons of Hippolvtua (o. v.): "Grant
him, O Lord, the episcopate and tne spirit of clemency
and the power to forgive aina" (c. xvii). Still more ex-
plicit is the formula cited in the "Apostolic Constitu-
tions" {n. v.):"Grant him, OLord almighty, through
Thy Chnst, the participation of Thy Holy Spirit, m
order that he may have the power to remit sins accord-
ing to Thy precept and Thy command, and to loosen
ev«y bond, whatsoever it be, according to the powa
which Thou bast granted to the Apostles." (Const.
Apost., VIII, 5 in P. G., I,
1073). For the meaning dC
"epiacopus", "sacerdoe",
"presbyter", as used in
ancient documenta, tee
Bishop; Hibrarcht.
Exereiae of Ae Power. —
The granting by Christ of
the power to forgive sins
is the first essential of the
Sacrament of Penance; in
the actual exercise of thia
power are included the
other esaentials. The sac-
rament as such and on its
own account has a matter
and a form and it produces
certain effects; the power
of the keys ia exercised by
a minister (oonfeaaor) who
must poaseea the proper
qualifications, and the ef-
fects are wrought in the
soul of the recipient, i. e.,
the penitent who with the
n ecetwary dispositions m uat
(confession, aatisfaction).
Matter and Form, — Ac-
cording to St. Thomas
(Summa, lil, Ixxiv. a. 2)
"the acta of the penitent
are the proximate Enatter
of this sacrament". This
ia also the teaching of Eu-
geniusIVinthe"I&OTetum
pro Armenia" (Council of
Florence, 1438) which calls
the acts " 7U(i« materui " of
penance and enumerates
them aa contrition, confes-
sion, and satisfaction (Deniinger-Bannwart,
chir." 69fl). TheThomista ingeneral andotheremi-
nent theologians,e.g,,Bellarmiiie,ToletUB,Suarei,and
De Lugo, hold the aameopinion. According to Scotus
(In IV Sent., d, 16, q. 1, n. 7) "the Sacrament of Pen-
ance is the absolution imparted with certain words"
while the acta of the penitent are required for the
worthy reception of the sacrament. The absolution
as an external ceremony is the matter, and, as poasm
sing significative force, the form. Among the advo-
cates of this theory are St. Bonaventure, Capre-
oluB, Andreas Vega, and Maldonatus. The Council
of Trent (Seas. XIV, c. 3) declares: ['the acta of
the penitent, namely contrition, confession, and aat-
iafaction, are the ouasi maUria of thia aacrament".
The Roman Cateohiam (II, v 13) says: "These ac-
tions are called by the Council qua»i materia not be-
cause they have not the nature of true matter, but
because they are not the sort of matter which is em-
ployed externally as water in baptism and chrism m
confirmation". For the theological discussion see
Palmieri, op. cit., p. 144 sqq.; Pesoh, " Prelectionea
PINANGX 623 PENANCE
dogmaticse", Freiburs. 1897; De San, "De pceniten- Aquin u. die vprtridentinischen Thomiaten Qber die
tia^, Bruges, 1899; Pohle, "Lehrb. d. Doematik". Wirkungen d. BuaBsakramentes'', Freiburg, 1904.
Regarding the form of the sacrament, both the Coun- The Minister, i. e., the confessor. — From the ju-
cil of Florence and the Council of Trent teach that it didal character of this sacrament it follows that not
consists in the words of absolution. ''The form of the every member of the Church is qualified to forgive
Sacrament of Penance, wherein its force principally sins; the administration of penance is reserved to
consists, is placed in those words of the mmister: 'I those who are invested with authority. That this
absolve thee, etc. '; to these words indeed, in accord- power does not belong to the laitv is evident from the
ance with the usage of Holy Church, certain prayers bull of Martin V ''Inter cunctas (1418) which among
are laudably add«l, but they do not pertain to the other questions to be answered by the followers of
essence of the form nor are they necessary for the ad- Wyclif and Huss, has this: "whether he believes that
ministration of the sacrament" (Counol of Trent, the Christian ... is bound as a necessary means of
Sess. XIV, c. 3). Concerning these additional prayers, salvation to confess to a priest only and not to a lay-
the use of the Eastern and Western Churches, and the man or to lajrmen however good and devout " (Den-
question whether the form is deprecatory or indicative zinger-Bannwart, " Enchir.", 670) . Luther's proi)osi-
and personid, see Absolution. Cf. also the writers tion, that "any Christian, even a woman or a child"
referred to in the preceding paragraph. could in the alisence of a priest absolve as well as pope
Effect, — " The effect of tms sacrament is deliverance or bishop, was condemnea (1520) by Leo X in the Bull
from sin" (Council of Florence). The same definition "Exurge Domine" (Enchir., 753). The Council of
in somewhat different terms is given by the Council of Trent (Sess. XIV, c. 6) condenms as "false and as at
Trent (Sess. XIV, c. 3) : "So far as pertains to its force variance with the truth of the Gospel ail doctrines
and efficacy, the effect (ree et effectue) of this sacrament which extend the ministry of the keys to any others
is reconcihation with Qod, upon which there some- than bishops and priests, imagining that the words
times follows, in pious and devout recipients, peace of the Lord (Matt., xviii, 18; Jomi, xx, 23) were,
and calm of conscience with intense consolation of contrary to the institution of this sacrament, ad-
'spirit". This reconciliation implies first of all that dressed to all the faithful of Christ in such wise that
tne guilt of sin is remitted, and consequently also the each and every one has the power of remitting sin",
eternal punishment due to mortal sin. As the Council The Catholic doctrine, therefore, is that only bishops
of Trent declares, penance requires the performance and priests can exercise the power,
of satisfaction "not indeed for the eternal penalty These decrees moreover put an end. practically, to
which is remitted together with the guilt either by the the usage, which had sprung up and lasted for some
sacrament or by the desire of receiving the sacrament, time in the Middle A^es, of confessing to a layman in
but for the temporal penalty which, as the Scriptures case of necessity. Tms custom originated in the con-
teach, is not always forgiven entirely as it is in bap- viction that he who had sinned was obliged to make
tism" (Sess. VI, c. 14). In other words baptism frees known his sin to some one — to a priest if possible,
the soul not only from all sin but also from all indebt- otherwise to a layman. In the work "On true penance
edness to Divine justice, whereas after the reception and false" (De vera et falsa pcenitentia), erroneously
of absolution in penance, there may and usually does ascribed to St. Augustine, the counsel is given: "So
remain some temporal debt to be discharged bv works great is the power of confession that if a priest be not
of satisfaction (see below). "Venial sins oy which we at hand, let him (the person desiring to confess) con-
are not deprived of the grace of God and into which fess to his neighbour. But in the same place the
we very freemen tly fall are ri^tly and usefully de- explanation is given: "although he to whom the con-
clared in confession; but mention of them may, with- fession is made has no power to absolve, nevertheless
out any fault, be omitted and the^^ can be expiated he who confesses to his fellow {socio) becomes worthv
by many other remedies" (Council of Trent, Sess. o£ pardon through his desire of confessing to a priest
AlV, c. 3). Thus, an act of contrition suffices to ob- (P. L., XL, 1113). Lea, who cites (I, 220) the asser-
tain forgiveness of venial sin, and the same effect is tion of the Pseudo-Augustine about confession to
produced by the worthy reception of sacraments other one's neighbour^ passes over the explanation. He con-
than penance^ e. ^., by Holy Communion. sequently sets m a wrong light a series of incidents
The reconcdiation of the sinner with God has as a illustrating the practice and gives but an imperfect
further consequence the revival of those merits which idea of the theological discussion which it aroused,
he had obtained before committing grievous sin. Good Though Albertus Magnus (In IV Sent., dist. 17, art.
works performed in the state of srace deserve a reward 58) regarded as sacramental the absolution granted by
from (Sod, but this is forfeited D^ mortal sin, so that a layman while St. Thomas (IV Sent., d. 17, q. 3, a. 3,
if the sinner should die unforgiven his j^ood deeds sol. 2) speaks of it as "quodammodo sacramentalis",
avail him nothing. So long as he remains m sin, he is other great theologians took a quite different view,
incapable of mentin^: even works which are good in Alexander of Hales (Summa, Q. xix, De confessions
themselves are, in his case, worthless: they cannot memb.. I, a. 1) says that it is an "implorine of abso-
revive, because they never were alive. But once his lution"; St. Bonaventure ("Opera , Vll, p. 345,
sin is cancelled by penance, he regains not only the Lyons, 1668) that such a confession even in cases of
state of grace but also the entire store of merit which necessity is not obligatory, but merely a sign of contri-
had, before his sin, been placed to his credit. On this tion; Scotus (IV Sent., d. 14, q. 4) that there is no pre-
point theologians are practically unanimous: the only cept obliging one to confess to a lavman and that this
hindrance to obtaining reward is sin, and when this is practice may be very detrimental : Durandus of St.
removed, the former title, so to speak, is revalidated. Pourcain (IV Sent., d. 17, q. 12) that in the absence
On the other hand, if there were no such revalidation, of a priest, who alone can absolve in the tribunal of
the loss of merit once acquired would be equivalent to penance, there is no obligation to confess; Prierias
an eternal punishment, which is incompatible with the (Summa Silv., s. v. Confessor. I, 1) that if absolution
forgiveness effected by penance. As to the further is given by a lavman, the contession must be repeated
question regarding the manner and extont of the re- whenever possible; this in fact was the general opin-
vival of merit, various opinions have been proposed; ion. It is not then surprising that Dominicus Soto,
but that which is generally accepted holds with $uare8 writing in 1564, should find it difficult to believe that
(De reviviscentia meritorum) tnat the revival is com- such a custom ever existed: "since (in confession to
plete, i. e., the forgiven penitent has to his credit as a lajrman) there was no sacrament ... it is incred-
much merit as though he had never sinned. See De ible that men, of their own accord and with no profit
Augustinis, "De re sacramentaria", 11, Rome, 1887; to themselves, should reveal to others the secrets of
Pesch, op. cit., VII ; G6ttler, "Der hi. Thomas v. their conaeienoe" (IV Sent., d. 18, q. 4, a. 1). Since,
mbnanck
.624
PBNANGX
therefore, the weight of theological opinion gradually
turned against the practice and since the practice
never receiv^ the sanction of the Church, it cannot be
urged as a proof that the power to forgive sins be-
longed at any time to the laity. What the practice
does show is that both people and theologians reaUzed
keenly the obUgation of confessing their sins not to
God alone but to some human listener, even though
the latter possessed no power to absolve.
The same exaggerated notion appears in the prac-
tice of confessing to the deacons in case of necessity.
They were natur^ly preferred to laymen when no
priest was accessible because in virtue of their office
they administered Holy Communion. Moreover,
some of the earlier councils (Elvira, a. d. 300; Toledo,
400) and penitentials (Theodore) seemed to prant the
power of penance to the deacon (in the priest's ab-
sence). The Council of Tribur (895) declared in
regard to bandits that if, when captured or wounded,
they confessed to a priest or a deacon, they should
not be denied communion; and this eicpression '* pres-
bytero vel diacono" was incorporated in the Decree of
Gratian and in many later documents from the tenth
century to the thirteenth. The Council of > York
(1195) decreed that except in the gravest necessity
the deacon should not baptize, give communion, or
''impose penance on one who confessed". Substan-
tially the same enactments are found in the Councils
of London (1200) and Rouen (1231), the constitutions
of St. Edmund of Canterbury (1236), and those of
Walter of Kirkham, Bishop of Durham (1255). All
these enactments, though stringent enough as regards
ordinary circumstances, make exception for urgent
necessity. No such exception is allowed in the decree
of the Synod of Poitiers (1280) : "desiring to root out
an erroneous abuse which has grown up in our diocese
through dangerous ignorance, we foroid deacons to
hear confessions or to give absolution in the tribun^
of penance: for it is certain and beyond doubt that
they cannot absolve, since they have not the ke3rB
which are conferred only in the priestly order". Tms
''abuse" probably disappeared in the fourteenth or
fifteenth century; at all events no direct mention is
made of it by the Coimcil of Trent, though the reser-
vation to bishops and priests of the absolving power
shows plainly that the Council excluded deacons.
The authorization which the medieval councils gave
the deacon in case of necessity did not confer the
power to forgive sins. In some of the decrees it is
expressly stated that the deacon has not the kevs —
doves rum habent. In other enactments he is forbidden
except in cases of necessity to ''give" or "impose
penance", vasnitenHam darCf imponere. His function
then was limited to the forum externum; in the
i^sence of a priest he could "reconcile" the sinner,
i. e., restore him to the communion of the Church:
but he did not and could not give the sacramental
absolution which a priest would nave given (Palmieri,
Pesch). Another explanation emphasizes the fact
that the deacon could lawfully administer the Holy
Eucharist. The faithful were under a strict obligation
to receive Communion at the approach of death, and
on the other hand the reception of this sacrament
sufficed to blot out even mortal sin provided the com-
municant had the requisite dispositions. The deacon
could hear their confession simply to assure himself
that they were properly disposed, but not for the pur-
pose of giving them absolution. If he went further and
"imposed penance" in the stricter, sacramental sense,
he exceeded his power, and any authorization to this
effect granted by the oishop merely showed that the
bishop was in error (Lauram, " De ^intervention des
lalques, des diacres et des abbesses dans Vadministra-
tion de la penitence", Paris, 1897). In any case, the
prohibitory enactments which finally abolished the
practice d^d not deprive the deacon of a power
which was his by virtue of his office; but they brought
into clearer H^t the traditional belief that onl^
bishops and pnests can administer the Sacrament of
Penance. (See below under Confession.)
For valid administration, a twofold power is neces-
sary: the power of order and the power of jurisdic-
tion. The former is conferred by ordination, the
latter by ecclesiastical authority (see Jurisdiction).
At his ordination a priest receives the power to con-
secrate the Holy Eucharist, and for valid consecration
he needs no jurisdiction. As regards penance, the
case is different: "because the nature and character
of a judgment requires that sentence be pronounced
only on those who are subjects (of the judge) the
Church of God has always held, and this Council
affirms it to be most true, that the absolution which
a priest pronounces upon one over whom he has not
either ordinary or delegated jurisdiction, is of no
effect" (Council of Trent. Sess. XIV, c. 7). Ordinary
jurisdiction is that which one has by reason of his
office as involving the care of souls; the pope has it
over the whole Church, the bishop within nis diocese,
the pastor within his parish. Delegated jurisdiction
is that which is granted by an ecclesiastical superior
to one who does not possess it by virtue of his office.
The need of iurisdiction for administering this sacra-
ment is usually expressed by saying that apriest must
have "faculties" to hear confession (see Faculties).
Hence it is that a priest visiting in a diocese other
than his own cannot hear confession without special
authorization from the bishop. Every priest, how-
ever, can absolve any one who is at the pomt of dea^.
because imder those circumstances the Church gives all
Eriests jurisdiction. As the bishop grants jurisdiction,
e can also limit it by "reserving" certain cases (see
Reservation) and he can even withdraw it entirely.
Recipientf i. e., the penitent. — The Sacrament of
Penance was instituted oy Christ for the remission of
sins committed after baptism. Hence, no unbaptized
person, however deep and sincere his sorrow, can be
validly absolved. Baptism, in other words, is the first
essential requisite on the part of the penitent. This
does not imply that in the sins committed by an un-
baptized person there is a special enormity or any^
otner element that places them beyond the power of
the kevs; but that one must first be a membfer of the
Church before he can submit himself and his sins to
the judicial process of sacramental Penance.
Contrition; Attrition. — Without sorrow for sin
there is no forgiveness. Hence the Council of Trent
(Sess. XIV, c. 4): "Contrition, which holds the first
place among the acts of the penitent, is sorrow of heart
and detestation for sin committed, with the resolve
to sin no more". The Council (ibid.) furthermore dis-
tin^ishes perfect contrition from imperfect contrition,
which is called attrition, and whicn arises from the
consideration of the turpitude of sin or from the fear
of hell and punishment. See Attrition; Contri-
tion, where these two kinds of sorrow are more fully
explained and an account is given of the principal dis-
cussions and opinions. See also treatises by Pesch,
Palmieri, Pohle. For the present purpose it need only
be stated that attrition, with the Sacrament of Pen-
ance, suffices to obtain forgiveness of sin. The Coun-
cil of Trent further teaches (ibid.): "though it some-
times happens that this contrition is perfect and that
it reconciles man with God before the actual reception
of this sacrament, still the reconciliation is not to be
ascribed to the contrition itself apart from the desire
of the sacrament which it (contrition) includes". In
accordance with this teaching Pius V condemned
(1567) the proposition of Baius asserting that even
perfect contrition does not, except in case of necessity
or of martyrdom, remit sin without the actual recep-
tion of the sacrament (Denzinger-Bannwart, "En-
chir.", 1071). It should be noted, however, that the
contrition of which the Council speaks is penect in the
sense that it includes the desire {voium) to receive thet
PSNANCS 625 PSNANCI
SftCMunent. Whoever, in fact, repents of his suar out necessity of manifestation is all the clearer if satisfao-
of love for God must be willing to comply with the tion for sin, which from the beginning has been part
Divine ordinance regarding penance, i. e., he would of the penitential discipline, is to be imposed not only
confess if a confessor were accessible, and he realizes wisely put also justly. That there is a necessary con-
that he is obliged to confess when he has the oppor- nexion between the prudent judgment of the confessor
tunity. But it does not follow that the penitent is at and the detailed confession of sins is evident from the
liberty to choose between two modes of obtaining for- nature of a judicial procedure and especially from a
giveness, one by an act of contrition independently of full analysis of the grant of Christ m the U^t of
the sacrament, the other by confession and absolution, tradition. No judge may release or condemn without
This view was put forward by Peter Martinez (de full knowledge of the case. And again the tradition
Osma) in the proposition: '* mortal sins as regards of the earliest time sees in the words of Christ not
their guilt and their puni^iment in the other world, only the office of the judge sitting in judgment, but
are blotted out by contrition alone without any refer- the kindness of a father who weeps with the repentant
ence to the keys"; and the proposition was con- child (Aphraates, ''Ep. de Poenitentia'', dem. 7) and
demned by Sixtus IV in 1479 (DenzingeivBannwart, the skill of the physician who after the manner of
''Enchir.'', 724). Hence it is clear that not even heart- Christ heals the wounds of the soul (Origen in P. G.,
felt sorrow based on the highest motives, can, in the XII, 418; P. L., XIII, 1086). Clearly; therefore, the
present order of salvation, dispense with the power words of Christ imply the doctrine of the external
of the keys, i. e., with the sacrament of Penance. manifestation of conscience to a priest in order to
Confession; Necessity. — " For those who after bap- obtain pardon. ,
tism have fallen into sin, the Sacrament of Penance is Confession; Various Kinds, — Confession is the
as necessarv unto salvation as is baptism itself for avowal of one's own sins made to a duly authorized
those who have not yet been regenerated'' (Council priest for the purpose of obtaining their forgiveness
of Treiit, Sess. XIV, c. 2). Penance, therefore, is not through the power of the keys. Virtual confession is
an institution the use of which was left to the option simply the will to confess even where, owing to cir-
of each sinner, so that he mi^t, if he preferred, hold cumstances, declaration of sin is impossible; actual
aloof from the Church and secure forgiveness by some confession is any action by which the penitent mani-
other means, e. g., by acknowledging his sin in the fests his sin. It may be made in general terms, e. g.,
privacy of his own mind. As already stated, the power by reciting the "Confiteor", or it may consist in a
granted by Christ to the Apostles is twofold, to for- more or less detailed statement of one's sins: when
give and to retain, in such a way that what they the statement is complete, the confession is distinct,
forgive God forgives and what they retain God re- Public confession, as made in the hearing of a number
tains. But this grant would be nullified if, in case the of people (e. g. a congregation) differs from private,
Church retained the sins of a penitent, he could, as it or secret, con^ssion which is made to the priest alone
were, take appeal to God's tribunal and obtain par- and is often called auricular, i. e., spoken into the
don. Nor would the power to retain have any meaning ear of the confessor. We are here concerned mainly
if the sinner, passing over the Church, went in the with actual distinct confession which is the usual
first instance to God, since by the very terms of the practice in the Church and which so far as the validity
grant, God retains sin once committed so long as it is of the sacrament is concerned, may be either public or
not remitted by the Church. It would indeed have private. ''As regards the method of confessing secretly
been strangely inconsistent if Christ in conferring this to the priest alone, though Christ did not forbid that
twofold power on the Apostles had intended to pro- any one, in punishment of his crimes and for his own
vide some other means of forgiveness such as con- humiliation as also to give others an example and to
fessing "to God alone". Not only the Apostles, but edify the Church, should confess his sins publicly,
any one with an elementary knowledge of human still, this has not been commanded by Divine precept
nature would have perceived at once that the easier nor would it be prudent to decree by any human law
means would be chosen, and that the ^nt of power that sins, especially secret sins, should be publicly
so formally and solemnly made by Chnst had no real confessed. Since, then, secret sacramental confession,
X'ficance (Palmieri, op. cit., thesis X). On the which from the beginning has been and even now is
r hand, once it is admitted that the grant was the usage of the Church, was always commended with
effectual and consequently that the sacrament is great and unanimous consent by the hoUest and most
necessary in order to obtain forgiveness, it plainly ancient Fathers; thereby is plainly refuted the fooliaJi
follows that the penitent must in some way make calumny of those who make bold to teach that it
known his sin to those who exercise the power. This (secret confession) is something foreign to the Divine
is conceded even by those who reject the sacrament of command, a human invention devised by the Fathers
Penance as a Divine institution. "Such remission assembled in the Lateran Council " (Council of Trent j
was manifestly impossible without the declaration of Sess. X(V, c 5). It is therefore CathoUc doctrine,
the offences to be forgiven" (Lea, "History etc.", I, first, that Christ did not prescribe public confession,
p. 182). The Council of Trent, after declaring that salutary as it might be, nor did He forbid it; second,
Christ left His priests as His vicars unto whom as that secret confession, sacramental in character, has
rulers and judges the faithful must make known their been the practice of the Church from the earliest days,
sins, adds: "It is evident that the priests could not Traditional Belief and Practice, — How firmly rooted
have exercised this judgment without knowledge of in the CathoUc mind is the belief in the efficacy and
the cause, nor could they have observed justice in necessity of confession, appears clearly from the fact
enjoining satisfaction if (the faithful) had declared that the Sacrament of Penance endures in the Church
their sins in a general way only and not specifically after the countless attacks to which it has been sub-
and in detail" (Sess. XIV, c. 5). jected during the last four centuries. If at the Refor-
Since the priest in the pardoning of sin exercises mation or since the Church could have surrendered a
a strictly judicial function, Christ must will that such doctrine or abandoned a practice for the sake of peace
tremendous power be used wisely and prudently, and to soften a "hard saying", confession would have
Moreover, in virtue of the grant of Christ the pri^ been the first to disappear. Yet it is precisely during
can forgive all sins without distinction, qucecumque this period that the Uhurch has defined in the most
solveritis. How can a wise and prudent judgment exact terms the nature of penance and most vigorously
be rendered if the priest be in ignorance of the cause insisted on the necessity of confession. It whI not of
on which judgment is pronounced? And how can he course be denied that at the beginning of the sixteenth
obtain the requisite knowledge unless it come from century confession was generally practised throughout
the spontaneous acknowledgment of the sinner? This the Christian world. The Reformers themselves, not-
XI.— 40
ably Calvin, admitted that, it had been in eristence
for three centuries when they attributed its origin to
the Fourth Lateron Council (1215). At that time,
acoordinK to Lea (op. cit., 1, 228), the necessity of con-
fession "became a new article of faith " and the canon,
OTnnit tilriutqite §exuM, " is perhaps the moat important
l^jslative act in the history of the Church (ibid.,
230). But, as the Council of Trent affirms, "the
Church did not through the Lateran Council prescribe
that the faithful of Christ should confess— a thine
which it knew to be by Divine right oecesaary and
MtablJshed-— but that the precept of confessing at least
onee a year should be complied with by all and every
one when they reached the age of discretion" (Sesa.,
XIV, c. 5). The Lateran edict presupposed the neces-
taty of confession as an article of Catholic belief and
laid down a law as to the minimum frequency of con-
fession— at least once a year.
/n (A« MiddU Aget. — In constructing their systems
of theology, the medieral doctors discuss at length the
various problems
connected with the
Soonment of Pen-
ance. Theyaiepnuv
tioally unanimous in
holding that confes-
sion is obliKatory ; the
only notable excep-
tion in the twelfth
oeotury U Gratian,
who gives the argu-
ments for and against
the necessity of con-
feteing to a priest and
leaves the question
open (Decretum, p.
It, De p(En., d. 1, m
P. L., CLXXXVII,
1519-63). Peter
Lombard (d. about
1150) Ukes up the
authorities cited by
Gratian and by
raeansof them proves
that "without con-
fession there is no
tnuice into parad ise "
(IV 8ent^ d. XVII,
4, in P. L., CXCll,
880-2). The princi-
pal debate, in which
Hugh of 8t. Victor, Abelard, Robert Pullus, and Peter
of Poitiers took the leading ports, concerned the origin
and sanction of the obligation, and the value of Uie
different Scriptural texts cited to prove the institution
of penance. This question passea on to the thirteenth
century and received its aolution in very pMn terms
from St, Thomas Aquinas, Treating (Contra Gentee,
IV, 72) of the necessity of penance and its parts, he
shows that "the institution of confession was neces-
sary in order that the sin of the penitent might be
revealed to Christ's minister; hence the minister to
whom the confession is made must have judicial
power as representing Christ, the Judge of the living
and the dead. This power again requires two things;
authority of knowledge and power to absolve or to
condemn. These are called the two keys of the Church
which the Lord entrusted to Peter (Matt,, xvi, 19).
But they were not given to Peter to be held by him
alone, but tobe handed on through him toothers; else
sufficient provision would not have been made for the
salvation of the faithful. These keys derive their
efficacy from the passion of Christ whereby He opened
to us the gate of the heavenly kingdom". And he
adds that as no one can be saved without baptism
^ther by actual reception or by deure, so they woo sin
6 PKNAHGI
after baptism cannot be saved unless they submit to
the keys of the Church either by actually confesaiug
or by tie resolve to confess when opportunity pennita.
Furthermore, as the rulers of the Church cannot dis-
pense any one from baptism as a means of salvation,
neither can they give a dispensation whereby the
sinner may be forgiven without confession and aSsdn-
tion. The same explanation and reasoning is giv(o
by all the Scholastics of the thirteenth and fourteenth
centuries. They were in practical agreement as to the
necessity of jurisdiction in the conusor. Rc^anUng
the time at which confession had to be made, some
held with William of Auvergne that one was obliged
to confess as soon as posable after sinning; otl^
with AlbertuB Magnus and St. Thomas that it sufficed
to confess within the time limits prescribed by the
Church (Paschal Time); and this more lenient view
finally prevailed. Further subjects of discunon dur-
ing this period were; the choice of confessor; the
obligation of confessing before receiving other saers-
ments, especially the
Eucharist ; the integ-
rity of confession ; the
obligation of seoccy
oD the partof the con-
fessor. I.e., the seal of
confession. The care-
ful and minute treat-
ment of these points
and the frank ex-
presmon of divergent
opinions were cluuao-
teristic of the School-
men, but they also
brought out more
clearly the central
truths regarding pen-
ance and they opened
the way to the condl-
iar pronouncements
at Florence and Trmt
which gave to Cath-
olic doctrine a more
precise formulation.
See Vacandard and
Bernard in "Diet, de
thtol. cath.'' B. V.
Confession; Tunnel,
"Hist, de la thiokf
fie positive", Paris,
904; Cambier, "De
divina institutione
confcssioniH sacramentalis", Louvain, 1884.
Not only was the obligation reci^niied in the Cath-
olic Church throughout the Middle Ages, but the
schismatic Greeks held the same belief and still bold
it. They fell into schism under Photius (q, v.) in 86B,
but retained confession, which therefore must have
been in use for some time previous to the ninth cen-
tury. The practice, moreover, was r»u]ated in detail
by the Penitential Books (q. v.), which prescribed the
canonical penance for each sin, and minute questions
for the examination of the penitent. The most famous
of these books among the Greeks were those attributed
to John the Faster (q. v.) and to John the Monk. In
the West similar works were written by the Irish
monks St. Colurabanus (d. 615) and Cummian, and
by the Englishmen Ven. Bede (d. 735), Egbert (d.
787), and Theodore of Canterbury (d. 690). Besides
the councils mentioned atwve (Minuier) decrees per-
taining to confession were enacted at Worms (868),
Paris (820), Ch&lons (813, 650), Tours (813), Reims
(813). The Council of Chalcuth (785) says: "if
any one (which God forbid) should depart this life
without penance or confession he is not to be prayed
for ". The significant features about these enactments
ia that tbey oo not introduce confeaaion as a new prac-
PINANGX
627
FINANCE
tioe, but take it for granted and regulate its adminis-
tration. Thereby they put into practical effect what
had been handecf down by tradition.
St. Gregory the Great (d. 604) teaches: "the afflic-
tion of penance is efficadous in blotting out sins when
it is enjoined by the sentence of the priest, when the
burden of it is decided by him in proportion to the
offence after weighing the deeds of those who confess"
(In I R^., Ill, V, n. 13 in P. L., LXXIX, 207); Pope
Leo the Great (440-61), who is often credited with tne
institution of confession, refers to it as an "Apostolic
rule". Writing to the bishops of Campania he foi^
bid6 as an abuse "contrary to the Apostolic rule"
(contra apoatoUcam regulam) the reading out in public
of a written statement of tneir sins drawn up by the
faithful, because, he declares, "it suffices that the
guilt of conscience be manifested to priests alone in
secret confession " (Ep. clxviii in P. L., lilV, 1210) . In
another letter (Ep. cviii in P. L., LIV, 1011), after
declaring that by Divine ordinance the mercy of God
can be obtained only through the supplications of the
priests, he adds: "the mediator between God and
men, Christ Jesus, gave the rulers of the Church this
power that thev should impose penance on those who
confess and aomit them when purified by salutary
satisfaction to the communion of the sacraments
through the gateway of reconciliation." The earlier
Fathers frequently speak of sin as a disease which
needs treatment, sometimes drastic, at the hands of
the spiritual physician or surgeon. St. Augustine (d.
430) tells the sinner: "an abscess had formed in your
conscience; it tormented you and gave you no rest.
. . . confess, and in confession let the pus come out
and flow away " (In ps. Ixvi, n. 6). St. Jerome (d. 420)
coniparing the priests of the New Law with those of
theOld who decided between leprosvand leprosy, says:
"likewise in the New Testament the bishops and the
Eriest bind or loose ... in virtue of their office,
avins heard various sorts of sinners, they know who
is to be bound and who is to be loosed" . . . (In
Matt., xvi, 19) ; in his "Sermon on Penance" he says:
"let no one find it irksome to show his wound (vulnus
confiteri) because without confession it cannot be
healed." St. Ambrose (d. 397): "this right (of
loosing and binding) has been conferred on priests
only" (De pcen., I, ii, n. 7); St. Basil (d. 397): "As
men do not make known their bodily ailments to any-
body and everybody, but onl3r to those who are skilled
in healing, so confession of sin ought to be made to
those who can cure it" (Reg. brevior., 229).
For those who sought to escape the obligation of
confession it was natural enough to assert that re-
pentance was the affair of the soul alone with its
Maker, and that no intermediary was needed. It is
this pretext that St. Augustine sweeps aside in one of
his sermons: "Let no one say, I do penance secretly;
I perform it in the si^t of God, and He who is to
pudon me knows that m my heart I repent ". Where-
upon St. Augustine asks: "Was it then said to no
purpose, 'What you shall loose upon earth shall be
loosed in heaven 7 Was it for notning that the keys
were even to the Church?" (Sermo cccxcii, n. 3, in
P. L., XXXIX, 1711). The Fathers, of course, do not
deny that sin must be confessed to God; at times,
indeed, in exhorting the faithful to confess, they make
no mention of the priest; but such passages must be
taken in connexion with the general teadiingof the
Fathers and with the traditional belief of the Church.
Their real meaning is expressed, e. g., by Anastasius
Sinaita (seventh century): "(Jonfess your sins to
Christ through the priest" (De sacra synaxi), and by
Egbert, Archbishop of York (d. 766) : '^Let the sinner
confess his evil deeds to God. that the priest may
know what penance to impose" (Mansi, Coll. Cone,
XIL232). For the passages in St. John Chrysostom,
see Hurter, "Theol. dogmat.", Ill, 464; Pesch, " Pr»-
lectiones ", VII, 165.
The Fathers, knowing well that one great difficulty
which the sinner has to overcome is wame, encour-
age him in spite of it to confess. "I appeal to you,
my brethren", says St. Pacian (d. 391), ". . . you
who are not ashamed to sin and yet are ashamed to
confess ... I beseech you, cease to hide your
wounded conscience. Sick people who are prudent do
not fear the physician, though he cut and bum even
the secret parts of the body" (Pareenesis ad poBnit.,
n. 6, 8). St. John Chrysostom (d. 347) pleads elo-
quently with the sinner: "Be not ashamed to ap-
proach [the priest] because you have sinned, nay
rather, for this very reason approach. No one says:
Because I have an ulcer, I will not go near a physician
or take medicine; on the contrary, it is just tins that
makes it ikeedful to call in physicians and apply rem-
edies. We [priests] know well how to pardon, faiecause
we ourselves are liable to sin. This is why God did
not give us angels to be our doctors, nor send down
Gabriel to rula the flock, but from the fold itself he
chooses the shepherds, from among the sheep He ap-
points the leader, in order that he may be inclined to
pardon his followers and, keeping in mind his own
frailty, may not set himself in hardness against the
members of the flock" (Hom. "On Frequent Assem-
bly" in P. G., LXIII, 463).
Tertullian bad already used the same argument with
those who, for fear of exposing their sins, put off their
confession from day to day — "mindful more of their
shame than of their salvation, like those who hide
from the physician the malady they suffer in the secret
parts of the body, and thus periui through bashful-
ness. • . . Because we withhold anything from the
knowledge of men, do we thereby conceal it from God?
... Is it better to hide and be damned than to be
openly absolved?" ("De poBnit.", x). St. Cyprian
(d. 258) pleads for greater mildness in the treatment of
sinners, "since we find that no one ought to be for-
bidden to do penance and that to those who implore
the mercy of God peace can be granted through His
priests. •• . . And because in heU there is no confes-
sion, nor can ezomologesia be made there, they who
repent with their whole heart and ask for it, should be
received into the Church and therein saved unto the
Lord " (Ep. Iv, "Ad Antonian.", n. 29). Elsewhere he
says that many who do not do penance or confess
their guilt are filled with unclean spirits; and by con-
trast he praises the greater faith and more wholesome
fear of those who, though not guilty of any idolatrous
action, "nevertheless, because they thought of [such
action], confess [their thought] in sorrow and simplic-
ity to the priests of God, make the exomologeais of
their conscience, lay bare the burden of their soul, and
seek a salutary remedy even for wounds that are
slight " (" De lapsis ", xxvi sqq.) . Origen (d. 254) com-
Kares the sinner to those whose stomachs are over-
>aded with undigested food or with excess of humours
and phlegm: if they vomit, they are relieved, "so,
too, those who have sinned, if they conceal ana keep
the sin within, they are distressed and almost choked
by its humour or phlegm. But if they accuse them-
selves and confess, they at the same time vomit the
sin and cast off every cause of disease" (Homil. on
Ps. xxxvii, n. 6, in P. G., Xll, 1386). St. Iremeus
(130-202) relates the case of certain women whom
the Gnostic Marcus had led into «}n. "Some of
them", he says, "perform their exomologeaia openly
also [etiam in manifesto], while others, afraid to do
this, draw back in silence, despairing to regain the life
of God" ("Adv. h«r.", I, xiii, 7, in P. G., VII, 591).
This eHam in manifesto suggests at least that they had
confessed privately, but could not bring themselves
to make a public confession. The advantage of con-
fession as asainst the concealment *of sin is shown in
the words of St. Clement of Rome in his letter to the
Corinthians: " It is better for a man to confess his sins
than to harden his heart" (£p. I, "Ad Cor.", U, 1).
FINANCE 628 PINANCS
This outline of the patristic teaching shows: (1) injury to the sacrament'' (IV Sent., d. xvii, q. 3^
that the Fathers insisted on a manifestation of sin as sol. 5 ad 4).
the necessary means of unburdening the soul and re- Satisfaction. — As stated above, the absolution
gaining the friendship of God; (2) that the confession given by the priest to a penitent who confesses his sins
was to be made not to a layman but to priests; (3) with the proper dispositions remits both the guilt and
that priests exercise the power of absolving in virtue the eternal punishment (of mortal sin). There r»-
of a Divine conmussion, i. e., as representatives of mains, however, some indebtedness to Divine justice
Christ; (4) that the sinner, if he would be saved, must which must be cancelled here or hereafter (see Purga-
overcome his shame and repugnance to confession, tobt). In order to have it cancelled here, the peni-
And since the aeries of witnesses goes back to the latter tent receives from his confessor what is usually cisdled
part of the first century, the practice of confession his ''penance", usually in the form of certain prayers
must have eidsted from the earliest days. St. Leo had which he is to say, or of certain actions which he is
good reason for appealing to the ''Apostolic rule" to perform, such as visits to a church, the Stations of
which made secret confession to the priest sufficient the Cross, etc. Almsdeeds^ fasting, and prayer are
without the necessity of a public declaration. Nor is the chief means of satisfaction, but other penitential
it surprising that Lactantius (d. c. 330) should have works may also be enjoined. The quality and extent
pointed to the practice of confession as a characteris- of the penance is determined by the confessor accord-
tic oT the true Church: "That is the true Church in ing to the nature of the sins revealed, the special cir-
which there is confession and penance, which applies a cumstances of the penitent, his liability to relapse, and
wholesome remedy to the sins and wounds whereunto the need of eradicating evil habits. Sometimes the
the weakness of the flesh is subject" ("Div. Inst.", penance is such that it may be performed at once; in
IV, 30). other cases it may require a more or less considerable
WHAT Sins are to bb Confessed. — Amon^ the period, as, e. g., where it is prescribed for each day
propositions condemned by the Council of Trent is the during a week or a month. But even then the penitent
following: "That to obtam forgiveness of sins in the may receive another sacrament (e. g.. Holy Com-
Sacrament of Penance, it is not necessary by Divine munion) immediately after confession, since absolu-
law to confess each and every mortal sin which is tion restores him to the state of grace. He is never-
called to mind bv due and careful examination, to theless under obligation to continue the performance
confess even hidden sins and those that are against of his penance until it is completed,
the last two precepts of the Decalogue, together with In theological language, this penance is called satis-
the circumstances that chanse the specific nature of faction and is defined, in the words of St. Thomas:
the sin; such confession is only useful for the instruo- "The payment of the temporal punishment due on
tion and consolation of the penitent, and of old was account of the offence committed against God by sin"
practised merely in order to impose canonical satis- (Suppl. to Summa, Q. xii, a. 3). It is an act of justice
faction" (Can. de poenit., vii). The Catholic teaching whereby the injury done to the honour of God is re-
consequently is: that all mortal sins must be con- quired, so far at least as the sinner is able to make
fessed of which the penitent is conscious, for these are reparation (pana vindicativa) ; it is also a preventive
so related that no one of them can be remitted unless remedy, inasmuch as it is meant to hinder the further
all are remitted. Remisision means that the soul is commission of sin {pcena medicinalis). Satisfaction is
restored to the friendship of God; and this is obvi- not, like contrition and confession, an essential part
ouslv impossible if there remain unforgiven even a of the sacrament, because the primarv effect — ^i. e.,
sin^e mortal sin. Hence, the penitent, who in con- remission of guilt and temporal punishment — ^is ob-
fession wilfully conceals a mortal sin, derives r.o tained without satisfaction; but it is an integral part,
benefit whatever: on the contrary, he makes void the because it is rec][ui8ite for obtaining the secondary
sacrament and thereby incurs the guilt of sacrilege, effect — ^i. e., remission of the temporal punishment.
If, however, the sin be omitted, not through any fault The Catholic doctrine on this point is set forth by the
of the penitent, but through rorgetfulness, it is for- Council of Trent, which condemns the proposition:
given indirectly; but it must be declared at the next "That the entire punishment is always remitted by
confession and thus submitted to the power of the God together with the guilt, and the satisfaction re-
kevs. quired of penitents is no other than faith whereby they
While mortal sin is the necessary matter of con- believe tnat Christ has satisfied for them"; and
fession, venial sin is sufficient matter, as are also the further the proposition: "That the kejrs were given
mortal sins already forgiven in previous confessions, to the Church for loosing onl^ and not for binding as
This is the common teaching of theologians, in accord well; that therefore in enjoining penance on those
with the condemnation pronounced by Leo X on who confess, priests act contrary to the purpose of the
Luther's assertion, "By no means presume to confess keys and the institution of Chnst; that it is a fiction
venial sins ... in the primitive Church, onlv mani- [to say] that after the eternal punishment has been
fest mortal sins were confessed" (Bull, ''Exurge remitteid in virtue of the keys, there usually remains to
Domine"; Denzinger, "Enchir.", 748). In the con- be paid a temporal penalty" (Can. "de Sac. pcenit.",
stitution "Inter cunctas" (17 Feb.. 1304), Benedict 12, 15; Denzinger,. "Enchir.'\ 922, 925).
XI, after stating that penitents wno had confessed As against the errors contained in these statements,
to a priest belonging to a religious order are not the Council (Sess. XIV, c.viii) cites conspicuous exam-
obliged to reiterate the confession to their own priest, pies from Holy Scripture. The most notable of these
adds: "Though it is not necessary to confess the same is the judgment pronounced upon David: "And
sins over again, nevertheless we regard it as salutary Nathan said to David: the Lord aiso hath taken away
to repeat the confession, because of the shame it in- thy sin: thou shalt not die. Nevertheless, because
volves, which is a sreat part of penance; hence we thou hast given occasion to the enemies of the Lord
strictly enjoin the Brothers [Dominicans and Fran- to blaspheme, for this thins, the child that is bom to
ciscans] to admonish their penitents and in sermons thee, shall surely die" (II Kings, xii, 13, 14; cf. Gen.,
exhort them that they confess to their own priests at iii, 17; Num.. xx, II sqq.). David's sin was for-
least once a year, assuring them that this will un- given and yet ne had to suffer punishment in the loss
doubtedly conduce to their spiritual welfare" (Den- of his child. The same truth is taught by St. Paul
zinger, "Enchir.", 470). St. Thomas gives the same (I Cor., xi, 32): "But whilst we are judged, we are
reason for this practice: the of tener one confesses the chastised by the Lord, that we be not condenmed
more is the (temporal) penalty reduced; hence one with this world". The chastisement here mentioned
might confess over and over again until the whole is a temporal punishment, but a punishment unto
penalty is cancelled, nor would ne thereby offer any salvation.
PINANGS
629
PtNANGS
"Of all the parts of penance'', says the Council of
Trent (loc. cit.), "satinaction was constantly recom-
mended to the Christian people bv our Fathers''.
This the Reformers themselves admitted. Calvin
(Instit., Ill, iv, 38) says he makes Uttle account of
what the ancient writings contain in regard to satis-
faction because ''nearly all whose books are extant
went astray on this point or spoke too, severely".
Chemnitius ("Examen C. Trident.", 4) acknowledges
that Tertullian, Cyprian, Ambrose, and Augustme
extolled the value of penitential works; and Flacius
lUyricus, in the ''Centuries", has a long list of Fathers
and early writers who, as he admits, bear witness to
the doctrine of satisfaction. Some of the texts already
cited (Confession) expressly mention satisfaction as
a part of sacramental penance. To these may be
added St. Augustine, who says that "Man is forced to
suffer even after his sins are for^ven, though it was
sin that brought down on him this penalty. For the
punishment outlasts the guilt, lest the guilt should be
thought slight if with its forgiveness the punishment
also came to an end" (Tract, cxxiv, "In Joann.",
n. 5, in P. L., XXXV, 1972); St. Ambrose; "So efficar
cious is the medicine of penance that [in view of it]
God seems to revoke His sentence" ("De pconit.",
1, 2, c. vi, n.48, in P. L., XVI, 509) ; Csesarius of Aries:
"If in tribulation we give not thanks to God nor re-
deem our faults by gc^ works, we shall be detained
in the fire of purgatory until our slightest sins are
burned away hke wood or straw" (Sermo civ, n. 4).
Among the motives for doing penance on which the
Fathers most freouently insist is this: If you punish
your own sin, Goa will spare you; but in any case the
sin will not go unpunished. Or again they declare that
God wants us to perform satisfaction in order that we
may clear off our indebtedness to His Justice. It is
therefore with good reason that the earlier councils—
e. g.. Laodicsea (a. d. 372) and Carthage IV (397)—
teach that satisfaction is to be imposed on penitents:
and the Council of Trent but reiterates the traditional
belief and practice when it makes the giving of "pen-
ance" obligatory on the confessor. Hence, too, the
practice of granting indulgences, whereby the Church
comes to the penitent's assistance and places at his
disposal the tt'easury of Christ's merits. Though
closely connected with penance, indulgences are not a
part of the sacrament; they presuppose confession
and absolution, and are properly called an extra-
sacramental remission of the temporal punishment
incurred by sin. (See Indulobnces.)
Seal of Confession. — Regarding the sins revealed
to him in sacramental confession, the priest is bound
to inviolable secrecy. From this obUgation he cannot
be excused either to save his own life or good name, to
save the life of another, to further the ends of human
justice, or to avert any public calamity. No law can
compel him to divulge tiie sins confe»ed to him, or
any oath which he takes — e. g., as a witness in court.
He cannot reveal them either directly — i. e., by re-
peating them in so many words — or indirectly — ^i. e..
by any sign or action, or by giving information based
on what he knows through confession. The only pos-
sible release from the obligation of secrecy is the per-
mission to speak of the sins given freely and formally
by the penitent himself. Without such permission,
the violation of the seal of confession would not only
be a grievous sin, but also a sacrilege. It would be
contrary to the natural law because it would be an
abuse of the penitent's confidence and an injurv. very
serious perhaps, to his reputation. It woula also
violate the Divine law, which, while imposins the ob-
ligation to confess, Ukewise forbids the revelation of
that which is confessed. That it would infringe
ecclesiastical law is evident from the strict prohibi-
tion and the severe penalties enacted in this matter by
the Church. " Let him beware of betraying the sinner
by word or sign or in any other way whatsoever. . « •
we decree that he who dares to reveal a sin made
known to him in the tribunal of penance shall not
only be deposed from the priestly office, but shall
moreover be subjected to close confinement in a mon-
astery and the performance of perpetual penance"
(Fourth Lateran Council, cap. xxi; Denzinger,
"Enchir.", 438). Furthermore, by a decree of the
Holy Office (18 Nov., 1682), confessors are forbidden,
even where there would be no revelation direct or
indirect, to make any use of the knowledge obtained
in confession that would displease the penitent, even
though the non-use would occasion him greater dis-
pleasure.
These prohibitions, as well as the general oblisation
of secrecy, appty only to what the confessor learns
through confession made suA part of the sacrament.
He is not bound by the seal as regards what may be
told him by a person who, he is sure, has no intention
of maJking a sacramental confession but merely speaks
to him "in confidence"; prudence, however, may im-
pose silence concerning what he learns in this way.
Nor does the obligation of the seal prevent the con-
fessor fibm speaking of things which he has learned
outside confession, though the same things have also
been told him in confession; here again, however,
other reasons may oblige him to observe secrecy. The ,
same obligation, with the limitations indicated, rests
upon all those who in one way or another acquire a
knowledge of what is said in confession — e. g.. an
interpreter who translates for the priest the words of
the penitent, a person who either accidentally or
intentiontdly overhears the confession, an ecclesias-
tical superior (e. ^., a bishop) to whom the confessor
applies for authorization to absolve the penitent from
a reserved case. Even the penitent, according to some
theologians, is bound to secrecy; but the more general
opinion leaves him free; as he can authorize the con-
fessor to spe£kk of what he has confessed, he can also,
of his own accord, speak to others. But he is obligea
to take care that what he reveals shall cast no blame
or suspicion on the confessor, since the latter cannot
defena himself. In a word, it is more in keeping with
the intention of the Church and with the reverence
due to the sacrament that the penitent himself should
refrain from speaking of his confession. Such, un-
doubtedly, was the motive that prompted St. Leo to
condemn the practice of letting the penitent read in
public a written statement of his sins (see above);
and it needs scarcely be added that the Church, while
recognizing the validity of public confession, by no
means requires it; as the Council of Trent declares,
it would be imprudent to prescribe such a confession
by any human enactment. (For provisions of the
civil law regarding this matter, see Seal of Con-
fession.)
Public Penance. — An undeniable proof both of
the practice of confession and of the necessity of satis-
faction is found in the usage of the early Church
according to which severe andof ten prolonged penance
was prescribed and performed. The elaborate system
of penance exhibited in the " Penitentials " and con-
ciliar decrees, referred to above, was of course the out-
come of a long development; but it simply expressed
in sreater detail the principles and the general atti-
tude towards sin and satisfaction which had prevailed
from the beginning. Frequentl^^ enough the latter
statutes refer to the earlier practice either in explicit
terms or by reiterating what had been enacted long
before. At times, also, they allude to documents
which were then extant, but which have not yet come
down to us, e. g., the libeUwi mentioned in the African
synods of 251 and 255 as containing singula capiium
TAaciUif i. e., the details of previous legislation (St.
LSrprian, £p. xxi). Or again, they point to a system
of penance that was already in operation and needed
ono^ to be applied to particular cases, like that of the
Connthiane to whom Clement of Kome wrote his
PINANGI 630 FINANCE
First Epistle about a. d. 96, exhorting them: "Be known as pnthyler pemterUiariuaf i. e., a priest spe-
Bubject in obedience to the priests [presbyteria] and dallyappointedonacoountof his prudence and reserve
receive discipline [eorrectionem] unto penance, bending to hear confessions and impose public penance. If
the knees of your hearts" (Ep. I '^Ad Cor.", Ivii). the confessor deemed it necessary, he obliged the peni-
At the close, therefore, of the first century, the per- tent to appear before the bishop and his council (pre»-
formanoe of penance was required, and the nature of hyteriunC^ and these again decided whether the crime
that penance was determined, not b^ the penitent was of such a nature that it ousht to be confessed
himself, but by ecclesiastical authonty. (Bee Ex- in presenc&of the people. Then followed, usually on
COMMUNICATION.) ^ ^ AsQ Wednesday, the imposition of public penance
Three kinds of penance are to be distinguished: whereby the smner was excluded for a longer or
canonical, prescribed by councils or bishops in the shorter period from the communion of the Chureh and
form of "caQons" for graver offences. Tfiis misht in addition was obliged to perform certain penitential
be either private, i. e., performed secretly, or pubUc. exercises, the exonuSogesis, This term^ however, had
i. e., performed in the presence of bishop, clergy, and various meanings: it designated sometimes the entire
people. When accompanied by oertaii^ rites as pre- process of penance (TertuUian). or again the avowed of
scribed in the Canons, it was solemn penance. The sin at the beginning, or, finally, the public avowal
public penance was not necessarily canonical; it which was miule at tne end~i. e., after the perform-
might be undertaken by the penitent of his own ao« anoe of the penitential exercises,
cora. Solemn penance, the most severe of all, was The nature of these exercises varied according to the
inflicted for the worst offences only, notably for adul- sin for which they were prescribed. According to
teiy, murder, and idolatry, the "capital sms". The Tertullian (De poenit., IX), *' Exomotogesis is the dis-
name of penitent was applied especially to those who dpline which obliges a man to prostrate and humiliate
performed public canonical penance. " There is a himself and to aoopt a manner of life that will draw
narder and more grievous penance, the doers of which down mercy. As regards dress and food, it prescribes
are properly called in the Church penitents; they are that he shall lie in sackcloth and ashes, clothe his
excluded from participation in the sacraments of the body in rags, plunge his soul in sorrow, correct his
altar, lest by unworthily receiving they eat and drink faults by harah treatment of himself, use the plainest
judgment imto themselves" (St. Augustine, "De util- meat and drink for the sake of his soul and not of his
itate agendse pcenit.", ser. cccxxxii, c. iii). belly: usually he shall nourish praver by fasting.
The penitential process included a series of acts, whole days and nights together he snail moan, and
the first of which was confession. Regarding this, weep, and wail to the Lord his God, cast himself at
Origen, after speaking of baptism, tells us: "There is the feet of the priests, fall on his knees before those
a yet more severe and arduous pardon of sins by pen- who are dear to God, and beseech them to plead in
ance, when the sinner washes his couch with tears, his behalf". At a very early period, the exomoiogeaiM
and when he blushes not to disclose his sin to the was divided into four parts or "stations", and the
priest of the Lord and seeks the remedy" (Homil. penitents were grouped in as many different classes
"In Levit.", ii, 4, in P. G., XII, 418). Again he says: according to their progress in penance. The lower
"They who have sinned, if they hide and retain their class, the flentee (weeping) remained outside the
sin within their breast, are grievously tormented; but ' chureh door and besought the intercession of the
if the sinner becomes his own accuser, while he does faithful as these passed into the church. The audi"
this, he discharges the cause of all his malady. Only entea (hearers) were stationed in the narthex of the
let nim carefully consider to whom he should confess chureh bdiina the catechumens and were permitted
his sin; what is the character of the physician; if he to remain during the Mass of the Catechumens, i. e.,
be one who will be weak with the weak, who will weep until the end of Qie sermon. The evbetrati (prostrate),
with the sorrowful, and who understands the discip- or genufleeUntes (kneeling), occupied* the space be-
line of condolence and fellow-feeling. So that when tween the door and the ambo, where they received the
his skill shall be known and his pity felt, you may imposition of the bishop's hands or his blessing,
follow what he shall advise. Should he thmk your Finally, the coneietentee were so called because they
disease to be such that it should be declared in the were allowed to hear the whole Mass without commu-
assembly of the faithful — ^whereby others may be nicating, or because they remained at theirplace while
edified, and yourself easily reformed — this must be the faithful approached the Holy Table. This group-
done with much deliberation and the skilful advice ing into stations originated in the East, where at least
of the physician" (Homil. "In Ps. xxxvii", n. 6^ in the three higher groups are mentioned about a. d. 263
P. G., XII, 1386). Origen here states quite plainly by Grego^ Thaumaturgus^ and the first or lowest
the relation between confession and public penance, group by St. Basil (Ep. cxcix, c. xxii; ccxvii, c. Ivi).
The sinner must first make known nis sins to the In the West the classification did not exist, or at any
priest, who will decide whether any further manifesta- rate the different stations were not so clearly marked ;
tion is called for. the penitents were treated pretty much as the cate-
Public penance did not necessarily include a public ohumens.
avowal ot sin. As St. Augustine also declares, "If The exofyiob^esis terminated with the reconciliation,
his sin is not only grievous in itself ^ but involves a solemn function which took place on Holy Thursday
scandal given to others, and if the bishop [antiatea] just before Mass. The bishop presided, assisted by his
judges that it will be useful to the Churcn [to have priests and deacons. A consultation (eoneilium) was
the sin pubUshedl, let not the sinner refuse to do neld to determine which of the penitents deserved
penance in the sight of many or even of the people at readmission; the Penitential Psalms and the litanies
large, let him not resist, nor through shame add to his were recited at the foot of the altar; the bishop in a
mortal wound a greater evil" (^rmo cli, n. 3). It brief address reminded the penitents of their obliga-
was therefore the duty of the confessor to determine tion to lead henceforth an upright lifej the penitents,
how far the process of penance should go beyond lighted candles in hand, were then led mto the church;
sacramental confession. It lay with him also to fix prayers, antiphons, and responses were said, and,
the Quality and duration of the penance: "Satisfac- nnsJly, the public absolution was gjven. (See
tion , says Tertullian, "is determined by confession; Schmits. "Die BussbQcher u. die BuGBdisciplin d.
penance is bom of confession^ and by penance God is Kirche , Mainz, 1883: Funk in "Kirehenlex.'', s. v.
appeased" (De poenit., viu). In tne East there "Buasdisciplin"; Pohle in "Kirehl. Handlex.", s. v.
existed from the earliest times (Sosomen. H. E., "Bussdisciplin"; Tixeront, "Hist, des do^es",
VII, xvi). or at least from the outbreak of tne Nova- Paris, 1905; Eng. tr., St. Louis, 1910.) Regarding the
4ani8t scnism (Socrates, H. £., V, xix) a functionary nature of thi« absolution given by the bishop, various
FINANCE
631
PINANCS
opinions have been put forward. According to one
view, it was the remission, not of guilt, but of the tem-
poral punishment ; the guilt had alreaay been remitted
by the absolution which the penitent received in con-
fession before he entered on tne public penance. This
finds support in the fact that the reconciliation could
be effected by a deacon in case of necessity and in
the absence of a priest, as appears from St. Cyprian
(Ep. xviii).-
Speaking of those who had received libelli from the
martyrs he says: ''If they are overtaken by illness,
they need not wait for our coming, but may make the
exomologesis of their sin before any priest, or, if no
priest be at hand, and death is imminent, before a
deacon, that thus, by the imposition of his hands unto
penance, they may come to the Lord with the peace
which tne martyrs had besought us by letters to
grant." On the other hand, the deacon could not
give sacramental absolution: conseauently, his f unc^
tion in such cases was to absolve tne penitent from
punishment; and, as he was authorixed herein to do
what the bishop did by the public absolution, this
could not have been sacramental. There is the further
consideration that the bishop did hot necessarily hear
the confessions of those whom he absolved at the time
of reconciliation, and moreover the ancient formu-
laries prescribe tnat at this time a priest shall hear the
confession, and that the bishop, alter that, shall pro-
nounce absolution. But sacramental absolution can
be ^ven only by him who hears the confession. And
again, the public penance often lasted many years;
consequently, if the penitent were not absolved at the
beginning, he would have remained during all that
time in the state of sin, incapable of meriting anything
for heaven by his penitential exercises, and exposed
to the danger of sudden death (Pesch, op. cit., p. 110
89. Cf. Palmieri, op. cit., p. 459; Pignataro, "De
discipUiia pcenit^tiali", Rome, 1904, p. 100; Di
Dario, " II sacramento della penitenza nei primi secoli
del cnstianesimo", Naples, 1908, p. 81).
The writers who hold that the final absolution was
sacramentsJ, insist that there is no documentary evi-
dence of a secret confession; that if this had been in
existence, the harder way of the public penance would
have been abandoned; that the argument from pre-
scription loses its force if the sacramental character
of public penance be denied^ and that this penance
contained all that is required m a sacrament. (Boudin-
hon, "Sur I'histoire de la penitence" in "Revue d'his-
toire et de litt^rature religieuses", II, 1897, p. 306
sq. Cf. Hogan in "Am. CSith. Q. Rev.", July, 1900;
Batiffol, "Etudes d'histoire et de th^ologie positive",
Paris, 1902, p. 195 sq. ; Vacandard in " Diet, de th^ol.",
s. V. "Absolution". 156-61; O'Donnell, "Penance in
the Early Church *\ Dublin, 1907, p. 96 sq.) While
this discussion concerns the practice under ordinary
circumstances, it is commonly admitted that sacra-
mental absolution was granted at the time of con-
fession to those who were in danger of death. The
Church, in fact, did not, in her universal practice,
refuse absolution at the last moment even in the case
of those who had committed grievous sin. St. Leo,
writing in 442 to Theodore, Bishop of Fr^jus, says:
" Neither satisfaction is to be forbidden nor reconcilia-
tion denied to those who in time of need and immi-
nent danger implore the aid of penance and then of
reconciliation." After pointing out that penance
should not be deferred from day to dav until the
moment "when there is hardljr space either for the
confession of the penitent or his reconciliation by the
priest", he adds that even in these circumstances "the
action of penance and the grace of communion should
not be denied if asked for by the penitent " (Ep. cviii, c.
iv, in P. L., LI V, 101 1) . St. Leo states expressly that he
was appl3dng the ecclesiastical rule (ecclesiastica regula) .
Shortly before, St. Celestine (428) l|ad expressed his
horror at learning that "penance was refused the dy-
ing and that the desire of those was not granted who in
the hour of death sought this remedy for their soul";
this, he says, is "adding death to death and killing
with cruelty the soul that is not absolved" (Letter to
the bishops of the provinces of Vienne and Narboime,
c. ii). That such a refusal was not in accordance with
the earlier practice is evident from the words of the
Council of NicsBa (325): ** With respect to the d3riiig,
the ancient canonical law shall now also be observed,
namely, that if any one depart from this life, he shall
by no means be deprived of the last and most neces-
sary viaticum" (can. xiii). If the dyin^ person could
receive the Eucharist, absolution certainly could not
be denied. If at times greater severity seems to be
shown, this consisted in the refusal, not of absolution,
but of communion; such was the penalty prescribed
by the Council of Elvira (306) for those who after bap-
tism had fallen into idolatry. The same is true of the
canon (22) of the Council of Aries (314) which enacts
that communion shall not be given to "those who
apostatize, but never appear before the Church, nor
even seek to do penance, and yet afterwards, when
attacked by illness, request communion". The coun-
cil lays stress on the lack of proper disposition in such
sinners, as does 1^ St. Cyprian when he forbids that
they wno "do no penance nor manifest heartfelt sor-
row" be admitted to communion and peace if in illness
and danger they ask for it; for what prompts them to
ask [communion] is, not repentance lor their sin, but
the fear of approaching death" (Ep. ad Antonianum,
n. 23).
A further evidence of the severity with which publio
penance, and especially its solemn form, was adminis-
tered is the fact that it could be performed onlv once.
This is evident from some of the texts quoted above
(Tertulhan, Hermas). Origen also says: "For the
graver crimes, there is only one opportunity of pen-
ance" (Hom. XV, "In Levit.", c. ii); and St. Ambrose:
"As there is one baptism so there is one penance,
which, however, is performed publiclv" (De poenit.,
II, c. X, n. 95). St. Augustine gives the reason: "Al-
though, by a wise and salutary provision, opportunity
for performing that humblest kind of penance is
granted but once in the Church, lest the remedy, be-
come common, should be less efficacious for the sick
. . . yet wno will dare to say to God: Wherefore
dost thou once more spare this man who after a first
penance has again bound himself in the fetters of sin? "
(Ep. cliii, "Ad Macedonium"). It may well be ad-
mitted that the discipline of the earliest days was
rigorous, and that in some Churches or by individual
bishops it was carried to extremes. This- is plainly
stated by Pope St. Innocent (405) in his letter (Ep. vi,
c. ii) to Exuperius, Bishop of Toulouse. The question
had been raised as to what should be done with those
who, after a lifetime of licentious indulgence, beg^^
at the end for penance and communion. " R^archng
these", writes the pope, "the earlier practice was
more severe, the later more tempered with mercy.
The former custom was that penance should be
granted, but communion denied; for in those times
persecutions were frequent, hence, lest the easy ad-
mission to communion should fail to bring back from
their evil ways men who were sure of reconciliation,
very rightly communion was refused, while penance
was granted in order that the refusal might not be
total. . . . But after Our Lord had restored
peace to his Churches, and terror had ceased, it was
judged well that communion be given the d3dng lest
we should seem to follow the harshness and sternness
of the heretic Novatian in denying pardon. Commu-
nion, therefore, shall be given at the last along with
penance, that these men, if only in the supreme mo-
ment of death, may, with the permission of Our
Saviour, be rescued from eternal destruction."
The mitigation of public penance which this passage
indicates continued throughout the subsequent period.
PENANCE
632
PENANCE
especially the Middle Ases. The office of pcBniten^
iiarius had already (390) been abolished in the East by
NeBtoriuS) Patriarch of Constantinople, in conse-
quence of a scandal that grew out of public confession.
Soon afterwards, the four ''stations" disappeared, and
public penance fell into disuse. In the West it under-
went a more gradual transformation. Excommunica-
tion continued in use, and the interdict (q. v.) was
frequently resorted to. The performance of penance
was left in large measure to tne seal and good will of
the penitent; increasing clemency was shown by
allowing the reconciliation to take place somewhat
before the prescribed time was completed; and the
practice was introduced of commuting the enjoined
penance into other exercises or works of piety, such as
prayer and almsgiving. According to a decree of the
Council of Clermont (1095), those who joined a cru-
sade were freed from all obligation in the matter of
penance. Finally it became customary to let the
reconciliation follow inunediately after confession.
With these modifications the ancient usage had prac-
tically disappeared by the middle of the sixteenth
century. Some attempts were made to revive it after
the Council of Trent, but these were isolated and of
short dtu^tion. (See Induloencbb.)
In the BBrnsH and Irish Churches. — ^The peni-
tential e^stem in these countries was established simul-
taneously with the introduction of Christianity, was
rapidly developed by episcopal decrees and synodal
enactments, and was reduced to definite form in the
Penitentials. These books exerted such an influence
on the practice in Continental Europe that, according
to one opinion, they "first brought order and unity
into ecclesiastical discipline in these matters" (Was-
serschleben, "Bussoronungen d. abendlandischen
Kirche", Halle, 1851, p. 4. — For a different view see
Schmitz, ''Die Bussbiicher u. die Bussdisciplin d.
Kirche", Mainz, 1883, p. 187). In any case, it is be-
yond question that in their belief and practice the
Churches of Ireland, England, and Scotland were at
one with Rome. The so-called Synod of St. Patrick
decrees that a Christian who commits any of the capi-
tal sins shall perform a year's penance for each offence
and at the end shall ''come with witnesses and be
absolved by the priest" (Wilkins, "Concilia", I, p. 3).
Another synod ot St. Patrick ordains that "the Abbot
shsdl decide to whom the power of binctine and loosing
be committed, but forgiveness is more in keeping with
the examples of Scripture; let penance be short, with
weeping and lamentation and a mournful garb, rather
than long and tempered with relaxations (Wilkins,
ibid., p. 4). For various opinions regarding the date
and origin of the synods, see Haddan and Stubbs,
"Councils", II, 331; Bury, "life of St. Patrick",
London, 1905. The confessor was called anmchara
(aninuB cams) , i. e., " soul's friend " . St. Columba was
anmchara to Aidan, Lord of Dalraida, a. d. 574 (Adam-
nan's "Life of St. Columba", ed. Reeves^ p. Ixxvi);
and Adamnan was "soul's friend" to Finnsnechta,
Monarch of Ireland, a. d. 675 (ibid., p. xliii). The
"Life of St. Columba" relates the coming of Feach-
naus to lona, where, with weeping and lamentation,
he fell at Columba's feet and "before all who
were present confessed his sins. Then the Saint,
weeping with him, said to him: 'Arise, my son and
be comforted; thy sins which thou hast committed
are forgiven; because, as it is written, a contrite
and humble heart God doth not despise,' " (ibid., I,
30). The need and effects of confession are ex-
plained in the Leabhar Breac: "Penance frees from
all the sins committed after baptism. Every one
desirous of a cure for his soul and happiness with the
Lord must make an humble and sorrowful confession;
and the confession with the prayers of the Church are
as baptisms to him. As sickness injures the body, so
sin injures the soul; and as there is a cure for the dis-
ease of the body, so there 19 bahn for that of th^ soul.
And as the wounds of the body are shown te a physi-
cian, so, too, the sores of the soul must be exposed.
As he who takes poison is saved by a vomit, so, too,
the soul is healed oy confession and declaration of his
sins with sorrow, and by the prayers of the Church,
and a determination henceforth to observe the laws
of the Church of God. . . . Because Christ left
to His Apostles and Church, to the end of the world,
the power of loosing and binding."
Tnat confession was required before Communion
is evident from the penitential ascribed to St. Colum-
banus, which orders (can. xxx) "that confessions be
given with all diligence, especially concerning com-
motions of the mind, before going to Mass, lest per-
chance any one approach the altar unworthily, that is,
if he have not a clean heart. For it is better to wait
till the heart be sound and free from scandal and envy,
than daringly to approach the judgment of the tri-
bunal; for the altar is the tribunal of Christ, and His
Body, even there with His Blood, judges those who
approach unworthily. As, therefore, we must beware
of capital sins before communicating, so, also, from
the more uncertun defects and diseases of a languid
soul, it is necessary for us to abstain and to be cleansed
before going to that which is a conjunction with true
peace and a joining with eternal salvation". In the
Life of St. Maedocof Ferns" it is said of the murdered
King Brandubh: "And so he departed without con-
fession and the communication of the Eucharist."
But the saint restored him to life for a while, and then,
"having made his confession and received absolution
and the viaticum of the Body of Christy King Bran-
dubh went to heaven, and was interred m the city of
St. Maedoc which is called Ferns, where the kings of
that land are buried" (Acta SS. Hib., col. 482). The
metrical "Rule of St.Carthach", translated by Eugene
O'Curry, gives this direction to the priest: " If you go
to give communion at the awful point of death, you
must receive confession without shame, without re-
serve. " In the prayer for giving communion to the
sick (Corpus Christi Missal) we read: "O God, who
hast Willed that sins should be forgiven by the imposi-
tion of the hands of the priest . . ." and then fol-
lows the absolution: "We absolve thee as representa-
tives of blessed Peter, Prince of the Apostles, to whom
the Lord gave the power of binding and loosing."
That confession was regularly a part of the prepara-
tion for death is attested by the Council of Cashel
(1172) which commands the faithful in case of iUneas
to make their will "in the presence of their confessor
and neighbours", and prescribes that to those who
die "with a good confession" due tribute shall be paid
in the form of Masses and burial (can. vi, vii).
The practice of public penance was regulated in
great detail by the Penitentials. That of St . Cummian
prescribes that "if any priest refuses penance to the
dying, he is guilty of the loss of their souls . . .
for there can be true conversion at the last moment,
since God has' regard not of time alone, but of the
heart also, and the thief gained Paradise in the last
hour of his confession" (C. xiv, 2). Other Peniten-
tials bear the names of St. Finnian, Sts. David and
Gildas, St. Columbanus, Adamnan. The collection of
canons known as the "Hibemensis" lb especially im-
portant, as it cites, under the head of "Penance'' (bk.
XLVII), the teaching of St. Augustine, St. Jerome,
and other Fathers, thus showing the continuity of the
Irish faith and observance with that of the early
Church. (See Lanigan, "Eccl. Hist, of Ireland '%
Dublin, 1829; Moran, "Essays on the Early Irish
Church", Dublin, 1864; Malone, "Church Hist, of
Ireland", Dublin, 1880; Warren, "The Liturgy and
Ritual of the Celtic Church", Oxford, 1881; Salmon,
"The Ancient Irish Church", Dublm, 1897.)
In the Anolo-Saxon Church penance was called
hehreowsungf fro^i the verb hreowaUf whence our word
"to rue". The pQnfesspr wft^ the 9criftf Qpiifession,
PINANCS
683
PINANCS
terift spraec; and the parish itself was the aeriftseir,
i. e., "oonfession district" — ^a term which shows
plainly the close relation between confession and the
work of religion in general. The practice in Eng-
land can be traced back to the times inmiediately
following the country's conversion. Ven. Bede (H. E.,
IV, 23 (25]) gives the story of Adamnan, an Irish monk
of the seventh century, who belonged to the monas-
tery of Coldingham, England. In his youth, havins
committed some sin, he went to a priest, confessed,
and was given a penance to be peitormed until the
priest should return. But the priest went to Ireland
and died there, and Adamnan continued his penance
to the end of his days. When St. Cuthbert (635-87)
on his missionary tours preached to the people, ''they
all confessed opesmy what the]^ had done, . . . and
what they confessed they expiated, as he conmianded
them, by worthy fruits of penance" (Bede, op. cit., IV,
25). Alcuin (735-804) declares that " wHhout confes-
sion there is no pardon" (P. L.,'C, 337);. that "he who
accuses himself of his sins will not have the devil for
an accuser in the dav of judgment" (P. L., CI, 621);
that "he who conceals his sins and is ashamed to make
wholesome confession, has God as witness now and will
have him again as avenger" (ibid., 622). L>anfranc
(1005-89) has a treatise, "De celanda confessione",
i. e., on keeping confession secret, in which he rebukes
those who give the slightest intimation of what they
have heard in confession (P. L., CL, 626).
The penitentials were known as acrift hoes. The
one attributed to Archbishop Theodore (602-90) says:
"The deacon is not allowea to impose penance on a
layman: this should be done by the bishops or
priests" (bk. II, 2): and further j "According to the
canons, penitents should not receive communion until
their penance is completed; but we, for mercy's sake,
allow them to receive at the end of a year or six
months" (I, 12). An important statement is that
"public reconciliation is not established in this prov-
ince, for the reason that there is no public penance" — .
which shows that the minute prescriptions contained
in the Penitential were meant for the guidance of the
priest in giving penance privately, i. e., in confession.
Among the excerptioneSj or extracts, from the canons
which bear the name of Archbishop Egbert of York
(d. 766), canon xlvi says that the bishop shall hear no
cause without the presence of his clergy, except in case
of confession (Wilkins, " Concilia ", 1, 104) . His Peni-
tential prescrioes (IX) that "a bishop or priest shall not
refuse confession to those who desire it. though they
be guiltv of many sins" (ibid., 126). The Council of
Chalcuth (a. d. 787) : "If any one depart this life with-
out penance or confession, he shall not be prayed for"
^can. xx). The canons published under Kinff Ed^ar
(960) have a special section "On (Confession" which
begins: " When one wishes to confess his sins, let him
act manfully, and not be ashamed to confess his mis-
deeds and crimes, accusing himself; because hence
^oomes pardon, and because without confession there
'is no pardon; confession heals; confession justifies"
(ibid., 229). The CouncU of Eanham (1009): "Let
every Christian do as behooves him, strictly keep his
Christianity, accustom himself to frequent confession,
fearlessly confess his sins, and carefully make amends
according as he is directed" (can. xvii, Wilkins,
ibid., 289). Among the ecclesiastical laws enacted
(1033) by King Canute, we find this exhortation:
"Let us with sdl diligence turn back from our sins,
and let us each conTess our sins to our confessor, and
ever [after] refrain from evil-doing and mena our
wiws" (XVIII, Wilkins, ibid., ^03).
The (Council of Durham (c. 1220) : "How necessary
is the sacrament of penance, those words of the Gospel
prove: Whose sins, etc. . . . But since we obtain
the pardon of our sins by true confession, we
prescribe in accordance with the canonical statutes
that the priest in giving penance shall carefully con-
sider the amount of the penance, the quality of the
sin, the place, time, cause, duration and other circum-
stances of the sin; and especially the devotion of the
penitent and the signs of contrition." Similar direc-
tions are given by the Council of Oxford (1222), which
adds after various admonitions: "Let no priest dare,
either out of anger or even through fear of death, to
revealthe confession of anyone by word or sign . . .
and should he be convicted of doing this he ought
deservedly to be degraded without hope of relaxation."
(Wilkins, ibid., 595). The Scottish (Council (c. 1227)
repeats these injunctions and prescribes "that once a
year the faithful shall confess all their sins either to
their own [parish] priest or, with his permission, to
some other priest " (can. Ivii) . Explicit instructions for
the confessor are found in the statutes of Alexander,
Bishop of Coventry (1237), especially in regard to the
manner of questioning the penitent and enjoining
penance. The (Council of Lambeth (1261) declares:
"Since the sacrament of confession and penance, the
second plank after shipwreck, the last part of man's sea-
faring, the final refuge, is for every smner most neces-
sary unto salvation, we strictly forbid, under pain of
excommuni cation, that anyone should presume to
hinder the free administration of this sacrament to
each who asks for it" (Wilkins, ibid., 754).
To give some idea of the ancient discipline, the
penalties attached to graver crimes are cited nere from
the English and Irish Penitentials. For stealing,
(Cummian prescribes that a layman shall do one
year of penance; a cleric, two; a subdeacon, three; a
deacon, four; a priest, five; a bishop, six. For mur-
der or perjury, the penance lasted three, five^ six,
seven, ten, or twelve years according to the crimmal's
rank. Theodore commands that if any one leave the
Catholic Church, join the heretics, and induce others
to do the same, he shall, in case he repent, do penance
for twelve years. For the perjurer who swears by the
Church, the Gospel, or the relics of the saints, Egbert
prescribes seven or eleven years of penance. Usury
entailed three years; infanticide, fifteen; idolatry or
demon-worship, ten . Violations of the sixth command-
ment were punished with great severity^ the penance
varied, according to the nature of the sm, from three
to fifteen ^ears, the extreme penalty being prescribed
for incest^ i. e., fifteen to twenty-five years. Whatever
its duration^ the penance included fasting on bread
and water, either for the whole period or for a specified
portion. Those who could not fast were obliged in-
stead to recite daily a certain number of psalms, to
give alms, take the discipline (scourging) or perform
some other penitential exercise as determinecf by the
confessor. (See Lingard, "Hist, and Antiq. of the
Anglo-Saxon Church", London, 1845; Tniurston,
"(Confession in England before the (Conquest" in
"The Tablet", Feb. and March, 1905.)
Confession in the Anglican Church. — In the
Anglican Church, according to the rule laid down in
the "Prayer Book", there is a general confession pre-
scribed for morning and evening Service, also for
Holy (Communion; this confession is followed by a
general absolution like the one in use in the Catholic
Church. Also in the "Prayer Book" confession is
counselled for the quieting of conscience and for the
good that comes from absolution and the peace that
arises from the fatherly direction of the minister of
C^od. There is also mention of private confession ia
the office for the sick: " Here shall the sick person be
moved to make a special confession of his sins if he
feel his conscience troubled with any weighty matter.
After which the priest shall absolve him (if he humbly
and heartily desire it) after this sort: 'Our Lord Jesus
Christ, who has left the power to his Church' etc."
Since the beginning of the Oxford Movement confes-
sion after the manner practised in the Catholic Church
has become more frequent among those of the High
Church party. In 1873 a petition was sent to the
FINANCE 634 PXNANCS
Convocation of the Archdiocese of Canterbury asking of their subjects. Dr. Martensen, in his "Christian
provision for the education and authorization of Dogmatics'' (Edinburgh, 1890), p. 443, thus outlines
priests for the work of the confessional. In the joint his views: ''Absolution in the name of the Father and
letter of the Archbishops of Canterbury and York dis- of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, derived from the full
approbation of such course was markedly expressed, power of binding and loosing which the church has
and the determination not to encourage the practice mherited from the apostles^ is not unconditional, but
of private confession openly avowed. The Puseyites depends on the same condition on which the gospel
replied citing the authority of the "Praver Book'' as itself adjudges the forgiveness of sins, namely, change
given above. In our time among the High Church folk of heart and faith. Ifreform is to take place here, it
one notices confessionals in the churches, and one hears must be effected either by endeavouring to revive pri-
oif discourses made to the people enjoining confession vate confession, or, as has been proposed, by doing
as a necessity to pardon. Those who hear confessions away with the imion between confession and the
make use generallv of the rules and directions laid Lord's Supper, omitting, that is, the solemn absolu-
down in Catholic "Manuals'*, and especiaily popular tion, because what it presupposes (personal confession
is the "Manual "of the Abb6Gaume (A. G. Mortimer, of sin) has fallen into disuse, and retaining only the
"Confession and Absolution", London, 1906). words of preparation, with the exhortation to self-
Utilitt of Confession. — Mr. Lea (" A History examination, a te8tif3ning of the comfortable promises
of Auricular Confession ", Vol. II, p. 456) says: " No of the gospel, and a wish for a blessing upon the com-
one can deny that there is truth in Cardinal municants." Under the head of "Observations" he
Newman's argument: 'How many souls are there in states: "It cannot easily be denied that confession
distress, anxiety and loneliness, whose one need is to meets a deep need of human nature. There is a great
find a being to whom they can pour out their feelings psychological truth in the saying of Pascal, that a man
unheard by the world. They want to tell them and often attains for the first time a true sense of sin, and
not to tell them, they wish to tell them to one who is a true stayedness in his good purpose, when he con-
strong enough to hear them, and yet not too strong so f esses his sins to his fellow man, as well as to God.
as to despise them'"; and then Mr. Lea adds: "It is Catholicism has often been commended because by
this weakness of humanity on which the Church has confession it affords an opportunity of depositing the
speculated, the weakness of those unable to bear their confession of his sins in tne breast of another man.
burdens . . . who find comfort in the system where it remains kept under the seal of the most sacrea
built up through the experience of the ages", etc. It secrecy^ and whence the consolation of the forgiveness
has been made clear that the Church has simply car- of sins is given him in the very name of the Lord."
ried out the mind of Christ: "Whatsoever you shall True^ he believes that this great need is met more
loose shall be loosed"; still we do not hesitate to fully with the kind of confession practised in Luther-
accept Mr. Lea's reason, that this institution answers anism, but he does not hesitate to add: " It is a matter
in large measure to the needs of men, who morally are of regret that private confession, as an institution,
indeed weak and in darkness. True Mr. Lea denies meeting as it does this want in a regular manner, has
the probability of finding men capable of exercising fallen into disuse; and that the objective point of
aright this great ministry, and he prefers to union is wanting for the many, who desire to unburden
enumerate the rare abuses which the weakness of their souls by confessing not to God only but to a fel-
priests has caused, rather than to listen to the millions low-man, and who feel their need of comfort and of
who have found in the tribunal of penance a remedy forgiveness, which anyone indeed may draw for him-
for their anxieties of mind, and a peace and security self from tne gospel, but which in many instances he
of conscience the value of which is imtold. The very may desire to hear spoken by a man, who speaks in
abuses of which he speaks at such length have been virtue of the authority of his holy office."
the occasion of greater care, greater diligence, on the , G/J?«* ^^'t^^^^^JR^j?" f^ «*7*ilA°; Pohlb, Lehrb. d.Doffmatik,
part Of the Church. The few inconveniences ansing jiickAUDBos. Periodic AHides on Rdiffian (New York. 1907).
from the perversity of men, which the Church has met Docthinb.— St. Thomab. Sum, Thed., Ill, Q. ixxziv-xc;
with admirable legislation, should not blind men to Bbl^rminb, De panU, l, i sq.; Billuabt, De jHmt*., du. i,
the great isood that confeesion has brought, not only ^.^i.^! r*Ji>S^«lti?;^S i/Z^r^.^&''(Si:
to the individual, but even to society. don, 1783) : Wiseman, Lecture* on the Principal Doetrinee and
Thinking men even outside the Church have ac- Practice* of the Cath. Church (London, 1844), lect. x; Kknrxck,
knowledged the usefulness to society of the tribunal of I'lS^fi^Zi^ ^"^"?/ T^ (P^^pL^'^^: B^
penance. Amongst these the words of Leibmz are not De ecc. eacramentis, II (Rome. 1898); Wilhblm amo Scannsll.
unknown ("Systema theologicum", Paris, 1819, p. ^ Manual of Cath. Theol., II (London. 1909); ScHKBBM-
270^ . "Thin whnlp work of n^rampntal nPtiknRP is in- Atxberobr. Dogmatik, IV (Freiburg, 1903).
Z/Uj. xniSWnoieworK OX sacramental penance IS in- History.— D» l'Aubmpinb, D« veteribua ece. ritibue (Piu,
deed worthy of the Divme wisdom and if aught else m 1623) ; Petayius, De panU. vetere in ecc. ratione diatnba (Paria,
the Christian dispensation is meritorious of praise, i?^): P- G* XLII, 1037; Morin, CommentariM hi$i. de di^
surely this wondrous inatitution. For the necessity of ^':'^,&^- ;::S^ (KriTlell T"&.i2il?; «iS"°«S;:
confessing, one's sins deters a man from committing fesrionia aurieularie (Paris, 1683); MARTiMB. De antiq. eee.
them, and hope is given to him who may have fallen ritOm* (Rouen, IJOO); Chabdon, Hietoire du eacrement dejttni-
««,«:» Af4A«.A«rU;A4;#^ TI^a *>;<^iia «»#! «x«.;i^An4- A»nfA<._ tence (Pans, 1746); and in Mione, Theai. cura., XX; Klbb,
again after expiation. The pious and prudent confes- ^w* Beicht (FrtuidoH. 1828); F^anb, Die Bueediei^ipiin d.
BOr is m very deed a great instrument in the hands of Kirche (Mains, 1867); Probst, Sakramente u. Sakramentalien
God for man^s regeneration. For the kindly advice of »» *'*'* "''^ ^T^ ^f*^*^* /^rf* IT^^bingen, 1872): Schwanb.
God's priest helps man to control his passions, to know ^gCXlt i'^KI^I^iS I (V«i^S^^. ^^t^^^^
the lurking places of sm, to avoid the occasions of evil Une nouvelU thiorie «wr lea oriqinea de lapfnitence aaeramentdU
doing, to restore ill-gotten goods, to have hope after in Btudea, LXXIII (1897); Schmits, ^ie BuaabUeher u. daa
depression and doubt, to have peace after afiiction ^rrSJ^i^fj^TixTx W)f K^^^^^ ^SX,
m a word, to remove or at least lessen all evil, and if Beichu (WOrsburg, 1902): Gabtmeibr. Die Beiehtpfiichi hie-
there is no pleasure on earth Uke imtO a faithful friend, toHach-dogmafiach dargeatm (Ratiabon, 1906) ; O'DowD, Njdu
what. must be the ^m a man must have for him, f|l™^"ijSj.SS5?- u" 'B±'!^J^n Sf iJSS*'^'
who 18 in very deed a f nend in the hour of his direst Jahrh. d. Kirche (Freiburg, 1908) ; cf . Vacahdard in Ree, du
need?" clergi franfaia (15 May. 1908); Ebsbb. ArticUa in Kaiholik
Nor is Leibniz alone in expiring this feeling of the ^Z: ?§S?.* =im 'i909) ■^'o^o.^^^'X^sL TcU^
great benefits that may come from the use of confes- in IHah Theol. Quart., V (1910); Brat, Lea Htrea p&nit«ntiaux
sion. Protestant theologians realize, not only the «< ^ pfnitence tariffieiBngaaw, 1910). ^
vAliif» nf fht* CsLihnWo ihf^nmou) nnaif inn hiif also tKo Non-Cathouc— The ProteaUnt views are stated in the vb-
vaiue O! tne ^^atnoilC tneoiogical position, out also the ^^^^^ Confessions of Faith, in explanations of the Thirty-nine
need of the confessional for the spintual regeneration Articles, and in commentaries on the Book of Coaunon Prayv.
PINANCS 635 P1H1T1NTI8
Good BummAriM are ftbo given by some c«tholio authon, e. g.. priest, Fr. John Bolduc, who was brought over by the
1894).— Among Protestant writers, see: Vvky, SrUirt Abtolur Indiana about the newly estaoushed post of Camoeun,
tion of the Peniuru (Oxford, 1846) ; Maskbll, Ah Inquiry upon now Victoria. The mission work of the Oblate Fathers
"ISiSrSS^i ^oS^r^iatn-'^SLl^^^^^^ ^^^ ^.^^/^S^rA' '^^ lower Fra^^rlUver rei^on b^an
(Loncfon, 1867); Acmbmanm. DU Brichu (Hamburg. 1863); With Fr. Paul Duneu m 1854. Like most of the Sah-
SiKiTBBT, Die neueaten theoloa. Fortchungen flW Bueee u. Glaube ghan tribes of British Columbia they are now entirely
gjS?: 'SfS^iJt^atfjtHiJi ?£SSrt9b^);"*^^S: pathoUc and of e^mpUry morality. The P««elakut
L«i</ad«nd.Z>«vm«noe»cA. (4th ed..HaUe, 1906); HoLL.«fiMima«- hve by fishing, boat building, farming, labouring
mue «. BuMo*v>aU beim griechiaehen Mitnchthum (Leipsig, 1908); work, and hunting; have generally good health and
^^42? iB^i^^^r^oni: i!:sr:J^M'^^ ^^ ^r^^ »;^^^^ ^^^j^ ^^v being aadicted ^ the
d'hiMknre etdeliuirature ii898); D^LPULc^Hiat. of Auric Conf, useofhquor". The Centre of mstrucUon IS a Catholio
in Am. Bed. Rev. (1899) ; Graham in Am. Caih. Q. Ret., xxxiV boarding school maintained on Kuper island. (See
^^fiK^oi-r. wKKo*rr««w^ ««^«» p,«T*,«n^*, rA«ni». H*r*A ^^ Saanich, Songibh, Squawmibh.)
wJSS. ifr.,M^«?52? " PiwiTwmAi. Canonb; Sacea- Bancboft. History of Brikeh Columbia (Sib Francisco. 1887);
MNT, iNDULOBNCM. T XT .^ ^«P<- J^' Affaire, Canada, annual repte. (Ottawa); Reports on
lliDWARD J. UANNA. i/u Northwestern Tribes of Canada by various authors in British
Peiuae«, Wobks of. See Mobtification; Rbpa- ^"«*«~ /* **• ^''~~— »/ ^"^j^^i^^l;
RATION.
Pendleton, Henbt. controverrialist, b. at Man- PM«it«t~. Lob HermanOs (The Penitent Broth-
.LTlT^TrT ^^^SL.^ VkkTr^^t^ r* n~^ era), a society of flagellants existing among the Span-
he oonfonnid under Edward VI and wm appointedV r"«^--"'« °?™?"™ '!"'^^^
Lord Derby as an itinerant Protestant p^her. li ^'^A'^l'Sli Y^^i!^^!?I'^l?!,}}'^I^,E^'^.:^r
1552 he received
He is described as
Accession of Mary he retumii to the CathoUc Church, ^„^~ ?^J*i^! ^^S^lS^ iSt'^flJrJ^*^ 'TJ^I
and during 1554 received much preferment. He wai VulJ^JlJ^.^l *^,rfri!.Hv^" tkI H.SJ^
made can2hof St. Paul's and of llchfield, Vicar of To- S^^.^ISif^*' ^'^ft^±';^'Ln Th^v ^3?S
denham,Glouce8ter,andSt.MartinOutwlchinLondon; ^*"!f *f„H ,h^H^n ^^J^atS?* nSanl^H^^^^
^il^t %^ ioUa^n^"^ Wd whfcCho^^ev^^ n^v« n^^^l.^^rSy
K^L SLHe'^'^S^to Kmes%K? l2S,h"L^d°{ffi^''S.S.^^4iS*t^^
Church what it is", and "Of the Authority of the ^^ fratenuty is local Md mdependent with its own
Cburch". He also ^te " Declaration in his^sickn^s ?^^, ^^J^U,J«^U^7!^J!^^Z. ffi
of his fMth or beUef in aU points as the Catholic m^^J' ^ absolute authonty, and as a nJe holds
/^i,..™u r».„i,«lkTZ!L.» J!u..t!jlt!^,J^™,t. ^ oaSoe during life. The other officers are the same
wWri^f iS^rV«™^h!fTr3^^^Si^ « those oFmoet secret societies: chaplain, serjeant-
^mo Sl,^^ Hi'J,«^L« ,^% ~^^^,^^r^ at-anns, etc. The ceremony of the iiStiatfon, which
&:'£tiThrrhk dUSK"he'^t^S Jfk^ Pfe^"^ HolyA/eek, is mmple ex^^
L^vr^r2?iS^^4itrKnt4t,€seS^ T^Xi^X'^tt^^^^y^^o\r^
S,w!h ^! f^f ?ii!i.^ « i„^^^5 n?wf 1! knitentes where, 'after a series of 4u«itions and an-
whuih m this instance, as m so many others, is gwere consisting iii the main of prayer, he is admitted.
Poill&D in DM. NaL Biof. :Qiujaw, BiU. DM. ««,. CM.; He then undwgoes various humiliations First, he
FovTER, Alumni Oxonientet (Oxfoni, 1891); k Wood, Athena washes the feet of all present, kneehng before each;
Oionwiue. (London, 1813-20) ; Dodd, Churek Hittwy, I (Bruwels then he recites a long prayer, .asking pardon for any
Edwin Bubiy)n. ''^^^ onended by the candidate, he lashes the offender
on the bare back. Then comes the last and crucial
Penelakut Iiidlaiu» a small tribe of Salishan stock, test : four or six incisionsi in the shape of a cross, are
speaking a dialect of the Cowichan language and occu- made just below the shoulders of the candidate with
fiying a limited territory at the south end of Vancouver a piece of flint,
sland, B. C. with present reservations on Kuper, flagellation^ formerly practised in the streets and in
Tent, and Galiano Islands and at the mouth of Che- the churches, is now, smce the American occupation,
mainus River, included in the Cowichan agency, eonflned generally to the morada and performed with
From disease and dissipation introduced by the coast- a short whip {diacipUndj^ made from the leaf of the
ing vessels of early days, from chanees consequent amoleweed. Fifty ^rears ago the Hermanos Penitentes
upon the influx of white immigration about 1858, and would issue from their morada (in some places, as Taos,
from the smallpox visitation upon Southern British N. M., three hundred strong), stripped to the waist
Columbia in 1862, they are now reduced in number and scourgins themselves, led by the acompafiadores
from 1000 of a century ago to about 250, of whom IM (escorts), and preceded bv a few Penitentes dragging
live at the Penelakut village. They de]>ended upon heavy crosses (maderoa) ; the procession was accompan-
the sea for subsistence, and m their primitive customs, ied by a throng, singing Christian hymns. A wooden
beliefs, and ceremonials resembled their kindred, the wagon (d carro de la muerU) bore a figure representing
neighbouring Songish, and the cognate Squawmish death and pointing forward an arrow with stretched
about 'the mouth of Fraser River on the opposite coast, bow. This procession went through the streets to the
Some of them may have come under the teaching of church, where the Penitentes prayed, continued their
Fr. Demers and the Jesuits as early as 1841, but resu- scourgings, returned in procession to the morada.
lar mission work dates from the arrival of the seciuar Other modes of self-castigation were often resorted to;
PENITBMTIAL
636
PENITENTIAL
on Qood Friday it was the custom to bind one of the
brethren to a croes, as in a crucifixion. At present no
"crucifixions'' take place, though previous to 1806
they were annual in many places in New Mexico and
Colorado. The Penitentes now confine themselves to
secret flagellation and occasional vi^ts to churches at
night. Magellation is also practised at the death of a
Penitente or of a relative. The corpse is taken to the
morada and kept there for a few nours; flagellation
takes place at the morada and during the procession to
and from the same.
II. — Origin and History. — ^Flagellation was intro-
duced into Latin America during the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries, though no actual records are
found of any organized flagellant societies there until
comparatively recent times. In some localities of
Mexico, Central, and South America, flagellant organ-
izations, more or less public in their practices, existed
until very recently, and still exist m a few isolated
places. All these later oivanizations were regulated
and controlled by Leo XIII. The origin of the New
Mexican flagellants or hermanos penitentes is un-
certain, but they seem to have been an outgrowth
of the Third Order of St. Francis, introduced by
Franciscans in the seventeenth centui^y. Their prac-
tices consisted principally in flagellation, without in-
cisions and with no loss of blood, carrying small crosses,
and marching in processions with bare feet to visit the
churches and join in long prayers. The barbarous
customs of the New Mexico Penitentes are of a much
later origin. The New Mexican flagellants call their
society, ''Los hermanoe penitentes de la tercer orden
de San Francisco'', and we know that when the last
organization came into prominence in the early part
of the nineteenth century, the older organization no
longer existed in New Mexico. When their practices
reached their worst stage (about 1850-90), the atten-
tion of the Church was directed towards them. The
society was then very strong among all classes and
the ecclesiastical authorities decided to use leniency.
In a circular letter to the Penitentes of New Mexico
and Colorado in 1886, Archbishop Salpointe of Santa
¥6 ordered them in the name of the Church to abolish
flagellation, and the carr3ring of heavy crosses, and sent
to the different hermanos mayares copies of the rules
of the Third Order of St. Francis, advising them to
reorganize in accordance therewith. His letter and
orders were unheeded. He then ordered all the parish
priests to see the Penitentes personally and indu^
them to follow his instructions, out they accomplished
nothing. To make matters worse, a Protestant paper,
''La hermandad", was published at Pueblo, Colo-
rado, in 1889, which incited the Penitentes to resist
the Church and follow their own practices. Arch-
bi^op Salpointe, in a circular letter of 1889, then or-
dered the Penitentes to disband. As a result the
society, though not abolished, was very much weak-
en^, and its further growth prevented. In Taos,
Carmel, San Mateo, and a few other places they are
still numerous, and continue their barbarous practices,
though more secretly.
Some important facts oonoerning the late history of the Peni-
tentes in New Mexico are to be found in Renata Catoliea (Las
Vegas. N. M.. 1875-1010. especially 188&MK)). No other trust-
subject. Cf. "
WeH 6/ the United Statee in Dublin Renew, V, 114. pp. 178 sqq.;
worthy data exist on the subject.
however. FlageOation in the
LuMMiB. The Penitent Brother* in CoamopolUan, V, 7, pp. 41 sqq.;
Idsm, The Land of poco tiempo (New York, 1803), 70-108.
AURELIO M. ESPINOBA.
Penitential Canona, rules laid down by councils
or bishops concerning the penances to be done for
various sins. These canons, collected, adapted to later
practice, and completed by suitable airections formed
the nucleus of the Penitential Books (see Theoloot,
Moral; Penance). They all belong to the ancient
penitential discipline and have now only an historic
interest; if the writers of the classical period continue
to cite them, it is only as examples, and to excite sin-
ners to repentance by reminding them of earlier sever-
ity. In a certain sense they stilTsurvive, for the grant-
ing of indulgences (q. v.) is still based on the periods of
penance, years, day^ and quarantines. The penitential
canons may be divided into three classes correspond-
ing to the penitential discipline of the East, of Rome,
or of the Anglo-Saxon Churches. (1) In the East, the
prominent feature of penance was not the practice of
mortification and pious works, though this was sup-
posed; the penance imposed on sinners was a longer
or shorter period of exclusion from communion imd
the Mass, to which they were gradually admitted
according to the different penitential "stations" or
classes, three in number; for the "weepers'' (r^ov-
xXa/orrct, flenUs)^ mentioned occasionally, were not
vet admitted to penance; they were great sinneiB who
had to await their adnussion outside of the church.
Once admitted, the penitents became "hearers"
(dxpoi&ifffyoc, audienles). and assisted at the Divine
service until after the lessons and the homily; then,
the "prostrated" {pwofwlirropm, prostraii)^ because the
bishop before excluding them, prayed over them while
imposing his hands on them as they la^r prostrate;
finally the vwrdrrtt^ consistenteSj who assisted at the
whole service, but did not receive communion. The
penance ended with the admission to communion and
complete equaUty with the rest of the faithful. These
different periods amounted in all to three, five, ten,
twelve, or fifteen years, according to the gravity of the
sins. This discipline, which was rapidly mitigated,
ceased to be observed b^ the close of the fourth cen-
tury. The relative pemtential canons are contained
in the canonical letter of St. Gregory Thaumaturgus
(about 263; P. G., X, 1019), the Councils of Ancyra
(314), Neocsesarea (314^20), Nicsea (325), and the
three canonical letters of St. Basil to Amphilochus
(Ep. 188, 199, 217 in P. G., XXXII, 663, 719, 794).
They passed into the Greek Collections and the Peni-
tential Books. Those laid down by the councils
passed to the West in different translations, but were
misunderstood or not enforced.
(2) The Roman penitential discipline did not lecog-
nize the various "stations", or classes: with this ex-
ception it was like the discipline of tne E&st. The
penitential exercises were not settled in detail and the
punishment properly so called consisted in exclusion
from communion for a longer or shorter period. But
the practice of admitting to penance only once, which
kept the penitents in a fixed order, was maintained
longer. The most ancient Western canons relate to
the admission or exclusion from public penance; for
instance, the decision of Callixtus (TertuUian, "De
pudic", i) to admit adulterers, that of St. Cyril and
the Council of Carthage in 251 (Ep. 56) to admit the
topn or apostates, although the Council of Elvira
(about 300, Can. 1 , 6, 8, etc.) still refused to admit very
great sinners. Other canons of this council ordained
penances of several years' duration. After Elvira and
Aries (314) the penitential canons are rather infre-
3uent. They are more numerous in the councils and
ecretals of the popes after the close of the fourth
century— Siricius, Innocent, and later St. Leo. They
reduce the duration of the penance very much, and
are more merciful towards the lapis or apostates.
These texts, with the translations of the Eastern coun-
cMs, passed into the Western canonical collections.
(3) On the other hand, what is more striking in the
pemtential canons of Anglo-Saxon and Irish origin is
the particular fixation of the penitential acts imposed
on the smner to insure reparation, and their duration
m days, quarantmes (carina), and years; these connst
in more or 1^ rigorous fasts, prostrations, deprivation
of thmgs otherwwjB allowable; also alms, prayers, pil-
gnmages, etc. These canons, unknown to us in th«r
original sources, are contained in the numerous so-called
Penitentuil Books (Libn Pceniientiaies) or collections
made m, and m vogue from, theseventh century. Hieee
PINITINTZAL
637
PENITENTIAL
canons and the penitential discipline they represent
were introduced to the Continent by Anglo-Saxon
missionaries, and were at first received tinfavourably
(Council of Ch&lons, 813 : Pans, 829) ; finally;, how-
ever, they were adoptea and gradually mitigated.
(See Canons, Collections of Ancient.)
See bibliographies to Penakcs and Trboumt, Mosal;
MoRiN, Commeniariut hi*torie%u de dUdjMna in admini$. aoero.
panU, (Paris, 1651): WASSBBOCBUBBair. Z>. Btutordnungen d,
abendl. Kirehe (Halle. 1851) ; ScHitm. D. Btu^Hleher u. d. BiMa-
dtaziplin d. Kirehe (Maini, 1883, 1898) ; Funk« KirehenaeMchieht,
Abhandl. I (Paderborn, 1897}, 155-209; Balubsiki, Z>e antiquiM
cMedLionibui carumum in P. L., XLVI ; Taboip. Hiti, de* »ourc€M
4u droii eoTMrniflue (Paria. 1887). A. BOUDINHON.
Penitential OrderSt a general name for religiouB
congregations whose memb^ are bound to penorm
extraordinary works of penance, or to provide others
with the means of atoning for grave faults. This class
includes such congregations as the Anselicals, Capu-
chins, Carmelites, Daughters of the Holy Cross of
Li^ge, Third Order of St. Dominic, Order of Fonte-
vrault. Third Order of St. Francis, Daughters of the
Good Shepherd, Sisters of the Good Shepnerd, Sisters
of St. Joseph of Lyons, Magdalens, Sacchetti, etc.,
which are treated under their separate titles. Like-
wise all eremitical foundations were, at least in their
origin, penitential orders. Other congregations which
come under this heading are: —
(1) PeniienU or Hermits of St. John the Baptist: (a)
A community near Pampelona in the Kingdom of
Navarre, each of the five hermitages being occupied
by eight hermits leading a life of mortification and
silence, and assembling onl^ for the chanting of the
Divine Office. They received the approbation of
Gregory XIII (c. 1515), who appointed a provincial
for them. Over the light brown habit of rough ma-
terial confined by a leathern girdle was worn a short
mantle, and about the neck a heavy wooden cross,
(b) A community founded in France about 1630 by
Michel de Sabine for the reform of abuses among the
hermits. Only those of the most edifying lives were
chosen as members, and rules were drawn up which
were approved for their dioceses by the Bishops of
Metz and LePuy en Velay. The hermits were under
the supervision of a vjsitator. A member was not
permitted to make his final vows until his forty-fifth
year, or until he had been a hermit for twenty-five
years. Over the heavy brown habit and leathern belt
was worn a scapular and a mantle. Similar com-
munities existed in the Dioceses of Geneva and Vienne.
(2) Ordo pcenitentUB 88. Martyrum^ or Ordo Marus de
Metro de panitentia 88, Martyrum. a congregation
which flourished in Poland and Bonemia in the six-
teenth century. There are various opinions as to the
period of foundation, some dating it Sack to the time
of Pope Cletus, but it is certain that the order was
flourishing ii^ Poland and Lithuania in the second half
of the thirteenth century, the most important monas-
tery being that of St. Mark at Cracow, where the re-
ligious lived under the Rule of St. Augustine. The
prior bore the title prior ecdesux S. Motue de Metro.
The habit was white, with a white scapular, on which
was embroidered a red cross and heart. In a six-
teenth-century document the members of this order
are referred to as canons regular and mendicants.
(3) Penitents of Our Lady of Refuge^ also called Nuns
or Hospitallers of Our Lady of Nancy, founded at
Nancy in 1631 by Yen. Marie-Elizabeth de la Croix
de J6sus (b. 30 Nov., 1592; d. 14 Jan., 1649), daughter
of Jean-Leonard de Kanfain of Remiremont. Aner a
childhood of singular innocence and mortification she
was coerced into a marriage with an aged nobleman
named Dubois, whose inhuman treatment of her
ceased only with his conversion shortly before his
death. L^t a widow at the early age of twenty-four,
she oi)ened a refuge for fallen women, to whose wants
she ministered, assisted by her three young daughters.
Her success and the insistence of ecclesiastics en-
eouraged her to ensure the perpetuation of the work
by the institution of a religious community (1631),
in which she was ioined by her daughters and nine
companions, incluaing two lay sisters. The new con-
gregation was formally approved by the Holy See in
1634 under the title of Our Lady of Refuge and the
patronage of St. Ignatius Loyola, and under constitu-
tions drawn largely from those of the Society of Jesus
and in accordance with the Rule of St. Augustine..
The institute soon spread throughout France, and by
the latter part of the nineteenth century had houses
in the Dioceses of Besan^on, Blois, Coutances, Mar-
seilles, Rennes, La Rochelle, St-Brieux, Tours, Tou-
louse, and Valence. The members are divided into
three classes (1) those of unblemished lives, bound by a
fourth vow to the service of penitents; (2) penitents
whose altered life justifies their admission to the com-
munity on terms of equality with the first mentioned,
save that they are not eligible to office, and that in case
the convent is not self-supporting they are reouired
to furnish a small dowry; (3) penitents properly so-
called, who observe the same rule as the rest but are
without vows or distinctive garb. The habit is reddish
brown, with a white scapular. Innocent XI author-
ized tne institution of a special feast of Our Lady
of Refuge for 30 January, and the estabhshment of a
confraternity imder her patronage.
(4) Sisters of the Conservatorio di S. Croce delta
Penitema or del buon Pastorey also known as Scalette,
founded at Rome, in 1615, by the Carmelite Domenico
di Gesii e Maria, who, with the assistance of Baltas-
sare Paluzzi. gathered into a small house (conservatorio)
a number of women whose virtue was imperilled, and
drew up for them a rule of life. Those desiring to be-
come religious were placed under the Rule of St. Augus-
tine, and, owing to the active interest of Maximiuan,
Elector of Bavaria, and Cardinal Antonio Barberini, a
larger monastery and a church were built for them.
External affairs were administered by a prelate known
as the vice-protector and his council, and the internal
economy by a prioress, but in 1838 the institution
was placed under the Sisters of the Good Shepherd.
Later a house of training for abandoned girls and a
house of correction for erring women were established
in connexion with this institution, the latter being en-
larged by Pius IX in 1851. The congregation has
since been merged into that of the Good Shepherd.
(5) Ordo religiosus de pcenitentia, the members of
which were called Scalzetli or Nazarenif founded in
1752 at Salamanca, by Juan Varella y Losada (b. 1724;
d. at Ferrara. 24 May, 1769). who had resigned a mili-
tary career for a life of voluntary humiliation in a
house of the Observants at Salamanca. Being urged
to found a religious order, he assembled eight com-
panions in community (8 March, 1752) under a rule
which he had drawn up the previous year, and for
which he obtained the authorization of Benedict
XIV. The four foundations which he made in Hun-
gary enjoyed but a brief existence, owing to the regu-
lations of Joseph II, and those in Spain and Portugal
did not survive the revolutions in those countries, so
that the congregation was eventually confined to Italy.
The mother-house is in Rome, where the institute pos-
sesses two convents, S. Maria delle Grazie, andS. Maria
degli Angeli in Macello Mart3rrum. The constitutions
were confirmed by Pius VI, who granted the congre-
gation the privileges enjoyed by the Franciscans, to
which there is a close resemblance in organization
and habit. Like the Franciscans, the members take
a vow to defend the doctrine of the Immaculate Con-
ception, and, like all mendicant orders, they derive
their means of subsistence entirely from contnbutions,
and are forbidden the possession of landed property.
HiLTOT, Ordret rdigiettx (Paris. 1869); Hbimbuchsr, Orden
und Konortgalionen (Paderborn, 1007) ; (1) db Sabinb, UinttUvSt
rtformi dea irhniUa »ou» Vinvoeation de «. Jean-Baptuie (Paria,
1056): (3) La France eed, (1882); DSdaraUon de VIneUtvi de fa
eonifrSgaUon de N. D. du Refuge (Rouen, 1664) ; (4) Piaiia, J7im*>
ealof/io Romano^ 4, 13.
FXiORBNCB RUDGB McGaHAX.
PINITEMTIAL
638
P11I1I8TLVAMI4
Penitential Pialme. See Psalms.
Penitentii Confraternities of, conip^ations,
with statutes prescribing various penitential works,
such as fasting, the use of the disciphne, the wearing of
a hair shirt, etc. The number of these confraternities
increased to such a degree, Rome alone coimting over
a hundred, that the omv way of clas8if3ring them is ao-
'oording to the colour of the garb worn for processions
and devotional exercises. This consists of a heavy
robe confined "with a girdle, with a pointed hood con-
cealing the face, the openinfls for tne eyes permitting
the wearer to see without oeing recognised. These
confraternities have their own statutes, their own
churches, and often their own cemeteries. Aspirants
must serve a certain time of probation before bemg ad-
mitted.
(1) While Penitents. — ^The most important group of
these 18 the Archconfratemitv of the Gonfafone, es-
tablished in 1264 at Rome. St. Bonaventure, at that
time Inquisitor-general of the Holy Office, prescribed
the rules, and the white habit, with the name Recom-
mendati B. V. M. This confraternity was erected in
the Church of St. Mary Major by Clement IV in 1265.
and four others having been erected in the Church ol
Ara Coeli, was raised to the rank of an archconfrater-
nity, to which the rest were aggregated. The title of
gonfalonef or standard-bearer was acquired during the
.pontificate of Innocent IV, when the members with-
stood the violence of the Roman nobles and elected a
Sovemor of the capitol to represent the pope, then at
Lvignon. Many privileges and churches were granted
to this confraternity bv succeeding pontiffs, the head-
quarters now being the Church ot Santa Lucia del
Uonfalone. The obligations of the members are to
care for the sick, bury the dead, provide medical ser-
vice for those unable to afford it. and^ve dowries to
poor girls. What distinguishes tnese White Penitents
from those of other confraternities is the circle on the
shoulder of the habit, within it a cross of red and
white. Other confraternities of White Penitents are
those of the Blessed Sacrament at St. John Lateran,
the Blessed Sacrament and the Five Wounds at S.
Lorenzo in Damaso, the Guardian Angel, etc.
(2) Black Penitent8,-^The chief confraternity in this
Ois that of Misericordia, or of the Beheading of
hn, founded in 1488 to assist and console cnm-
inals condemned to death, accompany them to the
gallows, and provide for tnem religious services and
Christian burial. The Archconfratemitv of Death
provides burial and religious services for the poor and
those found dead within the limits of the Roman Cam-
pagna. Other confraternities of Black Penitents are
those of The Crucifix of St. Marcellus, and of Jesus
and Mary of St. Giles.
(3) Blue Penitents, — Among the confraternities of
this group are those of St. Joseph, St. Julian in Monte
Giordano, Madonna del Giardino, Santa Maria in
Caccaben, etc. A number of these confraternities
were established in France under the patronage of St.
Jerome.
(4) Orey Penitents, including besides the Stigxnati of
St. Francis, the comratemities of St. Rose of Viterbo,
The Holy Cross of Lucca, St. Rosalia of Palermo, St.
Bartholomew, St. Alexander^ etc.
(5) Red Penitents, embracmg the confraternities of
Sts. Ursula and Catnerine, the red robe being confined
with a green cincture; St. Sebastian and St. Valentine,
with a blue cinctiu^; and the Quattro Coronati, with a
white cincture, etc.
(6) Violet PenitentSj the confraternity of the Blessed
Sacrament at the Church of St. Andrea della Fratte,
under the patronage of St. Francis of Paula.
(7) Green Penitents^ including the confraternities of
St. Rocoo and St. Martin at Kipetto, for the care of
the sick.
There are many other confraternities which cannot
be comprised within any of these, groups, because of
the combination of colours in their habits. The vari-
ous confraternities were well represented in France
from the thirteenth century on^ reaching, perhaps,
their most flourishing condition m the sixteenth cen-
tury.
Bmutot, Ordm rdigieux. III (Paris. ISfiO), 218; Mouimn,
Iiulitut, ei were, dee eonfiririee dee pSnUenU,
Florence Rudgb McGahan.
Penna and Atri, Diocese of (Pennensis et
Atriensis). — Penne is a city in the Province of
Teramo, in the Abruszi, central Italy : it has ao
important commerce in leather and in artificial flowers,
and within its territory are several sprinsB of medicinal
waters, known to the ancients. It is ihePinna Vestina
of antiquity, the chief city of the Vestini, distinguished
for its ndeUty to Rome, even in the war of the Mani.
Sulla destroyed the city during the civil war. After
the Lombard invasion, it belonged to the Duchy of
Benevento, with which it was annexed to the Kingdom
of Sicily. In the ninth centurv it was sacked by the
Saracens. Acc9rding to legend Patrassus, one of the
seventy disciples^ was the first bishop of this city.
The deacon St. Miudmus is venerated at the cathedral.
The united See of Penne and Atitwas erected in 1152.
Atri is the ancient Hadria of the Piceni, which became
a Roman oolonv about 282 b. c; its ancient walls
still remain. The cathedral is a fine specimen of the
Italian Gothic, and has a campanile neariy 200 feet
high. The first bishop of the united sees was Beroaldo;
among his successors were : Blessed Anastasio, who
died m 1215; the Cistercian Nicolo (1326). held a
prisoner for two years by his canons; Tommaso
Consuberi (1554), suspected of having conspired
against Pius IV. and therefore depoied ; Paolo
Odes(»lchi (1586), nuncio to Madrid and Vienna,
built the episcopal palace of Atri. Within the territory
of these sees is the famous Abbey of San Bartolommeo
di Carpineto.
The diocese is immediately subject to the Holy See;
it has 95 parishes, 180,790 inhabitants, 4 ren^ous
houses of men, and 8 of women, and 4 educational
establishments for girls.
Cappslubttx. Le Chieee d'ltaUa, XXI; Panba, Delia dioeeei e
dUA di Penne (1622).
U. Bbnigni.
PemuiylTania, one of the thirteen original United
States of America, lies between 39^ 43' and 42<* 15' N.
latitude, and between the Delaware River oa the east,
and the eastern boundary of Ohio on the meridian 8Cr
36' W. longitude. It is 176 miles wide from north to
south and about 303 miles long from east to west,
containing 45,215 souare miles, of which 230 are cov-
ered by water. It nas a shore line on lake Erie 45
miles in length, and is bounded by New York on the
north, New Jersey on the east, Ohio and West Vir-
ginia on the west, Delaware, Maryland, and West
Virginia on the south. It is the only one of the thir-
teen original states having no sea coast. About one-
third of the state is occupied by parallel ranges and
valleys. The mountains average from 1000 to 2000
feet m height. The main ridge, highest on the east,
is broken by the north and west branches of the Su»-
ouehanna River, which flows through the centre of
tne state. The Delaware, which is 400 miles in total
length, be^nning from its origin in Otsego Lake, New
York, is navigable for a distance of 130 miles from the
sea, and forms the eastern boundary of the state. In
the west, the Alle^eny and Monongahela unite to
form the Ohio. There is a wide range of climate
within the geographical limits of the state.
I. History. — Althou^ Captain John Smith, in
1608, was the first white man to meet natives of
Pennsylvania, which he did when he ascended Chesa-
peake Bay, he never set foot within the limits of the
present state. Henry Hudson, on 28 August, 1609,
PENM8TLVAMU 6!
came within the Delaware Capes, but went no farther
towards Pennsylvania. The firat whit« man actually
to enter the State appears to have been a Frenchman
who came from Canada, Etienne Brufl^, a companion
of Champlun. He explored the valley of the Sttsque-
hanna from New York to Maryland io the winter
of 1615-16, as is described by Champlain in an ac-
count of his voyages. In Jime, 1610, Captfun Samuel
Argall, comii^ from Virginia in search of proviaons,
entered the Delaware River and gave it its name in
honour of the then Governor of Virginia. Lord de la
WaiT. Captain Cornelius Mey came to tne Delaware
Capes in 1614 (see New Jebset). Another Dutch
captain, Cornelius Hendrickson, came from Man-
hattan iHland and probably navisated the Delaware
River ae far as the site of Philadelphia in 1616. In
163], David Pietersen de Vries established a poet at
Lewee, in Delaware, and later, ia 1634. made voya^
as far as Tinicum Island and Ridley Creek. For Bve
years after this the
Dutch traded on
the Delaware River
and in 1633 estab-
lished a poet called
Fort Bcveratrede
near Philadelphia.
The English Gov-
emment 1^ clium
to the entire region
in 1632 on the
ground of first dis-
covery, occupation,
--' ■ 'but
in April, 1638, _
expedition made up
partly of Swedes
and partly of Dutch, under Peter Minuit, est^lishcd
a post at Fort Christiana on the Brandywine River.
This was the first white settlement in the country
of the Delaware made by the Swedish Government , and
was agtunst the protest of the Dutch Governor of
Manhattan. It was but a small colony and lasted only
seventeen years. In 1643-44 permanent settlements
were made at Tinicum, and in 1651 the Dutch Gover-
nor, Peter Stuyvesant, caused Fort Cammer to be
built on the present site of New Castle, Delaware,
to overawe the Swedes at Christiana. Fort Casimer
was occupied by the Swedes in 1654, but they were in
their turn driven out by the Dutch, who remained in
possession of the Delaware River country until the
organitation of Penn's colony in 16S1.
When William Penn was thirty-six years old, in 1680,
his father bdng dead, there was due him from the
Crown the sum of iI6,000 for services rendered by his
father, Admir^ Penn. This was cancelled in 16S1 by
a gift to him from the Crown of the largest tract of
territory that had ever been given in America to a
wngle individual, and in addition he received from the
DuKe of York all of the territory now included in the
State of Delaware, for the sake of controlling the free
navigation of the river of that name. This charter
or grant, ^ave him the title in fee-simple to over 40,000
square miles of territory with the power of adopting
any form of goveminent, providing the majority ^
the colonists consented, and if theireemen could not
assemble Penn had the right to make laws without
their consent. The new colony was named Penn-
sylvania. Penn wished the name to be New Wales, or
else Sylvania, modestly endeavouring to avoid the
rial honour implied by prefixing his surname but
king insisted. It has been said, no doubt trutb-
fullv, that Penn was impelled by two principal motives
in rounding the colony: "The desire Ut found & free
commonw^th on hberal and humane principlea, and
the desire to provide a safe home (or persecuted
Friends. He was strongly devoted to his religious
faith, and warmly attached to those wbo professed it.
19 PXHiraTLTAinA
but not the less was be an idealist in politics, and a
generous and hopeful believer in the average good-
ness of his fellow men" (Jenkins, "Pennsylvania", I,
204). Penn himself, speaking of the grant by the
king, says: "I eyed tne Lord in obtaining it, and more
was 1 drawn inward to look to Him. and to owe it to
His hand and power than to any otner way. I have
so obtained it and desire to keep it that I may not be
unworthy of His love and do that which may answer
His kind providence and serve Hie truth and people,
that an example nuiy be set to the nations. There
may be room there but not here for such an holy ei-
perunent" {Jenkins, "Pennsylvania", 1,207). He had
already shown ability as a coloniser, being concerned
in the settlement of New Jersey, where tie towns of
Salem and Burlington had been laid out before the
charter of Pennsylvania was granted.
During practically all of the colonial period, Penn
and his descendants governed Pennsylvania through
agents or deputi/ governors. He was the feudal lord
of the land, it being his plan to sell tracts from time to
time, reserving a small quit-rent or selling outright.
Until the American Revolution, in 1776, Penn andhis
sons held the proprietoiship of the Province of Penn-
sylvania during a period of^ ninety-four years, except-
ing only about two years under William III. The
roTony was organized at the council held at Upland,
3 August, 1681, the deputy governor being William
■ Markham, a cousin of Penn. When Penn himself
landed, 28 October, 1682, at New Castle, Philadelphia
had been laid out and a few bouses had been built.
After his landing Penn changed the name of Upland
to Chester in honour of the English city. There he
summoned the freeboldets to meet, and theyadopted
the "Frame of Government" and ratified "The Laws
agreed upon in England". The former instrument
provided for a Provincial Council of seventy-two
members to be elected by the people. This council
was to propose laws to be submitted for the approval
of the General Assembly, also to be elected by ih '
Pjople. Thus wa^ formed the first Constitution of
ennsylvania. The laws accepted and re-enacted
with mady additions became known as "The Great
Law". It e'ttabliahes rehgioua liberty, allowing free-
dom of worship to all who acknowledge one God, and
provides that all members of the Assembly, as well
as thoM who voted for them, should be such as be-
lieved Jesus Christ to be the Son of God, the Saviour
of fie World. The Great Law prohibits swearing,
cursing, drunkennesi, health-dridiing, card-playing.
key to Penn's fundamental views on politick ques-
tions. ThLis he wrote: "Goverimaents rather depend
upon men than men upon governments: let men be
good, and the ^ivernment cannot be bod; if it be ill
they will cure it. Though good laws do well, good
men do better; for good laws mav want [i. e. lack]
good men and be obohshed or evaded by ill men ; but
good men wiU never want good laws nor suffer ill ones.
That, therefore, which makes a good constitution
must keep it, viz. men of wisdom and virtue; quahties
that, because diey descend not with wordly inheri-
tance, must be carefully propagated by a virluous
education of youth. For lioerty without obedience is
confusion, and obedience without liberty is slavery."
Penn was far in advance of his time in his views
of the capacity of mankind for democratic ^vemment,
and equwly so in his broad-minded toleration of differ-
ences of religious belief. Indeed, it has been well said
that the declaration of his final charter of privileges
of 170] was not alone "intended as the fundamental
law of the Province and declaration of religious liberty
on the broadest character and about which there could
be no doubt or uncertainty. It is a declaration not
mmSTLVANIA
640
PUmSTLVAlIU
God, — Roman Catholics, and Protestants. Unitarians,
Trinitarians, Christians, Jews, and Monammedans,
and excluded only Atheists and Polytheists/' At
that time in no American colony did anything ap-
proaching to toleration exist. When the provisions
of "The Great Law" were submitted to the Priw
Council of England for approval they were not allowed;
but in 1706 a new law concerning Uberty of conscience
was passed, whereby religious liberty was restricted to
Trimtarian Christians, and when the Constitution of
1776 was adopted, liberty of conscience and worship
were extended even further by the declaration that
"no human authoritv can in any case whatever con-
trol or interfere with the rights of conscience." It
has been said: "There never was in Pennsylvania
during the colonial period, to our knowledge, any
molestation or interruption of the liberty of Jews,
Deists or Unitarians, . . . while the Frame of Gov-
ernment of 1701 . . . guaranteed liberty of conscience
to all who confessed and acknowledged 'one Almighty
God, the Creator, Upholder and Ruler of the World ,
and made eligible for office all who believed in 'Jesus
Christ the Saviour of the World.' " His toleration
of other forms of religious belief was in no way half-
hearted and imbued the Society of Friends with
feelings of kindness towards Catholics, or at least
accentuated those feeUnm in them. During the time
of Lieutenant Governor Gordon a Catholic chapel was
erected, which was thought to be contrary to the laws
of Parliament, but it was not suppressed pending a de-
cision of the British Government upon the question
whether immunity granted by the Pennsylvania law
did not protect Catholics. When, during the French
War, hostility to France led to an attiMck upon the
Catholics of Philadelphia by a mob after Braadock's
defeat, the Quakers protected them.
Penn returned to England in a short time, but made
another visit to Pennsylvania in 1699. He returned
to England a^un in 1701, but before his departure a
new constitution for the colony was adopted, con-
taining more Uberal provisions. This constitution
endured until 1776, when a new one was adopted
which has since been superseded by three others — the
Constitution/* of 1790, 1838, and 1873. In 1718 the
white population of the colony was estimated at
40,000, ot which one-half belonged to the Society of
Friends and one-fourth resided m Philadelphia. In
1703 the counties composing the State of Delaware
were separated from Pennsylvania. It was not until
after the colonial period that the present boundaries of
Pennsylvania were settled. Claims were made for
portions of the present area of the state on the north,
west, and south. Under the charter granted to Con-
necticut by Charles II, in 1662. the dominion of that
colony was extended westward to the South Sea or
Pacific Ocean. Although the territory of New York
intervened between Connecticut and the present bor-
der of Pennsylvania, claim was made by Connecticut
to territory now included in Pennsylvania between the
fortieth and forty-first parallels of north latitude, and
in 1769 a Connecticut company founded a settlement
in the valley of Wyoming, and until 1782 the claim
of sovereignty was maintained. It was finally settled
against Connecticut in favour of Pennsylvania by a
commission appointed by mutual agreement of the
two states after trial and argument. The contro-
versy between Maryland and Pennsylvania was finally
settled in 1774. Lord Baltimore, the founder of Mary-
land, claimed that the boundaries of his grant extended
above the present position of Philadelphia. On the
other hand, Penn's contention, if allowed, would have
extended the southern limit of Pennsylvania to a
point that would have far overlaj>ped the present
boundary of Maryland. A litigation in Chancery
eventually resulted, in a settlement of the boundaries
as they now exist. Previous to this final settlement,
in the year 1763, Mason and Dixon, two English as-
tronomers, surveyed the western boundary of Dela-
ware and subsequently carried a line westward for the
boundary between Pennsylvania and Maryland, set-
ting up a mUe-stone at every fifth mile with the arms of
the Penn family on the north and Baltimore on the
south, intermediate miles being marked with stones
having P on one side and M on the other. This line
was carried beyond the western extremity of Maiy-
land, and thus it passed into history as marking the
Une between the northern and southern sections of
the whole United States. The difficulty with the
western boundary of the state on the Vir^nia border
was settled in 1779 by a commission appomted by Uie
two states. That portion which borders upon Lake
Erie, known as the Erie triangle, belonged to New
York and Massachusetts. By them it was ceded to
the United States, and in 1792 bought from them by^
Pennsylvania for $151^640. The effect of the settle-
ment of these boundaries was very far-reaching, for if
the Connecticut, Maryland, and Virginia claims had
been decided adversely to Pennsylvania, there would
have been left but a narrow strip of lana westward of
Philadelphia and eastward of Pittsburg.
Pennsylvania was the scene of some of the most in-
teresting and important events of the French and In-
dian War during the colonial period, notably the de-
feat of Braddock at the fora of the Monongahela
about seven miles from Fort Duquesne, now the site of
Pittsburg. It suffered much from Indian depredar
tions on the western borders. During the early colo-
nial period the mild dealinra of the Quakers who con-
trolled the province saved Pennsylvania from many of
the ills that befell other colonies from the attacks of
the aborigines. Prior to the French and Indian War,
the Indians, who had been treated with careful consid-
eration by Penn, were outraged at the unfairness and
trickery practised by one of his successors in obtaining
title to land extending, on the eastern border of the
state, to the region of the Delaware Water Gap, and
known as ''The Walking Purchase". This, added to
the harsh treatment of the frontier settlers, who were
for the most part North-of-Ireland immigrants (lo-
cally known as Scotch-Irish), resulted in bloody and
persistent Indian wars which spread terror throughout
the colony and were ended only after several cam-
paigns. The defeat of the Indians by Bouquet and
Forbes, and the destruction of the French stronghold.
Fort Duquesne, broke the power of the Indians, ana
the colonv was not troubled with them again untO
the Revolutionary War, when their alliance with the
British resulted in the massacre of Wyoming.
When the contest with Great Britain arose, Phila-
delphia, the chief city of the American Colonies, was
chosen as the place for assembUn^ the first Continen-
tal Congress. There the Declaration of Independence
was drafted and promulgated, and after the Revolu-
tion the Government of the United States was seated
there until the vear 1800, when Washington was made
the capital. Philadelphia remained the capital of the
state under the Constitution of 1776 imtil 1812, when
it was replaced by Harrisburg. The Convention
which drafted the Constitution of the United States
assembled at Philadelphia in May, 1787, and pre-
sented the draft to Congress on 17 September. On
the following day it was submitted to the Assembly of
the State of Pennsylvania, by which body the Consti-
tution was ratified on 12 December of the same year,
Pennsylvania being the second to approve it. Again,
Pennsylvania was the first state to respond to the ap-
peal of President Lincoln for troops at the outbreak of
the Civil War. Regiments were sent by Governor
Curt in to the garrison at Washington and were largely
effective in preventing that city from being captured
by the Confederate forces after the first battle of Bull
Run. In 1863 General Lee invaded the state, oominc
from the South by way of the Shenandoah Valley, and
was signally defeated m a three days' battle on the Ut,
PUINSTLVAIIU
641
PENNSTLVANU
2d, and 3rd of July at GettysbuTg by the Union army
under General George G. Meade. This battle has
been recognized as the most important in the Civil War,
as the success of the Confederate forces would have
imperilled Philadelphia and New York and might
have led to the final triumph of the Confederacy.
II. Ethnoloqt and Denominational Statistics.
— It has been said of Pennsylvania that no other
American colony had '^such a mixture of langua^,
nationalities and religions. Dutch, Swedes, ^iglish,
Germans, Scotch-Irish and Welsh; Quakers, Presby-
terians, Episcopalians, Lutherans, Reformed. Men-
nonites, Tunkers and Moravians all had a snare in
creating it" (Fisher). The eastern part of the state,
especiaUy the coimties immediately adjoining Philadel-
phia, was settled by a homogeneous population prin-
cipally of English descent, though there was a large
German communitv near Phili^elphia at German-
town. Westward, the County of Lancaster was largely
settled by Germans, who brought with them a special
knowledge of, and aptitude for, agriculture, witn the
result that a naturally rich county became one of the
most productive in the United States, especially of
tobacco and cereals. ThereisalsoalargeGermanpopu-
lation in Berks County, where a dialect of the German
language is very generally spoken. The first German
settlements were made by the Tunkers, now known as
Dunkers, or Dunkaids, between 1720 and 1729. They
were followed by the Schwenkfelders, from the Rhine
Vallev, Alsatia, Suabia, Saxony, and the Palatinate.
Memoers of the Lutheran Reformed Congregations
came between 1730 and 1740. The Moravians settled
Bethlehem in 1739, and the so-called Scotch-Irish im-
migrants from the North of Ireland, settled in Lehigh,
Bucks, and Lancaster Counties, and in the Cumber-
land Valley, between 1700 and 1750. The Welsh came
to Pennsylvania previous to 1682, and were the most
numerous class of immigrants up to that date. They
were assigned a tract of land west of the Schuylkill
River, known as "the Welsh Tract", where to this day
their geographical names remain.
In 1906 the population of Pennsylvania was the sec-
ond in size among the states of the Union, being esti-
mated at 6,928,515. Of these 2,977,022 (or 43 per
cent) were church members: 1,717,037 Protestants,
and 1,214,734 Catholics. The latest census of Catho-
lics (1910) for the entire state shows 1,494,766, of
whom 38,235 were coloured. The Protestant denomi-
nations in 1906 were divided as follows: Methodists,
^63,443; Lutherans, 335,643; Presbyterians, 322,542;
Reformed, 181,350; Baptists, 141,694; Episcopalians,
99,021; United Brethren, 55,571; aU others, 217,773.
The first Protestant Episcopal church (Christ Church)
was built in Philadelphia in 1695. Pennsylvania is the
second state in the Union in the number of church
members and first in the number of church organiza-
tions. The value of church property is $173,605,141,
being 13 per cent of all the property in the state. Of
the entire population in 1906, 57 per cent professed no
religion as against 67-2 per cent m 1900. The kj-gest
immigration from Ireland to the United States, fol-
lowing the famine of 1847-49, added greatly to the
Catholic population of Pennsylvania, wmch has shown
a steady increase. Of recent years missions have
been established for the special benefit of the col-
oured people of Philadelphia, where two churches are
now especially devoted to these missions.
III. Economic Conditions. — A. PojmUUion. — ^The
United States Census of 1910 ^ves the population of
Pennsylvania as 7,665,111 (a httle more tnan 181-57
to the square mile). Of this number 1,549,008 be-
longed to Philadelphia and 533,905 to Pittsburg.
Thus Philadelphia had maintained its position as the
third city of the United States in population, while
Pittsburg (with the accession of Allegheny, incor-
porated with it since the Census of 1900) stood eighth.
The Census of 1910 shows an increase of more thiui
XL-
21*62 per cent in the population of the state during
the first decade of the twentieth century. The Census
report of the foreign-bom white and of the coloured
population for 1910 (respectively 982,543 and 156,845
m 1900) had not become accessible when this article
was prepared. The German and Iridi elements ex-
ceed by far all other nationahties among the foreign
bom. In 1910 the larsest cities in the state, after
Philadelphia and Pittsourg, were Harrisburg, the
capital (pop. 64,186), Scran ton (129,867), Reading
(96,071), Wilkes-Barre (67,105). and Johnstown
(55,482). Pennsylvania is entitled to thirty-two rep-
resentatives in the Congress of the United states and
thirty-four votes in the Presidential Electoral College.
With the exception of a few cities, the distribution of
the population is less dense than in most of the Eastern
States. A comparatively small proportion of the pop-
ulation is engaged in agriculture, mining and manu-
facturing being the principal industries.
B. Material Resources. — Until 1880 Pennsylvania
was pre-eminent as the lumber state, but its activity
in this industry has since been far exceeded in the
Southern and North-Westem States. In 1900 about
2,313,267 million feet of lumber were cut in Pennsyl-
vania— ^about one-half of the output of the State of
Michigan. In the last ten years the output has de-
creased. The estimated product for the year 1907
amounted to $31,251,817, at the rate of |18.02 per
million feet. Efforts towards conservation and syste-
matic forestry have of late years received considerable
impetus. The state is extremely rich in coal, petro-
leum, natural gas, iron ore, slate, and limestones.
Anthracite coaTwas discovered in Pennsylvania as
earlv as 1768, and the first regular shipments were
made in 1820. The anthracite coal fields in the east-,
em portions of the state are about 500 square miles
in area, while the bituminous coal and petroleum
fields of the western and north-central sections cover
about 9000 square miles. The United States Con-
servation Commission estimated, in 1910, that there
were 117,593,000,000 tons of coal in Pennsylvania.
The total output of bituminous coal in 1907 for
the Pennsylvanian mines was 149.759,089 Ameri-
can tons (of 2000 lbs. each) ; of anthracite, 86,279,-
719 Am. tons; so that the state contributed in that
year very nearly 50 per cent of the whole output of
coal of the United States. In the following year
(1908), owing to the generU depression in industries,
Pennsylvania produced only 118,313,525 tons of bitu-
minous coal. The first oil well in Pennsylvania was
discovered in 1860, and in the next following thirty
years the state produced 1,006,000,000 barrels of pe-
troleum. The state stands first in the production of
coke, the output being normally more than half that
of all the United States. The output of pig iron for
1908 was 6,973,621 gross tons, or 43-8 per cent of the
entire product of the United States, valued at $110,-
987,346 (about £22,197,468). The first Bessemer
steel rails were rolled at Johnstown, Pennsvlvania. in
1867. The annual product of iron and steel manurao-
tures is over $200,000,000; they employ 54,000 per-
sons, whose earnings amount to $34,000,000. Penn-
irylvania also stands first in the production of slate and
limestone, contributing two-thirds of the whole output
of slate of the United States. It ranks third in the
production of sandstone. The total value of its out-
put of quarried stone in 1908 was $4,000,000.
As a manufacturing state, Pennsylvania stands sec-
ond in the United States. In 1904 it had an invested
capital of $1,990,836,988 in manufactures, employing
'aS3,282 wage earners receiving $367,960,890 per an-
num and producing $1,955,551,332 in value of finished
goods, including, oesides iron and steel, textiles of
various kinds, knitted goods, felt, etc. In 1908 there
were 3848 industrial establishments with a total cap-
ital of $1,126,406,558, employing 756,600 wage earn-
ers, of whom 126,000 were women. This state leads
mmSTLVANIA 642 PUnqiTLVAlIU
flunong the Middle States in cotton and exceeds aU of provide by law for the establishment of schoolf
the United States in woollen manufactures. The first throughout the state in such manner that the poor
company to spin yam by machinery was founded at mi^t be taught gratis. The University of Pennsyl-
Philadelphia in 1775. A sale of prints and linens took vania dates from the year 1740. The report of the
place in 1789. In 1850 Philadelphia was the leading superintendent of education for the year 1908 shows
city of the world in the number of its textile works, the number of schools to have been 33,171, taught by
In 1899 there were 813 cotton and woollen factories, 7488 male and 26,525 female teachers, the nun^er of
producing a value of $116,850,782. In 1907, 157 silk pupils amounting to 1,231,200 and in daily attendance
plants produced a value of $52,780,830. The agricul- 951,670. The total expenditure for school purposes
tural wealth of the state is also considerable, although for that year was more than $34,000,000; the esti-
only 28 per cent of its land is under cultivation. The mated value of school property exceeded $90,000,000.
leading crops are hay, com, oats, wheat, potatoes, and There were in that year thirte^ normal schools, seven
tobacco, aggre^ting for the year 1908 a value of theological seminaries, three medical eolleges, one
$166,173,000. The value of farm animals in 1908 was veterinary college, one college of pharmacy, four den-
$145,803,000. The dairy industry in that year, aside tal schools, two law schools, thirty-five colleges and
from the milk product, was valued at $41,250,000, universities, employing 1914 instructors, with an at-
while tobacco amountea to $3,948,134. tendance of 12,211 male and 3189 female students.
C. Communicdtians, — In 1827 the first railroad in B. Catholic, — ^Prior to the Revolution, and for some
the state, nine miles in length, was opened between years after it, Philadelphia was the lai^^t city, and
Mauch Chunk and Sunmiit Hill. In 1842 the Phila- St. Mary's the largest Catholic parish m the United
delphia and Reading Railroad nenetrated the coal States. A parochial school was established in that
regions, and in 1854 the Pennsylvania Railroad be- parish in 1782. This was an English school. Subee-
tween Pittsburg and Philadelphia was opened for quently German schools were established at Goshen-
traffic. Pennsylvania has 22*96 miles of track for hoppen. Berks County, at Lancaster, Hanover, and
every hundred miles of area. The total assessment of other places under the auspices of the German Jesuits,
steam railroads operating any portions of their lines In Western Pennsylvania the first Catholic school
within the state is $4,686,281,066 — one-third of the was established at Sportsman's Hall, Westmoreland
assets of all the railroads of the United States. The County, some time after 1787, where subsequently
total earnings for the year endinjg 13 November, 1908, the Benedictines built St. Vincent's Abbey and Col-
of the railroads of Pennsylvania subject to taxation lege, the mother-house of this religious order in the
were $824,213,593. During that year there were United States. Father Demetrius Augustine GaJlitcin
262,570,546 passengers carried and 81,454,385,026 (q. v*.) established a Catholic colony in Cambria
mile-tons of freight. The street railways show a total County in 1799 and in 1800 opened a school at Loretto.
capitalization of $484,545,694. The first Catholic churoh at Pittsburg was built in
IV. Education. — A. General, — ^The common school 1811, and in 1828 a community of the Order of St.
system of education is universal throughout the Com- Clare, coming from Belgium, established a convent
monwealth in every county, township, borou^, and and academy. In 1835 the sisters took charge of the
dty. Each constitutes a separate school distnct. and dayschools at Pittsburg and opened an academy for
new districts are formed as r^uired imder the oirec- more advanced pupils. They opened a school at Har-
tion of the Court of Quarter Sessions. School direo- risburg in 1828; one at McSherrytown in 1830; one
tors are elected annually in each district, two qualified at Pottsville in 1836. The Catholic educational sys-
citizens being chosen for a term of three years, there tem has been gradually developed since that date un-
being six directors in all. School directors receive no til now, in all the dioceses of Pennsylvania, there is a
pay, but are exempt from military duty and from carefully graded system of parochial schools, there
serving in any borough or township office. They must being in attendance in the various dioceses 225,224
hold at least one meeting in every three months and pupils, who are taught by 2896 religious and lay
such other meetings as the cireumstances of the dis- teachers in 443 schools, irrespective of those who are
trict may require. It is their duty to establish a suffi- instructed in the various orphan asylums and chari-
cient number of common schools for the education of table institutions of the different dioceses. The course
every individual over the age of six years and under of instruction is ^aded in the Diocese of Philadelphia,
the age of twenty-one in their respective districts, covering Christian doctrine, English, penmanship.
They appoint isJl teachers, fix their salaries, and dis- arithmetic, algebra, geography, history, civil govem-
miss them for cause; direct what branches of learning ment, vocal music (including Gregorian), drawing,
are to be taught in each school, and what books to be elementary science. Institutions for higher education
used ; suspend or eicpel pupils for cause. They report are, with a few exceptions, in the hands of the teaching
to the county supenntendent, setting forth the num- orders and are not an integral part of the parochiiu
ber and situation of the schools in their districts, school system. The cost of maintenance of the Cath-
the character of the teachers, amount of taxes, etc. olic educational system is defrayed by Voluntary
Where land cannot be obtained for schools by agre&- contributions.
ment of the parties, school directors may enter and V. Reugious Conditions. — A. Development of the
occupy such land as they deem fit not exceeding one Church. — The State of Penn^lvania historically coin-
acre. Free evening schools must be kept open on the cides with the ecclesiastical Province of Philadelphia,
application of twenty or more pupils or their parents, composed of the Archdiocese of Philadelphia ana the
for the teaching of orthography, reading, writing, five suffragan Dioceses of Pittsburg, Erie, Harrisbuig,
arithmetic, and other branches to pupils who are Scranton, and Altoona. (See the special articles on
un^le to attend the day schools, for a term of not less these dioceses respectively.) The Catholic population
than four months in each year. Twenty days' actual in Pennsylvania owes its existence mainly to eariy
teaching constitutes one school month. Schools are immigration from Ireland and Germany, thouf^ of
closed on Saturdays and le^al holidays. High schools recent years many Poles, Hungarians, and Italians
may be established in distncts having a population of have swelled its numbers. The first Catholic resident
over 5000. of Philadelphia, a German, came with Daniel Pasto-
In Penn's charter it was provided that the Govern- rius, the founder of Germantown, in 1683. In 1685
ment and councils should erect and order all public J. Gray^ of London, having obtained a grant of land,
schools, and before Penn there had been a school settled in Pennsylvania, where he changed his name
taught by Swedes. In 1706 land to the extent of to John Tatham. In 1690 he was appointed Governor
60,000 acres was set aside for the support of schools, of West Jersey, but was unable to take the oath of
The Constitution of 1790 required t£e Legislature to allegiance to William and Mary. He seems to have
PENNSYLVANIA
B43
PENNSYLVANIA
been a friend of William Penn. The first priest who
can be accurately traced in Pennsylvania was the
Reverend John Pierron, of Canada, who in 1673-74
madt; a tour through Maryland, Virginia, and New
England.
The orderly history of the Church in Pennsylvania
begins in 172^, when the Rev. Joseph Wheaton, 8. J.,
formed the first parish. The first church, St. Joseph's,
was begun in 1733. Its oong^regation consisted of 22
Irish and 15 Germans, and in 1787 its membership
had increased to about 3000. In 1727 there came to
Philadelphia 1155 Irish besides their servants. Later
in the same year 5600 arrived, and 5655 in 1729.
This migration resulted from the unjust laws which
were then afilicting the Catholics and Dissenters in
Ireland. The same laws drove from the North of
Ireland, between 1700 and 1750, some 200,000 Presby-
terians, most of whom came to America, and largely
to Pennsylvania. In 1771, when Richard Penn suc-
ceeded John Penn, in the government of Pennsylvania,
the Catholics of Philadelpnia, throu^ their rector, the
Rev. Robert Harding, presented their congratulations,
which were most cordially received. When the Revo-
lution broke out, the comparatively small body of
Catholic inhabitants furnished a number of men who
attained distinction in the military, naval, or political
service, amon^ them being Commodore John Barry,
Thomas Fitzsimmons, Stephen Moylan, and George
Meade. In 1780, on the occasion of the Requiem
Mass for Don Juan de Miralles, the Spanish agent in
Philadelphia, Congress assisted in a body together
with several general officers and distinguished citizens.
After the surrender at Yorktown a Mass of thanksgiv-
ing was celebrated in St. Mary's Church, a chaplain of
the French Ambassador preaching the sermon.
Prior to the Revolution, as early as 1768, the Ger-
man Catholics of Philadelphia had. obtained property
upon which subsequently was erected Holy Trinity
Cfhurch, which was afterwards incorporated and, in
1789, dedicated. St. Mary's Church, from which
Holy Trinity was an offshoot, was dedicated in 1788.
The clergy of the United States was reinforced by a
body of French priests who arrived at Philadelphia in
1792 and were distributed among various American
churches. In 1793 a large niunber of fugitives came
from the French Islands of the West Indies, and it was
supposed that an epidemic of yellow fever which broke
out soon after was brought by them. All the ministers
of the various denominations zealously attended the
sick, and many fell victims, including two of the Cath-
olic clergy.
In 1788 Very Rev. John Carroll was elected Bishop
of Baltimore with jurisdiction over all the American
churches, including Philadelphia. He was consecrated
on the 15th of August, 1790, at Lullworth, Dorchester,
England.
In 1808 the Diocese of Philadelphia was separated
from that of Baltimore (then ruled by Bishop John
Carroll), the Dioceses of New York^ Boston, and
Bardstown being created at the same time. Michael
Egan became the first Bishop of Philadelphia, the
diocese included the entire State of Pennsylvania and
the western and southern parts of New Jersey. In
1843 the Diocese of Pittsburg was established, and
took away from Philadelphia a number of the western
counties of the state. In 1853 Uie Diocese of Erie was
erected out of the Diocese of Pittsburg, and in the
same year the jurisdiction of Philadelphia over a
Sart of New Jersey was transferred to the Diocese of
fewark. In 1868 the two Dioceses of Scranton and
Harrisburg were created, Philadelphia being left with
a jurisdiction confined to the Counties of Berks, Bucks,
Carbon, Chester, Delaware, Lehigh, Montgomery,
Northampton, and Schuylkill. In 1901 the Diocese of
Altoona was constituted out of the Harrisburg terri-
tory together with part of that of Pittsburg. In 1876
Philadelphia was made a metropolitan see. Bishop
Wood being appointed Archbishop. The first Provin-
cial Councu was held on 23 May, 1880.
B. Laws Rdating to Religion. — By the Constitution
of Pennsylvania (Art. I., Sec. 3) it is declared that
''AH men have a natural and indefeasible right to
worship Almighty God according to the dictates of
their own consciences; no man can of right be com-
pelled to attend, erect or support any place of worship,
or to maintain any ministry against his consent; no
human authoritv can, in any case whatever, control or
interfere with the rights of conscience, and no prefer-
ence shall ever be given by law to any religious estab-
lishments or modes of worship". It has been held,
however, that Christianity is a part of the common
law of Pennsylvania; not Christianitjyr founded on any
particular tenets, but Christianity with liberty of con-
science to all men (11 S. & R., 394; 26 Pa., 342; 2 How.,
199). This liberty does not include the right to carry
out every scheme claimed to be part of a religious
system. Thus, a Municipal Ordinance forbidding the
use of drums by a religious body in the streets of a city
is valid (11 Pa., 335). The constitution further pro-
vides that "no person who acknowledges the being
of. a God and a future state of rewards and punish-
ments shall, on account of his religious sentiments, be
disqualified to hold any office or place of trust or profit
uncier this commonwealth" (Sec. 4). Therefore, the
exclusion of a Sister of Charity from emplo3rment as a
teacher in the public schools, because she is a Roman
Catholic, would be unlawful (164 Pa., 629) ; now, how-
^ever, she cannot teach while wearmg her religious
garb. An Act of Assembly prohibiting the transaction
of worldly business on Sunday does not encroach upon
the libertv of conscience. It is therefore constitu-
tional. Until a recent Act of Assembly, witnesses in
Court were required to believe in a Supreme Being,
although their religious opinions were not such as
are generally accepted by orthodox Christians. Now.
however, it is not necessary that witnesses should
have any belief in the existence of a God, their credi-
bility being a question for the jury.
By an Act ot Assemblv blasphemv and profanitjr in
the use of the names of the Almighj^, Jesus Christ,
the Holy Spirit, or the Scriptures of Truth, are crimi-
nal offences. This is a re-enactment of a provincial
law as old as 1700. The sessions of the Legislature
are opened with prayer. Christmas Day and (oood
Friday are among the legal holidays. Five or more
persons may form a church corporation for the sup-
port of public worship. All churches, meeting houses,
or other regular places of stated worship, with the
grounds thereto annexed necessary for the occupancy
and enjo3rment of the same, all burial grounds not
used or held for private or corporate profit, together
with certain other specified kinds of property devoted
to education and benevolence, are exempted from tax-
ation of all sorts. Marriage cannot be solemnised
without a licence. Under the Act of 1700, all mar-
riages not forbidden by the law of God are encouraged;
but the parents or guardians shall, if conveniently
they can, be first consulted, and the parties' freedom
from all engagements established. Under the Act
of 24 June, 1901 (P. L. 579, Sec. 1), themamageof
first cousins is prohibited, and such marriages are
void. The subsequent marriage of parents legitimize
their children under the Act of 14 May, 1857. (P. L..
607, Sec. 1.) Since the Act of 11 April. 1848, all
property belonging to women before marriage or ac-
cruing to them afterwards shall continue as their sep-
arate property after marriage. But a woman may not
become accommodation indorser, maker, guarantor,
or surety for another, nor may she execute or acknowl-
ledge a deed or writing, etc. of her real estate unless
her husband joins in such mortgage or conveyance
(Act of 8 June, 1893). The separate earnings of a
married woman are under her separate control and not
liable for the debts or obligations of her husband
nMOBSCOT 644 nMOBSCOT
Under certain curctnuBtanceB, a married woman may tion; and in all caaes shall be proved by oatha or
bring a suit without the intervention of a trustee, but affirmations of two or more competent witnesses, who
husband and wife cannot sue one another. A married need not be attesting witnesses except in the case
woman may loan money to, and take security from, where the will makes a charitable devise or bequest,
her husband. A husband is not liable for the wife's In the case of the extremity of the testator's last ill-
debts incurred before her marriage. Absolute di- ness, he may make an oral or nuncupative will for the
voroes may be granted for impotence, bigamy, adul- disposition of his personal property, such will to be
tery, cruelty, desertion, force, fraud, or coercion, and made during the last illness m the house of his habit»-
for conviction of forgery or infamous crime. The tion, or where he has resided for the space of ten days be-
plaintiff must reside within the state for at least one fore making his will, or any location where he has been
whole year previous to the filing of the petition. A surprised by sickness and dies before returning to his
person divorced for adultery cannot marry the par»- own house. No estate, real or personal, can be be-
mour during the life of the former husband or wife, queathed, devised, or oonveved to any person in trust
Divorces from bed and board are allowed for practi- for any religious or charitable use, except by deed cm-
cally the same causes as absolute divorces. Marriages will, attested by two credible, disinterested witnesses,
may be annulled for the usual causes, but proceedin^i at least one calendar month before the decease of the
must be taken under the Divorce Acts. testator or alienor. No literary, religious, charitable,
A Board of Public Charities, consisting of five or beneficial society, oongr^ation, or corporation may
commissionerB, is appointed by tne governor with the hold real and personal estate to a greater yearl^r value
duty of visiting all charitable and correctional institu- than $30,000 without express legislative sanction, or
tions at least once a year, examining the returns of the on decree of court in special circumstances.
several cities, counties, wards, boroughs, and town- ^'^^^P^P*^ S^eretary of internal Affair* CPa.). pU. Ill, IV;
Ution to births, deaths, and marriages, and make an eAivec; Haxamd, AnnaUofPa. (PhiladelphU. 1850) ; lo
annual report as to the causes and best treatment of •/ P«nnnfJ«into I8f8-M; CoUnMRtct^dt a^W): Pbovd, HxMtory
paupemm «in,e, dijeaee. and msanity, together with t^^ri^^^^^Ji^^^^'Z'^':£S^^JS'S::.
all desunble information concerning the mdustnal and emmMU of Pennt^mmia (1759) : Jbxkixb. Pemuyltania (PhUa-
material interests of the commonwealth bearing upon ^flRK**,**^)? ^■■*»» Pennjtji^tania, Colony and CommomotaUk
th«e subjecto. Ttey have the power of «caminfaM: S^T^'^J::::S^^^r:^;L^.?:^]^^l,'lS^
the various chantable, reformatorv, and correctional phia (loio); Bcknb. The CathoUc School Syetem in the UwUod
institutions, including the city and county jails, pris- Staie$ (1908): The Caiholie Dirtetory (IQIO); Wickebsbam. HU"
ons. and ahnshouses, and are required to submit an if^ y ^di«xrfum^Penfin^nia (1886); Gmftik, Cathoiieiut
vr«o, o.**v» <«uuouvrwj«^, mm^x* »a^ «v^uu^ w DUkruAAu cM« £j^ Atneruxm Revolution; BounzB, Law Dictionary vl897):
annual report to the Leipslature. Institutions seekmg BBioHTLT-PumDoif, Dioeet (1906); Du BO10, The PhUadapkUi
state aid are expected to give notice to the Board, /jf^^* (Philadelphia, i809);jAifinBT,L</«o/Tria»omp<nn(i852);
which is to inquWcarefullv into the pounds for the ^T.Tai^Sra'SSrjiS^^i.^^lSS^^^'E^^
request and report its conclusions to the Legislature, eyhania (lOOT).
Before any county prison or almshouse shall be Wai;teb George Smitb.
erected the plans must be submitted to the Board.
Prisoners confined in any prison, reformatory, or Penobscot Indians, the principal tribe of the
other institution have the privilege of practising the famous Abnaki confederacy of Maine, and the o^y
religion of their choice, ana are at Mbert^ to procure one still keeping its name, territory, and tribal iden- "
the services of any minister connected with any reli- tity. The Abnaki confederacy, to which the Penob-
gious denomination in the state, providing such service scot belonged, consisted of a number of small tribes of
uiall be personal and not interfere with the established Algonquian linguistic stock, holding the greater part
order of the religious service in the institution. £s- of the present state of Maine, and closely connected
tabUshed services shall not be of a sectarian character, linguistically and politically with the Pennacook of the
By an Act of Assembly passed in 1903, the active or Merrimac region on the south and with the Maliseet
visiting committee of any society, existing for the pur- or Etchimin of the St. John river on the north, and
pose of visitini^ and instructing prisoners, are consti- more remotely with the Micmac of eastern New
tuted official visitors of jails and penitentiaries, and are Brunswick and Nova Bcotia. In all the colonial wars
permitted under reasonable rules and regulations to they were active allies of the French against the Eng-
make visits accordingly. lish, and suffered correspondingly, having dwindled
Intoxicating liquors cannot lawfully be sold in from perhaps 3000 souls m 1600 to about 785 in 1910.
Pennsylvania except under a licence granted by the Of these the Penobscot number 425. while the rest, all
Court of Quarter Sessions. The sale of liauor on of mixed blood and including the aesoendants of the
Sunday is forbidden. It is a misdemeanor for an^ broken and incorporated Pennacook, reside, under the
person engaged in the sale or manufacture of intoxi- name of Abnaki, in the two mission settlements of ^
eating liquors to employ an intemperate person to Saint Francis (335) and Bdcancourt (25) in Quebec
assist in such manufacture or sale, or by gift or sale province, Canada.
to furnish liquor to anyone known to be of intemper- The beginning of missionary work among the Ab-
ate habits, or to minors, or insane persons. Di^egard naki was Dv the Jesuits Pierre Biard and Enemond
of a notice not to fumisn liquor to mtemperate persons Mass^, of the French poet of Port-Roval (Annapolis,
issued by a relative renders the party so selling liiJ>le Nova Scotia), in 1611. Two }rears Later a mission
for damages. Any judge, justice, or clergyman who establishment was attempted, in connexion with a
shall perform the marriage ceremony between parties French post, on Mount Desert island, Maine, but was
when either is intoxicateid shaU be guilty of a mis- destroyed by the English commander, Argall, before
demeanour. it was fairly completed. From 1646 to 1657 the Jesuit
Every person of sound mind who has attained the Fr. Gabriel Druillettes. of the Montagnais Mission,
age of twenty-one years mav dispose of his or her spent much time with tne Abnaki, establishing a tem-
real and personal property by will. This includes porary chapel on the Kennebec, and later drew off
married women, reserving to the husband his right many of them to the mission settlements of Canada,
as tenant by the courtesy and his right to take In 1688the Jesuit Fr. Jacques Bigot again took up the
against the will, and to the wife her nght to take work on the Kennebec while in the same year Fr.
against the will. Wills must be in writing and signed Louis-Pierre Thury, of the Foreign Missions, estab-
at the end either by the testator himself or, in case he lished the first regular mission at Panawambskek ("it
is prevented by the extremity of his last illness^ by forks on the white rocks" — ^Vetromile) or Penobscot,
some person in his presence and by his express direo- at the falls near the present 01dto?m. Here he laboarea
PIN8IOK 645 PENSION
iintSI his death in 1699, and was succeeded by other semi-sedentarv, dwelling in villages of communal wig-
priests of the same seminary until 1703, when this warns covered with bark or woven mats, each villasa
mission, like that on the Kennebec, was transferred to having also a larger central town-house for pubuo
Jesuit control, under which it continued, although gatherings. They cultivated com and other vege-
under constantly greater difficulties, until the fall of tables, and understood the use of manure. They had
Canada in 1763. The most noted incumbent of this also game and fish from the woods and waters. They
earlier period was Fr. Etienne Lauveyat (171^1729). had the clan system, with fourteen clans (Morgan).
From the outbreiJc of King Philip^ war in 1675 up Polygamy was rare and tribal government simple,
nearly to thd close of the French period in 1763 the They buried their dead. In general character tney
history of the Abnaki tribes was one of almost unceas- were comparatively mild and tractable and not given
ing bloody struggle against the English advance. On to extreme cruelty as were the Iroquois. What re-
the side of the ^gliw it was a war of extermination, mains of their mythology has been brought together
with standing bounties for scalps (or heads), increa»* by Leland in his ''Algonquin Legends of New Eng-
ing from five pounds. in 1675 to forty pounds in 1703 land". The modem Penobscot are entirely Chris^
for every scalp of a male above ten years, and at last tianised and civilized in habit of living, deriving
in 1744 one hundred pounds for the scalp of every male subsistence by lumbering, boating, huntine, some
abovet^elveyearsof age and fifty for that of a woman farming, and the making of Indiim wares for sale,
or child. Prisoners were sold as slaves (see William" They are in friendly touch with their neighbours, the
son). In 1706 Govemor Dudley reported that he had Passamaquoddy band of the Maliseet. See also Mis-
not left an Indian hiU^itation or p^ting field unde- bionb. Catholic Indian, of the U. S.; Mausebt
stroyed. Shortly afterward it was estimated that one- Indians; Raslbs; Saint Francis Mission.
third of the Abnaki had been exterminated by war, Lxland, Akf<mqu%n Legmda of New Eniftand (Boston, New
disease^or exposure within s^^^^^ J? ^^fc'!? ?S'w^;i2f^(V3^*oii?^ev:S^^^^
hundred men were appomted to destroy the village at coiu. (firtt anies. lO vols.. Portland and Bath. I83i-i89i;
Penobscot and fomr himdred others to ravage con- aaoond series, lo vols., Portland, 1890-1899); Madbault, hu-
stantly throughout the whole Abnaki country To ^^"^^i^.W^'JS; llSSi! I'^TJ^'.^'Sd'^SSi
draw off the Indians iron the French mterest, efforts (2 vols., HaUowell, 1832); Shba, Catholic MianoM (New York,
were twice made by the English authorities of Massa- 1854).
chusetts to persuade them to receive Protestant mi»- Jambs Moonet.
sionaries, but the ofiter was rejected. Three times the
mission at Norridgewock on the Kennebec, under the Panflion, Ecclbsiastical, the right to a certain
devoted Fr. Sebastian Rasles, was attacked and de- sum of money to be paid yearly out of the revenu^ of
stroyed, and the third time the missionary himself was a church or benefice to a cleric, on account of just
among the dain. The final result was that the Abnaki reasons approved by an ecclesiastical superior. The
who survived withdrew to St. Francis or other mission term is derived, according to some, from the Latin
settlements in Canada, with the exception of the word pendeo, ''to depend'*; according to others, from
Penobscot, who made a separate treaty of peace in the word pendo, "to pay". The term pensio is some-
1749, thus saving themselves and their territory, but times used as synonymous with a certain species of
forever alienating the affection of their kinsmen by benefice, as when a cleric, by the authority of a supe-
whom they were thenceforth regarded as traitors to rior, receives a perpetual vicarship in a church ana is
the confederacy. sustained by its revenues. This is looked on as the
On the outbreak of the Revolution in 1775 the conferring of a real benefice. In its ordinary accepta-
Penobscot, under their chief, Orono, tendered their ser- tion, however, it does not connote the bestowal of a
vices to the American cause, at the same time asking benefice, but refers to the money paid, for a certain
that a priest be sent to them, they having then been for time, to a third person from the fruits of a benefice
nearly forty years without religious instruction. Thdr belonging to another, acting under the authorization
offer was accepted and they gave good service through- of an ecclesiastical superior. The obligation to pay
out the war, but the Massachusetts Government was such a pension may be incumbent on either the holder
not then able to find them a priest, owing to the fact that of a benefice or on the benefice itself. If the first, then
Jesuits and other missionaries had for years been out- the burden does not pass to his successor; if the sec-
lawed from New England. When the war was ended ond, the obligation lasts as long as the pensioner lives,
the Penobscot made another appeal, this time by a As the pope has full power over all benefices, he may
delegation to Bishop Carroll of Manrland, to whom impose a pension on any benefice whatsoever, even
they presented the crucifix of the murdered Fr. Rasles, though it belong to a patron. If, however, the patron-
with the result that in 1785 the Penobscot mission at age TOlongs to a roysu person, the pope does not usu-
Oldtown was re-established under Fr. Francis Ciquard, iJly impose the pension without the patron's consent,
a Sulpician, sent from France for that purpose. He For validity, it is not necessary that the pontiff ^ve
continued with it imtil 1794, going then to the neigh- any cause for his act.
bouring Etohimin (Maliseet). Orono died at Oldtown As to the bishop, or anyone inferior to the pope, he
in 1802. Of later missionaries the most noted is the may not, generally speakmg, impose a perpetual pen-
Jesuit Fr. Eugene Vetromile, stationed at Oldtown sion on a benefice or mcrease one already existing, nor
from about 1855 to about 1880, author of a small his- may he, in conferring a benefice, make a reservation
tory of the Abnaki and of several works in the Ian- of a pension to be paid to a third party. It is within
guage, the most important of which is a manuscript the bishop's power, however, to impose a pension, for
Abnaki Dictionary, now with the Bureau of American a reasonable cause, to last for a certain time, even for
Ethnology. The other great dictionary of the Ian- the life of the holder of the benefice, if he himself con-
guage, that of Father Rasles andplundered from the sents. In this case, the pension is not imposed upon
mission in the second attack (1722)^ was deposited in the benefice, but on its incumbent. The canons forbid
Harvard University and published m the NIemoirs of the bishop to constitute a pension out of a certain
the American Acad^ny of Arts and Sciences (Cam- quota of the fruits of a benefice, as a half or a third
bridge, 1833). part, because this has the appearance of a division of
The principal existing Penobscot village, officially the benefice. Just causes for the constitution of a
known as Oldtown, is on an island in Penobscot river, pension by the bishop are: for the sake of peace; for
a few miles above Bangor, and, as indicated by the the education of a poor student; for the utility of the
Indian name, about on the ancient site. The church, Church; for the relief of paupers; for some pious
dedicated to Sunt Anne, is served by a secular priest, object; for a reward of services rendered; and for the
In their aboriginal condition the Abnaki tribes were support of a person who reaigns a benence, in which
FENTACOMU
646
PXNTATEUC^H
hat case it should be in moderate proportion and not
the result of a bargain. For the causes mentioned, a
bishop may not impose a pension on a benefice itself ,
or to have efifect after the decease of the incumbent,
though some canonists have miuntained the contrary.
When a bishop confers a benefice, he is not allowed to
burden its collation with a pension to be paid to him-
self, as this would be a simoniacal transaction.
When two beneficiaries interchange benefices, they
may not make a pact by which the one receiving the
richer post is to pay a pension to the other, but the
bishop may make such a stipulation of his own free
will on the occasion of the exchange of two benefi-
ciaries. In like manner, while it is simoniacal for an
abdicant to stipulate for a pension out of the benefice
he resigns, yet he mav, for grave cause, request the
bishop to give him such a pension, and the bisnop mav
bestow it upon him. Simoniacal pacts are those which
are made without the intervention of the proper eccle-
siastical authority.
La3rmen are incapable of receiving ecclesiastical
pensions, and the clerical recipient must not be ex-
communicate, suspended, or under interdict. Pen-
sions may be transferred to another by the pensioner,
if the proper authority sanctions it. The eaniest men-
tion of a pension in Church history is said to be that of
Donmus of Antioch, who received one out of the reve-
nues of the bishopric, which he had vacated at the time
of the Council of Chalcedon in 451.
Ferraris. Bibliolheca eanonioa, VI (Rome, 1890), s. v. Penno;
Wkrmb, Ju9 decreUUium, II (Rome, 1890).
WiLUAM H. W. Fanning.
Pantaeomia, titular see of Palestine, sufTragan of
Areopolis or Rabbah. It was never a residential see:
the Crusaders mistook the "Descriptio orbis romani''
of George of Cyprus, where it is mentioned (ed. Gelzer,
53), for a "Notitia episcopatuum'', whereas it is a
purely civil document. There is a locidity of this
name in Arabia (op. cit., 54), and a third in Palssstina
Prima, now known as Fendacoumieh, near Samaria.
Le Quien has made the same error (''Oriens christi-
anus". III, 773), but without discovering the name of
one bishop. The site of Pentacomia seems unknown.
S. Vailh£.
Pantapolifl. — ^The word, occurring in Wisdom, x,
6, designates the region where stood the five cities
{rirrtj r6\it) — Sodom, Gomorrha, Segor (A. V., Zoar),
Adama, Seboim — ^which united to resist the invasion
of Chodorlahomor (Gen., xiv), and of which four were
shortly after utterly destroved. This region, which
marked the southern limit of the territory occupied by
the Canaanites, was included in what was known in old
Pfdestinian eeography as the ''Kikkar '' (i. e. ''round"
or "oval"; Gen., xiii, 10, 11, 12. etc.; D. V. "the coim-
try about the Jordan"; A. V. ^*the plain"), that is to
say probably the lower Jordan Valley and the land
around the Dead Sea. The Kikkar was a very fertile
country (Gen., xiii^ 10). Its fertility caused Lot to
settle there (Gen., xiii, 8-13) . About the same epoch, or
possibly a little earlier, the five kings of the Pentapo-
us had been defeated in a battle fought in the Valiey
of Siddhn (D. V. "the woodland Vale^) by Amraphel
(most probably Hammurabi, q. v.), King of Sennaar,
Arioch (Rim-Sin), King of Ellasar (Larsa), Chodorla-
homor (Kudur-Lagamar), King of Elam and Thadal
(Tid al), "king of the nations" (probably countries in
the neighbourhood of Elam and in its dependence),
and made tributary. Twelve years later the five kings
revoltinf^, the Pentapolis was once more invaded by
the armies of the East, the territory plundered, and
captives led away, among whom were Lot and his
household. We read in Gen., xiv, how Abraham went
to the rescue of his nephew. The Pentapolis soon re-
covered from the effects of its defeats, and in its re-
stored prosperity renewed the shamdful vices which
brought upon it the judgment of God. "Tlie Lord
rained upon Sodom and Gomorrha brimstone and fire
from the Lord out of heaven, and he destroyed these
cities and all the country about, all the inhabitants of
the cities and all things that spring from the earth"
(Gen., xix, 24-25).
The site of the Pentapolis has been sought in manv
places around the Dead Sea, even in its very bed.
According to the holders of the latter* opinion, we
should see. in the BibUcal description of the destruc-
tion of Sodom and Gomorrha, the account of a great
geological disturbance which caused a ranking of the
country, this forming the bed of the Dead Sea. Trav-
ellers pointed out as a remnant of the submerged cit-
ies the "RQjm el-BAhr", a ledge of rock to the north
of the sea, now entirely covered with water, but form-
ing an islana or even a peninsula at periods when the
lake was considerably lower than now (as, for in-
stance, from 1848 to 1892). Modem geologists, on the
other hand, while admitting that disturbances of that
character may have occurred in that region in the last
fifty or forty centuries, yet with one accord hold that
the origin of that body of water goes back to pre-his-
toric times. The site must accordingly be sought else-
where. There are some, among them Armstrong, Wil-
son, Conder, Tristram, and recently Dr. Huntington
("Utjper's Monthly Magazine", Jan., 1910, pp. 186
sqq.). who, deceived by a certain likeness in names,
seaorched for the Pentapolis to the north of the Dead
Sea. Clermont-Ganneau. on the contruy, thought
Gomorrha was in the Araoah, about 60 miles south of
the Dead Sea (Recueil d'Arch6ol. Orient., I, pp. 163
soq.). Most geographers, however, think that the site
of the Pentapolis should be sousht partlv in the shal-
low bed of the south end of the lake, and partly in its
immediate neighbourhood. This view seems to be
supported by two serious arguments. First, the name
"«iebei OsdOm", given to a conspicuous mountain of
SflJt on the south-west shore, echoes apparently a long-
standins tradition that Sodom was near by. Second,
Segor, the only city that survived the ruin, was known
throughout Biblical times (Is., xv, 5; Jer., xlviii, 4)
and in the early Christian centuries [Joseph., "Ant.",
I, n. 4; "Helium jud.". IV, viii, 4; Ptolemy, V, xvii,
5; Euseb., "Onomast.^', 231, 261; Madaba Mosaic
Map; medieval Arabic geographers (cf. Le Strange,
"Puestine under the Moslems", p. 292): crusaders
(GuiUaume de Tyr, xxii, 30); Segor, tnen called
Zoora, was an episcopal see at the time of the Council
of Chalcedon, 451]; it was situated south-east of the
Dead Sea, at a distance of 580 stadia (almost 66 miles)
from the north shore of the same, and to all appear-
ances should be looked for near the mouth of the
Wady Qerahy. The other three cities were possibly
north of Segor.
CommmtarieB on Oen., xix; Armbtrong, Wiubon, Condkk,
ATamea and plaeea in the O. T. (London, 1887) ; Baboekeb-Bkn-
siOBR, PalMtinB and Syria (4th Engl, ed., Leipsig, 1906); Con-
DBB, Handbook to the Bible (London, 1887) ; Lb Stranqk, Pal'
eeiine under Uu Moelenu (London, 1890); Robinson, BifUiaU
ReMarchea in Paiettine (London. 1856); Smith, The Hiatorieai
Oeoaraphv of the Holy Land (London, 1894) ; TRiarRAM, The Land
of Itrael (London, 1872); Idkm, The Land of Moab (London,
1873); Abbl, Une Croiuiire atUour de la Mer Morte (Paria, 1911);
Gautibb, Autour de la Mer Morte (Geneva. 1901); GnisiN, Dc«-
eription de la Paleetine, Samarie (Paris, 1874-1875); Blankbn*
HOBN, Bnatehung und Oeeehiehle dee Todten Meeree in ZeiUehrift
dee Deutechen P^Uostina-Vereine, XIX (1896), 1-64; Idem. Noch
einmal Sodom und Gomorrha, ibid., XXI (1898), 63-^3; Buhl,
Geographie dee AUm PaUMina (Leipsig, 1896). .
Charles L. Souvay.
Pentateuch, in Greek Terrarwx^, is the name of
the first five books of the Old Testament. I. Namr. —
lliough it is not certain whether the word originally
was an adjective, qualifying the omitted noun plfiSm,
or a substantive, its literal meaning ''five cases'' ap-
pears to refer to the sheaths or boxes in which the
separate five rolls or volumes were kept. At what pre*
cise time the first part of the Bible was divided mto
MttttAtlVOH
64?
IMSKTATEUCS
five books is a cjuestion not yei finally settled. Some
regard the division as antedating the Septuagint trans-
lation; others attribute it to the authors of this trans-
lation; St. Jerome was of opinion (Ep. 52, ad Paulin.,
8; P. L., XXII, 545) that St. Paul alluded to such a
division mto five books in I Cor., xiv, 19; at any rate,
Philo and Josephus are familiar with the division now
in question C'De Abrahamo'^ t; ^'Cont. Apion.''^ I,
8). However ancient may be the custom of dividing
the initial portion of the Old Testament into five parts,
the early Jews had no name indicating the partition.
They called this part of the Bible hdtt6rah (the law),
or tCrah (law), or s8ph6r hdttdrah (book of the law),
from the nature of its contents (Jos., viii, 34: i, 8;
I Esdr., X, 3; II Esdr., viii, 2, 3, 14: x, 35, 37; II Par.,
XXV, 4) : they named it tdrdth MOsn^h (law of Moses),
sSph^r MOsh^ (book of Moses), sSph^r t6rdth MOshdh
(book of the law of Moses) on account of its author-
ship (Jos., viii, SI J 32; xxiii, 6; III Kin^, ii, 3; IV
Kings, xiv, 16; xxiii, 25; Dan., ix, 11; I Esdr.. iii, 2;
vij 18; II Esdr., viii, 1; xiii, 1; etc.); finally, the
Divine origin of the Mosaic Law was implied m the
names: law of Yahweh (I Esdr., vil, 10; etc.), law of
God (II Esdr., viii, 18; etc.), book of the law of Yah-
weh (II Par., xvii, 0; etc.), book of the law of God
(Jos., xxiv, 26; etc.). The word law in the foregoing
expressions has been rendered by rdftos^ with or with-
out the article, in the Septua^t version. The New
Testament refers to the Mosaic law in various ways:
the law (Matt., v, 17; Rom., ii, 12; etc.); the law of
Moses (Luke, ii, 22; xxiv, 44; Acts, xxviii, 23); the
book of Moses (Mark, xii, 26); or siinply, Moses
(Luke, xxiv, 27; Acts, xv, 21). Even the Talmud and
the older Rabbinic writings call the first part of the
Bible the book of the law, while in Aramaic it is simply
termed law (cf. Buxtorf, ''Lexicon Chaldaicum Tal-
mudicum Rabbinicum", 791, 983; Levy, *'Chal-
daisches Worterbuch'' 268, 16; Aicher, ^'Das Alte
Testament in der Mischna", Freiburg^ 1906, p. 16).
The Greek name xerrarevx^f. implying a division of
the law into five parts, occurs for tne first time about
A. D. 150-75 in the letter to Flora by the Valentinian
Ptolemy (cf. St. Epiphan., "Haer.", XXXIII, iv; P. G.,
XLI, 560). An earlier occurrence of the name was
supposed to exist in a passage of Hippolytus where the
Psalter is called «al a&rb dXXor xerrdrewxoi' (cf . edition
of de Lagarde, Leipzig and I<ondon. 1858, p. 193) ; but
the passage has been found to belong to Epiphanius
(cf. ''Hippolytus'' in ''Die griechischen Schriftsteller
der erstendrei Jalirhunderte , Leipzig, 1897, 1. 1, 143).
The name is used again by Origen (Comment, in Ev.
Jo., t. II; P. G., XIV, 192: cf. P. G., XIII, 444), St.
Athanasius (Ep. ad Marcellin,, 5; P. G., XXVII, 12),
and several times by St. Epiphanius (De mensur. et
ponderib.,4.6; P.G.,XLIII, 244). In Latin, Tertul-
fian uses the masculine form PerUateuchiui (Adv.
Marcion., I, 10; P. L., II, 257), while St. Isidore of
Seville prefers the neuter Pentateuchum (Et3rm., VI,
ii, 1, 2; P. L., LXXXII, 230). The analogous forms
Octateuch. Heptateuch, and Hexateuch have been
used to refer to the first eight, seven, and six books of
the Bible respectively. The Rabbinic writers adopted
the expression "the five-fifths of the law" or simply
''the five-fifths" to denote the five books of the Penta-
teuch.
Both the Palestinian and the Alexandrian Jews had
distinct names for each of the five books of the Penta-
teuch. In Palestine, the opening words of the several
books served as their titles; hence we have the names:
ber^htth, we'SUeh 8hem6th or simply shem6th,
wdyyIqrA, wdyedhdbbSr, and 'elleh hiiddebftitm or
simply deb&rtm. Though these were the ordinary
Hebrew titles of the successive Pentateuchal books,
certain Rabbinic writers denote the last three accord-
ing to their contents; they called the third book
t6rdth koh&ntm, or law of pnests; the fourth, hOmdsh
hdpptqqAdhim, or book of census; the fifth, mishngh
th6rah. 01* repetition of the law. The Alexandrian
Jews derived their Greek names of the five books
from the contents of either the whole or the begin-
ning of each division. Thus the first book is ^called
r^McTif Kbfffuiv or simply Tivurit) the second, *£$odot
A^T^rov or'E^odos; tne third, A€uciruc6r or Aevcruc6i';
the fourth, 'ApiBfJol ; and the fifth, Aevrcpov6fuor.
These names passed from the Septuagint into the
Latin Vulgate, and from this into most of the transla-
tions of the Vulgate. *AplB/ioi however was replaced
by the Latin equivalent Numeri, while the other names
retained t^eir form.
II. Analysis. — The contents of the Pentateuch are
partly of an historical, partly of a legal character.
Tliey give us the history of the Chosen People from
the creation of the world to the death of Moses, and
acquaint us too with the civil and religious legislation
of the Israelites during the life of their great lawgiver.
Genesis may be considered as the introduction to the
other four books; it contains the early history down
to the preparation of Israel's exit from Egypt. Deu-
teronomy, consisting mainly of discourses, is practi-
cally a summary repetition of the Mosaic legislation,
and concludes abo tne history of the people under the
leadership of Moses. The three intervening books
consider the wanderings of Israel in the desert and
the successive legal enactments. Each of these three
preat divisions has its own special introduction (Gen.,
1, 1-ii, 3; Ex., i, 1-i^ 7; Deut., i, 1-5); and since the
subject matter distinguishes Leviticus from Exodus
and Numbers, not to mention the literary termina-
tions of the third and fourth books (Lev., xxvii, 34;
Num., xxvi, 13), the present form of the Pentateuch
exhibits both a uterary unity and a division into five
minor parts.
A. Genesis. — ^The Book of Genesis prepares the
reader for the Pentateuchal legislation; it tells us how
God chose a particular family to keep His Revelation,
and how he trained the Chosen People to fulfil its
mission. From the nature of its contents the book
consists of two rather unequal parts; cc. ir-xi present
the features of a general history, while cc. xii-1 con-
tain the particular history of the Chosen People. By
a literary device^ each of these parts is subdivided into
five sections differing in length. The sections are in-
troduced by the phrsse *^wi thdledhdth (these are the
generations) or its variant zSh aepJUr tdledhdth (this is
the book of the generations). ''Generations", how-
ever, is only the etymological meaning of the Hebrew
tdledhdth; m its context the formula can hardly sig-
nify a mere genealogical table, for it is neither pre-
ceded nor followed by such tables. As early Oriental
history usually begins with genealogical records, and
consists to a large extent of such records, one naturally
interprets the above introductory formula and its
variant as meaning, "this is the history" or 'Hhis is
the book of the history." History in these phrases is
not to be understood as a narrative resting on folklore,
as Fr. von Hummelauer believes ("Exegetisches zur
Inspirationsfrage, Biblische Studien", Freiburg, 1904,
IX, 4, pp. 26-32); but as a record based on gene-
alogies. Moreover, the introductory formula often
refers back to some principal feature of the preced-
ing section, thus forming a transition and connexion
between the successive parts. Gen., v, 1, e. g., refers
back to Gen., ii, 7 sqq.; vi, 9 to v, 29 soq. and vi. 8;
X, 1 to ix, 18, 19; etc. Finally, the sacred writer deals
very briefly with the non-chosen families or tribes, and
he always considers them before the chosen branch of
the family. He treats of Cain before he speaks of
Seth; similarly, Cham and Japhet precede Stem; the
rest of Sem's posterity precedes Abraham; Ismael
precedes Isaac; Esau precedes Jacob.
Bearinff in mind these general outlines of the con-
tents and the literary structure of Genesis, we shall
easily understand the following analytical table.
Introduction, Gen., i, 1-ii, 3, consists of the He>-
MNTATfetrCH 648 PENTATBUCR
ftfimeron; it teaches the power and goodness of God definite plan of the book shows that it was written
as manifested in the creation of the world, and also with a definite end in view and according to precon-
the dependence of creatures on the dominion of the ceived arrangement. The critics attribute this to the
Creator. final ''redactor" of the Pentateuch who adopted, ao-
(1) General HUiory, ii, 4-xi, 26. — Man did not cording to their, views, the genealogical framework
acknowledge his dependence on God. Hence, leaving and the ''schematism" from the Priestlv Code. The
the disobedient to their own devices. God cnose one value of these views .will be discussed later; for the
special family or one individual as tne depositary of present, it suffices to know that a striking unity pre-
His Revelation. vails throughout the Book of Genesis (cf . Kurtz, "Die
(a) History of Heaven and Earth, ii, 4r-iv, 26.— Einheit der Genesis", Berlin, 1846; Delattre, "Plan
Here we have the story of the fall of our first parents, de la Gen^" in " Revue des quest, hist.". July, 1876;
(b; Histonroi Adam, v.l-vi,».— Tne writer enu- catn.' 15 uct., i»»i, v, pp. y/»-»)#; ae i5rogiie,
merates the Hethites, anotner line of Adam's descend- "Etuae sur les g^n^ogies bibliques" in "Le oongrte
ants, V, 1-32, but shows that they too became so sdentif. intemat. des catholioues de 1888", Paris,
oorrupt that only one among them found favour be- 1889, I, pp. 94-101: Julian, "Etude critique sur la
fore God, vi, 1-8. composition de la Gen^". Paris, 1888, pp. 232-50).
(c) History of Noe, vi, 9-ix, 29. — Neither the Dd- B. Exodus. — ^After the aeath of Joseph, Israel had
uge which destroyed the whole human race excepting grown into a people, and its history deals no longer
Noe's funily, vi, 11-viii, 19, nor God's covenant with with mere genealogies, but with the people's national
Noe and his sons, viii, 20-ix, 17. brousht about the and religious development. ' The various laws are
amendment of the human family, ana only one of given and promulgated as occasion reouired them;
Noe's sons was chosen as the bearer of the Divine hence they are intimately connected with the histoiy
blessinm^ ix, 18-29. of the people, and the rentateuchal books in which
(d) History of the Sons of Noe, x, 1-xi. 9. — The they are recorded are rightly numbered among the
posterity of the non-chosen sons, x, 1-32, brought a historical books of Scripture. Only the third book of
new puni^unent on Hie human race by its pri£, xi, the Pentateuch exhibits rather the features of a legal
1-9. code. The Book of Exodus consists of a brief intro-
(e) History of Sem, xi, 10-26. — ^The posteritv of duction and three main parts:
Sem is enumerated down to Thare the father of Abra- Introductiony 1, 1-7. — ^A brief summary of the his-
ham, in whose seed all the nations of the earth shall be tory of Jacob connects Genesis with Exodus, and
blessed. serves at the same time as transition from the former
(2) Special History, xi^ 27-1, 26. — ^Here the inspired to the latter,
writer describes the special Providence watching over (1) First Part, i, 8-xiii, 16. — It treats of the events
Abraham and his ofifspring which developed in Egypt preceding and preparing the exit of Israel from Egypt,
into a large nation. At me same time, ne eliminates (a) Ex., i, 8-ii, 25: the Israelites are oppressed by
the sons of Abraham who were not children of God's the new Pharao "that knew not Joseph , but God
promise. This teaches the Israelites that carnal de- prepares them a liberator in Moses,
scent from Abraham does not suffice to make them (d) iii, 1-iv, 31. — Moses is called to free his people;
true sons of Abraham. his brother Aaron is given him as companion; tneir
(a) History of Thare, xi, 27-xxv, 11. — ^This section reception by the Israelites.
tells of the call of Abraham, his transmi^ation into (c) v, 1-x, 29. — Pharao refuses to listen to Moses
Chanaan, his covenant with God, and His promises, and Aaron; God renews his promises; (genealogies of
(b) History of Ismael, xxv, 12-18. — This section Moses and Aaron; the heart of Pharao is not moved
eliminates the tribes springing from Ismael. by the first nine plagues.
(c) History of Isaac, xxv, 19-xxxv, 29. — Here we (d) xi, 1-xiii, 16. — ^The tenth plague consists in the
have the history of Isaac's sons, Esau and Jacob. death of the fiist-bom; Pharao dimiisses the people;
(d) History of Esau, xxxvi, 1-xxxvii, 1. — ^The sa- law of the annual celebration of the pasch in memory
cred writer dves a list ot Esau'sposterity ; it does not of the liberation from Egypt.
belong to the number of the Cnosen People. (2) Second Part, xiii, 17-xviii, 27. — ^Journey of
(e) History of Jacob, xxxvii. 2-1, 26. — This final Israel to Mt. Sinai and miracles preparing the people
portion of Genesis tells of the late of Jacob's family for the Sinaitic Law.
down to the death of the Patriarch and of Joseph. (a) xiii, 17-xv, 21. — ^The Israelites, led and pro-
What has been said shows a uniform plan in the tected by a pillar of cloud and fire, cross the Red Sea,
structure of Genesis, which some scholars prefer to but the persecuting Egyptians pensh in the waters,
call "schematism", (i) The whole book is divided into (b) xv, 22-xvii, 16. — ^The route of Israel is passing
ten sections. 0i) Each section is introduced by the through our, Mara, Elim, Sin, Raphidim. At Mara
same formula, (lii) The sections are arranged accord- the bitter waters are made sweet : in the Desert of Sin
ing to a definite plan, the histonr of the lateral genesr God sent ({uails and manna to tne children of Israel;
logical branches always preceding that of the cor- at Raphidim God gave them water from the rock,
responding part of the main line, (iv) Within the and defeated Amalec throu^ the prayers of Moses,
sections, tne introductory formula or the title is usuflJly (c) xviii, 1-27. — ^Jethro visits his kinsmen, and at
followea by a brief repetition of some prominent fea- his suggestion Moses institutes the judges of the
ture of the preceding section, a fact duly noted and people.
explained b^ as early a writer as Rhabanus Maurus (3) Third Part, xix, 1-xl, 38. — Conclusion of the
(Comment, in Gen., II, xii; P. L., C VI I, 531-2), but Sinaitic covenant and its renewal. Here Elxodus
misconstrued by our recent critics into an argument assumes more the character of a le^al code,
for a diversity of sources, (v) The history of each (a) xix, 1-xx, 21. — ^The people journey to Sinai,
Patriarch tells of the development of his family during prepare for the coming legislation, receive the deca^
his lifetime, while the account of his life varies be- logue, and ask to have the future laws promulgated
tween a bare notice consisting of a few words or lines, through Moses.
and a more len^hy description, (vi) When the life of (b) xx, 22-xxiv, 8. — Moses promulgates certain
the Patriarch is given more in detidl, the account laws together with promises for tneir observance, and
usually ends in an almost uniforfn way, indicating the confirms the covenant between God and the people
length of his life and his burial with his ancestors with a sacrifice. The portion xx, l-xxiii, 33, is also
(of. ix, 29; xi, 32; xxv, 7; xxxv, 28; zlvii, 28). Such a called the Book of the Covenant.
PENTATEUCH 649 PENTATEUCH
(0) xAv'f 9~xxxi, 18. — Moses alone remains with (c) ix, l&-xxv, 45. — Signals for breaking up the
Go(d on the mountain for forty days, and receives camp; the people leave Sinai on the twenty-second
various instructions about the tabernacle and other day of the second month, and journey towards Cades
points pertaining to Divine worship. in the desert Fharan; they murmur against Moses on
(d) xxxii, l-xxxiv.35. — ^The people adore the golden account of fatigue, want of flesh-meat, etc.; deceived
calf; at this sight, Moses breidcs the divinely given by faithless spies, they refuse to enter into the Ftom-
tables of the law, punishes the idolaters, obtains par- ised Land, and the whole living generation is rejected
don from God for the survivors, and, renewing the by God.
covenant, receives other tables of the law. (2) Second Party xv, l~xix, 22. — ^Events pertaining
(e) XXXV, 1-xl, 38. — ^The tabernacle with its appur- to the rejected generation.
tenances is prepared, the priests are anointed, ana the (a) xv, 1-41. — Certain laws concerning sacrifices:
cloud of the Lord covers the tabernacle, thus showing Sabbath-breaking is punished with death; the law of
that He had made the people His own. fringes on the garments.
C. Lbvitictts, called by Rabbinic writers "Law of (b) xvi, 1-xvii, 13. — The schism of Core and his
the Priests" or ''Law of the Sacrifices", contains adherents; their punishment; the priesthood is con-
nearly a complete collection of laws concerning the firmed to Aaron by the blooming rod which is kept
Levitical ministry. They are not codified in any log- for a remembrance in the tabernacle.
ical order, but still we may discern certain groups of (c) xviii, l~xix, 22. — ^The charges of the priests and
regulations touching the same subject. The Book of Levites, and their portion; the law of the sacrifice of
Exodus shows what God had done and was doing for the red cow, and the water of expiation.
His people; the Book of Leviticus prescribes what the (3) Third Pari, xx, l~xxxvi, 13. — History of the
people must do for God, and how they must render joumev from the first to the eleventh month of the
themselves worthy of His constant presence. fortieth year.
(1) First Part, i, 1-x. 20. — Duties of Israel towards (a) xx, 1-xxi, 20. — Death of Mary, sister of Moses; *
God living in their midst. ^ God again gives the murmuring people water from the
(a) i, 1-vi, 7. — ^The different kinds of sacrifices are rock, but refuses Moses and Aaron entrance to the
enumerated, and their rites are described. P^mised Land on account of their doubt; Aaron dies
(b) vi, 8--vii, 36. — ^The duties and rights of the while the people go around the Idumean mountains;
priests, the official offerers of the sacrifices, are stated, the malcontents are punished with fiery serpents.
(c) viii, l~x, 20. — ^The first priests are consecrated (b) xxi, 21'Xxv, 18. — ^The land of the Amorrhites
and introduced into their office. is seized;' the Moabites vainly attempt to destroy
(2) Second Part, xi, l~xxvii, 34. — ^Legal cleanness Israel by the curse of Balaam; the Madianites lead
demanded by the Divine presence. the people into idolatry.
(a) xi, 1-xx, 27. — ^The entire people must be legally (c; xxvi, 1-xxvii, 23. — A new census is taken with a
clean; the various ways in which cleanness must be view of dividing the land; the law of inheritance;
kept; interior cleanness must be adde^ to external Josue is appointed to succeed Moses.
cleanness. (d) xxviii, 1-xxx, 17. — Certain laws concerning sao-
(b) xxi, 1-xxii, 33. — Priests must excel in both in- rifices, vows, and feasts are repeated and completed,
temal and external cleanness; hence they have to (e) xxxi, 1-xxxii, 40. — ^After the defeat of the Madi-
keep special regulations. anites, the country across Jordan is given to the tribes
(c) xxiii, 1-xxvii, 34. — The other laws, and the of Ruben and Gad, and to half of the tribe of
promises and threats made for the observance or the Manasses.
violation of the laws, belong to both priests and (f) xxxiii, 1-49. — List of encampments of people of
people. Israel during their wandering in the desert.
D. Numbers, at times called ''In the Desert" by. (g) xxxiii, 50-xxxvi, 13. — Command to destroy the
certain Rabbinic writers because it covers practically Chanaanites; limits of the Promised Land and names
the whole time of IsraeFs wanderings in the desert, of the men who are to divide it; Levitical cities.
Their story was begun in Exodus, but interrupted by and cities of refuse; laws concerning murder ana
the Sinaitic legislation; Numbers takes up the account manslaughter; ordmance concerning the marriage of
from the first month of the second vear, and brings heiresses.
it down to the eleventh month of the fortieth vear. E. Deuteronomt is a partial repetition and ex-
But the period of 38 prears is briefly treated, only its planation of the foregoing legislation together with an
beginning and end being touched upon; for this span urgent exhortation to be faithful to it. The main
of time was occupied by the generation of Israelites body of the book consists of three discourses delivered
that had been condemned by God. by Moses to the people in the eleventh month of the
(1) First Part, i, 1-xiv, 45. — Summary of the hap- fortieth year; but the discourses are preceded by a
penings before the rejection of the rebellious genera- short introduction, and they are followed by several
tion, especially during the first two months of the appendices.
second year. The writer inverts the chronological Introduction,' \, 1-5. — Brief indication of the sub-
order of these two months, in order not to interrupt ject matter, the time, and the place of the following
the account of the people's wanderings bv a descrip- discourses.
tion of the census, of the arrangement of the tribes. (1) First Discourw, i, 6-iv, 40. — God's benefits are
of the duties of the various families of the Levites, all enumerated, and the people are exhorted to keep the
of which occurrences or ordinances belong to the sec- law.
ond month. Thus he first states what remained un- (a) i. 6-iii, 20. — ^The main occurrences during the
changed throughout the desert life of the people, and time ot the wandering in the desert are recalled as
then reverts to the account of the wanderings from showing the goodness and justice of God.
the first month of the second year. (b) iv, 1-^. — Hence the covenant with God must
(a) i, 1-vi, 27. — ^The census is taken, the tribes are be kept. By way of parenthesis, the sacred writer
arranged in their proper order, the duties of the adds here (i) the appointment of three cities of refuge
Levites are defined, the regulations concerning clean- across the Jordan, iv, 41-43; (ii) an historical pr^
liness in the camp are jpromulgated. amble, preparing us for the second discourse, iv, 44-49.
(b) vii, 1-ix, 14. — Occurrences belonging to the (2) Second IXscourse, v, 1-xxvi, 19. — ^This forms
first month: offerings of the princes at the dedication almost the bulk of Deut^nomY* It rehearses the
of the tabernacle, consecration of the Levites and whole economy of the covenant in two sections, the
duration of their ministiy, celebration of the second one general, the other particular.
paech. (a) The General Repetition, v, 1-xi, 32.— Repeti-
PENTATEUCH
650
FENTATEUCB
tion of the decalogue, and reasons for the promulga-
tion of the law through Moses; explanation of the
first commandment, and prohibition of all intercourse
with the gentiles; reminder of the Divine favours and
punishments; promise of victory over the Chanaan-
ites; God's blessing on the observance of the Law,
His curse on the trans^^ressors.
(b) Special Laws, xii, 1-xxvi, 19. — (i) Duties to-
wards God: He is to be duly worshipped, never to be
abandoned: distinction of clean and unclean meats;
tithes and first-fruits; the three principal solemnities
of the year, (ii) Duties towaras God's representa-
tives: towards the judges, the future kings, the priests,
and Prophets, (iii) Duties towards the neighbour: as
to life, external possessions, marriage, and various
other particulars.
(3) Third Discourse, xxvii. 1-xxx, 20. — ^A renewed
exhortation to keep the law, based on diverse reasons.
(a) xxvii, 1-26. — Conunand to inscribe the law on
stones after crossing the Jordan, and to promulgate
the blessings and curses connected with the observ-
ance or non-observance of the law.
(b) xxviii, 1-68. — ^A more minute statement of the
' good or evil depending on the observance or violation
of the law.
(c) xxix, 1-xxx, 20. — ^The goodness of God is ex-
tolled; all are urged to be faithful to God.
(4) Historical Appendix, xxxi^ 1-xxxiv, 12.
(a) xxxi, 1-27. — Moses appomts Josue as his suc-
cessor, orders him to read the law to the people every
seven years, and to place a copy of the same in the
ark.
(b) xxxi, 28-xxxii, 47. — Moses calls an assembly of
the Ancients and recites his canticle,
(c) xxxii, 48r-62. — Moses views the Promised Land
from a distance.
(d) xxxiii, 1-29. — ^He blesses the tribes of Israel.
(e) xxxiv, 1-12. — His death, burial, and special
euloffium.
III. AuTHBNnciTT. — ^Thc contents of the Penta-
teuch furnish the basis for the histoiy, the law, the
worship, and the life of the Chosen People of God.
Hence tne authorship of the work, the time and man-
ner of its origin, and its historicity are of paramount
importance. These are not merelv literary problems,
but questions belongingto the fields of history of re-
ligion and theology. The Mosaic authorship of the
Pentateuch is inseparably connected with the ques-
tion, whether and in what sense Moses was the author
or intermediary of the Old-Testament legislation, and
the bearer of pre-Mosaic tradition. According to the
trend of both Old and New Testament, and according
to Jewish and Christian theolo^, the work of the
sreat lawgiver Moses is. the origin of the history of
Israel and the basis of its development down to the
time of Jesus Christ; but modem criticism sees in all
this onlv the result, or the precipitate, of a purely
natural historical development. The question of the
Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch leads us, there-
fore, to the alternative, revelation or historical evo-
lution; it touches the historical and theological
foundation of both the Jewish and the Christian dis^
Sensation. We shall consider the subject first in th(i
ght of Scripture; secondly, in the light of Jewish and
Christian tradition; thirdly, in the light of internal
evidence, furnished by the Pentateuch; finally, in the
light of ecclesiastical decisions.
A. Testimony of Sacred Scripture. — It will be found
convenient to divide the Biolical evidence for the
Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch into three parts:
(1) Testimony ot the Pentawuch; (2) Testimony of
the other Old-Testament books; (3) Testimony of the
New Testament.
(1) Witness of the PenUUeixh, — The Pentateuch in
its present form does not present itself as a complete
literary production of Moses. ' It contains an account
ol Modes' deaths it tell* the story of his life in the
third person and in an indirect form, atid the last
four books do not exhibit the literary form of memoirs
of the great lawgiver; besides, the expression "God
said to Moses" shows only the Divine origin of the
Mosaic laws, but does not prove that Moses himself
codified in the Pentateuch the various laws promul-
gated by him. On the other hand, the Pentateuch
ascribes to Moses the literary authorship of at least
four sections, partly historical, partly le^, partly
poetical.
(a) After Israel's victory over the Amalecites near
Raphidim, the Lord said to Moses (Ex., xvii, 14):
"Write tbjB for a memorial in a book, and deliver it
to the ears of Josue. " This order is naturally re-
stricted to Amalec's defeat, a benefit which God
wished to keep alive in the memory of the people
(Deut., XXV, 17-19). The present pointing of the
Hebrew text reads "in the book", but the Septuagint
version omits the definite article. Even if we sup-
pose that the Massoretic pointing gives the original
text, we can hardly prove that the book referred to is
the Pentateuch, though this is highly probable (cf . von
Hummelauer. "Exodus et Leviticus , Paris, 1897, p.
182; Idem, ''Deuteronomium", Paris, 1901, p. 152;
Kley, "Die Pentateuchfrage", MOnster, 1903, p. 217).
(b; Aeain, Ex., xxiv, 4: "And Moses wrote all the
words of the Lord." The context does not allow us
to understand these words in an indefinite manner,
but as referring to the words of the Lord inmiediatelv
preceding or to the so-called " Book of the Covenant ' ,
Ex., xx-xxiii.
(c) Ex., xxxiv, 27: "And the Lord said to Moses:
Write thee these words by which I have made a cove-
nant both with thee and with Israel. " The next verse
adds: "and he wrote upon the tables the ten words of
the covenant. " Ex., xxxiv, 1, 4, shows how Moses had
prepared the tables, and Ex., xxxiv, 10-26, gives us
the contents of the ten words.
(d) Num., xxxiii, 1-2: "These are the mansions of
the children of Israel, who went out of Egypt by their
troops under the conduct of Moses and Aaron, which
Moses wrote down according to the places of their
encampins. " Here we are informed that Moses wrote
the list of the people's encampments in the desert;
but where is this list to be found? Most probably it
is given in Num., xxxiii, 3-49, or the immediate con-
text of the passage telling of Moses' literary activit]^;
there are, nowever, scholars who understand tlus
latter passage as referring to the history of Israel's
departure from Egypt written in the order of the
people's encampments, so that it would be our present
Book of Exodus. But this view is hardly probable;
for its assumption that Num., xxxiii, ^49, is a sum-
mary of Exoaus cannot be upheld, as the chapter of
Numbers mentions several encampments not occur-
ring in Exodus.^
Besides these four psssages there are certain indi-
cations in Deuteronomy which point to the literary
activity of Moses. Deut., i, 5: And Moses began to
expound the law and to say"; even if the "law" in
this text refer to the whole of the Pentateuchal legis-
lation, which is not very probable, it shows only that
Moses promulgated the whole law, but not that he
necessarily wrote it. Practically the entire Book of
Deuteronomy claims to be a special legislation pro-
mulgated by Moses in the land of Moab: iv, 1-40;
44-9; V, 1 sqq.; xii, 1 sqq. But there is a suggestion
of writing too: xvii, 18-9, enjoins that the future kin^
are to receive a copy of this law from the priests m
order to read and observe it; xxvii, 1-8, commands
that on the west side of the Jordan "all the words of
this law" be written on stones set up in mount Hebal;
xxviii, 58, spesJcs of "all the words of this law, that
are written in this volume" after enumerating the
blessings and curses which will come upon the ob-
servers and violators of the law respectively, and
which afe again r^ffxei iQ aa written ii^ a book In
PXNTATBUCH
651
PENTATJBUCH
xxix, 20, 21, 27, and xxxii, 46, 47: now, tne law repeat-
edly referred to as written in a Dook must be at least
the Deuteronomic legislation. Moreover, xxxi, 9-13
states, ** and Moses wrote this law '', and xxxi, 26, adds,
'Hake this book, and put it in the side of the ark . . .
that it may be there for a testimony against thee";
to explain these texts as fiction or as anachronisms
is hardly compatible with the inerrancy of Sacred
Scripture. Finally, xxxi, 19, commands Moses to
write the canticle contained in Deut., xxxii, 1-43.
The Scriptural scholar will not complain that there
are so few express indications in the Pentateuch of
Moses' literary activity; he will rather be surprised at
their number. As far as explicit testimony for its own,
at least partial, authorship is concerned, the Penta-
teuch compares rather favourably with many other
books of the Old Testament.
(2) Witness of other Old-TeatamerU Books, (a) Josue.
— The narrative of the Book of Josue presupposes not
merely the facts and essential ordinances contained in
the Pentateuch, but also the law given by Moses and
written in the book of the law of Moses: Jos., i, 7-8:
viii, 31; xxii, 5; xxiii, 6. Josue himself ''wrote all
these things in the volume of the law of the Lord"
(xxiv, 26) . Prof. Hober^ maintains that this " volume
of the law of the Lord " is the Pentateuch (" Uber den
Ursprung des Pentateuchs " in " Biblische Zeitschrift ",
1906, IV, 340) ; Mangenot believes that it refers at
least to Deuteronomy (Diqt. de la Bible, V, 66). At
any rate, Josue and his contemporaries were ao-
auainted with a written Mosaic legislation, which was
ivinely revealed.
(b) Judges; I, II Kings, — In the Book of Judges
and the first two Books of Kings there is no explicit
reference to Moses and the book of the law, but a num-
ber of incidents and statements presuppose the exist-
ence of the Pentateuchal legislation and institutions.
Thus Judges, xv, 8-10, recalls Israel's delivery from
Egypt and its conquest of the Promised Land; Judges,
xi, 12-28, states incidents recorded in Num., xx, 14;
xxi, 13, 24; xxii, 2; Judges, xiii, 4, states a practice
founded on the law of the Nazarites in Num., vi, 1-21;
Judges, xviii, 31, speaks of the tabernacle existing in the
times when there was no king in Israel; Judges, xx,
26-8, mentions the ark of the covenant, the various
kinds of sacrifices, and the Aaronic priesthood. The
Pentateuchal history and laws are similarly i>resup-
posed in I Kin^, x, 18: xv^ 1-10; x, 25; xxi, 1-^;
xxii, 6 sqq.; xxui, 6-9; II Kings, vi.
(c) ///, IV iCirwa.— The last two Books of Kings
repeatedly speak of the law of Moses. To restrict the
meaning of this term to Deuteronomy is an arbitrary
exegesis (cf. Ill Kings, ii, 3; x, 31); Amasias showed
mercy to the children of the murderers "according to
that which is written in the book of the law of Moses''
(IV Kings^ xiv. 6) ; the sacred writer records the Di-
vine promise ot protecting the Israelites "only if they
will observe to do all that I have commanded them
according to the law which my servant Moses com-
manded them'' (IV Kings, xxi, 8). In the eighteenth
year of the reign of Josias was found the bo& of the
law (IV Kings^ xxii, 8, 11), or the book of the covenant
(IV Kings, xxiii, 2), according to which he conducted
his religious reform (IV Kings, xxiii, 1-24), and which
is identified with "the law of Moses" (IV Kings, xxiii,
25). Catholic commentators are not at one whether
this law-book was Deuteronomy (von Hummelauer,
"Deuteronomium", Paris. 1901, pp. 40-60, 83-7) or
the entire Pentateuch (Clair, "Les livres des Rois",
Paris, 1884, II| p. 557 seq.; Hoberg, "Moses und der
Pentateuch", Freiburg, 1905, p. 17 seq.; "tJber den
Ursprung des Pentateuchs " in " Biblische Zeitschrift ",
1906, I\^ pp. 338-40).
(d) Paralipomenon. — ^The inspired writer of Parali-
pomenon refers to the law and the book of Moses
much more frequently and clearly. The objectionable
names and numbers occurring in these books are
mostly due to transcribers. The omission of incidents
which would detract from the eloiy of the Israelite
kings or would not edify the reader is not detrimental
to uie credibility or veracity of the work Otherwise
one diould have to place among works of fiction a
number of biographical or patriotic publications in-
tended for the young or for the common reader. On
their part, the modem critics are too eacer to dis-
credit the authority of Paralipomena. After re-
moving the account of Parahpomena", writes de
Wette (Beitrage, I, 135), "the whole Jewish history
assumes another form, and the Pentateuchal investi-
gations take another turn; a number of strong proofs,
ard to explun away, for the early existence of the
Mosaic books have disappeared, the other vestiges of
their existence are placed in a different light. A
glance at the contents of Paralipomenon suffices to
Explain the efforts of de Wette and Wellhausen to dis-
prove the historicity of the books. Not only are the
genealogies (I Par., i-ix) and the description of wor-
sbip traced after the data and laws of the Pentateuch,
but the sacred writer expressly points out their con-
formity with what is written in the law of the Lord
(I Par., xvi, 40), in the law of Moses (II Par., xxiii, 18;
xxxi, 3), thus identifving the law of the Lord with that
written by Moses (cf . II Par., xxv, 4) . The reader will
find similar indications of the existence and tiie Mo-
saic origin of the Pentateuch in I Par., xxii, 12 seq.;
II Par., xvii, 9; xxxiii, 4; xxxiv, 14; xxv, 12. By an
artificial interpretation, indeed, the Books of Parali-
pomenon may be construed to represent the Penta-
teuch as a book containing the law promulgated by
Moses; but the natural sense of the foregoing passages
regards the Pentateuch as a book edited by Moses.
(e) /, // Esdras, — ^The Books of Esdras and Nehe-
mias, too, taken in their natural and commonly
accepted sense, consider the Pentateuch as the book of
Moses, not merely as a book containing the law of
Moses. This contention is based on the study of the
following texts: I Esd., iii, 2 sqq.; vi, 18; vii, 14;
II Esd., 1, 7 saq.; viii, 1, 8, 14; ix, 3; x, 34, 36; xiii,
1-3. Graf ana his followers expressed the view that
the book of Moses referrred to in these texts is not
the Pentateuch, but onlv the Priestly (Dode; but when
we keep in mind that the book in question contained
the laws of Lev., xxiii, and Deut., vii. 2-4; xv, 2, we
perceive at once that the book of Moses cannot be
restricted to the Priestly Code. To the witness of the
historical books we may add II Mach., ii, 4; vii, 6;
Judith, viii, 23; Ecclus., xxiv, 33: xlv, 1-6; xlv, 18,
and especially the Preface of Ecclus.
(f ) Prophetic Books, — ^Express reference to the writ-
ten law ot Moses is found only in the later Prophets:
Bar., ii, 2, 28; Dan., ix, 11. 13; Mai., iv, 4. Amons
thescj Baruch knows that Moses has been commanded
to wnte the law, and thou^ his expressions run paral-
lel to those of Deut., xxviii, 15, 53, 62-4, his threats
contain allusions to those contained in other parts of
the Pentateuch. The other Prophets frequently refer
to the law of the Lord guarded bv the priests (cf.
Deut., xxxi, 9), and thev put it on the same level with
Divine Revelation and the eternal covenant of the
Lord. They appeal to God's covenant, the sacrificial
laws, the calendar of feasts, and other laws of the
Pentateuch in such a way as to render it probable that
a written legislation formed the basis of their prophetic
admonitions (cf. Osee, viii, 12), and that they were
acquainted with verbal expressions of the book of the
law. Thus in the northern kingdom Amos (iv, 4-5;
V, 22 sqq.) and Isaias in the south (i, 11 sqq.) employ
expressions which are practically technical words for
sacrifice occurring in Lev., i-iii; vii, 12, 16; and Deut.,
xii, 6.
(3) Witness of the New Testament, — We need not
show that Jesus and the Apostles quoted the whole of
the Pentateuch as written by Moses. If they attrib-
uted to Moses all the passages which they happen
PENTATBUCH 652 FINTATBUCB
to cite, if they ascribe the Pentateuch to Moees when- fol. 30a; ef. VoguS, "Hist, de la Bible et de Tex^gto
ever there is ciuestion of its authorship, even the most biblique jusqu'^ nos jours'', Paris, 1881, p. 21), the
exacting critics must admit that they express their Talmud of Jerusalem (Sota, v, 5), the rabbis, and the
conviction that the work was indeed written by Moses, doctors of Israel (cf. FQrst, "Der Kanon aes Alten
When the Sadducees quote against Jesus the marriage Testaments nach den tTberlieferuneen im Talmud und
law of Deut., xxv, 5, as wntten by Moses (Matt., Midrasch", Leipsig, 1868, pp. 7-0) bear testimony to
xxii, 24; Mark, xii, 19; Luke, xx, 28), Jesus does not the continuance of this traaition for the first thousand
deny the Mosaic authorship, but appeals to Ex., iii, 6, years. Though Isaac ben Jasus in the eleventh cen-
as equally written by Moses (Mark, xii, 26; Matt., tury and Abenesra in the twelfth admitted certain
xxii, 31; Luke, xx, 37). Again, in the parable of post-Mosaic additions in the Pentateuch, still they as
Dives and Lazarus (Luke, xvi, 29), He speaks of well as Maimonides upheld its Mosaic authorship,
" Moses and the prophets", while on other occasions and did not substantially differ in this point from the
He speaks of " the law and the prophets " (Luke, xvi, teaching of R. Becchai (thirteenth cent.)^ Joseph Karo,
16), thus showinff that in His mind the law, or the and Abarbanel (fifteenth cent.; cf. Richard §imon,
Pentateuch, and Aloses are identical. The same ex- "Critique de la Bibl. des aut. ecclds. de E. Dupin",
pressions reappear in the last discourse addressed by Paris, 1730, III. pp. 215-20). Only in the seventeenth
Christ to His disciples (Luke, xxiv, 44-6; cf. 27): century, Barucn Spinoza rejected the Mosaic author^
"which are written in the law of Moses, and in the ship of the Pentateuch, pointing out the possibihty
prophets, and in the psalms concerning me". Finally, that the work might have been written by Esdras
m John, V, 45-7. Jesus is more explicit in asserting the ("Tract, theol.-pofiticus", c. viii, ed. Tauchnitz, III,
Mosaic authorsnip of the Pentateuch: "There is one p. 125). Among the more recent Jewish writers sev-
that accuseth you, Moses ... for he wrote of eral have adopted the results of the critics, thus aban-
me. But if you do not believe his writings, how will doning the tradition of their forefathers,
you believe my words?" Nor can it be maintained (2) Christian Tradition. — The Jewish tradition con-
that Christ merel)r accommodated himself to the ceming the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch
current beliefs of his contemporaries who considered was brought into the Christian Church by Christ
Moses •as the author of the Pentateuch not merely in Himself and the Apostles. No one will seriously deny
a moral but also in the literary sense of authorship, the existence and continuance of such a tradition from
Jesus did not need to enter into the critical study of the patristic period onward; one might indeed be
the nature of Mosaic authorship, but He could not curious about the interval between the time cf the
expressly endorse the popular belief, if it was erro- Apostles and the beginning of the third century. For
neous. this period we m^ appeal to the "Epistle of Bama-
The Apostles too felt convinced of , and testified to, bas" (x, 1-12; Funk, "Patres Apostol.", 2nd ed.,
the Mosaic authorship. "Philip findeth Nathanael, Tttbingen, 1901, 1, pp. 66-70; xii. 2-9; ibid., pp. 74-
andsaithtohim: We have found him of whom Moses 6), to St. Clement of Rome (I Cor., xii, 1; thid.j p.
in the law, and the prophets did write." St. Peter 152), St. Justin ("Apol. I", 59; P. G., VI, 416; I, 32,
introduces a quotation from Deut.. xviii. 15, with the 54; itrid., 377. 409; "Dial.". 29; iWrf., 537), to the
words: "For Moses said" (Acts, lii, 22). St. James author of "Cohort, ad Graec.'' (9, 28, 30, 33, 34; iirid.,
and St. Paul relate that Moses is read in the syna- 257, 293, 296-7, 361), to St. Theophilus("Ad Autol.",
fogues on the Sabbath day (Acts, xv, 21; II Cor., iii. III, 23; iWd., 1156; 11, 30; iWd., 1100), to St. Ire-
5). The great Apostle speaks in other passages of the naeus (Cont. h«r., I, ii, 6; P. G., VII, 715-6), to St.
law of
Jesus
teuch as words written by Moses (Rom., x, 5-8; 19). 3S; P. G., aVI, 3350, 3448), to Tertullian of Carthage
St. John mentions the canticle of Moses (Apoc, XV, 3). (Adv. Hermog., XIX: P. L., II, 214), to Origen of
B. WUnesa of TradUian.^The voice of tradition, AleXtodria (a)ntra Gels., Ill, 5-6; P. G., XI, 928;
both Jewish and Christian, is so unanimous and con- etc.), to St. Eusthatius of Antioch (De engastrimytha
stant in proclaiming the Mosaic authorship of the c. Orig., 21; P. G., XVIII, 656); for all these writers,
Pentateuch that down to the seventeenth century it and others might be added, bear witness to the con-
did not allow the rise of any serious doubt. The fol- tinuance of the Christian tradition that Moses wrote
lowing para^phs are only a meagre outline of this the Pentateuch. A list of the later Fathers who bear
hving tradition. witness to the same truth may be found in Mangenot^s
(1) Jeunsh Traditian,— It has been seen that the article in the "Dict.de la Bible " (V, 74 seq.). Hobere
books of the Old Testament, beginning with those of (Moses und der Pentateuch, 72 seq.) has collected
the Pentateuch, present Moses as the author of at the testimony for the existence of the tradition dur-
least parts of the Pentateuch. The writer of the ing the Middle Ages and in more recent times.
Books of Kings believes that Moses is the author of But Cathohc tradition does not necessarily main-
Deuteronomjyr at least. Esdras, Nehemias, Malachias, tain that Moses wrote every letter of the Pentateuch
the author of Paralipomena, and the Greek authors of as it is to-day, and that the work has come down to us
the Septuagint Version consider Moses as the author in an absolutely unchanged form. This rigid view of
of the whole Pentateuch. At the time of Jesus Christ the Mosaic authorship b^gan to develop in the eigh-
and the Apostles friend and foe take the Mosaic au- teenth century, and practically gained the upper hand
thorship of the Pentateuch for granted; neither our in the nineteenth. The arbitrary treatment of Scrip-
Lord nor His enemies take exception to this assump- ture on the part of Protestants, and the succession of
tion. In the first century of the Christian era, Jo- the various destructive systems advanced by Biblical
sephus ascribes to Moses the authorship of the entire criticism, caused this change of front in the Catholic
Pentateuch, not excepting the account of the law- camp. In the sixteenth century Card. Bellarmine,
gver's death ("Antiq. Jud.", IV, viii, 3-48: cf. I who may be considered as a reliable exponent of
Prooem., 4; "Contra Apion.", I, 8). The Alexan- Catholic tradition, expressed the opinion that Esdras
drian philosopher Philo is convinced that the entire had collected, reaa justed, and corrected the scattered
Pentateuch is the work of Moses, and that the latter parts of the Pentateuch, and had even added the parts
wrote a prophetic account of his death imder the in- necessary for the conipletion of the Pentateuchai his-
fluence of a special Divine inspiration ("De vita tory (De verbo Dei, II, i; cf. Ill, iv). The views of
Mosis", 11. II, III in "Opera", Geneva, 1613, pp. Genebrard, Pereira, Bonfr^re, a Lipide. Masius, Jan-
611, 538) . The Babylonian Talmud (' ' Baba-Bathra", senius, and of other notable Biblicists of the sixteenth
II9 od. 140; "Makkoth", fol. Ila; "Menachoth", and seventeenth centuries are equally elastic with
PINTATIUCH 653 PENTATIUCH
regan) to the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch', mel (I^e altisraelitische tJberliefenmg in inschrift-
Not that they a^ree with the contentions of our mod- licher Beleuchtnng, p. 302) has shown uiat the names
em Biblical criticism; but they show that to-day's in the lists of the fiook of Numbers bear the character
Pentateuohal problems were not wholly unknown to of the Arabian names of the second millennium before
Catholic scholars, and that the Mosaic authorship of Christi and can have originated only in the time of
Uie Pentateuch as determined by the Biblical Com- Moses, thou^ it must be admitted that the text of
mission is no concession forced on the Qiurch by certain portions, e. g., Num., xiii^ has suffered in its
unbelieving Bible students. transmission. We need not remmd the reader that
C. Voice of IrUemal Evidence,^-'The possibility of numerous Pentateuchal laws and data imply the con-
producing a written record at the time of Moses is no ditions of a nomadic life of Israel. Finally, both the
tonger contested. The art of writing was known long author of^the Pentateuch and its first readers must
itic inscriptions found in 1905 on the Sinaitic penin- Deut., viii. 7-10: xi, 10 soq. These internal charac-
sula, that they kept written accoimts of their national teristics of the Pentateuch have been developed at
histoiy from the time of their captivity under Ramses n-eater length by Smith, "The Book of Moses or the
not merely the possibihty of writing at the time of Review", March, 1879, pp. 757-9.
Moses and the question of language that confronts D. Ecclesiastical Decinona. — In accordance with
us here; there is the further problem of the kind of the voice of the triple arKument thus far advanced for
written si^ used in the Mosaic documents. The the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, the Biblical
hieroglyphic and cuneiform signs were widely em- Commission on 27 June, 1906, answered a series of
ployed at that early date; the oldest inscriptions questions concerning this subject in the following way:
written in alphabetical characters date only from the (1) The arguments accumulated by the critics to
ninth century b. c. But there can hardly be any doubt imi>ugn the Mosaic authenticity of the sacred books
as to the higher antiquity of alphabetic writinff; and designated by the name Pentateuch are not of such
there seems to be nothing to prevent our extendmg it wei^t as to give us the right, after setting aside
back to the time of Moses. Finally, the Code of Ham- numerous passages of both Testaments taken collec-
murabi, discovered in Susa in 1901 by the French tively, the continuous consensus of the Jewish people,
expedition funded by Mr. and Mrs. Dieulafoy, shows the constant tradition of the Church, and internal
that even in pre-Mosaic times legal enactments were indications derived from the text itself^ to maintain
committed to, and preserved in, writing; for the Code that these books have not Moses as their author, but
antedates Moses some five centuries^ and contains are compiled from sources for the greatest part later
about 282 regulations concerning vanous contingen- than the Mosaic age.
cies in the civic life. ^ (2) I'he Mosaic authenticity of the Pentateuch does
Thus far it has been shown negatively that an his- not necessarily require such a redaction of the whole
toric and legal document claiming to be written at the work as to render it absolutely imperative to maintain
time of Moses involves no antecedent improbability that Moses wrote all and everything with his own
of its authenticitv. But the internal characteristics of hand or dictated it to his secretaries; the hypothesis
the Pentateuch show also positively that the work is at of those can be admitted who believe that he entrusted
least probably Mosaic. It is true that the Pentateuch the composition of the work itself, conceived by him
contains no express declaration of its entire Mosaic under the influence of Divine inspiration, to others,
authorship; but even the most exacting of critics will but in such a way that they were to express faithfully
hardly require such testimony. It is practically lack- his own thoughts, were to write nothing against his
ing in aX\ other books, whether sa(»«d or profane. On will, were to omit nothing; and that finally the work
the other hand, it has sJready been shown that four thus produced should be approved by the same Moses,
distinct passages of the Pentateuch are expressly its principal and inspired author, and published under
ascribed to the authorship of Moses. Deut., xxxi, his name. .
24-9, is especiallv to be noted; for it knows that Moses (3) It may be granted without prejudice to the
wrote the ''words of this law in a volume" and com- Mosaic authenticity of the Pentateuch, that Moses
manded it to be placed in the ark of the covenant as a employed sources in the production of his work, i. e.,
testimonv against the people who have been so rebel- written documents or oral traditions, from which he
Uousdunng the lawgiver's life and will ''do wickedly" mav have drawn a number of things in accordance
after his death. Again, a number of legal sections, with the end he had in view and under the influence
though not explicitly ascribed to the writing of Moses, of Divine inspiration, and inserted them in his work
are distinctly derived from Moses as the lawdver. either literally or according to their sense, in an abbre-
Besides, many of the Pentateuchal laws bear evidence viated or amplified form.
of their origin in the desert; hence they too lay an (4) The substantial Mosaic authenticity and integ-
indirect claim to Mosaic origin. What has been said rity of the Pentateuch remains intact if it be granted
of a number of Pentateuchal laws is ecjiudly true of that in the long course of centuries the work has suf-
several historical sections. These contain in the Book fered several modifications, as: post-Mosaic additions
of Numbers, for instance, so many names and num- either appended by an inspired author or inserted into
bers that they must have been handed down in writ- the text as glosses and explanations; the translation
ing. Unless the critics can bring irrefutable evidence of certain words and forms out of an antiquated Ian-
showing that in these sections we have only fiction, guage into the recent form of speech * finally, wrong
they must grant that these historical details were readings due to the fault of transcribers, which one
written down in contemporarjr documents, and not may investigate and pass sentence on according to the
transmitted by mere oral tradition. Moreover, Hom- laws of criticism.
PENTATIUCH
654
PENTATIUCH
The pioet-Mosaic ddditionfi and modifications al-
lowed by the Biblical Commission in the Pentateuch
without removing it from the range of substantial
integritv and Mosaic authenticity are variously inter-
preted by Catholic scholars. (1) We should have to
understand them in a rather wide sense, if we were to
defend the views of von Hummelauer or Vetter. This
latter writer admits legal and historical documents
based on Mosaic tradition, but written only in the
times of the Judges; he places the first redaction of
the Pentateuch in the time of the erection of Solo-
mon's temple, and its last redaction in the time of
Esdras. Vetter died in 1006, the year in which the
Biblical Commission issued the above Decree; it is an
interesting question, whether and how the scholar
would have modified his theory, if time had been
granted him to do so. (2) A less liberal interpretation
of the Decree is implied in the Pentateuchal h\ix>th-
eses advanced by Hoberg (''Moses und der Penta-
teuch; Die Pentateuch Frage" in ''Biblische Stu-
dien", X, 4, Freiburg, 1907; "Erkl&rung der Genesis",
1908, Freiburg, I-L). Schopfer (Geschichte des Alten
Testamentes, 4th ed., 226 sqq.)i Hdpfl (Die h6here
Bibelkritik, 2nd ed., Paderbom, 1906), Brucker
C'L'dglise et la critiaue'', Paris, 1907, 103 sqq.), and
Selbst (Schuster ana Holzammer's ''Handbuch zur
Biblischen Geschichte", 7th ed., Freiburg. 1910, II,
94, 96). The last-named writer believes tnat Moses
left a written law-book to which Josue and Samuel
added supplementary sections and regulations, while
David and Solomon supplied new statutes concerning
worship and priesthood, and other kings introduced
certun reli^ous reforms, until Esdras promulgated
the whole law and made it the basis of Israel's restora-
tion after the Exile. Our present Pentateuch is,
therefore, an Esdrine edition of the work. Dr. Selbst
feels convinced that his admission of both textual
changes and material additions in the Pentateuch
agrees with the law of historical development and with
the results of literary criticism. Historical develop-
ment adapts laws and regulations to the religious,
civil, and social conditions of successive ages, while
literary criticism discovers in oiur actual Pentateuch
peculiarities of words and phrases which can hardly
nave been ori^nal. and also historical additions or
notices, legal modifications, and signs of more recent
administration of justice and of later forms of wor-
ship. But Dr. Selbst believes that these peculiarities
do not offer a sufficient basis for a distinction of dif-
ferent sources in the Pentateuch. (3) A strict inter-
pretation of the words of the Decree is implied in the
views of Kaulen (Einleitung, n. 193 sqq.), kley {** Die
Pentateuchfrage, ihre Geschichte una ihre Systeme",
Mtinster, 1903), Flunk (Kirchenlexicon, IX, 1782
sqq.), and Man^not (^'L'authenticit^ mosaique du
Pentateuque", Paris, 1907; Idem, "Diet, de la
Bible", V, 50-119). With the exception of those por-
tions that belong to the time after tne death of Moses,
and of certain accidental changes of the text due to
transcribers, the whole of the Pentateuch. is the work
of Moses who composed the work in one of the ways
suggested by the Biblical Commission.
Fin£dly, there is the question as to the theological
certainty of the thesis maintaining the Mosaic au-
thenticity of the Pentateuch. (1) Certain Catholic
scholars who wrote between 1887 and 1906 expressed
their opinion that the thesis in question is not revealed
in Scripture nor taught by the Church; that it ex-
presses a truth not contamed in Revelation, but a
tenet which may be freely contested and discussed.
At that time, ecclesiastical authority had issued no
pronouncement on the question. (2) Other writers
grant that the Mosaic authenticity of the Pentateuch
is not explicitly revealed, but they consider it as a
truth revealed formally implicitly, being derived from
the revealed formulse not by a syllogism in the strict
sense of the word, but by a simple explanation of the
terms. The denial of the Mosaic authenticity of the
Pentateuch is an error, and the contradiotory of
the theffls maintaining the Mosaic authenticity of the
Pentateuch is considered erranea in fide (cf . M^chi-
neau, "L'origine mosaioue du Pentateuque'', p. 34).
(3) A third class of scnolars considers the Mosaic
authenticity of the Pentateuch neither as a freely
debatable tenet, nor as a truth formally implicitly re-
vealed; they believe it has been virtually revealed, or
that it is inferred from revealed truth by truly syllo-
gistic deduction. It is, therefore, a theologically cer-
tain truth, and its contradictory is a rash (temeraria)
or even erroneous proposition (cf. Brucker, "Authen-
ticity des livres de Molse'' in "Etudes", March, 1888,
p. 327; ibid, J January, 1897, p. 122-3; Mangenot,
"L'authenticit^ mosaique du Pentateuque", pp. 267-
310).
Whatever effect the ecclesiastical decision concern-
ing the Mosaic authenticity of the Pentateuch may
have had, or will have, on the opinion of students of
the Pentateuchal question, it cannot be said to have
occasioned the conservative attitude of scholars who
wrote before the promulgation of the Decree.' The
following list contains the names of the principal
recent defenders of Mosaic authenticity: Hengsten-
berg, "Die BUcher Moses und. Aegypten", &rlin,
1841; Smith, "The Book of Moses or the Pentateuch
in its Authorship, Credibility, and Civilisation", Lon-
don, 1868; C. ochdbel. "Demonstration de 1' authen-
ticity du Deut6ronome , Paris, 1868; Idem, "Demon-
stration de 1 'authenticity mosaique de I'Exode'',
Paris, 1871; Idem, "Demonstration de 1 'authenticity
mosaique du L^vitique et des Nombres", Paris, 1869;
Idem. "Demonstration de I'authenticite de la. Ge-
ndse' , Paris, 1872; Idem, "Le Molse historique et la
redaction mosaioue du Pentateuque", Paris, 1875;
Knabenbauer. "Der Pentateuch und die unglaubige
Bibelkritik" m "Stimmen aus MariarLaach^'. 1873,
IV; Bredenkamp, "Gesets und Propheten^', Er-
langen, 1881; Green, "Moses and the Prophets ".New
York, 1883; Idem, "The Hebrew Feasts'', New York,
1885; Idem, "The Pentateuchal Question" in "He-
braica", 1889-92; Idem, "The Higher Criticism of
the Pentateuch", New York, 1895; Idem, "The
Unity of the Book of Genesis", New York, 1895: C.
Elliot, "Vindication of the Mosaic Authorship ol the
Pentateuch", Cincinnati, 1884; Bissel, "The Penta-
teuch, its Origin and Structure", New York, 1885:
Ubalai, "Introductio in Sacram Scripturam". 2na
ed., Rome, 1882, I, 452-509; Comely, "Introductio
specialis in historicos V. T. Ubros", Paris, 1887, pp.
19-160: Vos, "Mosaic Origin of the Pentateuchal
Codes' , London, 1886; Bohl, "Zum Gesets und £um
Zeuffniss", Vienna, 1883; Zahn, "Emste Blicke in
den Wahn der modemen Kritik des A. T.", Gutersloh,
1893; Idem, "Das Deuteronomium", 1890; Idem,
"Israelitische und jtidische Geschichte", 1895; Rup-
Erecht, "Die Anschauung der kritischen Schule Well-
ausens vom Pentateuch , Leipzig, 1893; Idem. " Das
R&thsel des Funfbuches Mose und seine talsche
Losung", Gutersloh, 1894; Idem, "Des Rathsels
Losimg oder Beitrage sur richtigen Losung des Pen-
tateuchrathsels", 1897; Idem, "Die Kritik nach
ihrem Recht und Unrecht", 1897: "Lex Mosaica.
or the Law of Moses and the Higher Criticism'
(by Sayce, Rawlinson. Trench, Lias, Wace, etc.),
London, 1894; Card. Meignan, "De I'Eden k
Molse", Paris, 1895, 1-88; Baxter, "Sanctuary and
Sacrifice", London, 1896; Abbe de Broglie. "Ques-
tions bibliques", Paris, 1897, pp. 8^169; Pelt, "Hia-
toire de I'A. T.", 3rd ed.. Pans, 1901, I, pp. 291-326;
Vigouroux, "Les Livres Saints et la critique ration-
aliste", Paris, 1902, III, 1-226; IV, 239-63, 405-15;
Idem, "Manuel biblique", 12th ed., Paris. 1906, I,
397-478; Kley, " Die Pentateuchfrage, ihre Geschichte
und ihre Systeme", Mtinster, 1903; Hdpfl, "Die
hohere Bibelkritik", Paderbom, 1902; Thomas, "The
PINTATIUCH 655 PENTATBUCH
Organic Unity of the Pentateuch". London,. 1904; 14), the Book of the Just (Joe., x, 12 saqOi the Book of
Wiener, "Studies in Biblical Law', London, 1904; Songs (III Kings, viii, 53; cf. Budde, ^'Geschichteder
Rouse, "The Old Testament in New Testament althebr. Literatur", Leipsig, 1906, 17). The Book of
light", London, 1905; Redpath, " Modem Criticism the Covenant (Ex., xx, 2^xxiii, 19) too must have
and the Book of Genesis", London, 1905; Hoberg, existed before the other sources of the Pentateuch.
"Moses und der Pentateuch", Freiburg, 1905; Orr, The oldest historical work is probably the book of the
"The Problem of the Old Testament considered with Yahwist, designated by J, and ascribed to the priest-
reference to Recent Criticism", London, 1906. hood of Juda, belonging most probably to the ninth
£. OppanenU of the Mosaic AtUhorship of the Pen" century b. c.
taUuch. — ^A detailed account of the opposition to Akin to this is the Elohim document, designated by
the Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch is neither E, and written probably in the northern kingdom
desirable nor necessary in this article. In itself it (Ephraixh) about a century after the production of
would form only a noisome history of human errors; the Yahweh document. These two sources were com- ^
each little system has had its da3r, and its successors bined by a redactor into one work soon after the
have tried their best to bury it in hushed oblivion, middle of the sixth century. Next follows the law-
The actual difficulties we have to consider are those book almost entirely embodied in our actual Book of
advanced by our actual opponents of to-day; only Deuteronomv, discovered in the temple 621 b. c, and
the fact that the systems of the past show us the fleet- containing the precipitate of the prophetic teaching
ing and transitor^r character of the actual theories which advocated the abolition of the sacrifices in the
now in vogue can induce us to briefly enumerate the so-called high places and the centralization of worship
successive views upheld by the opponents of the in the temple of Jerusalem. During the Exile orig-
Mosaic authorship. inated the Priestly Code, P, based on the so-called law
(1) Abandoned Theories, — ^The views advanced by of holiness. Lev.^ xvii-xxvi, and the programme of
the Valentinian Ptolem^^i the Nazarites, Abenesra, Ezechiel, xl-xlviii; the substance of P was read before
Carlstadt, Isaac Peyrerius, Baruch Spinoza. Jean the post-exilic community by Esdras about 444 b. c.
Leclerc are sporadic phenomena. Not all ot them (II Esd., viii-x), and was accepted by the multitude,
were wholly incompatible with the Mosaic authorship History does not tell us when and how these divers
as now understooa, and the others have found their historical and legal sources were combined into our
answer in their own time. — With the work of John present Pentateuch; but it is generally assumed that
Astruc^ published in 1753, began the so-called Hy- there was an urgent call for a compilation of the tra-
pothesis of Documents wmch was further developed dition and pre-exilic history of the people. The only
by Eichhom and Ilgen. But the works of the sus- indication of time may be found in the fact that the
pended priest, Alexander. Geddes. published in 1792 Samaritans accepted the Pentateuch as a sacred book
and 1800, introduced the Hypothesis of Fragments, probably in the fourth century b. c. Considering
wluch in its day was elaborated and championed their hatred for the Jews, one must conclude that they
by Vater, de Wette (temporarily at least), Berthold, would not have taken tnis step, unless they had felt
Hartmann, and von Bomen. This theory was soon certain of the Mosi^c origin of the Pentateuch. Hence
confronted by, and had to yield to the Hypothesis a oonsderable time must have intervened between the
of Complements or Interpolations which numbered compilation of the Pentateuch and its acceptance by
iamong its patrons Kelle, Ewald, St&helin, Bleek. the Samaritans, so that the work of combining must
Tuch, de Wette, von Lengerke, and for a brief period be placed in the fifth century. It is quite generally
also Franz Delitzsch. The theory of interpolations agreed that the last redactor of the Pentateuch com-
again had hardly found any adherents before Gram- pfeted his task with great adroitness. Without alter-
berg (1828). St&helin (1830), and Bleek (1831) re- mg the text of the older sources, he did all within
turned to tne Hypothesis of Documents, proposing man's power to fuse the heterogeneous elements into
it in a somewhat modified form. Subsequently, one apparent (?) whole, with such success that not
Ewald. Knobel, Hupfeld, Ndldeke, and Schrader ad- only the Jews after the fourth century b. c, but also
vancea each a different explanation of the documen- the Christians for many centuries could maintain
tary h3rpothesis. But all of these are at present only their conviction that the entire Pentateuch was writ-
of an historical interest. ten by Moses.
(2) Preeent Hypothesis of Documents. — ^A course of (3) Deficiencies of the Critical Hypothesis, — As
religious development in Israel had been proposed several Pent&teuchaJ critics have endeavoured to
by neuss in 1830 and 1834, by Vatke in 1835, and by assign the last redaction of the Pentateuch to more
George in the same year. In 1865-66 Graf took up recent dates, its placement in the fifth century may be
this idea and applied it to the literary criticism of the regfurded as rather favourable to conservative views.
Hexateuch; for the critics had begun to consider the But it is hard to understand why the p&trons of this
Book of Josue as belonging to the preceding five books, opinion should not a^ree in considering Esdras as the
so that the collection formed a Hexateuch instead of last editor. Again, it is quite certain that the last
a Pentateuch. The same application was made by edition of the Pentateuch must have notably preceded
Merx in 1869. Thus modifiea the documentary the- its acceptance on the part of the Samaritans as a
ory continued in its development until it reached sacred lHX)k; but is it probable that the Samaritans
the state described in the translation of the Bible by would have accepted the Pentateuch as such in the
Kautzsch (3rded., with Introduction and Annotations, fourth century b. c, when the national and religious
Tiibingen. 1908 sqq.). In itself there is nothing opposition between them and Jews was well devel-
against the assumption of documents written by oped? Is it not more probable that the mixed nation
Moses; but' we cannot ascribe with certainty any-* of Samaria received the Pentateuch through the
thing of our litenun^ remains to the hands of the priest sent to them from Assyria? Cf . IV Kings, xvii,
Hebrew lawgiver. ' The beginning of written accounts 27. Or again, as this priest instructed the Samaritan
must be placed towards the end of the time of Judges; population in the law of the god of the country, is it
only then were fulfilled the conditions which must pre- not reasonable to suppose that he taught them the
cede the origin of a literature properly so called, i. e.. Pentateuch^ law which the ten tribes carried with
a general accjuaintance with the art of writing and them when they separated from Juda? At any rate,
reading, stationary settlement of the people, and na- the fact that the Samaritans accepted as sacred only
tional prosperity. What then are the oldest literary the Pentateuch, but not the Prophets, leads us to infer
remains of the Hebrews? They are the collections of ^ that the Pentateuch existed among the Jews before
the songs dating from the heroic time of the nation, i a collection of the prophetic writings was made, and
e. g., the Book of the Wars of the Lord (Num., xn,l ihat Samaria chose its sacred book before even Juda
PENTATEUCH 656 PENTATEUCH
placed the works of the Prophets on the same level out that the recent historical results imply decadence
with the work of Moses. But this natural inference rather than development in ancient omental art. sci-
finds no favoiur among the critics > for it implies that ence, and religion; Winckler ("ReUgionfigeschichtlar
the historical and legal traditions codified in the und geschichtL Orient". Leipzig, 1906, 33) considers
Pentateuch, described the beginning, and not the the evolutionary view ot the primitive state of man as
end, of Israel's religious development. The view of false, and believes that the development theory has.
Israel's religious development prevalent among the at least, been badly shaken^ if not actually destroyed
critics imphes that the Pentateuch is later than the by recent Oriental research (cf. Bfintsch, "Altorientali-
Prophets, and that the Psalms are later than both, scher und israelitischer MonotheismuB'\ TQbingen,
After these general considerations, we shall briefly 1906). Kdberle (''Die Theologie der Gegenwart",
examine the main principles, the methods, the results, Leipzig, 1907. 1, 2) sayi^ that the development theory
and the arguments of the critical theory. has exhausted itself, reproducing only the thoughts of
(a) Principles of the Critics, — ^Without pretending Wellhausen, and decidmg particular Questions not in
to review all the principles involved in the theories of in the light of facts, but according to the postulates of
the critics, we draw attention to two: the historical the theory. Fin^y, even rationalistic writers have
development of religion, and the comparative value thought it necessary to replace the development
of internal evidence and tradition. theory by another more in agreement with historical
(i) The theorv of tlve historical evolution of Israel- facts. Hence Winckler ("Ex Oriente lux", Leipzig,
itic religion leads us from Mosaic Yahwdiism to the 1905-6; Idem, "Der Alte Orient"^ III, 2-3; Idem,
ethical monotheism of the Prophets, from this to the " Die babylonische Geisteskultur in ihren Beziehungen
universalist conception of Goa developed during the zur Kulturentwicklung der Menschheit" in " Wiasen-
Exile, and from this again to the ossified Phariseeism schaft und Bildung", Leipzig. 1907; cf. Landersdorfer
of later days. This reugion of the Jews is codified in in "Historisch-Politische Bl&tter". 1909, 144) has
our actual Pentateuch, but has be^a fictitiously pro- ori^ated the theory of pan-Babelism according to
iected backwards in the historical books into the which Biblical religion is conceived as a conscious and
Mosaic and pre-prophetic times. express reaction against the Babylonian polytheistic
The idea of development is not a purely modem state religion. It was not the common property of
discoverv. Meyer ("Der Entwicklungsgedanke bei Israel, but of a religious sect which was supported in
Aristoteles", Bonn, 1909) shows that Aristotle was Babylon by certain monotheistic circles irrespective
acauainted with it; Gunkel ("Weiterbildung der of nationautv. This theory has found powerful op-
Religion", Mimich, 1905, 64) maintains that its ap- ponents in Budde, Stade. Bezold, Koberle, Kugler,
plication to religion is as old as Christianity, and that Wilke, and others; but it nas also a number of adher-
st. Paul has enunciated this principle; Diestel ("Ge- ents. Though wholly untenable from a Christian
schichte des A. T. in der chnstlichen Kirche". Jena, point of view, it shows at least the weakness of the
1869, 56 sqq.), Willmann (Geschichte des Idealismus, historical development theory.
2nd ed., II, 23 sqq.), and Schanz (Apologie des Christ- (ii) Another principle involved in the critical theory
entums, 3rd ed., II, 4 sqq,, 376) find the same applica- of the Pentateuch supposes that the internal evidence
tion in the writings of the Fathers, though noberg of literary criticism is of higher vahie than the evi-
("Die Forschritte der bibl. Wissenschaften", Frei- dence of tradition. But thus far the results of excava-
burg, 1902, 10) grants that the patristic writers often tions and historical research have been favourable to
neglect the external forms which influenced the ideas of tradition rather than to internal evidence. Let the
the Chosen People. The Fathers were not fully ac- reader only remember the case of Troy, Tiryns,
quainted with profane history, and were more con- Mycense, and Orchomenos (in Greece); the excava-
cemed about the contents of Revelation than about tions of the English explorer Evans in Crete have
its historical development. Pesch ("Glaube. Dog- shown the historical character of King Minos and his
men und geschichtliche Thatsachen" in "Thedi. labsrrinth; Ai»yrian inscriptions have re-established
Zeitfragen", IV, Freiburg, 1908, 183) discovers that the historical credit of King Midas of Phrygia; sim-
St. Thomas, too, admits the principle of development ilarly, Menes of Thebes and Sarfgon of Ajg^e have
in his "Summa" (II-II, Q. i, a. 9, 10; Q. ii^ a. 3; been shown to belong to history : in general, the more
etc.). But the Catholic conception of this prmciple accurate have been the scientinc investigations, the
avoids two extremes: (a) the theoiy of degeneracy, more clearly have they shown the reliability of even
based on the teaching of the early Lutheran theolo- the most slender traditions. In the field of New-
gians (cf. Gieeebrecht, "Die Degradationshypothese Testament criticism the call "back to tradition" has
und cQe altl. Geschichte", Leipzig, 1905; Steude, b^gun to be heeded; and has been endorsed by such
"Entwicklung und Offenbarun^", Stuttgart, 1905, 18 authorities as Hamack and Deissmann. In the study
BqQ-) ; W the theory of evolution which dissolves all of the Old Testament too there are unmistakable signs
truth and history into purely natural development to of a coming change. Hommel ("Die altisraelitische
the exclusion of everytning supernatural. tTberlieferung in mschriftlicher Beleuchtung", Mu-
lt is this latter extreme that is advocated by the nich, 1897) maintains that Old-Testament tradition,
Biblical critics. Their description of the early reudon both as a whole and in its details, proves to be reliable,
of Israel is contradicted by the testimony of the olaest even in the light of critical research. Meyer ("Die
Prophets whose authority is not questioned by them. Entstehung des Judentums", Halle, 1896) comes to
These inspired seers know of the fall of Adam (Osee, the conclusion that the foundations of the critical
vi, 7), the call of Abraham (Is., xxix, 23; Mich., vii, Pentateuchal theory are destroyed, if it can be proved
20), the destruction of Sodom and (jromorrha (Osee, that even part of the impugned Hebrew tradition is
xi, 8; Is., i, 9; Amos, iv, 11), the history of Jacob reliable; the same writer proves the credibility of the
and his struggle with the angel (Os., xii, 2 sqq.), sources of the Books of Esdras (cf. "Grundriss der
Israel's exodus from Egypt and dwelling in the desert Cjeog^aphie und Geschichte des alten Orientes",
(Os., ii, 14; vii, 16; xi, 1; xii, 9, 13; xiii, 4, 5; Am., Munich, 1904, 167 sqq.). S. A. Fries has been led by
ii, 10; iiij 1; ix, 7), the activity of Moses (Os., xii, 13; his critical studies, and without being influenced by
Mich., VI, 4; Is., bdii, 11, 12), a written legislation dogmatic bias, to accept the whole traditional view of
(Os., viii, 12), ana a number of particular statutes (cf . the history of Israel. Comill and Oettli express the
Kley, "iMe Pentateuchfrage", Mttnster, 1903, 223 conviction that Israel's traditions concerning even its
sqq.). Again, the theory of development is more and earliest history are reliable and will withstand the
more contradicted by the results of historical inves- bitterest attacks of criticism; Dawson .(cf. Fonck,
tigation. Weber ("Theologie und Assyriologie im "Kritik und Tradition im A. T." in "Zeitschrift ftkr
Stieit um Babel und Biber', Leipaig, 1904, 17) points- katholische Theologie", 1899, 262-81) and othen
FDITATIITCH 657 PENTATEUCH
bttcher", II, Tubingen, 1906, 8) grants that Old-Tea- alte Testament im Lichte des Alten Orients, 1906,
tament criticism has gone a little too far, and that VIII), and Oettli (Geschichte Israels, V) wish to insist
many Biblical traditions now rejected will be re- more on the exegesis of the text than on the criss-crosB
established. roads of criticism. G. Jacob (''Der Pentateuch''.
(b) Critical Method.— The falsehood of the critical Gattingen, 1905) thinks that the past Pentateuchai
method does not consist in the use of criticism as such, criticism needs a thorou^ revision ; Eerdmans (''Die
but in its illegitimate use. Criticism became more Komposition der Genesis", Giessen, 1908) feels con-
common in the sixteenth and seventeen|h centuries : vinced that criticism has been misled into wrons paths
at the end of the ei^teenth it was applied to classical by Astruc. Merx expresses the opinion that the next
antiquity. Bemheim ("Lehrbuch der historischen generation will have to revise backwards many of the
Methode", Leipzig, 1903, 296) believes that by this present historico-literary views of the Old Testament
means alone history first became a science. In the (Religionsgeschichtliche VolksbQcher, II, 1907, 3, 132
application of criticism to ^e Bible we are limited, sqa.).
indeed, by the inspiration and the canonicity of its (c) Critical ResuUa, — ^Here we must distinguish be-
booksj but there is an ample field left for our critical tween the principles of criticism and its results; the
investigations (Peschj ''Theol. Zeitfragen'', III, 48). principles of the historical development of religion, for
Some of the principal sins of the critics in their instance, and of the inferiority of tradition to mt^nal
treatment of Sacred Scripture are the following: (i) evidence, are not the outcome of literary analysis, but
They deny everything supernatural, so that they re- are its partial basis. Again, we must distinguish* be-
ject not merely inspiration and canonicity. but also tween those results of literary criticism which are com-
prophecy and miracle a priori (cf. Metaler, ''Das patible with the Mosaic authenticitv of the Penta-
Wunder vor dem Forum der modemen Geschichts- teuch and those that contradict it. The patrons of the
wissenschaft" in ''Katholik'', 190KS, II, 241 sqq.). Mosaic authorship of the Pentateuch, and even the
(ii) They seem to be convinced a priori of the credibil- ecclesiastical Decree relating to this subject, plainly
ity of non-Biblical historical 'documents, while they admit that Moses or his secretaries may have utilized
are prejudiced against the truthfulness of Biblicfd sources or documents in the composition of the Penta-
acoounts. (Cf. Stade, ''Geschichte Israel's", I, 86 teuchj both admit also that the sacred t^ct has suf-
seq., 88, 101.) (iii) Depreciating external evidence fered m its transmission and may have received addi-
almost entirely, they consider the questions of the tions, in the form of either inspired appendices or
origin, the integrity, and the authenticity of the sa- exegetical glosses. If the critics, therefore, can suo-
cred books in me light of internal evidence (Encyl. ceed in determining the number and the limits of the
Prov. Deus, 52). (iv) Thev overestimate the critical documentary sources, and of the post-Mosaic addi-
ungen und Aufgaben", ii, 329 sqq.). Recent docu- regard to the successive laws established by Moses,
ments mav contain reliable reports of ancient history, and the gradual fidelity of the Jewish people to the
Some of the critics begin to acknowledge that the his- Mosaic law. Here again the certain or even probable
torical credibility of the sources is of greater iznpor- results of sane literary and historical criticism will aid
tancethan their oU vision and dating (St&rk, "DieEnt- greatly the conservative commentator of the Penta-
stehung des A. T.", Leipzig, 1905, 29; cf. Vetter, teuch. We do not quarrel with the legitimate conclu-
"Tabinger theologische Quartalschrift", 1899, 552). sions of the critics, if the critics do not quarrel with
(v) The critical division of sources is based on the each other. But they do quarrel with each other.
Hebrew text, though it is not certain how far the According to Merx (loc, cit.) there is nothing certain
present Massoretic text differs from that, for instance, in the field of criticism except its incertainty ; each
followed by the Septuagint translators, and how far critic proclaims his views with the greatest self-reli-
the latter differed from the Hebrew text before its anoe, but without any regard to the consistency of the
redaction in the fifth centuiv b. c. Dahse ("Text- whole. Former views are simply killed by silence;
kritische Bedenken gegen cien Aus{;angBpunkt der even Reuss and Dillmann are junk-iron, and there is a
heuti^en Pentateuchkritik" in "Archiv fllr Religions- noticeable lack of judgment as to what can or cannot
f^chichte", VI, 1903, 305 sqq.) shows that the be known.
>ivine names in the Greek translation of the Penta- Hence the critical results, in as far as they consist
teuch differ in about 180 cases from those of the merely in the distinction of documentary sources, in
Hebrew text (cf. Hoberg, "Die Genesis", 2nd ed., p. the determination of post-'Mosaic material, e. g., text-
xxii sqq.); in other words and phrases the changes ual changes, and proume or inspired additions, in the
may be fewer, but it would be unreasonable to deny description of vanous legal codes, are not at variance
the existence of any. Again, it is antecedently prob- with the Mosaic authenticity of the Pentateuch. Nor
able that the Septuagint text differs less from the can an anti-Mosaic character be pointed out in the
Massoretic than from the ante-Esdrine text, which facts or phenomena from which cnticism legitimately
must have been closer to the original. The starting infers the foregoing conclusions; such facts or phe-
point of literary criticism is therefore uncertain. nomena are, for instance, the change of the Divine
(vi) It is not an inherent fault of literary criticism names in the text, the use of certain words, the differ-
that it was applied to the Pentateuch after it had ence of style, the so-called double accounts of really^
become practically antiquated in the study of Homer not merely apparently, identical events; the truth or
and the Nibelungenlied (cf. Katholik, 1896, I, 303, falsehood of these and similar details does not directly
hausen thought it had degenerated into childish play, views as to the age and sequence of the documentary
Amonff Bible students, Klostermann ("Der Penta- sources, as to the origin of the various legal codes, and
teuch , Leipzig, 1893), Konig ("Fabche Extreme im as to the time and manner of the redaction of the
Cjebiete der neueren Kritik des A. T.". Leipzig, 1885; Pentateuch.
''Neueste Prinzipien der alt. Kritik'% Berlin, 1902; (i) PentateuduU Documents.— As to the age and
<'Im Kampfe um das A. T.", Berlin, 1903), Bugge sequence of the various documents, the critics do not
XL- "^
658
aicree. Diflmaim, Kittd, K&iig, and WindJer place of wonliip,deyidopiiigtliem,aiidadj4]fCiiistfaenitotiie
the Eloiiist, who is subdivided by several writers into new eireunislaiieeB.
the first, second, and third Elohist, before the Yah- What has been said dearly shows that the critioBara
wist, who also is divided into the first and second at variance in many reqiecits, but th^r are at one in
Yahwist; but Wellhausm and most critics believe mjuntjMwmg the post-Mosaic (Mi^in of the Penta-
that the Elohist is about a century younger than the teuchal documents. What is the weifiht of the reasons
Yahwist. At any rate, both are assigned to about the on which they base their opinion? («) The conditions
ninth and d^th centuries b. c; both too incorporate laid down by the critics as prerrauisiteB to litcraturs
earlier traditions or even documents. do not prove that the sources of the Pentateuch must
All critics appear to agree as to the composite diar- be post-Mosaic. The Hebrew peofJe had fired for, at
acter of Deuteronomy; they admit rather a Deutn^ least, two hundred years in E^ypt; beflsdes, most of
onooust sdiool than sin^ writers. Still, the succes- the f«ty years mnt in the desert were panocd in the
aive layers composing the whole book are briefly neighbourhood of Cades, so that the Israefites were no
designated by D', £>*, D*, etc As to the character km^ a nomadic people. Whatever may be said of
of these layers, the critics do not agree: Montet and theu- material proflperity, or of their pioOcieiicy in
Driver, for instance, aasi^ to the first DeuteroiMMnist writing and reading, the aboveHnentioned reeeardieB
cc i-zzi; Kuenen, Konig, Reuss, Renan, Westphal of Flinders Ptetrie show that they kept reeords of their
ascribe to D*, iv, 45-9, and v^zzvi; a third daas of national traditions at the time of Moses, (fi) If the
critics reduce D* to xii, l-zxvi,'19, allowing it a double Hebrew contemporaries of Moses kept written reeords,
edition: according to Weflhausoi, the first edition why should not the Pentateuchal soarees be among
containedi, 1-fv, 44 ; xih-zzvi; xxvii, while the second these documents? It is true that in our actual Pienta-
comprised iv, 45-zi, 39; xii-zzvi; zxviii-zxx; both teucdi we find non-Mosaic and post-Mosaic indica-
editions were combined by the redactor who inserted tions: but, then, the non-Mosaic, impenmial style
Deuteronomy into the Hezateucdi. Gomill arranges may be due to a hterary device, or to the pen of aecre^
the two editions somewhat differently. Hprst eon- taries; the post-Mosaic geographical and historical
aiders even ce. xii-zzvi as a compilation of pre-eziBting indicslions may have crept into the text by way of
dements, gathered together without <xder and often glosses, or errors of the transcribers, or even inspiied
by diance. WeHhausen and his adherents do not wish additicMis. The critics cannot reject these auggesCioiM
to assini to D' a higher age than 621 b. c, ComiD and as mere subterfuges; for they shook! have to gTMni a
Bertholet consider the document as a smnmarv of the continuous mirade in the preservation of the Penta-
nrophetic teaching, Cdenso and Renan ascribe it to teuchal tezt, if they were to deny the moral eettainty
Jercfnias, others place its origin in the reign of Esechias <rf the presence <rf sudi teztual chances,
or Manasses, Klostermann identifies Uie document (y) out would not the Pentateuch have been knowa
with the book read before the people in the time of to the earlier Prophets, if it had been handed down
Josaphat, while Kkinert refers it back to the end of from the time of Moses? This caitical exoepticm is
the time of the Judges. The Deuteronomist depends really an argument « mlemtio which is very apt to be
on the two preceding documents, J and E, both for hb fallacious, unless it be most carefully handled. Be-
historyand his kgidation; the historical details not sides, if we keep In mind the labour involved in muhi-
f ound hi these may have been derived from other plying couples of the Pentatendi, we cannot be wrow
sources not known to us, and the laws not contained massuming that they were very rare in the intenrd
In the Snaitic legidation and the decalogue are either between Moses and the Pkophets, so that few were
pure fiction or a cry^staDisation of the prophetic able to read the actual tezt. Again, it has been
teaching. pointed out that at least one of the cailiei Prophets
Finally, the Priestly Code, P, is also a compilation: ai^icals to a written Mosaic law, and that aD amed
the first stratum of the book, both lustoricd and legal to tneh a national conscience as presupposes the Pa-
in its character, is designated by P* or I^; the second tateudid history and law. Finally, aomeof the critici
stratum is the law of hohness, H or Lev., zvii-zzvi, "*^«t»*jm" that J views the history of man and of Israd
and is the work of a contempraary of Esechid, or per- according to the rdigious and the moral ideas of the
haps of the Prophet himself (H,I^,P^); besides, there Ptophets; if there be flodi an agreement, why not say
are additional elements springing rather from a BchoaH that the Prophets write accuding to the rd^oos and
than from any sinde writer, and designated by Kunen manl ideas of the Pentateuch? (t> The critics urge
as P*, P*, P*,'but by other critics as P and P*. Bcr- the fact that the Pentateudial laws conoeniine the
tholec and Bantsch speak of two other coDertions of sanctuary, the sacrifices, the feasts;, and the priesthood
laws: the law of sacrifices, Lev., i-vii, designated as agree with different stages of post-Mosaic historical
P*; and the law of purity. Lev., zi-zv, designated as developnient: that the second stage agieaj with the
P. The first documentary h^rpothesis conadered P* reform of Josias. and the third with the enactments
as the olde^ part of the Pentateucdi; Duston and DiD- enforred aft^ the time of the Babyloman Exile. But
mann place it before the Deuteronomic code, but it must be kept in mind that the Mosaic law was in-
most recent critics regard it as more recent than the tended for la^ as the Christian law is intended for
other documents of &e Pentateuch, and even later the whole worid; if then 1900 jears after Christ the
than Exech.. zhv. lO-zhi, 15 (573-2 b. c.^; the fol- greater part of the worid is stiD un-Christian, it is not
lovners of Wdlhaosen date the Priestly Code after the astonishing that the Mosaic law required centuries
ret um from the Babylonian Captivity, while WUdeboer before it penetrsted the whole nation. Besides, there
places it either after or towards the end of the cap- were, no doubt, many violations of the law, jnst as the
tivity. The historical part$ of the Priestly Code de- Ten Commandments are violated to-day withoat dct-
pend on the Yahwist ic and the Elohistic documents, riment to their legal pnHnulgation. A^in there were
but WeUbausen's adherents believe that the material times of rdieious reforms and disasters as thoe are
of these documents has been manipulated so as to fit periods of religious fervour and coldness in the histofy
it for the speebJ purpose of the Prie^ly Code: I>il]> of the Christian Church; but such human frailties do
mann and DriTer maintain that farts have not been not imply the non-existence of the law, either Mosaic
invented or f aisd64ed by P. but that the latter had at or Christian. As to the particular laws in qiaeistiuo. it
hand other historical documents besides J and £. As will be found more satisfactory to examine them nsote
to the ieeal part ot P. Wellhausen considers it as an in detail.
a priori proei^^mme for the Jewish prie^bood after the iii^ Pmiaifurhal Codfs, — ^The uitiui endeavoor to
return from the rantivity. projected hackvards into establish a triple Pentateudial code: the Book of
the !cist. ±iA attributed to Moses: but other critics the Covenant. Deuten[>nomy. and the PHesthr Code.
believe ihski P L^is s>'stematiied the pre-exilic customs Instead of ni^earding this legislation as a|ip^riag to
PINTATXnCH
659
PENTATEUGB
different phases in the forty years' wandering in the
desert, they consider it as agreeing with three histor-
ical stages in the national history. As stated above,
the main objects of this triple le^slation are the sanc-
tuary, the feasts, and the priestihood.
(a) The Sanctuary, — At first, so the critics say, sacri-
fices were allowed to be offered in any place where the
Lord had manifested his name (Ex., xx, 24-6); then
the sanctuary was limited to the one place chosen by
Grod (Deut., xii, 5); thirdly, the Priestly Code sup-
poses the unity of sanctuary, and prescribes the proper
religious rites to be observed. Moreover, the critics
point out historical incidents showing that before the
enforcement of the Deuteronomic law sacrifices were
offered in various places quite distinct from the resting
place of the ark. What do the defenders of the Mosaic
authorship of the Pentateuch answer? First^ as to the
triple law, it points to three different stages m Israel's
desert life : before the erection of the tabernacle at the
foot of Mt. Sinai, the people were allowed to erect
altars and to offer sacrifices everywhere provided the
name of the Lord had been manifested: next, after the
people had adored the golden calf, ana the tabernacle
bad been erected, sacrifice could be offered only before
the tabernacle, and even the cattle killed for consump-
tion had to be slaughtered in the same place, in order
to prevent a relapse into idolatry; finally, when the
people were about to enter the promised land, the last
law was abolished, being then quite impossible, but the
unity of sanctuary was kept m the place which God
would choose. Secondly, as to the historical facts
urged by the critics, some of them are caused by direct
Divine mtervention, miracle or prophetic inspiration,
and as such are fully legitimate; others are evidently
violations of the law, and are not sanctioned by the
inspired writers: a third class of facts may oe ex-
plamed in one of three wajrs: (a') Poels C'Le sanctu-
aire de Kiriath Jeraim", Louvain, 1894; "Examen
critique de rhistoire du sanctuaire de Tarche", Lou-
vain, 1897) endeavours to prove that Gabaon, Maa-
phath, and Kiriath-Jarim aenote the same place, so
that the multiplicity of sanctuaries is only apparent,
not real, (fi*) Van Hoonacker C' Le lieu du culte dans
la legislation rituelle des H^breux" in "Mus^eon",
April-Oct., 1894^ XIII, 19&-204, 299-320, 633-41;
XiV, 17-38) distmguishes between private and public
altars; the public and national worship is legally cen-
tralized in one sanctuary and around one altar, while
grivate altars may be had for domestic worship. (V)
iut more commonly it is admitted that before God
had chosen the site of national sanctuary, it was not
forbidden by law to sacrifice anywhere, even away
from the place of the ark. After the building of the
temple the law was not considered so stringent as to
bind under all circumstances. Thus far then the argu-
ment of the critics is not conclusive.
iP) The Sacrificea. — According to the critics, the
Book of the Covenant enjoined only the offering of the
first-fruits and the first-bom of animals, the i«demp-
tion of the first-bom of men, and a free-will offering on
visiting the sanctuary (Ex., xxii, 28-9; xxiii, 15, [Heb..
xxiii, 19]); Deuteronomy more clearly defines some oi
these laws (xv, 19-23; xxvi, 1-11), and imposes the
law of tithes for the benefit of the poor, the widows,
the orphans, and the Levites (xxvi, 12-5) ; the Priestly
Code distinguishes different kinds of sacrifices, deter-
mines their rites, and introduces also incense offering.
But history hardly bears out this view: as there ex-
isted a permanent priesthood in Silo, and later on in
Jerusalem, we may safely infer that there existed a
permanent sacrifice. The earliest prophets are ac-
guainted with an excess of care bestowed on the sacri-
ficial rites (cf. Amos, iv, 4, 5; v^ 21-2, 25; Osee,
vaesim). The expressions of Jeremias (vii, 21-3) may
be explained in the same sense. Sin offering was known
long Defore the critics introduce their Priestly Code
(Osee, iV| 8; Mich.^ vi, 7; Ps., zzzix [xl], 7; I Kings,
iii, 14). Trespass offering is formally distinguished
from sin offering in IV Kings, xiii, 16 (cf. I Kings, vi,
3-15; Is., liii. 10). Hence the distinction between the
different kincls of sacrifice is due neither to Ezech., xlv,
22-5, nor to the Priestly Code.
(7) The Feasts, — ^The Book of the Covenant, so the
critics tell us, knows only three feasts: the seven-days'
feast of the azymes in memory of the exodus from
Eg3rpt, the feast of the harvest, and that of the end of
the narvest (Ex., xxiii, 14-7); Deuteronomy ordains
the keeping of the feasts at the central sanctuary, adds
the Pasch to the feast of the az3rmes, places the second
feast seven weeks after the first, and calls the third,
*' feast of tabernacles'', extending its duration to seven
days (Deut., xvi, 1-17); the Priestly Code prescribes
the exact ritual for five feasts, adding the feast of
trumpets and of atonement, all of which must be kept
at the central sanctuary. Moreover, history appears
to endorse the contention of the critics: Judges, xxi,
19 knows of only one annual feast in Silo; I Kings, i, 3,
7, 21 testifies that the parents of Samuel went every
year to Silo to the sanctuary; Jeroboam I established
m his kingdom one annual feast similar to that cele-
brated in Jerusalem (III Kings, xii, 32-3) ; the earliest
Prophets do not mention the names of the religious
feasts; the Pasch is celebrated for the first time after
the discovery of Deuteronomy (IV Kings, xxiii^ 21-3) ;
Ezechiel knows only three feasts and a sin offering on the
first day of the first and the seventh month. But here
again, the critics use the argument e sUerUio which is
not conclusive in this case. The feast of atonement,
for instance, is not mentioned in the Old Testament
outside the Pentateuch; only Josephus refers to its
celebration in the time of John Hyrcanus or Herod.
Wul the critics infer from this, that the feast was not
kept throughout the Old Testament? History does
not record facts generally known. As to the one an-
nual feast mentioned in the early records, weighty
commentators are of opinion that after the settlement
of the people in the promised land, the custom was
gradually introduced of going to the central sanctuary
only once a year. This custom prevailed before the
critics allow the existence of the Deuteronomic law
(III Kings, xii, 26-31), so that the latt^ cannot have
introduceid it. Isaias (xxix^ 1; xxx, 29) speaks of a
cycle of feasts, but Osee, xu, 9 alludes sdready to the
feast of tabernacles, so that its establishment cannot
be due to the Priestly Code as the critics describe it.
Ezechiel (xlv, 18-25) speaks only of the three feasts
which had to be kept at the central sanctuary.
(i) The Priesthood, — ^The critics contend that the
Book of the Covenant knows nothing of an Aaronitio
priesthood (Ex.. xxiv, 5); that Deuteronomy men-
tions priests ana Levites without any hierarchical dis-
tinction and without any high priest, determines their
rights, and distinguishes only between the Levite liv-
ing in the country and the Levite attached to the
central sanctuary; finally, that the Priestly Code
represents the priesthood as a social and hierarchical
institution, with legally determined duties, rights, and
revenues. This theory is said to be borne out by the
evidence of history. But the testimony of history
points in the opposite direction. At the time of Josue
and the early Judges, Eleazar and Phinees, the son and
nephew of Aaron, were priests (Kum., xxvi, 1; Deut.,
X, 6; Jos., xiv, 1 sqq.; xxii, -13, 21; xxiv, SS; Judges,
XX, 28). From the end of the time of Judges to Solo-
mon, the priesthood was in the hands of Heli and his
descendants (I Kinss, i, 3 sqq.; xiv, 3; xxi, 1; xxu, 1)
who sprang from Ithamar the younger son of Aaron
(IPar., xxiv, 3; cf. I Kings, xxii, 29; xiv, 3; ii, 7sqq.).
Solomon raised Sadoc, the son of Achitob, to the dig-
nity of the high priesthood, and his descendants held
the office down to the time of the Babylonian Cap-
tivity (II Kings, viii, 17; xv. 24 sqq.; xx, 25; III
Kings, ii, 26, 27, 35; Ezech., xliv, 15); that Sadoc too
was of Aaronic descent is attested by I Par., vi, 8.
^,
PINTATEUGB 660 PENTATEUCH
Besides, the Books of Josue and Paralipomenon ac- search that both form and contents of a great part of
knowleage Uie distinction between priests and Levites; the Old Testament are baaed on conscious fiction and
according to I Kings, vi, 16, the Levites handled the forgery.
ark, but the Bethsamites. the inhabitants of a priestly iV. SrYiiB of the Pentateuch. — In some general
city (Jos., xxij 13-6), offered sacrifice. introductions to the Pentateuch its Messianic proph-
A similar distinction is made in II Kings, xv, 24; ecies are specially considered, i. e., the so-called
III Kings, viii, 3 sq.; Is., Ixvi, 21. Van Hoonacker . pr<dO'^tHingeliumy Gen., iii, 15: the blessing of Sem,
C'Les praties et les Invites dans le livre d'Es^hier' Gen., ix, 26-7; the patriarchal promises, Gen., xii, 2;
in "Revue bibUque", 1899, VIII, 180-189, 192-194) xiii, 16; xv, 6; xvii, 4r^. 16; xviu, 10-15; xxii, 17;
shows that Exechiel did not create the distinction xxvi, 4; xxviu, 14; the blessing of the dying Jacob,
between priests and Levites, but that supposing the Gen., xlix, 8-10; the Prophecy of Balaam, Num.,
traditional distinction in existence, he suggested a xxiv, 15 sqq. ; and the great Prophet announced by
division into these classes according to merit, and not Moses, Deut., xviii, 15-19. But these prophecies be-
according to birth (xliv, 15-xlv, 5). Unless the critics long rather to the province of exegesis than introduo-
simply set aside all this historical evidence, they must tion. A^^ain, the text of the Pentateuch has been oon-
grant the existence of an Aait)nitic priesthood in Israel, sidered m some general introductions to the work,
and its division into priests and Levites, long before We have seen already that besides the Massoretic Text
the D and P codes were promulgated according to the we have to take into account the earlier text followed
critical theory. It is true that in a number of passages by the Septuagint translators, and the still earlier
persons are said to offer sacrifice who are not of readings of the Samaritan Pentateuch; a detailed
Aaronitic descent: Judges, vi, 25 sqq.; xiii, 9; I investigation of this subject belongs to the field of
KinsB^ vii, 9{ x, 8; xiii, 9; II Kings, vi, 17; xxiv, 25; textual or lower criticism. But the style of the Penta^
III Kmgs, viii, 5, 62j etc. But in the first place, the touch can hardlv be referred to any other department
phrase 'to offer sacrifice" means either to furnish the of Pentateuchsd study.
victim (Lev., i, 2, 5) or to perform the sacrificial rite; As Moses employed no doubt pre-existent docu-
the victim might be furnished by any devout lay- ments in the composition of his work, and as he must
man; secondly, it would be hard to prove that God have made use too of the aid of secretaries, we expect
committed the priestly office in such a way to Aaron antecedently a variety of style in the Pentateuch. It
and his sons as not to reserve to himself the liberty of is no doubt due to the presence of this literary phe-
. delegating in extraordinary cases a non-Aaronite to nomenon that the critics have found so many pomts of
perform tne priestly functions. support in their minute analysis. But in general, the
(iii) PerUateuchai Redaction, — ^The four dooumen- style of the work is in keepine with its contents,
tai^ sources of the Pentateuch thus far described were There are three kinds of materi^ in the Pentateuch :
combined not by any one individual^ critics require first, there are statistics, genealogies, and legal for-
rather three different stages of combmation: first^ a mularies; secondly, there are narrative portions;
Yahwistic redactor Bi« or Bi combined J and E with thirdly, there are parenetic sections,
a view of harmonizing them, and adapting them to No reader will nnd fault \vith the writer's dry and
Deuteronomic ideas; this happened either before or simple style in his genealogical and ethnographic lists,
after the redaction of D. Secondly, after D had been in his table of encampments in the desert, or his legal
completed in the sixth century b. c. a redactor, or enactments. Any otner literary expression would oe
perhaps a school of redactors, imbued with the spirit out of place in records of this kind. The narrative
of D combined the document with J£ into JED, intro- style of the Pentateuch is simple and natural, but also
ducing however the modifications necessary to secure lively and picturesque. It abounds in simple charac>
consistency. Thirdly, a last redactor Rp imbued with ter sketches, dialogues, and anecdotes. The accounts
the letter and the spirit of P, combined this document of Abraham's purchase of a burying-ground, of the
with JED, introducing again the necessary changes, history of Joseph, and of the Egyptian plaxues are
The table of nations m Gen., xiv was according to almost dmmatic. Deuteronomy has its pecufiar style
Ktlnen added by this last redactor. on account of the exhortations it contains. Moses
At first sight, one is struck by the complex character' explains the laws he promulgates, but urses also, and
of this theory; as a rule, truth is of a more simple mainly, their practice. As an orator, he shows a ^;reat
texture. Se<x>ndly, one is imi)ressed by the unique deal of unction and persuasiveness, but is not destitute
nature of the hypothesis; antiquity has nothing to of the earnestness of the Prophets. His long sentences
equal it. Thirdly, if one reads or studies the Penta- remain at times incomplete, thus giving rise to so-
teuch in the light of this theory, one is impressed by the called anaoolutha (cf . Dt., vi, 10-12; viii, 1 1-17 ; ix, 9-
whimsical character of the redactor; he often retained 11; xi, 2-7; xxiv, 1-4). Being necessarily a popular
what should have been omitted, and omitted what preacher, he is not lacking in repetitions. But his
ahould have been retained. The critics themselves earnestness, persuasiveness, and unction do not inters
have to take refuge, time and time again, in the work fere with the clearness of his statements. He is not
of the redactor, in order to save their own views of the merely a risid le^slator, but he shows his love for the
Pentateuch. A recent writer does not hesitate to call people, ana in turn wins their love and confidence,
the complex redactor ein geniaUr Esd, Fourthly a ^ ^^^^ ^j^^^ng to the Pentateuch have been cited
truth-lovmg, straightforward reader is naturally throughout the coune of thu article. We shall here add a list of
shocked by the literary fictions and forgeries, the mainly exegetical works, both ancient and modem, without at-
editorial changes and subterfuges impUed in the crit- ^^^^.^S^r.^AS^^si^'c^l-O^o.^.saectainaen.
ical theory of the Pentateuchal documents and redao- p. o., XII, 91-145: Idem. Homil. in Om., ibid., 145-62; Idem.
tion. The more moderate critics endeavour to escape ^Ueta el homil. in Ex., Lev., Num., Deut., ibid., 263;«18: Id«m/
this inconvenience: some appeal to the difference ^TT^X^X.^'^VLlGlS^SrW^
between the ancient and the modem standard of liter- p. o., XLIV. 61-124; Idem, De homin. opific, ibid., 124-297;
ary property and editorial accuracy; others practi- Ip*"«f ^« «J« ^^Vrt t^APJ^^T' St. John Chbtj^ H©mt7, •*
cally sanctify the means by theend OettU considers gf^/l^fj^Sj^Ji^E^l-.c^^in/.^^^^^
the dilemma "either the work of Moses or the work iis: St. Ctril of Alex., De adomtione in gpiritu in P. o.,
of a deceiver" as the expression of sheer imprudence; LXVlll, 133^1 i26;0/apjvrB in P.O., LXIX, 13-677; Thto-
TT- X ^ L A* 1 ^ A A Ai- J Ai- * Ai- • DORBTCB. Qu€Bst. tn Oen., Ex., Let., Num., MJeut. \n r. u., LtA.A.A,,
Kautzdch unctiously pomts to the depth of the wis- ySisS; Procoptos of Ga«a. Ct^mem. in Odateuch. in p. a.,
dom and the knowledge of God whose ways we cannot LXXXVll, 21-992; NicEPHORua, Catena in Oetateueh. tt Ubroe
fathom, but must admire The left wing of criticism Re^(L^*^i772)^ ^^^^^^ ^^ ^^^^^^ ^ ^ ^ ^^
openly acknowledges that there is no use m hushing 123-274; Idem. De Paradiao UneUri, ibid., 275-314: Idem. D*
up matters; it actually is the result of scientific re- Cain et Abel, ibid., 315HX): Iobii, Dc Noe et area, ibid^ 861-415;
FENTBG08T 661 PEORIA
VSHP^aP' ^6roAam. ibid., 419-500; Idem. i)« luuu ^anima, ibid., harvest and of the Paschal season), fell on the fiftieth
£!i^fcJ[r:',£^^r3S%^; ^-SULrZ.-^ day from nhe next dav after the sabbath" of the
muB9t. Hebraic in Oen. in P. L.^XXIII. 93^ioipj &r. Auoustinb. Psflsover (Lev., xxui, 11). The interpretation of this
DeGe
Owr. a
246-486;
Vbn. Bbdb. Hexaiffuron in p. l., XCI, 9-190; Idbm. /n Pento- people) Understood (on the force of Lev., xxiii, 7) the
SS^;^'3SJT^;*'Si';.l^?1ii"S.%SS^ --bBath spoken of in verse 11 to be the first day of the
CVII, 443-670; ivmu. Comment, in Bx., Le;, Num., Deut. in P. L., unleavened bread, Nisan 15; whereas the Sadducees
CVIII, 9-9io«; Walafkid Strabo. Oloasa ordinaria in P. L.. (later also the Karaites) held that the weekly sabbath
MiddS aSTm.— St. Bbuko of A«n. BxposiHo in PentaUuch. fallmgdurinK the Paoover festi^vities was meant (Tal-
in P. L., CLXIV, 147-660; Rupbrt of Deut*. De 8S. Triniiau mud^ Treat, Menach., X. 1-3; Chadga, u, 4). Which
M openb. ejuM in P. L.. CLXVII, 197-1000 ; Huoh of St. Victob. opinion is more in accordance with the natural meaning
Adnolatwnes duetdatoncB %n Pent, in P. L.. CLXXV, 29-86: Ho- Jf fU,, njwMwuyp wa ftfifLlI Iaava i\r\f\i*o\ApA' thn Hinopnt
HORiuaoF Adtun, Htxatmeronin RL., cLxxil, 253-66; Idem. ?' J*^® passage, we snaii leave unoeciaea, ine oiBseni
De decem plagit jBgypU, ibid^ 265-70; Abblabd. Bxponiio in 18 long smce over, all Jews celebrating the Pente-
Hexameron in P. L. CLXXVIII. 731^; Huoh of St. Cher, ©ost on the fiftieth day after Nisan 16. Afl the offer-
fff!frT^^^r^.!^a, ^^^'^LZ \^); Dro*K^«S°SS ing of a sheaf of barley marked the begimiing of the
Cabthusian. Comment, in PentateucK, in Opera omnia, I. II harvest season, SO the offermg of loaves made from
(Montreuil, 1896-p. , . ^ ^ .. r^ ^ . . * the new wheat marked its completion. This is no
MoBE Rbcbnt WORKS. — Jewiah Wntera: — The Commenianee of _««-,* ♦!.„♦ i>A««4^A^^a4- «ra<. r«M»;*t»lKr » w^^^,^ moI-ii^a-
Rashi (1040-1150). Abenbwu (1092-1167). and David Kimchi pro?' that Pentecost was onmnaUy a mere nature-
(1160-1235) are contained in the Rai>binie BibUe; Abarbanel. festival; but it shows that the MosaiC legislation had
pJH/*^* • 1M?^*K^ ^* ^'' HiHii^o^^ *ndcSS!^c^^^iJ!a °^ ^ ^^^ *"^ agricultural population, to whose special
the Old tS" (London). 0^^885) : Lew, (1867. 1872) ; B?. (185|>! ^^>^ ^^ i^P^H^^ ^^ ^^ perfectly adapted. Since
HiBscH. Der Pent, uberaettt und erkldrt (2nd ed., Frankfurt. 1893. the close of Bibucal times, an entirely new Significance,
1895); Hoffmann. Daa Bitch Lev. Hberaetzt und erkldrt (Berlin, never SO much as hinted at in Scripture, has been
^ Priteetant Writera.— The works of Luther. Mblanchthon, Attached by the Jews to the feast: the Pentecost
Calvin, Qbrhabt, Calovius, Drusius, db Dibu, Cappbl. Coc- 18 held to commemorate the giving of the Law on
CBIU8, MicHAEus. Lb Clbbc, RosenmOllbr, and even of Tuch Mount Sinai, which, according to Exod., xix, 1, took
SJ2.^^r.Sr.'1^5.tS2!»Ti'Sfl2"'S:?^nS"ui^^^^^^^ E?«» o" th? fiftieth ^»>:,ffter the departure from
Bx. and Lee. (3rd ed.. 1897); Dillmann. Numbers, Deut., Jot. Egypt. This View, admitted bv several Fathers of
i^^t?^:i ^?^^'. h''^"' ^*^^o^*fr*^o^?J" T^***''^^* the Church (St. Jer., "Epist."; Ixxviii. 12, P. L.,
(Bielefeld and Leipng) : Idem, (7en. (2nd ed.. 1877); Idem, l?x.. -vvit tat. qj. a..».;-4^ «n««* i?<...<^»' «^r^: lo
Let., and Numbers (1S74); Stobch, ^««/. (2nd ed., 1902); Keil 5^^^^X,,' ?J:« ^^^*^^» ./t^^' . o * f^^k \^*
AND Fbans DBLrrxacH, BiUieeher Comment. HberdaeA. T.: Keil, P. L., XLII, 503; St. LeO, ' De Pent. Serm. , I, P. L.,
Gen. at^ ^*. (3rd ed^ t«ip««, 1878) ; Idem. Le».. Numbers, Deut. Liv 4(X)), has passed into some modem Jewish litur-
2s? "LiSifi^ ^Si'iiJ^* nUr^'/. tS ^.^f-: IPcaf booki, wh/re the feast is described as "the day of
(Munich): Stback. Gen. (2nd ed.. 1905); Idem. Bx., Lev., Num- the givmg of the Law" (Maimon. More Neb., Ul, 41).
f>fr» (ISM); OvTTLt, Deut. (1893); SowACK,Handkommmt. sum In accordance with this interpretation, modem
A. T. ((jMttmgen) : Qunkel, Gen. (1901); BXntbch. Bx., Lev., r^„,„ ««„« ♦u«. «„^ ;« ,»va^;«» ♦!»« T ««r ««J ^4-U^w. «*v«%»^^
Numbers (iriSI) ; Deut. by Stbuebnaoel (1900) ; Mabti. Kurser J^ws pass the eve m reading the Law and other appro-
Handkommentar e. A. T. (Freiburg): Holbinoeb. Gen. (1898). pnate Scnptures. Among them the feast lasts twO
S^^^^i' M*m6«-. (1903); Bbrtholet Let. (^\),Deui. days, a tradition dating from the difficulty which the
0899); BOhmbr. Daa crttoBucA ifo«e (Stuttgart, 1905): Cook. t^„,J ^t av^ tv^— ^•o r^.,«*l ;« o<»*^..^ «;«;;»» »«.»«4^K,
Th$ Holu BibU according to the Authorised Version, I-II (London! J^ws of the Diaspora found in ascertainmg exactly
1877); Spbncb and Exell, The Pulpit Commentary (London): what day the month begins in Palestine (Talmud,
Whitelaw. Gen.; Rawunjion. ^x^- Metricb. l«».; Winter- Treat. Pesach., lii, 1 ; Rosh hashsh., v, 1). On the day
botham. Numbers: Alexander, Deut.: The Bxpoattor's Bible ^#. -o^^a^^^-* -.^ -L^^i^ »*^.u «,«« «ii^„.^^ /-t ^.,
(London): Dona, o«n. (1887); C^hadwicb, J&xod. (1890) ; Kbl- ofPentecofft no servile work was aUowed (Lev.,
LOGO, Lev. (1891); Watson, Numbers (1889); Harper, Deut. Xxm, 21). The oblation consisted of two loaves of
(1895); T^ Iruernaiional Critu^ T'T^SJ^S*' (Edinburgh): leavened bread made from two-tenths of an ephah
Gray, iVttm6cr« (1903); Driver, Deu/. (1895); Spurrell, Notes /„Vv^„4. „^,^« «„„«♦„ ««-4 « 4iUU\ ^t ««.„• (^.^JT *\.^
on the Hebrew Text of Gen. (2nd ed.. Oxford, 1896); Ginsburg. (about seven quarts and a fifth) of flour from the
The Third Book of Moses (London. 1884); Driver. The B»ok of new wheat (Lev., XXm, 17; Exod., XXXIV, 22). The
Gen. (London 1904)^ACLAREN, The Books of ^ Lev., and leavened bread could not be placed on the altar (Lev.,
Numbers (London, 1906): Idem, Deut. (London, 1906); Reubs. •; it\ ««^ .«.«- ^»»»K, «*«.rw4 /n 17 <<i;r*«^»>. „^1
L'histoiresainu etlaloi (i»ari«. 1879); Kuenen. Hosybaas, and "» 11)» ^^, was merely waved (D. V., Mted [ see
OoBT, Het Oude Testament (Leyden, 1900-1). OFFERINGS); one loaf was given tO the High Pnest,
Catholic Works:— The worke of Cajbtan. Olbabtbb. Steuchus the other was divided among the priests who ate it
EuouBiNus, Santb Paonino. Lippomannub, Hammer, B. Pb- .^i.u;« 4.iv« -«^«,wJ .^«««:-.^*- 'K«^,,««-i:««.i««,u««.^«^
REiBA. AvJRius Martinbnous. Lorinus, Tiriniub, a Lapidb. within the sacred precincts. Two yearhng lambs were
Corn. Janbenius, BonfrArb, Frasben, Calmbt, Brentano. also offered as a p>eace-onenng, and a buck-goat for
Dbreber. and Schol« are either too well known or top unimpor- gin together with a holocaust of seven lambs without
tant to need further notice. La Sainte Bible (Patw) : Crelier, La ui™;Ju ^^^ ««k «,»j ♦— ^v .««,.<. n r^-., «r^:: iQ_in\
Genise (1889); Idem, VBxode et u LMtioue (1886); Trochon. blemish, One calf, and two rams (Lev., xxm, 18-19).
Les NombresetUDeutironome(18S7-8); Cureus Scrintura Sacra According tO Num., XXVm, 26-31, the number of
5fS2f?* X*''*,^7^";f'iS?*'^?'^^®®*^' ,^t•;^7•.^^^®^^•/1Y^i?^ victims to be offered in holocaust on that day differs
(1899); £teu<. (1901); Schrank, Comm«n/. literal, m Gen. (ISSS); - -- — - -- •'-.-
/, Commimt in L Gen. (Mechlin. 1883-4) ; Tappbhobn, Brkld- ^">™ ^^^ above. The Jews of later times regarded the
rung der Gen. (Paderbom. 1888); Hobero, Die Gen. naeh^dem two enactments as supplementary (Jos., ''Ant.", Ill,
i^^i'^r-%1^:^''3i.'T^ SJiilSTiiVSiSJr ^iJi X, a-, Talmud, Tr^t. Klena^h.. fy, .2 6) The f«u.t
hebrdisehen Texteslibersetet und erkldrt (MtLngter, 1905); GiooT. ^^ <^ OCCasion tor SOCial and jOyful gathenngS
^;>eeial Introduction to the Study of the Old Testament, I (New (Deut., Xvi, 11) and We may infer from the NeW
York. 1901). A. J. Maas. Testament that it was. like the Passover, attended at
Pentacort. See Whitbundat. Jerus^em by a great home-coming of the Jews from
all parts of the world (Act., u, 6-11).
Pentecost (of the Jews), Feast of, the second Green. The Hebrew Feasts (1886); BXhr, Symbolik dee Mosai-
in importance of the great Jewish feasts. The term, '^%^!tt}^V^}}^\t},^?l \ BENirNOER. N'braUche Archado-
« J^«-4^>J r««..« *u^ o-^ 1 ^i_: T /rn 1- • • * tV <r»« (Freiburg. 1894); HiT«io,0«<emMiuf/^n(7«<en (1838); Scheoo,
adopted from the Greek-speakmg Jews (Tob., n, 1; II BibUscheArchdoUniie (Treihmg, 1887): SchOrer, Gesch.des Judi^
Mac., XU, 32; Joseph.. "Ant. , III, X, 6; etc.) alludes ««*«» Volkea im Zeitalter J. C. (Leipzig, 1886-90); Wellhauben.
to the fact that the feast, known in the Old Testa- SfiS'^^ovS^-w ' 'rV-^* (Pj^'i". 1895) : Wooue. CaUchieme
mentas'Hhefeastofharv^tofthefirstfruits"(Exod., g^^^I^A'^liui^fi^aT^^ ^^""*^"' ''''^'
xxm, 16). "the feast of weeks" (Exod., xxxiv, 22: Charles L. Souvat.
Deut., XVI, 10; II Par., viii, 13). the "day of firstfruits''
(Num., xxviii, 26), and called by^ later Jews *asereth Peoria, Diocese of (Pboribnsis), comprises that
part of central Illinois south of the CJounties of White-
side, Lee, Dekalb, Grundy, KanksJsee, and nor^ of
or 'asartha (solemn assembly, and probably "closing
festival", Pentecost being the clogmg festival of the
PIOBIA
662
PEPIN
the Counties of Adams^ Brown, Cass, Menard, San-
gamon, Nacon, Moultne, Douglas, and Edgar. It
was cut off from the Diocese of Chicago in 1875. Six
years later it was enlarged by the addition of Lasalle,
bureau, Henry, Putnam, and Rock Island Counties.
Catholicism in this region dates from the days of
Father Marquette, who rested at the Indian village
of Peoria on his voyage up the Illinois River in 1673.
Opposite the present site of the episcopal city, La
Salle and Tonti in 1680 built Fort Cr^veccBur, in
which Mass was celebrated and the Gospel preached
by the Recollect Fathers, Gabriel Ribourai, Zenobius
Membre, and Louis Hennepin. With some breaks in
the succession, the line of missionaries extends to
within a short period of the founding of modem
Peoria. In 1839 Father Reho, an Italian, visited
Peoria, remaining long enough to build the old stone
church in Kickapoo, a small town twelve miles dis-
tant. St. Mary's, the first Catholic church in the city
proper, was erected by Father John A. Drew in 1846.
Among his successors was the poet, Rev. Abram J.
Ryan.
Many of the early Irish immigrants came to work on
the Illinois and Michigan canal; owing to the failure
of the contracting companv, thev received their pay
in land scrip instead of cash, ancf were thus forced to
settle upon hitherto untillea farm-land. These Irish
farmers, with the Germans who began to arrive a httle
later, were the pioneer Catholics whose descendants
now constitute the strength of the Church. In more
recent years Poles, Slavonians,' Slovenians, Croatians,
Lithuanians, and Italians have come in considerable
numbers to work in the coal mines. They are organized
in parishes looked after by priests of their own nation-
ality. The first appointee to the see, Rev. Michael
Hurley, requested to be spared the responsibility of
orgamzing and gjoveming the new diocese. After
many years of fnutful labour in Peoria, he died, vicar-
general in 1898, and was mourned universally in the
city and throughout the diocese.
Rt. Rev. Jolm Lancaster Spalding was consecrated
first Bishop of Peoria, 1 May, 1877. Bom of the dis-
tinguished Spalding family, in Lebanon, Kentuckv,
in 1840, and educated at Bardstown, Mount St.
Mary's, Emmittsburg, Lou vain, and Rome, his career
as pastor in Louisvule, Kentucky, as orator, and as
author had been marked by signal successes. The
promise of his earlier life was more than fulfilled by
the lonp years of his episcopate. Besides creating a
new spirit in the Catholic life of the diocese, which
found expression in new churches, schools, and insti-
tutions of education and charitv, he sought fields of
larger efforts for his zeal. He laboured earnestly in
the cause of Catholic colonization in the West. He
preached the tmths of life to an ever-increasing and
deeply appreciative audience of American people. He
ranks high amon^^ the educators of the country. The
Catholic University of America owes its origin largely
to his zeal. Spalding Institute, Peoria, a Catholic
school for boys, built and equipped by his generosity,
is another monument to his abiding faith in education.
His writings are assured of permanent use ana admira-
tion by future generations. At the height of his use-
fulness he was stricken with paralysis on 6 Jan., 1905,
and resigned the see, 11 Sept., 190iB2 residing in Peoria
as Archbishop of Scitopolis, to which honour he was
raised in 1909.
Right Reverend Edmund M. Dunne, D.D., the
second and present Bishop of Peoria, was bom at
Chicago, 2 Feb., 1864. He began his classical studies
at St. Ignatius's College, Chicago, and finished at the
Petit Seminaire at Floreffe, Belgium. Completing his
theological course at Louvfun, he was ordained priest,
24 June, 1887. Later studies in Rome prepared him
for the doctor's degree, which was conferred by the
Gregorian University in 1890. Eight years of parish
work in St. ColumbkiU's church, Chicago, led to bis
appointment as pastor of Guardian Angels' Parish.
His ministrations among the poor Italians of Chicago
were remarkably successful. It was with profound
re|;ret that they saw him removed to the chancelloi^
ship of the archdiocese, after seven years of unselfish
labour. He was consecrated Bishop of Peoria, 1 Sept.,
1909.
Statistics: Bishops, 2; mitred abbot, 1; secular
priests, 169; regular priests, 43; churches with resi-
dent priests, 151; churches, mission, 69; stations, 19;
ecclesiastical students, 14; colleges for boys, 4; stu-
dents, 355; academies for girls, 8; students, 1457;
parishes with parochial schools, 69; pupils. 10,672;
orphan asylums, 1; orphans, 75; industrial and re-
form schools, 1; total young people under Catholic
control, 12,559; hospitals, 12; homes for the aged,
2; marriages, 1037; baptisms, 4527; burials, 1487;
Catholic population, 96,000; number of square mUes
in diocese, 18,554.
Jab. J. Shannon.
Peoria ladians, a principal tribe of the confed-
erated Illinois Indians (q. v.) having their chief resi-
dence, in the seventeenth century, on Illinois river,
upon the Is^e, and about the site of the modem city
tnat bears their name. The first white man ever
known to the Illinois was probably the Jesuit Claude
Allouez, who met some of them as visitons at his
mission on Lake Superior at La Pointe (Bayfield).
Wisconsin, in 1667. Six years later Marquette passed
through tneir country, where he soon established a
temporary mission, in 1680 the French commander,
La Scdle, built Fort Cr^vecceur on Peoria lake, near
the village of the tribe, about the present Rockfort.
It was abandoned, but reoccupied in 1684, when a
regular mission was begun among the Peoria by
Fr. Allouez. His successor in 1687 was Fr. Jacques
Gravier, to whom we owe the great manuscript ''Dic-
tionary of the Peoria Language", now at Harvard
University, the principal hteraiy monument of the
extinct Ulinois. The Peoria, however, proved obsti-
nate in their old beliefs, and in 1705, at tne instigation
of the medicine men, Gravier was attacked and dan-
gerously wounded. He narrowly escaped with lus
Efe, but died from the effects on 12 Feb., 1708, near
Mobile, after having vainly sought a cure in France.
The mission continued under other workers, but so
late as 1721 the tribe was still almost entirely heathen,
although the majority of the Illinois were tnen Chris-
tian. The Peoria shared in the vicissitudes and rapid
decline of the IlUnois. and inri832 the remnant of the
confederated tribes, nardly 300 souls in all, sold all
their claims in Dlinois and Missouri and reipoved to
a small reservation on the Osage River, Kansas. In
1854 the remnant of the Wea and Piankishaw of In-
diana were consolidated with them, and in 1868 the
entire body removed to a tract in north-east Okla-
homa, where they now reside, being officially des^
ignated as ''Peoria and confederated tribes", and
numbering alto|;ether only about 200 souls, all mixed-
bloods, and divided between Catholic and Methodist.
(See aJso Miami Indians.)
Tbwaitsa (ed.). The JemU Rdationa (IUino%» mianona) (73
▼ob., Cleveland, 1896-1901) ; Shea, Catholic Mitnon* (New York,
1854) ; Filling, Bibliography o/th$ Algonguian Languoif (Wash-
inston. 1891); Rorcx and Tbomab, Indian Land Ctniinu,
Btf/hUenth Rept. Bur. Am. Sth., II (Washington. 1899).
James Moonet.
Pepin the Short, Mayor of the Palace of the whole
Prankish kingdom (both Austrasia and Neustria), and
later King of the Franks; b. 714; d. at St. Denis, 24
Sept., 768. He was the son of Charles Martel. Pepin
and his older brother Carloman were tau^t by the
monks of St. Denis, and the impressions received during
their monastic education had a controlling influence
upon the relations of both princes to the Church.
When the father died in 74X the two brotheiB began to
PEPUZIAN8
663
PEPUZIMI8
rei^ jointly but not without strong opposition, for
Gnffon, the son of Charles Martel and the Bavarian
Sonnichildc, demanded a share in the government.
Moreover, the Duke of the Aquitanians and the Duke
of the Alamannians thought this a favourable oppor-
tunity to throw ofif the Prankish supremacy. The
young kings were repeatedly involved m war, but all
their opponents, including the Bavarians and Saxons,
were defeated and the imity of the kingdom re-estab-
lished. As early as 741 Carloman had entered upon
his epoch-making relations with St. Boniface, to whom
was now opened a new field of labour, the reformation
of the Prankish Church. On 21 April, 742, Boniface
was present at a Prankish synod presided over bv
Carloman at which important reforms were decreed.
As in the Prankish realm the unity of the kingdom was
essentially connected * with the person of the king,
Carloman to secure this unity raised the Merovingdan
Childeric to the throne (743). In 747 he resolved to
enter a monastery. The danger, which up to this
time had threatened the unity or the kingdom from
the division of power between the two brothers, was
removed, and at the same time the way was prepared
for de]X)sing the last Merovingian and for the crownine
of Pepin. The latter put down the renewed revolt led
by his step-brother Griffon and succeed^ in com-
?Ietely restoring* the boundaries of the kingdom,
'epin now addr^sed to the xx>pe the suggestive ques-
tion: In regard to the kings of the Pranks who no
longer possess the royal power, is this state of things
ptroper f Hard pressed by the Ix>mbards, Pope Zacha-
rias welcomed this advance of the Pranks which aimed
at ending an intolerable condition of things, and at
laying the constitutional foundations for the exercise
of the royal power. The pope replied that such a state
of things was not proper. After this decision the place
Pepin desired to occupy was declared vacant. The
crown was given him not by the pope but by the
Pranks. According to ancient custom Pepin was then
elected king by the nation at Soissons in 751, and soon
after this was anointed by Boniface. This consecra-
tion of the new kingdom by the head of the Church
was intended to remove any donbt as to its legitimacy.
On the contrary, the consciousness of having saved the
Christian world from the Saracens produced, among
the Pranks, the feeling that their kingdom owed ito
authority directly to God. Still this external co-
operation of the pope in the transfer of the kingdom
to the Carolingians would necessarily enhance the
importance of the Church. The relations between the
two controlling powers of Christendom now rapidly
developed. It was soon evident to what extent the
alliance between Church and State was to check the
decline of ecclesiastical and civil life; it made possible
the conversion of the still heathen German tribes, and
when that was accomplished provided an opportunity
for both Church and State to recruit strength and to .
grow.
Ecclesiastical, political, and economic developments
had made the popes lords of the ducalua Romanus.
They laid before Pepin their claims to the central
Erovinces of Italy, which had belonged to them before
iutprand's conquest. When Stephen II had a con-
ference with King Pepin at Ponthion in January, 754,
the pope implored his assistance against his oppressor
the Lombard King Aistulf ^ and begg^ for tne same
protection for the prerogatives of St. Peter which the
Byzantine exarchs had extended to them^ to which the
kine agreed, and in the charter estabUshing the States
of the Church, soon after given at Quiercy, he prom-
ised to restore these prerogatives. The Prankish king
received the title of the former representative of the
Byzantine Empire in Italy, i. e. "Patricius'\ and was
also assigned the duty of protecting the privileges of
the Holy See.
When Stephen II performed the ceremony of an-
ointing Pepin and his son at St. Denis, it was St.
Peter who was regarded as the mystical giver of the
secular power, but the emphasis thus laid upon the
religious character of political law left vague the legal
relations between pope and kin^. After the acknowl-
edgement of his territorial claims the pope was in
reality a ruling sovereign, but he had placed himself
under the protection of the Prankish ruler and had
sworn that he and his people would be true to the king.
Thus his sovereignty was limited from the very start
as regards what was external to his domain. The con-
nexion between Rome and the Prankish kingdom in-
volved Pepin during the years 754-56 in war with the
Lombard King Aistulf , who was forced to return to
the Church the territory he had illegally held. Pepin's
commanding position in the world of his time was
permanently secured when he took Septimania from
the Arabs. Another particularly important act was
his renewed overthrow of the rebelUon in Acjui-
taine which was once more made a part of the king-
dom. He was not so fortunate in his campaigns
against the Saxons and Bavarians. He could do no
more than repeatedly attempt to protect the boun-
daries of the kingdom against the incessantly restless
Saxons. Bavaria remained an entirely independent
State and advanced in civilization under Diike Tas-
silo. Pepin's activity in war was accompanied by a
widely extended activity in the internal affairs of the
Prankish kingdom^ his main object being the reform
of le^dation and mtemal affairs, especially of eccle-
siastical conditions. He continued the ecclesiastical
reforms commenced by St. Boniface. In doing tlus
Pepin demanded an unlimited authority over the
Church. He himself wished to be the leader of the
reforms. However, although St. Boniface changed
nothing by his reformatory labours in the ecclesiastico-
political relations that had developed in the Prankish
kingdom upon the basis of the Germanic conception of
the State, nevertheless he had placed the punned and
unified Prankish Church more definitely under the
control of the papal see than had hitherto been the
case. Prom the time of St. Boniface the Church was
more generally acknowledged by the Pranks to be the
mystical power appointed by God. When he deposed
the last of the Merovingians Pepin was also obliged to
acknowledge the increased authority of the Church by
calling upon it for moral support. Consequently the
ecclesiastical supremacy of the Prankish king over the
Church of his country remained externally undimin-
ished. Nevertheless by his life-work Pepin had power-
fully aided the authority of the Church and with it the
conception of ecclesiastical unity. He was buried at
St. Denis where he died. He preserved the empire
created by Clovis from the destruction that menaced
it; he was able to overcome the great danger arising
from social conditions that threatened the Prankish
kingdom, by opposing to the unruly lay nobility the
ecclesiastical aristocracy that had been strengthened by
the general reform. When he died the means had been
created by which his greater son could solve the prob-
lems of the empire. Pepin's policy marked out the
tasks to which Charlemapne devoted himself: quiet-
ing the Saxons, the subjection of the duchies, and
lastly the regulation of the ecclesiastical question and
with it that of Italy.
Hahn, JahrbQefuT de* frdnkUcKen Reichet 711-769 (Berlin,
1863) ; Oblbnsr, Jahrhikeher des firdnkiaehen Reiehea unter K&nig
Pippin (Leipzig, 1871); Mt^HLBACHBR, DeuUehe Oeaehichte unter
der Karolingem (Stuttgart, 1896) ; Paris, La ISgende de PSvin U
Bref in MSlanget (Havre, 1895) : Kampera, Karl der Gro»se (Mains,
1910). — Of the large bibliography concerning the question of the
Donation of Pepin may be mentioned: Scheffbr-Boicrorst,
PepiuM und Karl* d. Gr. Schenkungaveraprechen in MiUeilungen dea
Oaterr. Inatituta fUr Geaehichlaforachung, V; Martens, Die drei
undchten Kapitel der Vita Hadriana I in Theolog. Quartalachri/l,
LXVIII; SchkOrkr, Die Entatehung dea KirehenatacUa (Cologne,'
1894) ; Martens, Bdeuehtung der neuerten Kontroveraen Hber die
rfimiache Frage unter Pippin und Karl d. Gr. (MQnster, 1898);
Crivellucci, DtUe Origini ddlo Stalo PorUeficio in Studi atorid,
X. XI. XII. Franz Kampers.
FepudaiiB, See Montanistb.
nuuTJB 664<
Ptrato. See QNOSnCIBli. Schspm, PrueUUani qua 9uper»uni, C. 8. E. L., XVTIl (Vienaa,
rereyt John (oiUW John Fisher), D. at HolmeSldei in ZeOaehr. fur KirehenoMch., XVII (1897), 212; KOnbtlb. Dm
Durham, 27 Sep., 1569; d. at London, 3 Dec.. 1641. Comma Johanneum (Freiburs im Br.. 1905): Chapman. BarlyhU"
Converted when only fourteen years, he went first to <«v »/«*« V^^i^au OospeU (Oxford. 1908). ^
Reims, in 1686, then to the English CoUege, Rome, ^^^^ Chapman.
1589-94. Returning to Belgium, he entered the •» j /t» -n- t»_ x «
Jesuit novitiate, 2 May, 1594, and then set out for '«*?* (Perbtoa, Pbrbra, Pereriub). Bene-
England in 1596. He was, however, arrested by the ?J^» plulcw)phCT, theoloman. and exegete, b. about
Dutch, tortured, and sent prisoner to London. He i^^*.^\^)}^^f''J^^^ Vdencia, m Spam: d. 6
managed to escape, and became the companion of March, 1610, at Rome. He entered the Society
FathCT Gerard in several adventures. He was seized ®( Jesus m 1552 and taught succesmvely literature,
at Harrowden
Gunpowder Plot,
request of the Spanish ambassador (1606). Retiring J^P . ..^^ ,.. - tr^ - - x • <<^
to Belgium he was for a time head of the English Jesu- P? "^^ ?*|?cultie8 of Genesis are met m Commen-
its, then professor of Scripture at Louvain, after which *S^°'^®^?^»PK^*'^2S?^.™ Genesim tpmi quattuor
he returned again to England, and was again impris- (Home, 1591-99). This is a mine of mfonnation m
oned and conTemned to &aih (1610). Hehad already ^fA J? t*}® Deluge, wk of Noe, tower of Babel, ete.,
begun to write on current controversies, and when ^^ w highly esteemed by Biblical scholars, ^en by
James I desired a series of disputations in 1622, Percy, "^^n of the critical bias of Richard Simon (Histoire
who was then in a prison in London, wbs required to cntique du Viei« Testament, III, xu). The "Cpm-
defend the Catholic side. In these (isputations King ???^^™"™ "^ Damelem prophetam libn sexdecim
James himself and Laud took a leading part. As a re- (^.°^«» ^587) are much less diffuse, ami evidence the
suit of these disputations, Mary Countess of Bucking- ^^ntical acumen, untinngenergjr, and histoncal re-
ham, and ChiUingworth became converts to the 8«^\o(, ^^^ author. Other wntmgs of importance
Church. These controversies were afterwards printed Pubhshed by Pereira were five volumes of ex^tical
and discussed by Percy and Floyd on the Catholic ^»«f/*?^°f ^lill^i'^^ I ^5Z diAertations (Ingol-
«de, and by Laud, Francis White, John White, Feat- Btadt 1601); "The Epistle to the Romans , 188 dw-
ley, and Wotton on the Protestant. Percy was eventu- actions (IngolsUJt, 16^; "TTie Apocaypse ,
iJly released in 1625 and ordered to banishment in l^S dissertations (Lyons, 1606); The Gospel of St.
1635, but he was suffered to remain in London till his j?^ » ^laJ^^^^S^ S^*- ^^^ ?^® chapters
^^g^lY^ (Lyons, 1608); 144 dissertations on five following
Foley. Reeordt of the Bngliah Pnmnce 8. J. (London. 1877); chapters (Lyons, 1610). To the fourth volume of the
SoMMXRvoG^L. BtUiothique de la c. de J. (Pnris. 1892); Laud, dissertations is appended a curious work of twenty-
Conference with Fisher the Jeeuit (London, 1901). ^hree dissertations to show that Mohammed was not
J. n. i'OLLBN. ij^^ Antichrist of the Apocalypse and of Daniel.
Peregrine Lati0li» SaII^. See SbBVITE Order. SomiKHVooBL. Bxbl. de la Compamie de JSeue, VI, 409-607; IX.
■^ mi. r r>-j ^:ii: a i x 764; Hurtsr, Nomendatort I (InnAOruok, 1892), 182.
.l^^fr^^'-^y^f^onBotFnscilh^^ Walter Drum.
the Epistles of St. Paul m many (chiefly Spanish) Tf.«^x««. ^num.
MSS., are preceded by an introduction headed ;; Proce- Peretti, Felice. See Sixtub V, Pope.
mium sancti Pere^ni episcopi m epistolas Pauli Apos-
toli", in which it is explained that the canons were not Peres, Juan, d. before 1513. At one time he held
written by St. Jerome but by Priscilhan. and that they the office of corUador or accountant to the Queen of
are given in an expurgated edition. Tne prologue of Spain, showing he was of noble family. Later he en-
Priscillian himself to his canons follows; it shows none t^red the Franciscan Order and distinguished himself
of the characteristics of stvle found in the tractates of for piety and learning. Queen Isabella chose him for
Priscillian; it has presumably been rewritten by Pere- her confessor. Finding court life distracting he asked
grinus, if the tractates are genuine. permission to retire to his monastery. Soon after he
The Codex Gothicus of the cathedral of Leon con- was elected guardian of the convent, half a league
tains a prayer, and the words ''et Peregrini f. o karis- from Palos in Andalusia, La Ribida (Arabian for
simi memento " . The preface of St. Jerome to his lost hermitage, because it had once served as a Mohamme-
translation of the Books of Solomon from the Septua- dan place of retreat). In 1200 it came into the lumds
S'nt occurs in some MSS. after his preface to his traii»- of the Knights Templar, who in 1221 ceded it to the
tion of those books from the Hebrew; in most of Friars Minor. Father Francisco Gonsaga, Superior
these MSS. (Spanish, or under Spanish influence) a General of the Order (1579-87), declares that La
note is appended explaining that both prefaces are R^bida became a Franciscan monastery in 1261 ; and
flven because, to the Vulgate text which follows, there .that it belonged to the Franciscan Custody of Seville,
ave been added in the margin the additions found in which by Decree of Alexander VI, 21 Sept., 1500, was
the Septuagint; then come the words "et idcirco gui raised to the rank of^a province. The convent re-
legis semper Peregrini memento ''. The Stowe codex mained in charge of the Friars Minor without inter-
'centius'', and St. Vincent of Lerins in fact wrote his Here Christopher Columbus in 1484 or 1485 made
Commonitorium under the pseudonym of Peregrinus. the acquaintance of Perez. Father Antonio de Mar-
But he cannnot be identified with the Spanish Pere- chena, a cosmographer of some note, lived here, and in
prinus, as he was not a bishop. The latter has been him the navigator discovered a man bent on the pro-
identined by Schepss, Berger, Fritsche, and Kunstle ject of discovering a new world. The historian Fran-
with BachiariuSj a Spaniard who left his country, and cisoo Lopez Gomara (q. v.) in 1552 seems to have
is fond of speaking of his pereorinatio; he was accused started the blunder,, copied by almost every subse-
of Priscillianism, and defended his own orthodoxy; but quent writer on the subject, of makins the two names
he was a monk, and we do not know that he ever be- Ferez and Marchena serve to descrioe one and the
came a bishop. It is however most probable that the same person by speaking of the Father Guardian of La
Spanish Peregrinus lived at the beginning of the fifth Ribioa as Father Juan Perez de Marchena. Both
century, and he cannot be later than the eighth. Ktln- fathers materially assisted Columbus, who aoknowl*
stle b wrong in attributingto him the Pseudo-Jerome's edges his obligation in one of his letters to the king and
prologue to the Catholic Epistles. queen. He writes that everybody ridiculed him save
PiBXZ
665
PHtFBOTIOK
two friars, who always remuned faithful. Navairete, the Moora, and was won by King Ferdinand V; now
indeed, clums that Columbus in this passage spoke of newlv pubtished in an Arabic nook, the author <^
Peres, the FronciscAn, and Diego de Deza, the Dominv whicn is a Moor named AbeQ'Hanun of Granada;
ican. As the latter was Bishop of Palencia when the translated into Spanish by Gin^ P^rei" (Zaragoia,
navigator wrote his letter, and Columbus on all other 1695; Valencia, 1697). Not even the Arabic origin
occasions speaks of him as Bishop of Palencia^ or lord of tlua book is genuine nor is it a real history, but
bishop, it would seem strange that in this one instance merely a novel founded upon fact. P^rei de Hita
he should omit the title. Deia aided Columbus to the did not live when the Moors were in the height of
best of his ability among the scientists of Salamanca; their pcfwer in Granada, but, as he served in cam-
but he could not prevent the adverse decision of the paigna ag^nst the Moors, he was able to study their
Spanish Court, It was Juan Perez who persuaded the customs and ideas, and witness the remains of their
navigator not to leave Spain without conaulting Isa- glory. The soeond work deals with the Moorish up-
bella, when, footsore and dispirited, he arrived at La rising, and was published at Barcelona in 1619. Tina
Ribida, determined to submit his plan to the King of part passed through many editions, among which the
France, At the invitation of the queen, Perez made a later onea are that published in Madrid, 1833, and
journey to Santa F6 for a personal interview with her. the one forming part (vol. Ill) of "La Bibhoteca de
As a result Columbus waa recalled, and with the Autoree Espafloles " of Rivadencira. The &TtA majr
assistance of Cardinal Mendoia and others his de- be characterized as an historical novel, while the sec-
niands were finally granted. ond may be called a history partaking of the nature of
When the navigator at last on 3 AuBuat, 1492 set the novel. A striking pecuUarity of P^ref de Hita
sail in the Santa Maria, Perez blessed him and his is that he uses the language of to-day, and we look
fleet. Some writers
assert that Peres ac-
companied his illus-
triouB friend on the
first voyage, but the
ulence of Columbus
on this point renders
the claim improba-
ble. It appears cer-
tain, however, that
voyage i
JO
ed his
n the second
n 1493, The
J8t and beat
writers also agree;
that when the second
expedition reached
Haiti, Father Perez
celebrated the first
Mass in the New
World at Point Con-
ception on 8 Dec.,
1493, in a temporary
structure; that this
a the nrst church
almost i
viun for
The phraseology is
modem, and the dic-
tion is pure, terse.
?erf«etlon,
Christian anu Rb-
perfect in which
nothing ia wanting
of ita nature, pur-
Eose.orend, l(may
e perfect in nature,
yet imperfect inas-
much aa it has not
yet attained its end,
whether thia be in
the same order as it-
whether, by
in America; and that Father Perei preserved the the will of God and Hia gratuitous liberality, i
Bleaaed Sacrament there. He also became the guar- entirely above ita nature, i. e, in the supernatural
dian of the first convent which Columbus order^ to order. From Kevetation we learn that the ultimate
be erected at Santo Domingo. There all trace of end of man la supernatural, conaisting in union with
him is lost. Whether he returned to La RAbida God here on earth by grace and hereafter in heaven
or died in America is uncertain. All we know is by the beatific vision. Perfect union with God cannot
that, in the legal dispute between Diego and Columbus, be attained in thia life, ao man ia imperfect in that he
the royid fiscal, Dr. Garcia Hernandez, testified in lacks the hanpineea for which he la destined and sutfers
1513 that Father Peres
GoHlxQA. Di Ovine Stratum
iRome. 1G87): La* Cami, Hiaori,
iHA, Crnnica Otntral (Vallulolu!
(BuwloDs. 1703): Mblchdu, Ti
(Rome, 1BS1); Habou), SpUome Anaalium O
JRome, 1662) : Coll. CMn g La Bdbida (Midrii
0, Arbot Sr^ajta,
Tot dilai Iniiat
lSei):Civi
,wrM(«."V'{Rome, 18«1)| Ci*B«», OU
u (N«w York, 1893).
Zephtbin Enoelhabot.
many evils both of body and soul. Perfection there-
fore m ita absolute sense is reserved for the kingdom of
heaven.
Chubtian Perpection ia the mipematural or spir*
itual union with God which ia possible of attainment
in this life, and which may be colled relative perfec-
tion, compatible with the absence of beatitude, and
the presence of human miseriea, rebelUous paasiona,
and even venial aina to which a just man is liable
without a special grace and privilege of God. This
perfection conaiats in charity, in the degree in which
It is attamable in thia life (Matt., xxii, 36-40; Kom.,
. „ liii, 30; Gal., v, 14; I Cor, xii, 31, and xiii, 13).
the aecond half of the aiitteenth century, and probably Thia ia the universal teaching of the Fathers and of
took part in campmgns against the Moora in 1560 theologians. Charity unites the soul with God aa its
and following years. Tlie work that has made him supernatural end, and removes from the soul all that
famous ia his "Guerras civileede Granada", It ia in is opposed to that union, "God ia charity; and be
reality two separate works, dealing with eventa and that abideth in charity abideth in God, and God in
personsseparatedinpointof time by more than half a him" (I John, iv, 16), Suarez explains that pei^
century. The first, when it was printed, contained fection can be attributed to charity in three ways:
the following note: "Hiatoryof tbeZegriesandAben- W tubilanHaUy or esimtially, because the essence of
cerr^es, Moorish bands of Granada; ot^the civil war union with God consists in charity for the habit as
FIBFBGTIONISTS 666 PCROAMtni
principdUVf because it has the chief share in the pro- life is such a degree of perfection attainable that fur-
cess of perfection; (3) entirely ^ for all other virtues ther progress is not possible. God on his part can
necessarily accompany charity and are ordained by it always confer on man an increase of sanctif 3ring grace,
to the supreme end. It is true that faith and hope and man in turn by cooperating with it can increase
are prerequiates for perfection in this life, but they in charitv and grow more perfect by becoming more
do not constitute it, for in heaven, where perfection intimately and steadfastly united to God.
is complete and absolute, faith and hope no longer . Bucklbb. !%« Perfettionof Man by CAority (London. 1900):
^- '^ rpu« rv^UA. ■.*;»««;<^ «liA«iAf^t.A KAlrkvtn> ♦« r^f DuviNS, A Manuol Of Asetttcol Theology (London, 1902); loni,
remain. The other virtues therefore belong to per- convent lAfe (London, 1904); St. Francis db Salb*. TrtaiUe on
fection m a secondary and accidental manner, because the Love of God (Ehibhn. i860) ; Suarex. De reiigume, tr. 7, L. L;
charity cannot exist without them and their exercise, »». Thoiiab. Sttmmo. IMI. Q. cimy; .Ii>»m. Ojwm De per/eetume
but thev without chanty do not unite the soul super- ."^^^^^^ J^S^'?^^
naturally to God. (Lib. I, De Statu PerfectlOniS, of Chrietian and Religioue Perfection (New York); HvMnniBT,
Cap iii) . Elemente of Religimu Life (London, 1905).
Christian perfection consists not only in the habit Abthub Dsvins.
of charity, i.e. the iK)6session of sanctif)^^ Perfectionists. See Sociaustic ComiuNinBa.
the constant will of preservmg that grace, but also m
the pursuit or practice of charity, which means the Pergamus, titular see, suffragan of Ephesus. This
service of God and withdrawal of ourselves from those city was situated on the banks of the Selinus. It was
things which oppose or impede it. " Be it ever remem- ^t first a city of refuge, as its name indicates, for the
bered", savs Repnald Buckler, "that the perfection people of the plain, and has been regarded as a colony
of man is determined by his actions, not by his habits of Arcadians. The Greek histonans have recon-
as such. Thus a high degree of habitual charity will gtructed for it a complete history because they con-
not suffice to perfect the soul if the habit pass not f ugg^j it with the distant Teuthrania. It is mentioned
into act. That is, if it become not operative. For to for the first time by Xenophon (" Ailab.", VII, viii, 8;
what purpose does a man possess virtue if he uses it « Hellen.", Ill, i, 6). Captured by Xenophon in 399
not? He is not virtuous because he can live virtu- ^nd immediately recaptured by the Persians, it was
ously but because he does so." (The Perfection of severely punished in 362 after a revolt. It did not
Man by Charity. Ch. vii, p. 77.) become important until Lysimachus, King of Thrace,
The perfection of the soul increases in proportion took possession, 301 b. c. His lieutenant Philetairos
with the possession of charity. He who possesses the enlarged the town, which in 281 he made the capital
perfection which excludes mortal sin obtains salvation, of the new kingdom which he founded. In 261 he
is united to God, and is said to be just. holy, and per- bequeathed his possessions to his nephew Eumenius I
feet. The perfection of charity, which excludes also (263-41 b. c), who increased them greatly, leaving
venial sin and all affections which separate the heart as heir his cousin Attains I (241-197 b. c).
fromGod,signifiesastateof active service of God and ita highest prosperity was reached under his son
of frequent, fervent acts of the love of God. This is Eumenius II (197-59 b. c). He founded a school of
the perfect fulfilment of the law (Matt., xxii, 37), as sculpture, built in memory of his exploits a maenifi-
God is the primary object of charity. The secondary cent marble altar adorned with a battle of the giants
object is our neighbour. This is not limited to neces- (Ampelius. "Miracula Mundi", 14), the splendid
sary and obligatory duties, but extends to friends, remains of which are in the museum of Berlin, and
strangers, and enemies, and may advance to a heroic finally founded the celebrated library. Attains III
degree, leadin^^ a man to sacrifice external goods, com- at his death in 133 b. c. bequeathed his kingdom to
forts and fife itself for the spiritual welfare of others. Rome. Aristonicus, natural son of Eumenius II, en-
This is the charity taught by Christ by word (John, deavoured to restore the monarchy, but he was cap-
XV, 13) and example. (See Love, Theological Vir- tured in 129 b. c. by Perpenna, and the kingdom was
TUE OF.) ^ ^ annexed to the Roman Empire under the name of
Religious Pebfection. — Christian perfection, or Asia Propria. It is worthy of mention that parchment
poses an obligation, more strict than that of the was addressed the Third Epistle of St. John, became
secular state, of striving after perfection. Seculars bishop of this city, according to the Apostolic Consti-
are obliged to perfection by the observance of the tutions (vii, 46). Attains, martjnred at Lyons under
precepts or commandments only; while religious are Marcus Aurelius, was a native of Pergamus. Euae-
obliged to observe also the evangelical counsels to bius of Ca?sarea (Hist, eccl., IV, 15, 48), mentions the
which thev freely bind themselves by the vows of martyrs Carpus, Papylus, and Agathonice, executed
poverty, chastity, and obedience. The counsels (see in March^ 250. Out of a xx>pulation of 120,000 inhab-
CouNSELB, Evangelical) are the means or instru- itants which Pergamus then possessed, a large number
ments of perfection in both a negative and positive were Christians. Among its bishops may be men-
sense. Negaiively: the obstacles in the way of per- tioned: Theodotus who f3K>ut 150 was active against
fection, which are (I John, i, 16) concupiscence of the Gnostic sect of Colorbasiani; Eusebius, present
the eyes, concupiscence of the flesh, and pride of life, at the Councils of Sardica and Philippopolis m 344;
are removed by the vows of poverty, chastity, ana Dracontius, deposed in 360 at the Council of Constan-
obedience, respectively. Positively: the profession of tinople; Philip, present at the Council of Ephesus in
the counsels tends to increase the love of God in the 431; Eutropius, at the Robber Synod of 449; John,
soul. The affections, freed from earthly ties, enable d. about 549; Theodore, at the Sixth (Ecumenical
the soul to cling to God and to spiritual things more Council in 681; Basil, at the Seventh in 787; Metho-
intensely and more willingly, and thus promote His dius at the Eighth in 878; George, livins in 1256;
glory and our own sanctification, placing us in a more Arsenius, 1303-16. Pergamus was a sunragan of
secure state for attaining the periection of charity. Ephesus until the twelfth century, when it became a
It is true that seculars who also tend to perfection metropolitan see. Although long occupied by the
have to perform many things that are not of precept, Turks the town was still a metroxx>li8 in 1387, when
but they do not bind themselves irrevocably to the the title was removed and it became once more a dio-
evangelictd counsels. It is, however, expedient only cese (Miklosich and MOller, "ActapatriarchatusCon-
for those who are called by God to take upon them- stantinopolitani '^ II, 103, 397). The diocese itself
lelves these obUgations. In no state or condition of soon disappeared.
PEBOl
667
PIRIGUI
In 610 the body of Emperor Phocas was burned
in a brazen ox brought from Pergamus. In the sev-
enth century an Armenian colony, much attached to
Monophysitism, and from which sprang the Byzan-
tine Emperor Philippicus Bardanes (711-13). estab-
lished itself there. In 716 the Arab general Maslama
captured the town. From this period dates its decline.
It was rebuilt on a smaller scale and formed part of the
theme of Thrakesion. Constantine Porphyrogenitus
still speaks of it (De themat., 1, 24, 5-13) as a brilliant
city of Asia. In 1197 the French of the Second Cru-
sade halted there. The town had already suffered
from Turkish incursions. It then became the capital
of the theme of Neocastra, and a stronghold against
the sultans of Iconium. In 1306 the Emir of Karasi
captured it from the Greeks, but thirty years later
Sultan Orkhan took it from him. Save for the tem-
porary occupation of Timur-Leng in 1402, it has since
belonged to the Osmanlis. Under the name of Bergama
it now forms a caza of the vilayet of Smyrna and num-
bers 20,000 inhabitants, of whom 10,000 are Turks.
700 Jews, and 9,300 Christians (300 Armenians and
9000 Greek schismatics). The latter have two schools
for boys and girls, with about 800 pupils, and five
churches. The remains of three ancient churches have
been discovered, among them the magnificent basilica
of St. John. The church of St. Sophia was converted
into a mosque in 1398. •
Lb Quibn, Orient chritiianua, I, 713-16; III. 957-60; yan
Cafellkm, De regibiu et arUiauiUUibua pergamenia (AmsterdaiUt
1840); iMHOor-BLUMEB, Die MUneen der Dynaetie ^on Pergamon
(Berlin, 1884) ; Uruchs, Pergamon, QeechichU und Kunet (Leip-
Big, 1883); CoNXC, Humann and Bonn. Die Brgtbnieee der Aue-
grabungen zu Pergamon (Berlin, 1880-88); Pbobou, II regno di
Pergamo (Turin, 1896); Humann, FHhrer durch die Ruinen von
Pergamon (Berlin, 1887) ; AUertQmer von Pergamon (8 vols., Ber-
lin) ; CoNSE, Pro Pergamo (Berlin. 1898) ; Pergamon in Baumbia-
TBR, DenkmOler dee klaesischen AUertuma, II, 1206-87; UsaiNO.
Pergamos, aeine Qesekichte und Monumenta (Berlin, 1899); Col-
UONON BT PoNTRBMOU, Pergame (Paris, 1900) ; Acad, dee In»erip~
lions ei BeUea-LeUrea (Paris. 1901), 823-30; Caroinali, II regno di
Pergamo (Rome, 1906) ; Qblber, Pergamon unter Bytaniinem und
Oemanen (Berlin, 1903) ; Cuinet. La Turquie d' Aeie, III, 472-78;
LAMPAKis. Le$ eept aatree de VApoealypee (Athena. 1909), 251-
300; RAMaAT, The Seven Churehea of Aeia; Journal of Hellenic
Sludiea, iManm. S. VaILh£.
Perge, titular metropolitan see in Pamphylia Se-
cunda. Perge, one of the chief cities of Pamphylia,
was situated between the Rivers Catarrhactes (Duden
sou) and Oestrus (Ak sou), 60 stadia from the mouth
of the latter; now the village of Murtana on the
Suridjik sou, a tributary of the Oestrus, in the vilayet
of Koniah. Its ruins include a theatre, a paUestra, a
temple of Artemis, and two churches. The very tar
mous temple of Artemis was located outside the town.
Sts. Paul and Bam^as came to Perge during their
first missionary journey, but probably stayed there
only a short time, and do not seem to have preached
there (Acts, xiii, 13); it was there that Jonn Mark
left St. Paul to return to Jerusalem. On his return
from PLsidia St. Paul preached at Perge (Acts, xiv,
24). The Greek "Notitise episcopatuum" mentions
the city as metropolis of Pamphvlia Secunda until the
thirteenth century. LeQuien (Oriens christ., I, 1013)
gives 11 bishops: Epidaurus, present at the C3ouncil of
Ancyra (314); OalUcles at Nicsea (325); Berenianus,
at Constantinople (426); Epiphanius at Ephesus
(449), at Ohalcedon (451), and signer of the letter
from the bishops of the province to Emperor Leo
(458); Hilarianus, at the Oouncil of Oonstantinople
(536) ; Eulogius, at Oonstantinople (553) ; Apergius,
condemned as a Monothelite at Oonstantinople (680) ;
John, at the TruUan Oouncil (692) ; Sisinnius Pastillas
about 754, an Iconoclast, condemned at Nicsa (787) ;
Oonstans, at Nicsea (787); John, at Oonstantinople
(869).
Ramsay in Journal of HeUenie Studies (1880), 147-271; Hill.
Catalogue of Ike Britieh Mueeum: Pamphylia (London. 1897).
129-31 ; Idem. Catcdogue of the Greek coine of Lycion: Pamphylia
(London. 1897), 119-42; Lanckob6nbki. Lee viltu de la Pamphy-
Ueetdela Pieidie, I (Paria. 1890), 35-67.
S. FtraxDtB,
Porgola. See Caou b Peboola, Digcess of.
Pergolesi, Giovanni Battista, b. at Naples, 3
Jan., 1710: d. 16 March, 1736, at Pozzuoh, near
Naples. This young man of delicate and poetic musi-
cal nf ts might have done great things for the music of
the Ohurch had he not livwi when composers were try-
ing to serve two masters. Of frail constitution, he
shortened his career by irregular conduct. At an earlv
age he entered the Conservatory ''dei poveri di Gesu
Ohristo" in his native city, studied the violin under
Domenico Matteis and afterwards enjoyed the guid-
ance in composition of Gaetano Greco, Francesco
Durante, ana Francesco Feo. As a student he at-
tracted attention by his sacred drama "San Gugli-
elmo d'Aquitania" but, following the trend of nis
time, he devoted the next few years to the theatre,
producing with more or less success "La Sallustia'',
"Amor fa Tuomo cieco", and "Recimero". He was
not satisfied with these latter achievements, and when
Naples was visited by an earthquake, Pergolesi was
commissioned to write a mass for the solemn services
of thanksgiving in the church of Santa Maria della
Stella. Through this work for two five-part choirs
and two orchestras, he became known as one of the
most resourceful composers of the Neapolitan school.
Shortly after he produced another mass for two choirs
and later a third and fourth. Then the voung master
once more yielded to the allurements of the theatre.
The intermezzo, "Serva padrona", survived his more
pretentious works of this period. Althou^ requiring
for performance but two singers and a quartette of
stringed instruments, it had i^antaneous and lasting
success. The last two years of his life Pergolesi de-
voted almost entirely to the interpretation of liturgi-
cal texts (masses, a "Salve Regina'', etc.), almost all
of them for chorus and orchestra. The work, by which
he is most remembered, is the "Stabat mater" for
two-part choir and stringed orchestra and organ, which
he wrote shortly before his death for the Minorite
monastery of San Luigi in Naples. Requiring great
flexibility of execution on the part of the voctdists, it
especially displays the authors chief characteristic,
namely, dehcacy and tenderness of feeling and ex-
quisite workmanship. Though of lasting artistic
value, Pergolesi's compositions are not available for
liturgical purposes because for the most part they par?
take of tne nature and form of contemporaneous
operatic productions. They are better suited for per-
formance at sacred concerts. The latest arrangement
of Pergolesi's "Stabat mater'', for chorus and modem
orchestra, is by Alexis Lwow.
BoYBR, Jfotiee eur la vie el lee ouvragee de Qiovanni Battieta
PergoUei in Mereure de France (Paris. 1772); Blasm. Biografla di
Pergoleai (Naples. 1817); Faubtini-Fabini, (Tuminni Battieta di
Pergoleei attraverto i euoi Iriografi (Naples, 1900); Villarosa,
JAttera biografioa (Naples, 1831); Idbm. Memorie di compoeitori
di mueica del regno di Napoli (Naples, 1840).
Joseph Otten.
Pericope. See Gospel in the Liturgy; Lessons
IN THE Liturgy.
Porlcui Indians, a rude and savage tribe, of un-
known linguistic affinity, formerly occupying the
extreme southern end of the peninsula of California.
With the neighbouring and allied tribe, the Oora, they
numbered originally about 4(XX) souls. In general
habit they closely resembled the Guaicuri (q. v.) as
described by Baegert, but exceeded them in intract-
able savagerv, being in chronic hostilitv, not only with
the Spaniards, but with most of the other tribes of the
adjacent region. In 1720' the Jesuit Fathers Bravo
and Ugarte founded amongthem the mission of Nues-
tra Sefiora del Pilar, at La raz, followed in a few years
by several other Jesuit establishments. In 1734 under
the leadership of two chiefs of negro origin, the two
tribes revolted against the strictures of the mission-
aries upon polygamy and other immoralities, butch-
ered Fathers Oarranco and Tamaral, with a number
of the numion rollowera, and plundered and burned
the miaaionB of Santiago, San Joe£, Santa Roea, and
La Pai. For some time there was danger of an out-
break thmuKhout the whole peninsula, out order was
restored and mission work resumed. Prom 1742 to
17^, a series of epidemic visitations, probably Binall-
C:, reduced them to one-sixth of their former num-
, and two of the four missione were abandoned.
In 1709 another pestilentiM visitation wasted their
DUmberB and provoked another outbreak, which was
nippressed by Governor Gonzales in person. By 1772
less than 400 remained alive and these were hopelessly
diaeased from contact with the pearl fishers and Span*
ish soldiciy. MiBsiona were continued at San Joa£ and
La Paz (Todoa Santos) under Franciscan and Domin-
ican auspices into the last century, but the tribe is long
nnce extinct.
For biblincnphy lee Qoiiicuu Ihduhi.
Jakes Mooket.
r r— -ment of UordOEne and is si
to the Archbishop
of 1801. the Dio-
ceses of P^rigueux
and 8 a r 1 a t were
unit«d to the See of
An^uUme; in 1821
F£ngueux was agtua
the seat of a bishopric
which united the foi^
mer Dioceses of Pfiri-
gueux and Sarlat, ex-
cepting 60 parishes
mveo to Agen and
An^oul£me and 49
parishes which had
once belonged to
limogea, Cahora, and
Tulle.
The MartyroloKy
of Ado gives St.
Front as the first
Bishop of P£rigueux;
St. Peter is said to
have sent him to this
town with the St.
George to whom later
traditions assign the foundation of the church of Le Puy
Front's bfe one with that ot St. Fronto of Nitria,
thereby nving it an Egyptian colouring. At all events
we know Ely the Chronicle of Sulpicius Severus that a
Bi^op of Pfirigueux, Patemus, was deposed for her-
esy about 3S1. Among the bishops are: Raymond V, '
Cardinal of Pons (1220-1223); the future cardinal,
Blessed Elie de Bourdeillea (1447-1468); Claude de
Longwy, Cardinal ot Givry (1540-1547); the future
Cardinal Gousset (1836-1840), aubsequcntly Arch-
bishop of Reims.
The Abbey of Smnt-Sauveur of Sarlat, later placed
under the patronage of St. Sacerdos, Bishop of Li-
moges, seems to have existed before the reigns of Pepin
the Short and Charlemagne who came there in pil-
KrimaRe and because of their munifjcence deserved to
be called "founders" in a Bull of Eugene III (1153).
About 936 St. Odo Abbot of Cluny, was sent to reform
the abbey. The abbey was made an episcopal see by
John XXII, 13 Jan., 1318.
Amon^ the biahopa of Sarlat were Cardinal Nicolas
de Gaddi (1535-1546) and the preacher Jean de Lin-
gendes (1639-1650).
Vesuna (subseuuently PSrigueux) was in the fifth
century the site of an important school; it had distin-
guished profcuaoni: Paulinus the rhetorician; his son
PaulinuB the poet, who wrote (between 466 and 470)
8 FIBiaUIUX
a poem on the life of St. Martin and another poem on
the miraculous cure of his Erandson by St. Martin;
two named Anthedius; and Lupus, poet, rhetoriinaii,
and mathematician. Two provinciaJ synods of Bor-
deaux were held at P^rigueux in 1368 and 1866.
The history of the church of St. Front of P&i-
gueux gave rise to numerous discusnona between
archaeologists. F£lix de Vemeihl claims that St.
Front was a copy of St. Mark's (Venice); Quicherat,
that it was copied from the church of the Holy Apos-
tles of Constwtinople. M. Brutails is of opimon that
it St. Front reveals an imitation of Oriental art, the
construction difFers altogether from Byzantine meth-
ods. The dates 984-1047, oft«n given for the erection
of St. Front, he considers too early; he thinks that
the present church of St. Front was built about 1120-
1173, in imitation of a foreign monument by a native
local school of architecture which erected the other
domed buildings in the south-west of France.
St. Vincent de Paulwas ordained priest 23 Sept.,
given him. The
Church of P^rigueux
is the only one in
Prance to celebrate
the feast of Charle-
magne (28 Jan.).
This Church has a
special veneration for
Saints SilanuB,Sever-
inus, Severianus, and
Frontasius, martyra,
disciples of St. Front;
St. Mundana, mar-
tyr, mother ot St.
Sacerdos, Bishop of
Limoges (sixth cen-
tury); the Benedic-
tine St. Cyprian, Ab-
bot of the P^rigueux
monastery (sixth cen-
tury); St. Sour
(Sorus), a hermit
who died about 680,
founder ot the Abbey
of Terrasson. TheCarmelite monk St. Peter Thomas
(1305-1366), a native ot Salles in the Diocese and Pa-
triarch of Conslantinople, died in Cyprus during the
crusade which for a short time gave Alexandria tu the
Christians.
The Diocese ot Pdrigueux has a remarkable relic:
Pierre Raoul or GSrarJ. a parish priest in Pfirigord.
brought back after the first crusade the fioly .Shraua
of Christ, entrusted to him by a dying ecclesiastic of
l* Puy, who himself obtained this relic from the legate
Adh^mar de Monteil, The Cistercians who founded
the monastery of Cadouin in 1115 hod a church
erected in honour of this relic ; its cloister, a marvel of
art, was consecrated in 1154. Notwithstanding the
strict rules of the order interdicting the use of gold
vases, the Chapter of Ctteaux permitted a gold reli-
quary tor the Holy Shroud. As ea,r!y as 1140, the
Holy See instituted a confraternity in honour of the
Holy Shroud, thought to be the oldest in France. St.
Louis in 1270 venerated the Holy Shroud at Cadouin;
Charles VI had it exposed for one month in Paris;
Louis XI founded at Cadouin in 1482 a daily Mass.
Bishop Lingendes in 1444 held an official investigation
which asserted the authenticity ot the relic. The
other chief places ot pilgiimage are: at Belv^ a
shrine of Notre-Dame de Capelou, mentioned in 1153
in a Bull of Eugene III. Notre-Dame de Fontpey-
rines; Notre-Dame du Grand Pouvoir at P^rigueui,
dating back to 1673; Notre-Dame dee Vertus, dating
PEBIODI 669 PERIODICAL
back to 1653; Notre-Dame de Temniac, near Sarlat, interests. Of the former class the "Dublin Review^
a shrine where Clement V established a priory; Notre- may be adduced as an instance; of the latter there is a
Dame de Coulaures; Notre-Dame des nonces at sreat variety extending from such publications as the
Nontron, dating back to the beginning of the seven- ''Revue des Questions Scientifiques" to the special re-
teenth century. views on dogmatic and moral theology, canon law, the
Prior to the enforcement of the Law of 1901, there history of religious orders, and even nagiography, like
were in the Diocese of P^rigueux, Capuchins, Carthu- the " Analecta BoUandiana". It will be perceived at
sians, 7^PP^^> Sulpicians, and various orders of once that many of the last mentioned publications ap*
teaching Brothers. The Congregation of Sisters of St. peal only to a very limited public and that in their
Martha, founded in 1643 (mother-house at P^rigueux), case the circulation of 500 may be evidence of great
is an important nursing and teaching order. The con- merit and influence, though the number of their sub*
vent of Clarisses of Notre-Dame de la Garde, at P^ri- scribers is small compared with the thousands of
gueux, was founded by two nuns whom St. Clare had patrons of which our dailies and some of our magaainea
personally sent from Assisi. At the beginning of the can boast.
twentieth century the Diocese of P^rigueux had the In order to enable the reader to appreciate justly the
following relidous institutions: 15 infant schools, 1 information laid before him below, we subnut the fol-
orphanage for ooys. 5 orphanages for girlis, 4 houses of lowing general remarks: — (1) Prior to the middle of
shelter, 25 hospitals or asylums, 3 houses of visiting the eighteenth century and in fact almost up to the
nurses, 1 house of retreat. In 1905 (the end of the timeof the French Revolution, all the periodicals pub-
period covered by the Concordat) the diocese had a lished in a country reflected the spirit of the rehgion
population of 452,951 inhabitants, with 69 parishes, dominant in that country; in other words, in Catholic
467 succursal parishes, and 45 vicariates supported by countries they were animated by the Catholic spirit
the State. and may be regarded as a part of Cathohc literature.
L-teoU de Fingueux au V^ •t4ele: potte* et rMteura (Jfans. 1W3}; "*& *"" "*"" **«.*, v*.^ * *x>«» «. «.*« ,»».^^ x.^-a*v..^ w-
DupuT. L *Bstat de VBglite du Ptrigord dejmia le chriatianiame, ed. the westem world largely represented the f ceungs and
AuDWBNB (2 vols., P6r^ueux. 1842-1843); Bkrmabbt, Orwanwa- jjeas of the majority of their inhabitants. Thus at the
turn dee deux dtocAeee du Ptnoord in BuUetxn de la toe. hut. ei arch. _,.^^««x x:_«. aL^ al.«„:„u ;^,i~,,«1b «--* 1o w*AKr nr«.;^4-A««
du Pirigord, I and III (P6rigueux. 1874 and 1876) ; Villepblct. present time, the bpMush loumals are largely written
Hiet. de la vilU de Pirigueux H de eee ineiiiuiumB municipalea from the Catholic point of View. (3) The daily JOUF-
juaqu'au uraiu de BrUigny (P6rigueux. 1908) ; Bbdtajui. If, ^als of continental Euiope still differ markedly from
Queeiion de Satnt-FrorU (Oaen, 1896); Da la Nauzb, Htst. de 4. ^ *,^:„„i a«^«^«„^ aIxu,^ T\s^ laff^* ai*no aKrvt^A
Vtgiiee de Sariat (Paris. 1857) : Tabdb, Chroniquee eontenant Vhiti. the typical American daily. 1 he latter aims above
religieuae et politique de la viUe el du diockee de Sariat depute lea all at gathering and printing the political, SOCial, m-
aripinea 3wqu*aux ptemi^ea anrUea du xvip aiide. ed. db eluding criminal and economical, news of the day,
QAbabd (Pans, 1887) : Matjonadc, Le SatrU Suatre de Cadoutn _u:i^ ^-* 1:*^ «* ^ 1 _i:^ L^^..*... « «.^^»J«^.
(Pari^ 1906): Roumbjoux. Bosbedon. and Villbpelet. Biblio- while art, hterature^ and rehgion occupy a secondary
oraphie gHirale du Pirigord (6 vob.. Paris, 1898, 1902). rank and the editonals have grown gradually less im-
Georges Gotatt. portant. In continental Europe, editorial articles,
feuilletons, and varied essays often fill much more
Period! (Petri) , the name under which the Pseudo- space than telegraphic and other news. This state of
Clementine writings are auoted by Epiphanius, tnings accounts for the fact that the continental Euro-
Jerome, and the '^Philocalia . See CusifENTiNES. pean journal requires much less capital than a great
Amencan daily. It also explains, wny, in general, the
Periodical Literature, Catholic— The inven- non-Catholic European Press is characterized bv much
tion of printing, besides exerting a great influence on sreater animosity to the Church and why CathoUe
hterature in general and on education, gave birth to a dailies are more easily established and supported In
new species of literature: publications appearing at some of the European countries. (4) The European
intervals either regular or irregular. These sheets, or weekly Press hardly makes any effort to publish
broadsides as they were called, dealing mostly with re- contemporanr news. The Catholic weeklies confine
Ugious and political events, can be traced back to the themselves for the most part to the discussion of
year 1493. The oldest existing broadsides were pub- topics, either purely religious or involving ecclesiae-
ushed in Grermany, the earliest ItaUan periodicals were tical interests.
the "Notiziescntte" of Florence, wmch were called The following articles have been written by men
Otuetta from the coin paid for reading them. These specially well-imormed on the IVess of their several
early precursors of the modem newspaper were of countries, deserving of every confidence,
course very rudimentary, and without any set form or
scheme. From the first, however, religious interests Austria.— The Catholic Press is represented in
found an echo in them. The broadsides were later Austria by 140 newspapers and 152 other periodicals,
succeeded by the "relations" and the title of the Of the former, 79 are in German; 22 in the Czech, or
Jesuit "Relations'', which has become almost a house- Bohemian, language; 16 in Polish; 3 in Ruthenianj
hold word in American histonr, shows how early the 8 in Slovenian; 5 m Croatian; 7 in Italian. The 79
Church authorities appreciated the possibilities of this German newspapers are distributed as follows: Lower
new kind of periodical publication. In the present Austria, 22; Upper Austria, 12; Salzburg, 3; Styria,
article the reader will find not only a history of Catho- 6; Tyrol, 13; Vorarlberg, 3; Bohemia, 9; Moravia,
lie periodical literature in the most prominent coun- 6; Silesia, 1; Carinthia, 4: Camiola, 1. Of the Czech
tries of the westem world, but also an account of its newspapers, 12 are published in Bohemia, 10 in
present status. Moravia; the Polish are published in Silesia (4),
Our article treats of periodical literature whether Galicia (11). and Bukowina (l);'the Ruthenian ore
appearing daily, weekly, semi-weekly, monthly, guar- all published in Galicia; the Slovenian, 1 in Carinthia,
terly, or annually. It includes not merely the pohtical 4 in Camiola^ 2 in Gorz, and 1 in Istria; the Croatian,
newspaper, of which the American daily is the most 4 in Dalmatia and 1 in Istria; the Italian, 3 in the
characteristic specimen, but also the weekly, of which Tyrol, 2 in G6rz, and 2 in Istria. The other period-
the London "Tablet" and the New York "America" icals are distributed as follows: Lower Austria, 33;
may serve as types; the monthly, dealing mostly with Upper Austria, 8; Salzburg, 5; Styria, 7; the Tyrol,
historical, scientific, religious, and literary subiects, for 11 j Vorarlberg^ 4; Bohemia, 31; Moravia, 18; Si-
which the English "Month** or the French "Corree- lesia, 5; Galicia, 26; Bukowina, 1; Carinthia, 1;
pondant" may be cited as examples; the quarterly, of Camiola, 11; Gdrz and Gradisca, 1; Istria, including
which there are two kinds, the one being more general Triest, 5; Dalmatia, 1.
in character, the other treating of special sdenoee and _ The diistribution of the Catholic daily papers iv aa
PEBIODIGAL
670
PEBIODIGAL
follows: Lower Austria, 4, of which 2 appear twice
daily. Of these the "Reichspost" (Dr. Funder,
editor-in-chief) is issued twice dailv, and prints 16,000
copies to each edition; "Vaterland" (P. Siebert,
editor-in-chief), two editions daily of 2500 copies each;
"Neuigkeits-Weltblatt", August Kirsch, owner, 6000
copies to each edition ; ' ' Neue Zeitung ' ' , 50,000 copies
to each edition. All these papers are publii^ed at Vienna.
Upper Austria has the ^^ Linger Volksblatt". 4500
copies to each edition; in Salzburg, the ''Salzburger
Chronik'', 3500 copies; in Styria, the "Graser Volks-
blatt'', 8500 cojnea; the ''Kleme Zeitung'', 26,000
copies to an edition, the last two published at Graz.
In the Tyrol 3 daily papers are published: at Inns-
bruck the ''Allgemeiner Tiroler Aneeiger'', with an
edition of 3000 copies, and the ''Neue Tiroler Stim-
men'', with an edition of 1500 copies; at Trent, liie
Italian ''Trentino", with an edition of 5000 copies.
At Bregenz in Vorarlberg is published the "Vorarl-
berger Volksblatt'', with an edition of 3500 copies.
Bohemia has only one daily in the Czech language,
the ''Cech'' of Prague, with an edition of 3800 copies;
in Moravia, the Czech ''Hlas" is published at BrUnn,
2000 copies to an edition. Polish papers are the
"Czas", published at Lemberg, 5000 copies twice
daily; the ''Gazeta Lwowska''. 2000 copies to an
edition; the ''Gazeta Narodova , published at Lem-
berg, 4500 copies; the "Glos narodu", published at
Cracow. 8800 copies twice daily; two other papers
at Lemberg are the "Ruslau'' and the ''Przeglad",
each 5000 copies to an edition. At Klagenfurt in
Carinthia is published the ''K&mtner Tagblatt",
edition of 2000 copies; at Laibach in Camiola, the
Slovenian "Slovenec", edition of 3700 copies; at
Triest, the Italian ''Giomale''. In Dalmatia the
^'Hrvatska kruna'' is published in Croatian, with an
edition of 9000 copies.
The local Press, weekly and monthlv, is very large;
this is especially the case in the Alpine provinces
and northern Bohemia. The learned periodicals show
work of high quality. Among them should be men-
tioned: the ''kultur'', publi&ed at Vienna by the
Leo-Gesellschaft, and tne ''AUgemeines Literatur-
blatf, slIbo the ''Correspondenzblatt fUr den Clems'',
edition of 7000 copies, the ''Theologischpraktische
Quartalschrift", puDlisned at Linz, edition of 12,000
copies; ''Anthropos" at Salzburg. "Christliche
Kunstblatter" at Linz, ''Kunstfreund at Innsbruck,
"Immergrun"atWamsdorf, "Vlafit" at Prague. As
regards illustrated family periodicab the non-Catholic
P]re8s is decidedly in the lead.
The actual condition of the Catholic Press in Aus-
tria is far from satisfactory, though by no means hope-
less. Its defects are fully recognized by those who
are best able to remedy them. The daily papers, in
particular, suffer from the lack of funds. There is no
wealthy Catholic middle class, the prosperous city
population being to a great extent (pohtically at least)
anti-Catholic, while most of the zealous Catholics are
found among the rural population, who, in Austria,
care little for newspapers. This state of things renders
Catholic journalism an uninviting field for business
investment, and the dearth of capital employed in
Catholic ioumalism as business enterprise is only in-
adequately supplied by donations from the nobility
and clergy, who have neither the inclination nor the
experience to secure an advantageous employment of
the funds subscribed by them. Subsisting on these
slender contributions by supporters of the party, the
Catholic papers are unable to make any efforts for
their own improvement or for the increase of their
circulation by advertising; they are party institu-
tions, not business enterprises, and have to be satisfied
with keeping their expenditures down to the Umits of
the party contributions. At the same time, the con-
duct of the papers is in the hands of persons who, be-
sidee having no pecuniary interest in pui^ing them as
enterprises, generally lack journalistic training. This
techmcal inferiority, indeed, affects the whole working
value of the Austrian Catholic Press; the remunera-
tion of contributors, as well as of editors, being consider-
ably below the standard of the Liberal Press, the best
talent of the country avoids Catholic journalism and
enlists itself in the service of the opposition. Lastly,
its financial weakness places the Catholic Press at a
serious disadvantage in regard to the supply of scien-
tific matter and foreign news, both of wmch are abun-
dantly commanded by the affluent LiberaJ Press.
These enormous difficulties are to some extent coun-
teracted, it is true, by Catholic zeal and self-sacrifice,
but the strain of ceaseless effort necessarily results in
a lack of effective force. External difficulties aggra-
vate the disheartening conditions. The control of
public affairs by a Liberal Press lasted so long that the
whole reading public, good Catholics included, became
habituated to it, and this acouiescence in a wrong
state of things resulted in intellectual inertia. Only
in the first decade of the present century did the more
practically Catholic elements begin to realize that
those aristocratic-conservative influences which are
popularly regarded as reactionary are not necessarily
the most favourable to Catholic interests. The Chris-
tian-Socialist popular party has taken up the Catholic
programme and thus opened a way for it among the
inassesj a spirited agitation resulted in diminishing
the pohtical power of the Liberal Press; but, in spite
of all this, the public, long accustomed to the style of
Liberal journalism, find Catholic periodicals lackmg in
piquancy.
One more external difficulty with which Catholic
periodical literature in Austria — in contrast to the
conditions of United Germany — ^has to contend, is the
multiplicity of races and languages among the popula-
tions of the empire. The national rivalries are not
always held in check by the profession of a common
faith. The Catholics of each race insist upon main-
taining distinct Catholic periodicals in their respective
languages; hence a large number of periodicals each
with a circulation far too small to ensure success.
This difficulty has recently increased rather than di-
minished. The ''Vaterland", e. g., a Vienna period-
ical, formerly read by Catholics uiroughout the Aus-
trian crown lands, irrespective of their own national
languages, has now had its circulation curtailed
through this cause. And in general it may be said
that no Catholic paper in Austria can count upon a
circulation among all Catholics under the Austrian
Crown J a' separate Press has to be organized for the
Catholics of each language.
The result of all these internal and external difficulties
is the present embarrassed position of the Catholic Press
of Austria. Attempts have been made, with the best
intentions, at various times, by individuals, corporate
bodies, and congresses; all, however, have faded of
lasting success, oecause they lacked system and or-
ganization. It is greatly to the credit of some that
this defect was finely recognized, and an effort made
to correct it, by the Pius-Verein. As attempte to
obtain money for the Press from the few rich have
failed, a constant appeal is made to the great mass of
{)eople of small means, and large sums are thus col-
ected. In this way the question of means is to be
settled. By constant agitation, or by frequent meet-
ings, local groups, and confidential agente, the apathy
of the people is to be ended.
Although the condition, taken as a whole, of the
Catholic Press in Austria is not prosperous, still the
great efforts that have been made of late years and are
still making with ever-increasing zeal, at the present
time, justify the hope that the apathy of large sections
of the reading public may be overcome, an apprecia-
tion aroused of the importance of a Press that is
honourable and steadfast in the Faith. Only when
this IB attidned will the sacrifices in money and. labour
PIBIODIGAL
671
PERIODICAL
that have been made for many yean for the sake of
the Catholic Press bear fruit, and a powerful press will
be the strongest protection against the opponents of
the Church in Austria.
Anton Weiman.
Belgium. — Historical Outline of the Press in Bel-
gium, — Periodical literature in Belgium may be traced
ack to 1605, when the Archduke and Archduchess
Albert and Isabella granted Abraham Verhoeven of
Antwerp the privilege of publishing his newspaper
"Nieuwe Tijdingen". But it is in the Dutch period
of Belgian history that Catholic literature really orig-
inated. At that time appeared the "Spectateur
Beige" of Father de Foere, which several times pro-
voked the anger of William I; the "Courrier de la
Meuse", founded at Li^ge in 1820 by Kersten; the
"Catholique des Pays-Bas" and the "Vaderland",
both founded at Ghent by de Neve; the "Politique
de Gand", the "Noord-Brabanter", all showing re-
markable zeal in defending the Catholic Church at a
time when Catholic journalists were thrteatened with
imprisonment. A few years after the establishment of
Belgian independence the "Courrier de la Meuse"
was transferred from Li^e to Brussels, and took the
name of "Journal de Bruxelles". Long afterwards
under the editorship of the Baron Prosper de HauUe-
ville (d. 1899) it b^ame the leading Catholic organ;
but now it has lost its prominence.
Causes which stopped its Development, — ^The Revo-
lution of 1830 brought Belgium the liberty of the press.
The majority of the population and of the National
Congress were Cathohcs, but the Catholic Press from
1830 to 1874 improved very slowly. The first cause of
this was the disagreement between the Catholics and
the Catholic Liberals; the next was the neglect of the
old and the establishment of new publications. Among
the new publications were "Le nouveau conserva-
teur beige", an ecclesiastical and Uterary magazine,
founded in 1830 and discontinued in 1835; the "Mes-
sager des sciences historiques et des arts de la Bel-
gique", founded in 1833 and discontinued in 1896; the
" Kevue Beige" of 1834, which lasted only a few years;
the "Revue catholigue de Louvain", devoted to reli-
gious controversy, history, and apologetics; from 1843
till 1884 it counted among its contributors the {ore-
most professors of the University of Louvain. An-
other obstacle to the growth of the Catholic Press is
the fact that the people of Belgium consist of two
races with different languages, customs, and habits.
Also the competition of French journals injured the
growth of the Belgian press. French periodicals and
newspapers appear in Brussels almost at the same
time as in Pans. Besides their intrinsic merits, they
have the advantage of being fashionable. Moreover,
many Belgian writers have contributed to French
periodicals. As an instance we may name the " Me-
langes thdologioues", a review of moral theology and
canon law founded b v a societ>r of Belgian ecclesiastics
at Li^ge in 1847. Tnis magazine removed to Paris in
1856, where it was styled "Revue Th^logique", and
was conducted by a committee of French and Belgian
priests. In 1861 it settled at Louvain, and there con-
tinued many years.
Present Stale, — About the middle of the last cen-
tury^ the religious question became prominent in
Bel^um. Catholics felt the need of a vigorous defence
against irreligion and Freemasoniv. New life was
imused into the Catholic Press and. to-day its condi-
tion is more satisfactory.
(1) Dailies, — Out of a total of 86 political daily
papers 38 are Catholic. In consequence of the con-
stfiint political activity all the important towns, even
the suDurbs of Brussels, have their local daily papers.
Bruffes has "La Patrie"; Charleroi, "Le Pays Wal-
lon , a democratic journal of wide and vigorous
efficiency; Lidge, the "Gazette de li^e", which
Under editorship of Demarteau (1909) has reached .a
larger circulation than all the other Lidge newspapers
together. The "Bien Public", founded at Ghent in
1853 by Senator Lammens, Count de Hemptine, and
others, circulates in all the provinces of Belgium, es-
pecially among the clergy. Its chief editor, Count
Verspeyen, who has just celebrated his fiftieth anni-
versary as a journalist, has secured for it a well-
deserved reputation on thoroughly Catholic lines.
The most innuential Catholic journal in Belgium is the
"Patriote", founded in Brussels in 1883 by M. Jour-
dain, which with its local issue the "National" has a
circulation of 180,000. His bold and skilful attacks
brought about the downfall of the Liberal Govern-
ment in 1884. The "XX* Sidcle", founded also in
Brussels by the late Duke d'Ursel, the present minis-
ters Helleputte^ de Brocqueville, and others, is more
democratic. In Brussels also is published "Het
Nieuws van den Dag", the most popular newspaper
among the Flemings.
(2) Weeklit^r-^l the 1200 Belgian weeklies, the
Catholics certunly control more than one-half. Each
important locality has its political and illustrated
weeklies. Many parishes have their " Bulletin parois-
sial". Each diocese publishes its "Semaine reli-
gieuse". In Mechlin the organ of the archbishopric,
which is styled "La Vie dioc6saine", receives contri-
butions from Cardinal Mercier.
(3) Reviews and Magazines, — About a thousand
reviews and magazines are published in Belgium,
many of them by Catholics.
(a) Theology and Religion. — ^The "Revue th^lo-
gique" mentioned above was replaced in 1907 by
the "Nouvelle revue th^lomque , edited by Father
Besson. Besides this small out useful review, about
150 periodicals of various descriptions treat of theol-
ogy, apologetics, missions, special devotions etc. Tlie
Jesuits have their "Missions beiges de la Compagnia
de J6sus", a well-illustrated monthly masazine^ which
in 1899 took the place of the old "Precis nistonques".
founded by Father Terwecoren. The Fathers of
Scheut (near Brussels) have their " Missions en Chine,
au Congo et aux Philippines". Other religious con-
gregations and some large monasteries issue reports of
their pious works, or reviews of piety, of liturgy,
hagiography, etc.
(d) Scientific Reviews. — ^The Catholic standard
scientific review is the "Revue des questions scien-
tifiques", a large quarterly to which is joined a smaller
one of a more technical character. Both were foundcKl
in 1877 by Father Carbonnelle, S.J., and a Franco-
Belgian committee of prominent Catholic scientists.
Their motto: NvUa unquam inter fidem et rationem
vera dissensioesse potest (Cone. Vatican.) found a prac-
tical confirmation in the sound scientific character of
the whole series. The present editors are Prof. Man-
sion and Father Thirion. The "Revue n^-scolas-
tique " was founded in 1894 by Cardinal Mercier, while
directing his Institut de philosophie thomiste at Lou-
vain, with which it is closely connected (quarterly:
present editor. Prof, de Wulf ) . With the same institu-
tion is connected the "Revue catholique de droit", of
Prof. Crahav of Li^, and the "Revue sociale catho-
lique", of Mgr Deploige, Prof. Thiery, Prof. Defoumy.
and others. At Louvain also appear some special
scientific reviews, such as the "Revue m^dicale and
the celebrated magazine of cytology entitled "La
Cellule" of the late Canon Camoy (present editor.
Prof. Gilson). Also some philosophical reviews: "Le
Musdon" of the late Mgr de Harlez, continued by
Prof. Colinet, Prof. Lefort, and others: "Le Mu»Se
beige" of Prof. CoUard and Prof. Waltzing (the latter
of the Li^e University) ; the " Leucensche Bijdragen "
(for Dutch philology), edited by Prof. Colinet, L^ou-
tere, and others. There is also the Belgian law re-
view, "Revue pratiaue des soci^t^s civiles", founded
by Ftof . Nyssens, Minister of Labour, and continued
PERIODICAL 672 FERIODIGAL
by Prof. Corbiau. Outside of Louvain, we notice Montreal (1826) by Augustin-Norbert Moiin. It
"Mathesis'' (Prof. Mansion of Ghent); the ''Cour- had a career of seventy years, and numbered amons
rier litt^raire et math^matique'^ edited by Prof. H. its ablest editors Antoine Gdrin-Lajoie, Raphad
Gelin and the present writer as a guide for preparing Bellemare, and Joseph Tass^. The chief organ of the
for public examinations. English-speakins Catholics was the ''True Witness"
(c) Historical Reviews. — ^The largest is the impor- (weekly), founded in Montreal (1850) by George
tant ''Revue d'hlBtoire eccl^iastique", a Quarterly E. Clerk, a convert from Anglicanism, who Icr^aUv
founded in 1900 by Canon Cauchie ana Canon and generously served the cause of the True Faith
Ladeuse, now Mgr Ladeuze, Rector of Louvain Uni- during his prolonged editorship. The "True Witness"
versity. Others are: the " Revue b^n^ctine", which had been preceded by the short-lived " Irish Vindica-
In 1895 took the place of the "Messaser des fiddles", tor" of Montreal (1828), and still exists* under the
edited since 1884 at the Benedictine Abbey of Mared- lately assumed name of "The Tribime ".
sous bv Dom Gerard van Caloen; the "Archives In 1857 was founded in Quebec "Le Courrier du
Beiges'^ (Prof. G. Kurth, at lidge, since 1899); the Canada" (first weekly, then daily). It had an hon-
*' Analectes pour servir k Thistoire de TOrdre de Pr6- ourable and fruitful career of forty-five years under the
montr^", edited at the P&rk Abbey (Louvain) by leadership of such learned, vigorous, and elegant
Father van Waff elfdiem. Mention should also be made writers and uncompromising Catholics as Doctor
common interest, is chiefly a literary review. This (1867-81) with the Honourable Alphonse Desjardins
monthly publication, founded in 1863, reckoned as chief editor, and "L'Etendard" (1883-) under the
among its ordinaiv contributors the distiwiished direction of the Honourable Senator Anselme Trudel.
statesmen Malou, Deechamps. and Nothomb, Deputy A weeklv, "Les Melanges ReUdeux", founded in
Coomans. Prof, de Monge, the publicist Prosper de Montreal (1839) by Reverend J. C. Prince, lasted till
Haulleville etc. To-day the parliamentary leader. 1846. "L'Opinion Publique", an illustrated weekly,
M. Ch. Woeste, makes it the vehicle of his political published in Montreal for fourteen years (1870-83)
views. M. Eu^. Gilbert regularly contributes to it a counted many brilliant liUirateurs among its oontrib-
most valuable hterary chronicle. With this magazine utors. Most noteworthy among the monthlies are,
we may mention the "Dietsche Warande en Belfort". in order of date, "Le Journal de I'lnstruction Pub-
Other Catholic literary reviews are: "Le Magasin li^ue", founded in Montreal (1857) by the Honourable
Litt^raire", of Ghent; "La Lutte" and "Le Journal Pierre-J.-O. Chauveau. a distinguished orator and
des sens de lettres beiges", of Brussels, which have writer, who was its cni^ editor until its cessation
pleaded for Catholic art, but have been succeeded by (1878); "Les Soirees Canadiennes", Quebec (1861-5);
^ounger magazines such as "Durandal", a monthly "Le Foyer Canadien", Quebec (1863-6); "La Re-
illustrated review edited by Abb^ Moeller, "Le Cath- vue Canadienne"^ Montreal (1864), still flouri^-
olique", and "La Revue Jeime". ing under the du'ection of the Montreal branch
(e) AjI Reviews. — Most of these literary reviews of the University of I«aval; "Le Canada Franpais".
touch upon art ouestions, but there are also "Revue semi-monthly, edited by the parent University ot
de I'art chr^tien", a review of medieval archsolo^; Quebec (1888r-91). These five reviews form a ool-
the "Courrier de Saint Gr^poire" and "Musica lection replete with the best productions of French
sacra" which aims at promotmg the use of sound Canadian literature.
music in Church services j "Le Bulletin de la Soci^t^ For divers reasons, the Catholic Press in Lower
d'art et d'histoire du dioc^ de li^e", of which Canada, in fact throughout the whole Dominion,
founded by Brother Mtu^ for teaching the technical organ of the En^h-speaking Catholics is the above
arts on Christian principles. Ath. Glouden. mentioned "Tnbune" (weekly). Of the existing
French Catholic dailies, "L' Action Sociale", founded
Canada. — Under the French domination, periodical in Quebec (1907) by Archbishop L.-N. B^gin, is totally
literature, still in its infancy in France even as late as independent of politics, appreciating men and events
the close of the ei^teenth century, was totally unknown from an exclusively Catholic and non-partisan view-
in Canada. The first newspapers rounded in the colony, point; its present circulation, comprising the weekly
the "Quebec Gazette" (1764) and the "Montreal edition, is 28,000, as compared with the 90,000 of the
Gazette" (1778), both weeklies with a double-colunm non-Catholic "Montreal Star". Another, "Le De-
page alternately in English and in French, without be- voir", advocating nationalism^ founded in Montreal
ing professedly Cathohc, were not unfriendly towards (1909) and directed by Henn Bourassa, has also a
the Church. pood circulation. The foremost weeklv, still in ex-
ProvincbofQubbec, OB Lower Can ADA. — ^The first istence, is "La V^t6", founded in Quebec (1881) by
periodical of importance was "Le Canadien", founded Jules-Paul Tardivel, who has been called the Cana-
mOuebec (1806) by Pierre B^ard. Althou^ essen- dian Veuillot. This paper, during the career of its
tially political and patriotic, nevertheless by its vin- founder, exerted a considerable influence on Catholic
dication of religious as well as civil liberty, and owing opinion. "Le Coiurier de St-Hyacinthe" (1853),
to the unexceptionable Catholicism of the French "Le Journal de Waterloo" (1879), "LeBien Public",
Canadian population whose interests it represented, Three-Rivers (1909), all weeklies still in operation,
" Le Canamen " may safely be styled a Catholic organ, deserve a special mention for their soundness of judg-
This same principle applies to the greater number of ment and dutiful submission to the guidance of the
French papers published in Canada. After a series of spiritual authority. Among the existing monthlies
suppressions and interruptions, "Le Canadien" (first may be mentioned "Le riaturaliste Canadien"
rights of his fellow-citizens and helped to maintain prehensive programme; "Le Bulletin du Parler-
their national dignity and autonomy. trangais", a technical review of a chiefly philological
^^ — ^ in order of importance, if not of date, follows character, both founded in Quebec in 1902; "L En-
inerve" (first weekly, tnen daily), founded in seignement Primaire", a pedagogical review, now
Next
''La Minerve
PUtlODICAL 673 PIBIODICIL
•
in itfl thirty-second year, published in Quebec, and papers are issued by the same printing-house in
distributed by the Government to all the Catholic Wmnipes, under the patronage of the present Arch-
primary schools of the province, renders good service bishop of St. Boniface (1011). A Ruthenian Catholic
to the cause of elementary education. The outlook of paper will shortly appear under the same auspices,
the Catiiolic Press in the old French province seems ''Le Patriote^' began publication in 1910, at Duck
very hopeful, thsmks to the improvement of higher Lake, Sask. Edmonton, Alta, has "Le Courrier de
education, to the inculcation of a more thorough TOuest", and Vancouver, British Columbia, ''The
Catholic spirit, and a more dutiful compliance with Western Catholic".
the directions of the Vicar of Christ. , Tubcotm, U Canada •muV l/hum (Quebec, 1871): DiONNB,
ONTABio.-The fi«t CathoUo ^aper publidied in JXJrc»te!r?C.S^SSki'^^^JJ»ri^^^^
Upper Canada was the "Catholic , founded and ed- Canada (Quebeo, 1899).
itea ui Kinsston (1830) by Very Rev. William Peter Lionbl Lindbat.
MacDonalo, and published later in Hamilton (1841-
44). In 1837 Toronto had its first Catholic organ, England. — Not until the toleration acts of the
"The Mirror'', which lasted till 1862. It was fol- early nineteenth century and the Catholic revival
lowed successively by "The Canadian Freeman" incident upon the immi^ation of the French clergy,
(1858-63), under the editorship of J. J. Mallon and were English Catholics m any position to conduct a
James G. Moylan; "The Irish Canadian^ established periodical literature of their own, thoua^ occasional
by Patrick Boyle (1863-92; 1900-01); "The Tribune" pamphlets on various questions of Catholic interest
(i874r-85), with the Hon. Timothy Warren Anslin had been issued. With the dotation over the Veto
for its latest editor; "The Catholic Record"^ London and Emancipation, a beginmng was made with a
(1878), is by far the most flourishing (Dathohc weekly monthly review, the pioneer Catholic publication of
in Canada, with its circulation of 27,000. Toronto the kind, "Andrews' Orthodox Journal", first issued
likewise claims the following noteworthy Catholic in 1812 by Eusebius Andrews, a Catholic printer and
periodical: "The Catholic Weeklv Review" (1887- bookseller of London. It had but a few years of
93) : its editors were successively F. W. G. Fitzgerald, chequered existence, as there was not a sufficiently
H. F. Mcintosh, P. DeGruch}r, Revs. F. W. Flannery large reading public to make it self-supporting. The
and J. D. McBride: in 1893 it was merged into the real beginnings of Catholic periodical literature were
" Catholic Register", whose editors were, in order of made more than twenty years later, by which time the
date. Rev. Doctor J. R. Teefy, J. C. Walsh, and P. P. growth of the Catholic body in its newly won freedom,
Cronin. In 1908, under the title of "Re^ster-Ex- the progress of Catholic education, and the interest
tension ", it became the orsan of the Catholic Church excited by the Tractarian movement had all combined
Extension Society, under the editorship of Rev. A. E. to supply a wider circle of readers. A great step was
Burke, D.D. taken By Wiseman and O'Connell in the foundation of
MARrriMB Provincbs. — Nova Scotia, — Though aquarterly. the "Dublin Review "(1836). The fame of
Halifax can boast of the first newspaper in Canada. « the "Edinburgh" suggested a territorial title, and
now including the Maritime Provinces (the "Royal Dublin was chosen as a great Catholic centre, though
Gazette", 1752), the first Catholic periodical, "The from the first it was edited and published in London.
Cross", was founded onlv in 1845, by the future Arch- The review was intended to provide a record of current
bishop W. Walsh, and lasted till 1857. By far the thought for educated Catholics and at the same time
most important Catholic organ of the province is to be an exponent of Catholic views to non-Catholic
"The Casket" (weekly), of Antigomsh, founded in inquirers. Be^nning before the first stirrings of the
1852 and still in full activity. Its editorial chair was Onord Movement, it presents a record of tihe intelleo-
successively filled by the learned theologians. Doctors tual life of the century and produced articles which
M. McGregor, N. McNeil, and Alex. McDonald, the had an immense influence upon the religious thought
two last named since appointed respectively to the of the times. It was in the August of 1839 that an
Sees of Vancouver and Victoria, British Columbia, article by Wiseman on the Anglican Claim oau^t the
Sureness of doctrine and vigilance in denouncing con- attention of Newman. Impressed by the apphcation
temporarv errors are its chief characteristics. of the words of St. Augustine, aecurua judtcai orbia
New BruMmick. — "The Freeman", a political terrarum. which interpreted and summed up the
paper, was founded in St. John, 1851, with Hon. T. course of ecclesiastical history, he saw the theory of
W. Ang^n as editor. He was succeeded by W. R. the Via media "absolutely pulverized" (Apologia,
Reynolds. Under the name of " The New Freeman ' ' 1 16-7) . It was a turning point for Newman and for the
since 1902, its character is exclusively Catholic, whole course of the Oxford Movement, and the incident
While strongly advocating temperance and total ab- is worth remembering as an example of the power of a
stinence, it strives to enli^ten non-Catholics and to good Catholic Press. Gradually the Tractarian con-
foster vocations fpr the pnesthood. French Acadian verts appefffed in the lists of contributors: Ward (q.
journalism is chiefly represented by "Le Moniteur v.), Ofuceley, Maraludl, Morris, Christie, Formby,
Acadien", founded at Snediao (1866), and "L'Evan- Capes, Allies (q. v.), Anderson (q. v.). Manning (a.
geline ", of Moncton. v.), and a dance through the volumes of the " Dublin''
Prince Edward I eland. — The first Catholic paper will reveal names prominent in the great religious,
of the island was the "Palladium" (1843-5). it was scientific, and IHerary movements of the century,
followed by the " Examiner" (1847-67), both edited During tne sixties and the early seventies it was under
by Edward Whelan. Then came "The Vindicator" the vigorous direction of Dr. W. G. Ward. After his
(1862-4), strictly non-political, to be succeeded by retirement it was edited by Dr.*Hedley. afterwards
"The Charlottetown Herald", still in existence. Bishop of Newport, and then acquireci by Cardinal
North-West Provinces. — Catholic joumahsm in Manning, who appointed Canon Moyes ecutor. It is
^he north-west begins in 1871 with "Le M^tis", the now the property and under the direction of Mr. WiU
organ of the half-breeds, under the editorship of Hon. frid Waid, son of its famous editor.
J. Ro^al. Next comes "Le Manitoba", a valiant The first issue of the annual "Catholic Directory"
champion of the Catholic schools, founded by Hon. appeared in 1837. Owing to the Oxford Movement, the
J. Bemier, and now edited by his son. The first Cath- forties were a time of marked literary activity. In 1840
olic paper in English was " The North-West Review", two new enterprises were inaugurated. Mr. Dolman,
begiin in 1885, lon^ edited by Rev. L. Drummond, a Catholic publisher in London who had issued a num-
S. J., and still fighting the good fi^t. The German ber of really important books including the writings of
Catholics have also their oraan, "West Canada", and Lingard and Husenbeth. produced in "Dolman's
Uie Poles their "Gazeta £atolicka". These three Magazine" a high class literary monthly, and on 16
FEBIODICAL 674 PIBIODICIL
May, 1840. Frederick Lucas (q. v.) became the pioneer was decided that, though the society, as such, could not
of the Catnolic newspaper Press in England by pub- found a newspaper, a committee of its members should
lishing the first niunber of ''The Tablet", a weekly undertake the task. It included George Blount,
newspaper and review. Lucas was a strong man, and Stuart Knill (afterwards the first Catholic Lord Mayor
regarded his work as founder and editor of a Catholic of London), Viscount Fielding (Lord Denbigh), Vis-
paper as a sacred mission. He threw into it all his zeal count Campden (Lord Gainsborough), Sidney Le9-
and energy, reaJizing the enormous possibilities for cher. Archibald Dunn, Arthur k Beckett, and Ueori^
good of the religious Press when many were hopelessly J. Wigley, the London correspondent of the Pans
blind to such considerations. His uncompromising ''Univers". Wigley secured a foreign news service for
views led to difficulties with his financial supporters, the projected i)aper from M.Veuillot's Paris ofi^ce, and
but he emerged triumphant. For awhile filter the at his sugsestion the name of ''The Universe" was
crisis of 1848 Lucas, then active in Irish politics, re- chosen. Mr. Denis Lane undertook the printing, Mr.
moved "The Tablet" office to Dublin, out it was Dunn the editorship, and on 8 December, 18^, the
brought back to London by the new proprietors, into first Catholic penny paper in England was started,
whose hands it passed when failing health compelled At first it was strictly non-political. The editor and
Lucas to give up the editorship. It was not easy to staff gave their services gratuitously, but even with
replace such a man. He had not been content to chron- this help expenses were greater than receipts. To
icle events; he had influenced them. For many vears attract a larger circulation political articles were in-
aiter his death, in 1855, " The Tablet " was a mere hum- serted, which led to the resi^poation of the greater part
drum record of news. Among the distinguished edi- of the staff. Mr. Lane then took over the paper and
tors was Cardinal Vaughan (q. v.) who conducted the conducted it for many years as a Catholic paper, g^v-
"Tablet" during the stormy discussions on Papal ing a general support to the Liberals ana tne Insh
Infallibility and the Vatican Council. When he be- national cause. He had always a priest as "theolop;i-
came Bishop of Salford, he placed the editorship in the cal editor"; amongst those who thus assisted him
hands of Mr. Elliot Ranken, who was succeeded bv were Father W. Eyre, S.J., Father Lockhart, and
Mr. Snead-Cox, the present editor. "The Tablet", Cardinal Manning. Tne movement for the rescue of
besides championing the Catholic cause, assists in the destitute Catholic children originated in "The Uni-
propagation of the Faith in far-off lands, as under the verse" office. It has lately celebrated its fiftieth anni-
terms of the trust created by the late Cardinal versary, and has amalgamated with another paper,
Vaus^an its profits go to the support of St. Joseph's "The Catholic Weekly", founded to ^ve a record of
Missionary College, of which he was the founder. Catholic news without any party politics. "The Uni*
Two other notable periodicals were founded in the verse" has thus reverted to its onginal programme,
forties. " The Tablet was a sixpenny paper, reduced "The Lamp " was reorganized aoout the same time
to its present price, five pence, on the abolition of the and had for some years a prosperous existence as a
newspaper stamp duty. Its price put it beyond the popular magazine. Fathers Rawes and Caswall, Lady
reach of tens of thousands of Catholic workers. To « Georgiana Fullerton, MissDrane, Cecilia Caddell were
supply them with a pennv magazine Mr. Bradley in among its contributors. In 1864 Miss Taylor founded
1846 founded "The Lamp". It gave much of its space "The Month", at first an illustrated magazine givins
to Catholic fiction, descriptive articles, and the like, much of its space to fiction and the lifter forms of
and ventured on an occasional illustration, a portrait literature. When she foimded her first community of
or a picture of a new church; but it also supplied'news nuns (Poor Servants of the Mother of God), her maga-
and reported in full Wiseman's lectures and other zine passed to the Jesuits, and under the able editor-
notable Catholic utterances. For years it struggled ship of the late Father Henry J. Coleridge. "The
with lack of capital, and for awhile Bradley edited his Month" became a high-class review. It haa many
paper from his room in the debtors' prison at York, notable contributors, and in its pages Newman^
His name deserves honourable record as the pioneer "Dream of Gerontius" first appeared. Numerically,
of the popular Catholic Press. The other paper, "The the main strength of English Catholicism has alwavs
Rambler", of which the first issue appesu^ on 1 been in the North, and after the foundation of "The
January, 1848, was intended to be a high class weekly Universe" several efforts were made to produce a
review of literature, art, and science. In 1850, Lord Catholic penny paper in Lancashire. Three 8ucce»-
Acton (q. v.), who had then just returned from sive enteiprises haa a brief career. A fourth, a paper
the Continent, succeeded Newman in the editorship, known as "TheNortl^m Press" was barely existing.
The price, sixpence, limited its public and in 1862 when, in 1867, it was taken over bv a remarkable man,
it became a ouarterly under the title of "The Home the late Father James Nugent of Liverpool. He re-
and Foreign Keview". In its last years this review, named it "The Catholic Times" and gradually made
which had once done good service, was a source it the most widely circulated Catholic paper in Eng-
of trouble and disedification, but its sale, which land. Printed for many years by the bo^ of the
dwindled yearly, was largely among Anglicans and refuge he had founded in Liverpool, when it became
other non-Catholics. In the mid years of the nine- a profit-earning paper it helped support this work of
teenth century the abolition of the various taxes on charity. Offices were open^in Manchester and Lon-
newspapers and the cheapening of the processes of don. A special London edition was produced, and in
production led to the coming of the penny newspapers. 1878 a Christmas supplement issued under ibe title of
The first Catholic penny paper with permanent sue- "The Catholic Firesioe" was so successful that it was
cess was "The London Um verse". Its origin was con- continued as a monthly penny magazine; in 1893
nectedwiththeearlieractivityof Lucas, who success- it was made a weekly puolication. "The Catholic
fuUy advocated the introduction of the Conferences of Times" appeals largely to the Catholics of Iri^ de-
St. Vincent de Paul into England. It was a group of scent in Great Britain, and has always championed
members of the London Conferences who produced the Nationalist cause. It gives considernble space to
"The Universe". Speaking to their president, Mr. reviews and literary matter, and has a well organised
George Blount, one evening in 1860, Cardinal Wise' service of correspondents. Mr. P. L. Beazley, the
man, after alluding to the flood of calumny then present editor, has directed it for twenty-seven years
poured out in the Press against the Holy See, said: and is now the dean of Catholic journalism.
^'Cannot the Society of St. Vincent de Paul do some- In the sixties other papers were founded, for awhiio
thing to answer those frightful calumnies, by publish- fairiy prosperous, thou^ they never won the estal -
ing truths, as M. Louis Veuillot is doing in Paris in li^ed position of "The Catholic Times" and "The
'liUnivers'? We want a penny paper, and now that Tablet^'. "The Weekly Register" was a threepenny
the tax has been removed it should be possible." It paper, of much the same character as "The Tablet ,
PERIODICAL 675 RBIODICIL
but favouring the liberalfl and Nationaliats. Later, fP^^'r-^J ^?'v*f» <^^?°'J®^^>',^^"^Ta»^"'*' 4^.?^
under the edftorriuD of Charles Kent and then of Mr. ^^^^^ fet?/ l^]l ?^.TT^V'5?arfe^L''-^S3
Wllfnd Meyiiell, it had a marked literary quauty, but Mtnemmt (London. 1889) ; Idbm, W, G. Ward and the Calholie
in Ekigland it is found that no paper is a permanent R^^ (London, 1893). a. Hilliard Atteriooe.
success at any price between the popular penny and
the sixpence that gives a marKin of profit on a mod- France.— The first periodical published in France
erate circulation. ^*The Weekly Register" has ceased was the "Gasette de France", founded in May, 1631.
toexistandwithit"TheWestmmsterGazette", whose by the physician Th^ophraste Renaudot. It first
name is now that of a London evening paper. The appearea weekly, in four pages; in 1632 it had eight
V Westminster" was owned and edited by Pursell, pages divided into two parts, one callM the "Ga-
afterwards biographer of Manning. During the lette", the other "Nouvelles ordinaii^ de divers
months of newspaper controversy that preceded the endroits". It soon had a monthly supplement, en-
definition of Papal Infallibility the "Westminster" titled "Relations des nouvelles du mohde recues dans
was "non-opportunist", and Cardinal Vaughan, while tout le mois", and then additional pages c^ed "Ex-
he avoided all controversy on the subject in" TheTab- traordinaires". From 1652 to 1665 the "Muse His-
let", contributed, week after week, letters to the torique", edited by Loret, related in verse the hap-
" Westminster", combating its editorial views. It penings of each week. The "Mercure Galant'',
never had much circulation, and Vaughan was able a founded in 1672 by Donneau de \la6, was a literarv
with the popular Press is that directed by Mr. Charles S. A. Mgr. le prince souverain de Dombes". It was
Diamond, for some time a member of the Irish Parlia- edited by the Jesuits and is known in history as the
mentary party, who started (1884) "The Irish Trib- "Journal de Tr^voux", and was maintained until the
une" in Newcastle^n-Tyne. Shortly after, he pur- suppression of the Society of Jesus. The "Ann^
chased two other Catholic papers, the Glasgow Litt^raire", edited by Freron (1754-76), was a for-
"Observer" and the Preston "Catholic News", which midable opponent of the philosophesy and especially of
were in difficulties for want of capital. He then formed Voltaire, whose doctrines it combatted. It was pub-
the idea of working several papers from a common cen- lished every ten days. An Anglo-French paper, the
tre, much of the matter being common to all, but each "Courrier de Londres", was founded in London in
appearing under a local title and having several col- 1776. It appeared twice a week, and was very in-
umns of special matter of local interest. He now fluential in developing the Revolutionary spirit. The
issues "The Catholic Herald" from London, as the first French daily was founded in 1777 and was called
centre of the orpjaniaation, and thirty-two other local the "Journal de Paris ou la Poste du soir". The
weekly papers m various towns of England, Wales, "Gazette de France" became a daily in 1792.
and Scotland. He also produces on the same system At the beginning of the eighteenth century twentv
ten different parish magazines and "The Catholic journals were printed in Paris, and at the outbreak
Home Journal", with which the old "Lamp" has of the Revolution this number had been trebled,
been amalgamated. Between May, 1780, and May, 1793, about a thousand
There are a considerable number of minor Catholic periodicals saw the light. The most important organ
monthlies, mostly founded in recent years to advocate of the Royalist opposition was called the " Actes des
and promote special objects. The "Annals of the Ap^tres", to which such writers as Rivarol^ Bergasse.
Propagation of the Faith" and "Illustrated Catholic and Montlosier contributed imder the editorship of
Missions" specialize on the news of the mission field. Peltier. Under the Directory forty journals suspected
"Catholic Book Notes", a monthly issued by the of Rovalism were suppressed, and their editors de-
Catholic Truth Society and edited by Mr. James Brit- ported. The Consulate would tolerate onlv thirteen
ten, is an admirable record of current literature, and a political dailies, and the First Empire only four. The
model of scholarly and thoroughly honest reviewing. "Journal des D^bats", owing to the idea of its found-
"The Second Spring", edited by Father Philip Flet- ers, the Bertin brothers, of uniting with it a literary
cher, is a record of the work of the Ransom League for feuiUeton written h^ the critic Geoffroy, took first
the conversion of England. "The Crucible" is a rank under the Empire. Geoffroy's influence was im-
monthly review of social work for Catholic women, portant from a religious point of view, for in his
There are a number of devotional magazines issued feuiUeUms he voluntarily treated all the philosophical
bv various religious orders, the most widely circulated questions, and carried on a most intelligent campaign
of which is the "Messenger of the Sacred Heart", against Voltaireanism.
edited by the Jesuits. There are also several college Under the Restoration Catholicism was defended
magazines, some of which produce work of a high liter- by the " Gazette de France ". the " Quotidienne ", the
ary standard. It might be a gain if there were more "Memorial religieux", the D^fenseur", the "Cath-
concentration and fewer publications with larger circu- olique", the "Correspondant", the "Memorial", and
lation. Manv of these have a comparatively small the "Conservateur". The last-named was one of the
circle of readers; even the most widely circulated mostimportant; Chateaubriand, Bonald,Lammenais,
Catholic publication in England has an issue that falls and the Cardinal de La Luzerne were among its con-
far below that of its more powerful non-Catholic com- tributors. But even then the divisions among Cath-
petitors. The result is that the scale of pay in Cath- olics weakened the influence of their Press. Under
olic journalism is below the ordinary press standards, the Restoration the Voltairean spirit had in the Press
and many Catholic writers in working for the Catholic of the Left a representative who was very formidable
Press are making a continual sacrifice; but the stand- to religious ideas, namely the pamphleteer Paul-Louis
ard of work produced has steadily risen, and the Cath- Coumer. The Galilean spirit was represented in the
olic Press in England to-day, with sAi its deficiencies "Drapeau Blanc" by the Comte de Montlosier, while
and difficulties, is doing most useful work and exercises the Monarchist journal, the "Constitutionnel", in
an ever growing influence. order to retain a certain clientele, svstematicall^r pub-
The foregoing article is based on personal knowledge and on lished, several times a week, absurd and calumniating
ii«^.'*^ ThJI^fon^J!;?? 'JIJJS iSr JtS™iSl?'"Lnc7i!!"m? ZSi'o/ ^^^ concerning the clergy. The systematic Anti-
cations. J^J^^J^^'^^^'^'^^^^i^^ti}:^ clerical Pit« irTFrance dSes from the period Of the
PIBIODICAL 676 PIBIODICAL
Restoration, and at the same time a large section of Paris are the. ''Uni vers" and the "Croix". For the
the Monarchist press was hostile to the Church. In former, see France. The "Croix" is published by
his book on the "Congregation" M.Geoffroyde Grand- the Maison de la Bonne Presse, which originated in
maison has drawn up a list of ei^teen anticlerical the foundation in 1873 of the "PMerin", a bulletin of
articles published by the "Constitutionnel" in the societies and an organ of pilgrima^, which in 1867
single month of September, 1826. became an illustrated journal, amusing and sometimeB
Under the Monarchy of July the first noteworthy satirical; its present circulation is 300,000. In 1880
incident was tJie publication of the "Avenir" (see a monthly review, the "Croix", was founded, which
Lamennais). Tlie Legitimist Press, of Catholic ten- became a dailv in June, 1883, after the second peni-
dencies, offered a vigorous opposition to the Monarchv tential crusade to the Holv Places organised by
of July, the chief organs being the "Quotidienne the Assumptionists. After the Associations Law the
(see Laubentie) and we old "Gazette", of which the Maison de la Bonne Presse was purchased in 1900 by
Abh6 de Genonde was long the principal editor. M. Paul F^ron-Vrau; it employs a staff of about 600
Cr^tineau-Joly (q. v.) issued a provincial joiunal, the persons. For its great journal, the "Croix", it has
"Gazette du Dauphin6", a fearless instrument of throughout the country more than 10,000 conmiittees
Catholic and Legitunist propaganda. The first really and nearly 50,000 promoters. It has more direct sub-
serious attempt at Catholic journalism belongs to this scriptions thsii any Parisian journal, and its circula-
period. On Sunday, 3 Nov., 1833, appeared the first tion places it fourth in rank. It costs one sou (five
number of the "Univers religieux, politiciue^ scien- centimes), and since 1 Jan., 1907, has had six large
tifique et litt6raire". Its motto was: "Unity m what pages. For purposes of propaganda there is a smaUer
is certiun, libert>r in what is doubtful, charity, truth, paper issued dauy, which is ddivered in quantities to
and impartiality^ in all. " It was founded by the Abb6 the clergy for 8 or 9 centimes weekly. The "Croix du
Migne. Offsetting the " Ami de la Reliflaon " and the Dimanche ", appearing weekly, b^des the news of the
"Journal des viUes et des campagnes , which were week, gives agncultuial information in a supplement
of Gallican tendencies, the "Univers", with which called the "Laboureur". The "Croix illustiite" has
the "Tribune", foimded by Bailly, was soon merged, appeared since 24 Dec., 1900, and soon reached a cir^
represented the most distinctly Roman tendency, culation of 50,000 copies. Tne Ligue de I'Ave MamL
Montalembert became associated with the "Univers" founded Oct., 1888, under the inspiration of Admiral
in 1835; Louis Veuillot contributed to it his first Guicquel des Touches, has had a monthly, the "Petit
article in 1839. The "Univers". as the centre of the JournisJ bleu", since 1897, with a circulation of over
Catholic campaigns for libertv ot instruction, assured 100,000. Its direct subscription price is only 25 cen-
a widespread circulation to the claims of the bishops times yearly, and a number of copies for propaganda
and the speeches of Montalembert and Lacordaire. may be secured for a half-centime per copy.
The "Opinion Publique"^ founded in 1848 bv Alfred The Maison de la Bonne Presse also publishes the
Nettoment, was a Royalist Catholic journal, which "Action CathoUque" (founded 1899), a monthly re-
was assured a literarv reputation by the contributions view; the "Chronique de la Bonne Presse", a weekly,
of Barbey d'Aurevilly and Armand de Pontmartin. founded 25 April, 1900, to give information concerning
In the same year, at the instance of Ozanam and the the movement of ideas in the Press; the "Conf6-
Abb^Maret, Lacordaire founded the "Ere Nouvelle", rences", a semi-monthly review which supplies ao-
which within three months received 3200 subscrip- counts of conferences; the "Fascinateur", which gives
tions, chiefly among the younger clergy, but which notes on photographic slides and views for Catholic con-
did not last long. ferences; the Cosmos "^ a popular scientific review,
Under the Second Empire several very serious dis- foimded by the Abb6 Moigno in 1852; the "Contem-
cussions occupied the attention of the Catholic Press: porains", founded in 1892. which each week gives
viz., the use of the pagan classics in secondary studies the biography of some celebrated person; "Echoe
(seeGAUME): the controversy aroused by the baptism d'Orient", founded in 1896 and devoted to Oriental
of the Jewish child Mortara, of Bologna, who had and Byzantine questions; "Questions Actuelles", a
been baptized during a serious illness by a Christian weekly, foimded in 1887, which publishes all recent
servant without the knowledge of his parents, and documents bearing on political and religious que»-
subsequently reared as a Christian at the command of tions; the "Revue d'Organization et de Defense Reli-
the Pontifical Government; and the discussions con- gieuse^', founded in 1908, asemi-monthly review, which
ceming the Roman question. In the course of the studies reHmous questions from a legal standpoint;
discussions on the last-named topic the "Univers" the " Mois Litt^raire et Pittoresque", a popular re-
was suppressed by an imperial decree of 29 Jan., 1860, view founded in 1899; the "Vies des Saints", founded
as being guilty of having "compromised public order, in 1880; "Noel", for children, founded in 1895: and
the independence of the State, the authority and the two reviews devoted to the two capitals of Chris-
dignity of religion". It reappeared 15 April, 1867, tendom : "Rome", founded Dec., 1903; and " Jdru-
and played a very important part during the years salem", founded Jul}r, 1904. In a single year 350,000
preceding the Vatican Council. The "Francais", letters reach the Maison de la Bonne Presse.
founded 1 April, 1868, by Augustin Cochin and Msr Another Parisian Catholic daily is the "D^o-
Dupanloup, received contributions from the Due de cratie", founded by M. Sangnier, former president of
Broglie, M. Thureau-Dangin (at present permanent the "Sillon". The first number appeared a few days
secretary of the French Academy), and the future previous to the Encyclical of Pius X on the "Sillon"
minister Buffet, and was constantly engaged in contro- (Aug., 1910), and the publication has continued with
versv with the " Univers ". the authority of Cardiiial Merry del Val. The " Libre
The law of 29 July. 1881, definitely established the Parole", an anti-Semitic journal founded in 1891 by
complete freedom ot the press, and submitted to M.EdouardDrumont, has since 1910been marked by a
i'uries formed of simple citizens the political suits Catholic tendency owing to the collaboration of several
irought by officials against newspapers. The law of members of the Association CathoUque de la Jeunesse
1893 against Anarchist abuses was a restriction of the Francidse. At Saint-Maixent (Deux-Sdvfes) has been
absolute liberty of the Press, but this law is seldom founded the Maison de la Bonne Presse de TOuest,
enforced. The characteristic fact of the history of the which publishes parochial bulletins and almanacs.
Press under the Third Republic is the development of The circulation of the bulletins equalled (1908) nearly
five-centime journals, inaugurated as early as 1836 by 100,000 monthly copies for 300 parishes, that of yearly
the foundation of the '/Presse" under the auspices of almanacs nearly 200,000 copies for more ihan 800
Emile de Girardin. parishes.
At the present time the two Catholic journals of By means of fourteen combinations the "Groiz" of
RBIODICAL
677
PIBIODICIL
Paris is transformed into a local journal, partly general
in character, but alwavs retaining its title of the
•* Croix " . Under the title of * * Libert^ pour tons " , the
Maison de la Bonne Presse de TOuest publishes a four-
page journal; two pages forming the common section
ngure in all the local journals which wish to borrow
them, the other two form the special section and
vary according to locality. In Augiist, 1905, M. Paul
F^ron-Vrau founded the ''Presse lUgionale'', a society
for the creation or purchase in each diocese of a num-
ber of Catholic ioumals. At present this society owns
the "Express de Lyon", the "Nouvelliste de Bre-
tagne" at Rennes, the ''R^pubUaue de I'Isdre" at
Grenoble, the ''Journal d' Amiens , the "Express de
rOuest" at Nantes, the "Eclair de I'Est" at Nancy,
and the "Eclair Comtois" at Besangon.
The "Nouvellistes", which are journals with Royal-
ist tendencies, are all Catholic. Bordeaux, Rennes,
and Rouen have such publications. The best known
is the "Nouvelliste de Lyon", noted for its political
news. In the north the Catholics have numerous
local journals; the Lille "D^pSche", the " Journal de
Roubaix", and the "Croix du Nora" have together
about 170,000 subscribers. The "Ouest-Eclur'^^has a
wide circulation in Catholic Brittany. The depart-
ments of the South have no Catholic journal capable of
combating seriously with the " D^p^che de Toulouse",
a radical anticlerical journal and one of the most pow-
erful political organs in France. The organization of
the '^Presse pour tous", founded in 1903 by Mme
Taine, widow of the celebrated philosopher, collects
subscriptions for the distribution of good papers
among study circles or shops having many customers.
The Catholics of France foimded in 1905 the
"Agence de la Presse nouvelle". a telegraphic agency
for Catholic news. It suppliea the news for 1908 to
about one hundred papers. There is also a religious
and social information-bureau, the object of which is to
centralize the religious news of various ooimtries, and
which as early as 1908 had correspondents in forty-two
dioceses. The most important French Catholic review
is the "Correspondant'', issued on the 10th and 25th
of every month. It was at first (March. 1829) a semi-
weekly paper. Its founders were Came, Cazalds, and
Augustin de Meaux, and its motto was Canning's
words: "Civil and religious liberty throughout the
world". Its object was to reconcile Cathoucism and
modem ideas. Diuing the Monarchy of July it under-
went various vicissitudes. In 1853 Montalembert
wished to build it up in order to offset the influence of
Louis Veuillot and the "Univer8'\ and he secured the
co-operation of Albert de Broglie, Falloux, and Dupan-
loup. Its frequent praise of English parliamentary
institutions aroused the suspicions of the empire.
The "Correspondant" was at one with the "Univers"
in defending the temporal power of the pope, and also
felt at times the harshness of the imperial police. Dur-
ing the Vatican Council there was sharp conflict be-
tween the "Univers", which was for Infallibility, and
the "Correspondant", which was against it. Und^r
the Third Republic the "Correspondant" was succes-
sively edited oy MM. Lton Lavedan, Etienne Lamy.
of the French Academy, and Etienne Trogau, ana
endeavoured to show, according to the terms of its
programme of 1829, that Catholicism "still holds
within its fruitful breast the wherewithal to satisfy all
the needs, wishes, and hopes of humanity''. The
" Bulletin de la Semaine", published since 1905, gives
weekly a number of docuinents and articles of present
interest on religious questions.' Founded by M. Im-
bart de La Tour, this paper, while not concerning itself
with dogmatic questions, recalls in certain respects, by
the spirit of its religious policy, the tendency of the
"Correspondant" during the pontificate of Pius IX.
In 1856 the Jesuits Charles Daniel and Jean Gaga-
rin founded the "Etudes de th^ologie, de ph^losophie
et d'histoire", wiUi the aim of furthering KUBsia'a re-
turn to the Catholic Church. This soon became a semi-
monthly, dealing with all important religious ques-
tions and entitlea "Etudes religieuses, historiques et
litt^raires^ubli^ par des P^res de la Compagnie de
J^us". Consequent on the decrees of 1880 asainst
congregations it was suspended, but resumed piu)lica-
tion in 1888. In 1910 was founded the "Recherches",
wherein the Fathers of the Society of Jesus treat the
most interesting problems of religious knowledge. The
Assumptionists own the "Revue Augustinienne"; the
Domimcans the "Revue Thomiste" (1893), and the
"Revue de la Jeunesse" (1909), published in Belgium.
Since 1892 the Dominicans of Jerusalem have own^ the
"Revue Biblique". The Institut Catholique of Paris
has a bulletin; many of the professors of the Catholic
University of Lvons contribute to the "University
Catholiaue" of that city. The Catholic University of
Angers nas the "Revue des Facult^ Catholiques de
1 'Quest"; the Institut Catholique of Toulouse the
"Bulletin d'histoire et litt^rature religieuse". There
are two Catholic philosophical reviews: the " Revue de
Philosophic", founded in 1900 by M. Peillaube, in
connexion with the school of philosophy which is striv-
ing for a compromise between Thomism and contem-
porary results in physiology and psychologv; and the
^' Annales de philosophie chr^tienne^', founded in 1828
by Augustin Bonnetty. The chief editors of the latter
are MM. Laberthonni^re and Maurice Blondel, and
its motto the saying of St. Augustine: "Let us seek as
those who would find, and find as those who would
still seek".
The "Revue des Questions Historiques", founded in
1866, does great credit to Catholic learning. Its pres-
ent editor is M. Jean Guiraud, professor at the Umver-
sity of Besan9on. Since 1907 the French Benedictines
who have emigrated to Belgium have created the
"Revue Mabillon", an important review of Benedic-
tine history. The "Revue d'histoire de I'Eglise de
France" (Analecta Gallicana) was founded in 1910.
The two chief reviews for the clergy are the "Ami du
clerg^", published at Langres since 1878, and the
"Revue du Clers6 Fran9ais", published at Parid
since 1894. The "Revue pratique d'Apolog^tique",
founded in 1905, is edited by Mgr Baudrillart, rector
of the Paris Institut Cathohque. A characteristic of
recent years is the issue of pohtical and social bulletins
published by various female Catholic sodalities and
mtended for Catholic women. One of the chief re-
views of the Catholic social movement is the "Chron-
ique sociale de France" (formerly "Chronique du Sud-
EiSt"), the organ of the group which organized the
Semaines sociales. A powerful movement of Catholic
social journalism is due to the bureaux of the Action
populaire organized at Reims (see France) . The peri-
odical yellow pamphlets issued by the Action Popu-
laire between 1903 and 191 1 have reached thenumber of
236. Besides its annual " Guides sociaux " it publishes
a theoretical review of social studies, foundea in 1876
by the organization of Catholic workmen as the "As-
sociation Catholique", now called the "Mouvement
social, revue catholique Internationale". It issues a ^
popular social review called the "Revue verte", or
"Revue de 1' Action populaire". Finally, the Action
populaire publishes "Brochures p^riodiques d' Action
religieuse '', which are unc[ue8tionably the most inter-
esting sources of information with regard to the under-
takings of the Church of France since its separation
from the State.
Tavkbnikb, Du joumalumet 9on hi^oire, Mon rdU politique €l
rdigieux (PmriB, 1002): Ouide d* Action Relioieuae, publidied by
the Action populaire of Reinu (1908).
Georges Gotau.
Germ ANT. — ^The Catholic periodical press of Ger-
many is a product of the nineteenth century. It is
only within the last forty years that it has become
important by its circulation and its ability. A num-
ber of Catholic journals are, however, much older.
PIRIODICAL 678 PIBIODICAL
Theoldefit, the "Augsburg Postzeitung". was founded losophie" (1834-47), edited by the theological faculty
in 1695, and five oUiers were established in the eight- of Giessen; the ''Zeitschrift ftir Theologie", edited at
eenth century. Of those which were founded in the Frdburg in 1839-49; the "Archiv f(ir theologische
early part of the nineteenth century the most impor- Literatur", edited by Dollinger. Haneberg, etc., from
tant is the "Westf&lischer Merkur", established at 1842 to 1843; the ''Kathohsche Zeitachrift fur
Manster in 1^2, which at first, it is true, had a Wissenschaft und Kunst", edited by Dieringer
Liberal tendency. Until 1848 Catholic journalism 1844-46, and the continuation of this periodical, the
did not i>ro6per. lu this reactionary period the severe '' Katholische Vierteliahrsschrift flir Wissenschaft und
censorship of the government authorities was a Kunst", 1847-49. In addition there were various
drawback to the Press in general j Catholic journals church weeklies.
were viewed in an even less fnendly spirit than The year 1848 and the political and reli^ous eman-
the others. In Wiirtemberg and Hesse no Catholic cipations which it brought were of much inaiportance
journals were allowed to be published. Up to for Catholic life and the Catholic press. The free-
the second and third decades of the nineteenth dom of the Press enabled the journals to express pub-
century, on the other hand, the C^itholics them- lie opinion. From this time on each important period-
selves seemed to be in a condition of intellectual ical became the advocate of some definite political
torpor. For the most part, the clerey were under idea. Moreover, another result of 1848 was freedom
the influence of Protestantism ancT the prevail- of association, of which the Catholics at once made
ing philosophy of the times. Cultured society, the use to the lai^est possible extent. An increase in the
Catholic no less than the Protestant, was imder the circulation oi the journals already existing and the
influence of the "all-embracing religion of humanity ", f oimding of new ones was very materially aided by the
which diluted Christianity. Catholic societies. A rich Catholic life arose and
The ' ' Theologische Zeitschrift " of Bamberg, edited came into public notice with unexpected power. Thus
by J. J. Batz and Father Brenner, may be regpaxded as in the years directly succeeding 1848 a large number
the oldest periodical, but its existence lasted only of new periodicals appeared. Among them were, to
from 1809 to 1814. It was followed by the '^Katho- mention only the more important, the "Echo der
lische Literaturzeitung", first edited by Father K. G^enwart" of Aachen; the ''RheinischeVolkahalle"
Felder, then by Kaspar Anton von Mastiaux, who was of Cologne, which, from 2 Oct., 1849, took the name
succeeded by Friedrich von Kerz and Anton von Bes- of "Deutsche Volkshalle"; the "Mainzer Journal",
nard (1810-36). The oldest of the periodicals still in edited bv Franz Sausen: the "Deutsches Volks-
existence is the "Ttibinger Theologbche Quartal- blatt" of Stuttgartj the "Niederrheinische Volks-
schrift", founded in 1819, which has idways had a zeitimg"of Krefeld ;m 1849 the" Westf&lisches Volks-
hi^ reputation on accoimt of its genuinely scholarly blatt" of Paderbom: in 1852 the " MUnsterische
spirit. Among its editors have been Hirscher, Mohler, Anzeiger " ; in 1853 the "Rheinischen Volksbl&tter "
&uhn, Hefele. Welte, Linsemann, Funke, and Schanz, of Cobgne; in 1854 the "Neue Augsbur^er Zeitung";
names of the nighest repute in the history of theology, in 1856 the " Bayrischer Kurier " of Mumch. In addi-
In 1821 the "Katholik" was founded by Andreas tion the conference of bishops held at WOrsburg
R&ss and Nikolaus Weis, afterwards Bishops of Stra»- (November, 1848) expressed the wish that there
burg and Speyer respectively. The purpose was should be founded in all dioceses Sunday papers con-
stated to be "to offer the necessary opposition to the taining edif3ring and instructive matter. Of such
attacks, partly open, partly concealed, against the journals the one that attained the most importance
Church, by orthodox articles on the doctrines of faith was the "Frankfurter katholisches Kirchenblatt".
and morals, Church history and liturgy, the trainins The most important journals during the fifth decade
of children, devotional exercises by the people, and of the nineteenth century were the "Deutsche Volka-
all that belongs to the Catholic Faith", llie chief halle'' of Cologne, th^ "Mainzer Journal", and the
collaborator in 1824r-26 was the great publicist Joseph "Deutsches Volksblatt". The "Deutsche Volka-
von G5rres, but the responsible editors were G. halle" was suppressed 10 July, 1855, because its atti-
Scheiblein and Fr. L. Br. Ldebermann. In 1827, Weis tude towards the Government had not been friendly,
again became the chief editor. He was followed by' Its place was taken by a journal planned on a lari^
Franz Xaver Dieringer (1841-43): Franz Sausen scsJe, the "Deutschland" of Frankfort, founded in
(1844-49); Johann Baptist Heinricn and Christoph 1855 by the city parish priest and well-known writer,
Moufang (1850-90); Michael Raich (1891-1906); Beda Weber. After two years it ceased, not from lack
Joseph fiecker and Joseph Selbst (from 1907). Since of vitality, but on account of bad financial manage-
the appearance of the new Scholasticism the "Kath- ment. The "Kdlnische Bl&tter'', issued from 1 April,
olik" has been its exponent. 1860, by J. P. Bachem of Cologne, had a more
The Catholic movement was greatly aided by the fortunate fate. From 1 Jan., 1869, this well-edited
arrest in 1837 of the Archbishops of Cologne and paper bore the name of "Kolnische Volkszeitung".
Posen-Gnesen, von Droste-Vischering and von Dunin. Further, during the sixties appeared the "Frei-
Connected with this is the founding of the "Histo- burger Bote'' (1865); the "Fr&ikische Volksblatf
risch-politische Blatter", by Georg Phillips and Guido of Warzburg (1867); the "Essener Volkszeitung"
Gorres in 1838. This periodical contended against (1868); the "OsanbrUcker Volkszeitung" (1868);
false theories of the state, ecclesiastical Liberalism, and the"Schlesische Volkszeitimg" (1869).
and the writing of history from a Protestant point of In 1862 the " Literarischer Handweiser" was
view. Distinguished publicists such as Joseph Gdrres, founded at Mlinster by Franz HUlskamp and Her-
father of Guido, and the converted jurist Karl Ernst mann Rump, to give information concerning the latest-
Jarck collaborated on the journal and gained for it literary publications. From 1876, after Rump's
a lasting influence. Up to 1871 it was the most prom- death, Hulskamp edited it alone; from 1904 it has
inent journalistic organ of the Catholics. Its position been edited by Edmund Niesert. The " Chilianeum ",
in pohtics was that of Greater Germany. After the a general review for "learning, art. and life" was
death of Gdrres (1852) the chief editor was Edmund founded at Wtirzburg and emted oy J. B. Stam-
Jdrg; the assistant editor from 1858 up to Jorg's death, minser; the review had excellent collaborators^ but
in 1901 was Franz Binder. From 1903 Binder and lived only from 1862 to 1869. During the sixties
Georg Jochner have shared the editorial responsibil- there was idso established the organ of the German
ity. Other periodicals were only shortrliveo. as the Jesuits, the" StimmenausMaria-Laach'', which orig-
Hermesian "Zeitschrift fiir Philosophic una katho- inally (from 1865) appeared at irregular intervals aa
lische Theolode" that existed from 1833 to 1852; pamphlets on burning questions of Catholic prin*
the "JahrbUcher fOr Theologie und christliche Phi- ciples. It was called into existence by the storm
PERIODICAL
679
PIBIODICIL
against the SyllabuB and the Encvclical of & Dec,
1864. From 1871 it has been issued regularly and has
included within the scope of its observation all im-
portant questions and events. Its circle of coUaborar
tors includes the most noted German Jesuits, as Alex-
ander Baumgartner (now deceased), Stephan Beissel,
Viktor Cathrein, Franz Ehrle, Wilhelm Kreiten (now
deceased), Augustin Lehmkuhl, Christian and Til-
mann Pesch, etc. In 1866 the excellent ''Theolo-
gisches Literaturblatt" of Bonn was founded, but
after 1870 it became an orsan of the Old Cathoucs.
The Ktdturkampf now broke out. which consoli-
dated the Cathohcs, and impressea on them most
powerfully the necessity of a press of their own. Con-
sequently the larger number of Catholic periodicals
have appeared from the seventies on. Simultaneous
with the occurrence of the Ktdturkampf was the found-
ing of the Centre Party (Dec.,' 1870). Since then a
Catholic paper and a paper that is the organ of the
Centre Party are with very few exceptions identical.
During the exciting years of the ecclesiastico-political
struggle small papers particularly, such as the ^'Kap-
lanspresse'' (curate's press), shot up like mushrooms.
On 1 Jan., 1871 the ''Germania" newspaper appeared
at BerUn, as the new and most important organ of the
Centre Party; it was founded as a company by mem-
bers of the Catholic societies of Berlin with the active
and praiseworthy liid of the embassy councillor Fried-
rich Kehler (d. 1901). Up to 1878 Paul Majunke (d.
1899) wrote for it articles that were exceedingly sharp
and contentious in tone. He was followed as editor
up to 1881 by the learned and more moderate Dr.
Adolf Franz, who was succeeded by Ilieodor Stahl,
Dr. Eduard Marcour, and, from 1894, Hermann ten
Brink. Besides the ^'Germania" and the ''Kdlnische
Volkszeitung", which latter has been edited from 1876
by Dr. Hermann Cardauqs with great skill and in-
telligence, there are important provincial periodicals
that maintain Catholic mterests. Of these should be
mentioned: the ''Deutsche Reichszeitung" founded
at Bonn in 1872: the "Dilsseldorfer Volksblatt'', that
developed greatly under the editorial guidance of Dr.
Eduard HUsgen; the '' Niederrheinische Volkszeitung^'
ofKrefeld; the ''Essener Volkszeitung''; the'^Trier-
ische Landeszeitung'', founded in 1873 by the ener-
getic chaplain Georg Friedrich Dasbach (d. 1907);
the ''WestflQischer Merkur" of Mtinster, edited by
J. Hoffmann and Chaplain Karl Boddinghaus; the
'"Tremonia" of Dortmund, founded in 1875: the
" Mtinsterischer Anzeiger '' : the ** Westf&lisches Volks-
blatt" of Paderbom; the "Schlesische Volkszeitung''
of Breslau, edited by Dr. Arthur Hager, one of the
"most dashing champions of the CJentre Party"; the
''Deutsches Volksblatt" of Stuttgart; the "Mainzer
Journal ' ' ; the * * Badischer Beobachter " ; the ' ' Augs-
burger Postzeitung''; the "Bayerischer Kuricr" of
Munich. The editors had to make great personal sac-
rifices, for the legal actions against them lor violations
of the press laws, the confiscations, fines, and im-
prisonments were almost endless. It must be ac-
knowledged that there were some editorial elements
whose speech and method of fighting did no honour
to their cause. Among the weekly papers the "Kath-
olisches Volksblatt" of Mainz had a large circulation
(35,000), and great influence in Southern Germany;
the "Schwarzes Blatt" was published at Berlin as a
paper of general scope for the common people.
It was m the era of the KvUwrkampf (1875) that the
first laree illustrated family periodica! ''Der Deutsche
Hausschatz'' was founded at Ratisbonj it had a large
. circulation and was edited 1875-88 by Venanz Mtlller;
1888-98 by Heinrich Keiter; at present by Dr. Otto
Denk. A new literary journal was also established in
1875 by the secular priest J. Kdhler under the name of
the ''Literarische Rundschau fUr das katholische
Deutschland *\ From this time on the Catholic Press
has steadily grown. The number of political news-
papers and ecclesiastico-political Sunday papers was:
m 1880, 186; in 1890, 272; in 1900, 419; in 1908, 500.
In Prussia alone the Catholic periodicals numbered in
1870, 49; in 1880, 109; in 1890, 149; in 1900, 270.
The number of Catholic periodicals appearing in Ger-
many in 1890 was 143. Since this date the number
has more than doubled.
The present condition of the Catholic Press is as
follows: (1) Daily political newspapers, 278; political
newspapers appearing four times weekly, 14: three
times weekly, 134; twice weekly, 83; once weekly, 64 ;
in addition there are 19, the time of appearance of
which is unknown, makine altogether 592. In regard
to the extent of the cireulation of these newspapers,
statements as to the issue have been given by the pub-
lishers of 338 of them. The total issue of all for one
number amoimts to 1,938,434. The issue printed by
the remaining 254 can be averaged as 1500 for each
niunber, altogether as 381,000. According to this all
the political newspapers taken together issue a total
edition of 2,319,434 for one number. In 1880 the num-
ber of subscribers to the Catholic papers was estimated
at 596,000; in 1890 Keiter estimated it at over 1,000,-
000. The growth, therefore, was very large. Unfor-
tunately, a comparison with the Protestant Press can-
not be made, because comprehensive statistics are
lackinff, and oecause there is some uncertainty as to
just what would be meant by a '' Protestant newspa-
per ''. Yet it may be accept^ that the Catholic Press
would equal it in the number of its organs and sub-
scribers.
An important Catholic newspaper is the "Kolnische
Volkszeitung'', which appears three times daily; the
editor-in-chief from 1907 is Dr. Karl Hoeber, the pub-
lisher J. P. Bachem of Cologne; circulation 26,500
copies. Its quiet, dignified^ conciUatory tone, com-
bined with firmness of principle, has gained for it the
respect of all, especially the cultured ^circles, and its
influence extends far beyond the limits of Germany.
The "Germania'' is next to it in reputation; the
editor-in-chief of the ^'Germania'^ is Hermann ten
Brink, the publisher. Financially it is less favourably
situated than the Colore journal, because being pub-
lished in a Protestant city, it lacks advertisements. In
1882 its cireulation was 7000 copies; its present circu-
lation is unknown, but it is probably from 12,000 to
14,000. The other newspapers previously mentioned
in speaking of the KuUurkampf have also prospered
and developed, with the possible exception of the
"Westf&hscner Merkur'', which has declined some-
what. The one with the largest number of subscribers
is the ''Essener Volkszeitung'' (54,500).
(2) There are published in the German Empire over
300 Catholic periodicals, which have about 5,000,000
subscribers. Among these are: (a) General reviews, 8.
The most important, finest in tone, contents, and
artistic execution is the monthly '^ Hochland ", founded
in 1903 and edited by Karl Muth; the publisher is J.
Kosel of Munich, and an edition contains 10,000
copies. The list of collaborators contains the names
of B&umker, Cardaims, Finke, Grauert, von Handel-
Mazzetti, von Hertling, Kiefl, Mausbach. Pastor,
Schanz (now deceased), ochell (now deceasea), Schdn-
bach, Spahn, Streitberg, Willmann. The monthly
called ''I>er Aar'\ founded in 1910, seeks to compete
with the ''Hochland", but faUs a little below the
other; the editor is Dr. Otto Denk, the publisher is
Pustet at Ratisbon. The semi-monthly "Die His-
torisch-politische Bl&tter", published bv Riedel at
Munich, edition 3000 copies, and the "Stimmen aus
Maria-Laach ", publishea ten times a ye^r by Herder
at Freiburg, edition 5200 copies, are carried on, on the
same lines as heretofore. The "AUgemeine Rund-
schau'', a semi-monthly edited and published by Dr.
Armin Kausen at Munich, devotes itself to the uying
questions of political and religious life. It specially
combats immorality in life and art.
nitibbicii. 680 pibiodxcal
(b) Theological reviews, 10, diocesan and parochial ''Handbuch der katholiachen Presse" over the growth
papers, about 20. A description has ah'eadv been of the Catholic press refers only to quantity. In regard
given of the "Theologische Quartalschriff, published to quality there is little choice,
y Laupp at Tftbingen, edition 630 copies : and the Klemsns Lofflsb.
''Kathohk", published by Kirchheim at Mains, edi-
tion 800 copies. A good periodical for theological Holland. — ^Towards the end of the eighteenth
literature is the ''Theologische Revue", editedf by oentuiy the grinding oppression, under which the
Prof. Diekamp, published by Aschendorff at MUnster, Catholic Faith in the Northern Netherlands had
edition 950 copies. laboured so long, began to grow less marked, and the
(c) Family and religious-popular periodicals, 90. Catholics, upon whose printing-presses the Govem-
The subscription list of the oldest and highest in repute ment had always kept a vigilant e^e, now ventured to
of this class, the "Deutsche Hausschatz", has do- assert themselves more in public life and even to issue
clined; it is published by Pustet at Ratisbon, and its periodicals in order to proclaim and uphold their
edition in 1900 was 38,000 copies: in 1908, 28,000; religious principles. The first attempt was on a most
the number of copies forming an edition at present is modest scale and appeared under the title of "Ker-
unknown. Large circulations are enjoyed by: the kelijke Bibliotheek (6 vols., 1794-^), followed by
"Stadt Gottes". edited by the Society of the Word of the " Mengelingen voor Roomsch-Catholijken" (5
God, at Steyl. edition 140,000 copies; the "Christliche vols.. 1807-14), edited by Prof. J. Schrant. Rev. J. W.
Familie'S eoited by Dr. Jos. Burg, published by A. Muller, and Prof. J. H. Lexius. But the man who
Fredebeul and Koenen at Essen, edition 150,000 inspired Catholic periodical literature with life and
copies; the "Katholiaches Sonntagsblatt" of Stutt- vigour and brousht it to comparative perfection waa
gart, edition 75,000 copies. Joachim George k Sage ten Broek (d. 1847), a convert
(d) Legal, national, and socio-economic, 6; amoiu^ from Protestantism (1806) and known in Holland as
these is the " Archiv fOr katholiaches Kirchenrecht , the " Father of the R^man Catholic Press". In 1818
founded by Ernst von Moy in 1857, edited later by he founded "De Godsdienstvriend" (102 vols., 1818-
Friedrich fi. Verinc, and at present by Frans Heiner, 69)^ containing articles of local interest, recent ecclesi-
published b^ Kirchheim at Mains. astical intelligence, and especially moderate polemics
(e) Scientific periodicals, 3. The most important of against Protestant and Liberal pi^etensions. by which
these is "Natur und Offenbarung", edited by Dr. he united the efforts of the Catholics in tneir strug-
Forch, published bv Aschendorff at MQnster. edition gle for emancipation. Assisted by his adopted son.
900 copies; (f) Philosophical periodicals, 2; (g) Edu- Josu^ Wits, Le Sage displayed a great and wonderful
cational periodicals, 34 ; (h) Historical periodicals^O. energv not only in his books, but uso in several serialfly
Among tnese one ot seneral importance is the " Uis- edited by him or at least with his colli^ration, vis.,
torisches Jahrbuch der Gdrresgesellschaft", founded the works of the "R. Cath. Maatschappy" (1821-2),
in 1880. Its former editors are: HUffer, Hermann suppressed in 1823, the ''R. Kath. Bibliotheek" (6
Grauert, Joseph Weiss; its present editor is Max Jan- vols., 1821-6), the "Godsdienstige en sedekundise
sen; it is published by Herder at Munich, edition mengelingen" (1824-8), the "Bijchagen tot de Go(&-
about 750 copies. dienstvriend" (2 vols., 1824-7), ''De Ultramontaan"
(i) Periodicals for historical art, 6. Amonf^ these (5 vols., 1826-30) with its sequels, "De Morgenstar"
are the two illustrated monthlies "Zeitschnft fOr (2 vols., 1831-2) and "De Morgenstar der toekemst"
christliche Kunst", edited by Prof. Dr. SchnUtgen. (7 vols., 1832-5), finally. "De Correspondent" (3
published by Schwann at DOsseldorf, edition 900 vols., 1833-4) continued later by Jo6u6 Wits in the
copies; and "Die christliche Kunst", edited by J. "Catholijke Nederlandsche Stemmen" (22 vols.,
Staudhamer, published by the Society for Christian 1835-56), appearing under the title of "Kerkelijke
Art of Munich, edition 6400 copies; (j) Periodicals for Courant" from 1857 till 1873. Besides this m 1844
church music, 8. Witz started a popular magazine, "intspanninga-
Qc) Literary journals, 18. Among these are the lectuur" (40 vols., 1844-52). In the mean time other
"Literarischer Handweiser", published by Theissing serials were published in the Catholic interest, vis.,
at Mfinster, and the" Literarische Rundschau fUr das "Minerva" (6 vols., 1818-20), continued in "De
katholische Deutschland", edited by Prof. Joseph KathoUjke" (3 vols., 1822-4), "Katholikon" (3 vols.,
Sauer, published by Herder at Freiburg; (1) Mission- 1828-30), " De Christelijke Mentor" (2 vols., 182^-9),
ary penodicals, 14; (m) Periodicals for children and "Magazijn voor R.-Katholieken" (9 vols., 1835-45),
youtn, 21; (n) Penodicals issued by Catholic associa- and "(xodsdienstig, geschied-en letterkundig Tijd*
tions, 24. Bchrift" (2 vols., 1838-39). but none of these survived.
Up to the present time the growth of the Catholic A new generation of Catnolic writers soon arose, by
Press of Germany has been both rapid and steady, whom the struggle for emancipation was continued on
As theCatholicsinGermanynumber about 21,000,000, a more scientific basis.
there is room for an increase in the sales of these peri- In 1842 F. J. van Vree, later Bishop of Haarlem,
odicals, and their circulation will probably grow still Th. Borret, C. Broere, J. F. Leesberg, and othen
larger. On the other hand an increase in the number founded the best and oldest of the penodicals still
of oraans is less necessary and desirable. The effort existing, "De Katholiek" (138 vols., 1842-1910).
shoum rather be made to overcome the decided dis- This periodical in the course of time introduced many
garity between quantity and quality. There are, per- new features which have increased its usefulness, the
ape, no more than a dozen Catholic dailies which most important being the admission of lengthier arti-
have a really high value. Most of the others limit cles contributed by prominent Catholic scholars,
themselves to a systematic use of correspondence, the A fresh impetus in the field of art and literature was
of readers. The relatively smidl subscription usts of issues being entitled " Jaarboekje" (7 vols., 1902-08)
thereallyimportantjoumals and the undue number of and finally consolidated with the "Annuarium der.
small periodicals show that the cultivated classes sat- Apologetische Vereeniging Petrus Canisius" (2 vols.,
isfy their need of reading in part with non-Catholic 1909-10). Under Thijm's direction two eminent
periodicals. The case is the same with the family writers were formed: Dr. H. J. Schaepman, poet and
papers. An issue of 10,000 copies is very small for so politician, and Dr. W. Nuijens, the historian, who, hav-
excellent a review as "Hochland". The satisfaction mg jointly founded the "Kath. Nederl. Brochuren-
ezpressed in each succeeding edition of Keiter's vereeniging" (27 brochures, 1869-70), transformed it
PIBIODXCAL 681 PIBIODICAL
later into the more scientific monthly " Onze Wachter *' 10) . Besides those already mentioned there are some
(23 vols., 1874-85); combined with "De Wachter'' (6 fifty other periodicals some of which supply enter-
vols., 1871-3), afterwards named " De Katholiek" in taining literature, such as the ''Katholieke lUustratie''
1885. Meanwhile ''De Wachter" (12 vols., 1874-85). (44 vols.. 1867-1910) and the ''Leesbibliotheek voor
more especially devoted to studies of Dante, continued christelijke huisgezinnen " (56 vols.. 1856-1910), while
to exist under the editorship of J. Bohl and was finally others, mostly published for the benefit of the for-
meraed in ''De wetenschappelijke Nederlander'' in dgn missions, are of a devotional character. Men-
whicn the Rev. J. Brouwers published manv inter- tion must be made of the annual Catholic directories
eeting Essays (8 vols., 1881-90). Recently "De of Holland. The first of these was the "Almanach
Katholiek" has found powerful competitors in "Van du clerg6 catholique" (7 vols., 1822-29), issued when
onzen tijd" (at first a monthly, 15 vols., 1900-10; then Holland and Belgium were politically united. Then
a weekl>r, 1 vol.. 1910-1911) and in the " Annalen der came the "R.-Kath. Jaarboek" (9 vols., 1835-44),
vereeniging tot net bevorderen van de beoefening der succeeded by "Kerkelijk Nederland" (10 vols.j 1847-
wetenschap onder de katholieken in Nederlantr' (2 56), together with the interesting "Handboekje voor
vols., 1907-10), which contain articles of a most de zaken der R.-Kath. eeredienst " (by J. C. Wulemse,
scholarlv character. In this country as elsewhere the 32 vols., 1847-80), while the statistics of more mod-
Jesuits have edited a periodical of their own, the val- em times and the present day and all desirable in-
uable "Studien. Tijdschrift voor godsdienst, weten- formation can be foimd carefully arranged in the
schap. letteien" (74 vols., 1868-1910), while in "De "Pius-almanak" (36 vols., 1875-1910), which had a
katholieke mission" (35 vols., 1876-1910) they have temporary rival m "Onze Pius-almanak" (6 vols.,
kei)t up a lively interest in the foreign missions, towards 1900-05) .
which Holland has always been so generous. Among the journals the three most prominent
In the field of purely historical research there are dailies are: "De Tijd". started by the Kev. J. A.
the "Bijdragen voor de geschiedenis van het bisdom Smits, J. W. Cramer, ana P. van Cranenbiirgh in 1846,
van Haarlem'' (33 vols., 1873-1910) and the " Archief which is considered the chief leader and representa-
voorhebaarbsbisdom Utrecht" (36 vols., 1875-1910), tive of public opinion amongst Catholics; the more
which together with the historical contributions ap- militant "De Maasbode", founded in 1868, and the
pearing in the other periodicals fully answer the ex- democratic "Het Centrum", begun in 1884. All
isting interest ; it was this that led to the early collapse these Dutch papers and periodicals are irreproachably
of the "Grescniedkundige Bladen" (4 vols., 1905-6). orthodox. As to the circulation the dailies enjoy, no
No better fate awaited the only periodical on ecclesias- figures are avulable. But " De Voorhoede ", a weekly
tical art. "Het Gildeboek" (3 vols., 1873-81; " Versla- paper established in 1907, is known to have an edition
Sen", 11 vols^ 1886-90) edited by Mgr van Henkelum. of 25,000 copies. In all, Holland has 15 Catholic
ean of St. Bemulph's Guild, out its work is still dailies, of which only "De Maasbode" issues a mom-
carried on in part by the Belgian-Dutch review "Sint ing and an evening edition (since 1909). In addition
Lucas" (2 vols., 1908-10). "De katholieke Gids" to these there are 31 papers published more than once
(20 vols., 1889-1908), a monthly, the contents of a week, with 76 weeklies and some 70 monthlies,
which were never of any great moment, met a similar Bonav. Kruttwagen.
fate; as did the weekly "Stenmien onzer Eeuw" India. — See India.
(1905-06), while the only educational paper " Opvoe- Ireland. — Owina to the ferocity of the penal laws,
oingenOnderwijs" (2 vols., 1908-10), recently founded, such a thine as Catholic periodical literature was im-
seems already to be on the wane. Among the possible in Ireland during the seventeenth and eight-
apologetic papers there are some that deserve speciid eenth centuries. It was not until 1793 that any nota-
mention : " Het Dompertje van den onden Valentijn " ble relaxation was made in the disabilities under which
(32 vols. J 1867-1900), succeeded by "Het nieuwe Irish Catholics li^ured, and the only form of litera-
Dompertje " (4 vols., 1901-4), and " Het Dompertje " ture, even in the first quarter of the nineteenth century,
(6 vols., 1905-10), the works of the "WiUibrordus- was polemical. The sporadic pamphlets issued by the
vereenidng" (180 brochures, 1896-1910), the series leaders of the Catholic Committee, especially in regard
"Geloof en Wetenschap" (36 booklets, 1904-10) as to the Veto question and the Quarantotti rescript, can
well as the publications issued by the " Apologetische scarcely be regarded as periodical literature, nor yet
vereeniging PetrusCanisius" (some 40 booklets, 1906- the able series of "Letters of Hierophilus" (1820-23)
10). Among the apologetic journals may also be by Bishop Doyle. After Catholic Emancipation
reckoned "fioekenschouw" (5 vols., 1906-10; for- (1829), Insh Catholics began to use the power of the
merly called "Lectuur", 2 vols., 1904-5), a critical press. In 1834 the "Catholic Penny Magazine" was
book review. The " Central Ofiice for Social Action " started as a weekly, published by CaldweU of Dublin,
at Leiden issues no fewer than four periodicals under The first number was issued in February, 1834, and
the chief editorship of P. J. Aalberse: the exceUent the last in December, 1835. A new era opened with
"Katholiek sociaad Weekblad" (9 vols., 1902-10), thefoundationof the "Dublin Review "in May, 1836,
the " Volksbibliotheek" (25 numbers, 1905-10), the a journal Irish in more than name, its founders being
" Politieke en Sociale studiSn", at first two separate Dr. Nicholas Wiseman and Daniel O'ConneU. Twice
serials, now united (3 and 5 vols., 1906-10), and the subsequently O'CDonnell made a personal appeal on its
"Volkstiidschrift" (27 numbers, 1909-10). Sobrifi- behalf. The first editor, to whom Cardinal Wiseman
tas (4 vols., 1907-10) is the chief organ of the Catholic dves the original credit of the project, was W. Michael
temperance movement. Quin (q. v.). In a short time it came under the con-
In addition Holland possesses a flourishing exclu- trol of W . Henry R. Bagshawe, but he was rather sub-
sively theological monthly, "Nederlandsche Katho- editor with ample authoritv under Dr. Wiseman. The
lieke stcmmen" (10 vols., 1901-10), which is a con- history of the "Review" belongs to the English sec-
tinuation of an older ecclesiastical paper of the same tion of this article, but Ireland can claim a ereat share
name (22 vols., 1879-1900). The "Sint-Gregorius- in this arduous enterprise. At least one-hfljf, often
blad" (35 vols., 1876-1910) is devoted to church much more, of the literary matter of the original series
music, while the "Koorbode" (5 vols., 1906-10) was produced in Ireland; and Irish topics, political,
upholds the modem movements. The Catholic social, educational, or literary, constituted a large part
university students have their "Annuarium der R. of the contents. Dr.C.W.Russellof Maynoothwasthe
Kath. studenten " (8 vols., 1902-10), and recently they chief support of Dr. Wiseman who, writing in January,
started a weekly paper " Roomsch Studenten-blad" 1846, calu him editor. When Dr. W. G. Ward became
(1 vol., 1910-1). finally Catholic ladies have the proprietor, the editorial work was done by another
Belgian-Dutch magazine, "De Lelie" (2 vols., 1909- Irishman, John Cashel Hoey. An Irish editor of a
PIBIODXCIL
682
PIBIODICAL
later date was Mgr Moves. A number of influential
Ulster Catholics established the Belfast "Vindicator",
in 1839| with Charles Gavan Duffy as editor, whose
■uccessor in 1842 was Kevin T. Buggy. This, though
an able weekly, ceased soon after 1844. In 1840, a
magazine, entitled "The Catholic Luminary", was
established in Dublin, which appeared every alternate
Saturday, was managed by a committee of priests and
laymen, the subscription price being eight shillings
yearly, and lasted from 20 June to 19 December, 1840.
Its successor was the "Catholic Magazine", pub-
lished by James Duffy in 1847, a monthl^r journal
devoted to national Uterature, arts, antiquities, etc.
Although ably conducted by Denis Florence Mac-
Carthy, Richard D. Williams, and Father Kenyon, it
declined in 1848, owing to political excitement, and
ceased publication in the following December. A
weekly paper, entitled " Catholic Advocate ", wasissued
in 1851, but only one number was published. James
Duffy ventured on another monthly, called "Duffy's
Fireside Magazine ", which ran from 1851-54. He also
published a weekly magazine. "The Catholic Guar-
dian ", devoted to national ana religious literature, but
it ceased after forty-three numbers, the last issue be-
ing dated 20 Nov., 1852. Frederick Lucas, a convert
from Quakerism, had foimded the "Tablet", liie first
number of which appeared 16 May, 1840. After
some years he came to know Irishmen like Gavan
Duffy and John O'Hagan; and, as he was dissatisfied
with the support given by English Catholics, he trans-
ferred the "Tablet" to DubUn at the end of 1849.
After his death (1855) it was transfeired back to
London. The "Catholic Layman", a monthly po-
lemical magazine, price one shilling, ran from 1852 to
1854. The "Catholic University Gazette", a weekly
paper under the auspices of Cardinal Newman, had a
onef existence from June, 1854, until the end of August,
1855. Its price was but one penny. Another weekly,
the "Irish Catholic Magazine V, edited by W. J.
O'Neill Daimt, ran from January to August, 1856.
The "Harp", ^ted by M. J. McCann, was issued in
1859. It was an excellent Catholic monthly, but had
a sporadic existence under var3ring titles, and finally
disappeared in February, 1864. Among its contril>-
utors were Canon O'Hanlon, Dr. R. D. Joyce, Dr.
Sigerson, Dr. Campion, and John Walsh. McCann,
stiU remembered as the author of the song "O'Don-
nell Abu", died m London in 1883. In July, 1860,
James Duffy founded the "Hibernian Magazine",
edited by Martin Haverty, a distinguished alumnus of
the Irish CoUeee, Rome. It was a monthly, price
eight pence, ana ran for two years. The contributors
incluaed Father C. P. Meehan, Prof. Kavanagh, D.
F. MacCarthy, Dr. O'Donovan, William Carleton,
D'Arcy Magee, and W. J. fitzpatrick, and the articles
were all signed. It ceased after two years, but a
second series was started in 1862, with Father Meehan
as editor, which extended to six volumes and ended in
June, 1865. A higher-class magazine was "Atlantis",
the oflici^ literary organ of the Catholic University,
of which four volumes appeared between the years
1859 and 1861, the contributors being Cardinal New-
man, O'Curry, John O'Hagan, and others. In 1870
Father Robert Kelly, S.J., founded the "Monitor",
a small penny monthly, mainly as a temperance organ.
Its success was so great that he issued it in an en-
larged form as the "Illustrated Monitor" in 1873.
Father Kelly died 15 June, 1876, but the publication
was continued bjr the publisher, Joseph DoUard. It
steadily declined in 1877, and came to an abrupt end
in 1878. In June, 1906, Mgr O'Riordan edited a
really high-class quarterly, the "Seven Hills Maga-
tdne", published by Duffy of Dublin, but it ako
ceased with the issue of September, 1908.
^ In resard to existing periodicals, there is no dis-
tinctively Catholic daily paper in Ireland, but the
•'Freeman's Journal" is frankly Catholic in tone, and
gives prominence to Catholic topics. As to the wedc-
es, there is but one, the " Irish Catiiolic *', founded by
T. D. Sullivan in 1888. Its first editor was Robert
Donovan (now professor in the National Univexsity),
who after five weeks was replaced by W. F. Deniiehy
in August of the same year. It may be described as m
Conservative-National organ, supporting the Iiiflb
hierarchy in their corporate aecisions on all religious
and political matters. In 1890, at the time of the
Pamell "split", it loyally stood by the bishops. Ifli
1801. the '^Nation" was merged into the "Irish Cath^
olic" and in 1897 it became a daily. Though the*
"DaUy Nation" ceased in 1900^he "Irish Catholic"
continued as a weekly, with Mr. Dennehy as editor and
publisher. It remams unconnected with any of the
existing political parties, but is markedly opposed to
any union with BriUfli Liberalism and Radicalism.
The paper has a circulation throughout Great Britain,
America, and the colonies. Amon^ monthlies the
" Irish Ecclesiastical Record " can clami premier place.
Founded in March, 1864, by Cardinal Cullen, who
appointed Rev. Dr. Conroy and Rev. Dr. Moran as
editors, it was to be a link bietween Ireland and Rome,
and its policy was expressed in its motto: " Ut Chris-
tiani, ita et Romam sitis". In 1871, both of the
editors were raised to the episcopate^ Dr. Conroy to
Ardaghj and Dr. Moran (now Cardmal Primate o^
Austraha) to Oflsoiy. Dr. Verdon and Dr. Tynam
edited it for over four years, and Dr. Walsh took
charge of it for the last six months of 1876, when it
was allowed to lapse. A third series was started in
1880, with Dr. Carr (now Archbishop of Melbourne)
as editor, and published from Maynooth College. Dr.
Healy (now Archbishop of Tuam) was editor from
1883 to 1884, after whom came Dr. Browne (Bishop
of Cloyne), who worked zealously for ten years. In
1894, Rev. Canon Hogan became editor. A mere
glance at the twenty-nine volumes of the "Record" is
sufiicient to vindicate ite long existence, and the list
of contributors includes some of the greatest names in
theology, lituigy, canon law, Church history, Scrip-
ture, ete. The "Irish Monthly", founded in July,
1873, can boast the longest continuous existence of any
Irish Catholic magazine, and, moreover, it enjo3nB the
unique distinction of having had but one Alitor in
thirty-eight years, namely Rev. Matthew RusseU,
S.J. It IS not too much to say that Father Russell's
personality has been the secret of the popularity of
this magazine, and the list of contributors includes
Lady Fullerton, Sir C. Gavan Duffy, Judge 0'Hagan«
Aubrgr de Vere, D. F. MacCarthy, Rev. Dr. Russell,
Rev. Dr. O'Reilly, S.J., Rev. Ignatius Ryder, Father
Bridgett, C.SS.R., Mother Raphael Drane, Lady
Gilbert (Rose Mulholland), Rev. T. A. Finlay, S.J.,
Archbishop Healy, Rev. D. Beame, S.J., and a host
of others. Among the writers discovered by the
"Irish Monthly" are: Oscar Wilde, "M. E. Francis",
Lady Gilbert, Katherine Tynan, Hilaire Belloc, Alice
Furlong, and Francis Wynne, author of "Whiroer".
Intended for lay readers, it is always bright, readable,
and healthy. The "New Ireland Review ', founded
March, 1894, is a purely literary monthly, the suc-
cessor of the short-lived " Lyceum ", founded and edited
by Rev. T. A. FinUy, S.J., in 1890. ^ Ite contributors
included the most distinguished cleiicaJ and lay writ-
ers, and it continued as a powerful Cathohc organ,
with special reference to hwtpiy and econonu<»—
under the able editorship of Father Finlay— unUl u
ceased with the February number, 1911. The Insh
Rosary", founded in April, X897, as a smaU magasine,
edited by the Irish j&omimcans, was enlar^ to
eighty pages in 1901, and ite scope widened. ^ Fathw
AmbroieColeman, O.P., who became editor m 1903,
added a certain journalistic tone *^^*^^°f>^«
it bright and up-to-date. The present editor is
FathefFinnbar Ryan, O.P. ./''^''^.l^^^'}^'^^
are many abte P9nttm<?wi wp^ra, well-known iBfmw
FEBIODICAL 683 PUUODXCAL
like Professor Stockley, Dr. Fitzpatrick^ R. F. O'Con- ture of the times. Other literary and educational
nor, Shane Leslie, Jane Martyn, S. M. Lyne, Sister periodicals were: the ^'Analisi ragionata dei libri
Gertrude, and Nora O'Mahony. The only quar- nuovi", published in Naples, later changed its title to
terly is the ''Irish Theologies Quarterly", founded ''Giomale letterario" (1793--99). We may mention
in January, 1906, by six Maynooth professors, one of also the raccoUe (collections) of various works and
whom (Dr. McKenna) has since become Bishop of dissertations, which were published in a number
Cloeher. Ably conducted, it keeps thoroughly abreast of cities. Such was the ''Kaccolta Milanese '\ the
of all theolosical and Scriptural matters. ''Oi>uscoli" of Caloger^ at Pisa, the ''Simbole'' by
PowM, Iriah LU^rary Snmixrer (London, 1867) ; Flood. ItUh Qori, even the "Saggl", etc. of the various academies
fsoef* ^•^•^ ^^^^= CAaAOT.LLi m hvbixn Renew (Apni. -^ ^j^^ ^^^^^ ^f i^ Beginning with 1710. Cracas
W. H. Gbattan-Flood. printed a species of almanac, the ''Notisie per I'anno ":
while the Roman ''Calendario" was the precursor of
Italy. — ^Without going back to the Acta Diuma, the ''Grerarchia Cattolica" of to-day.
Acta Senatu8, or Acta publican existing in Rome in With the French Revolution, other papers were
Csesar's time, the modem newspaper had its birth in founded throughout Italy to advocate the new regime.
Venice. From the first years of the sixteenth century In Venice in 1797 was printed the "Monitore lom-
we learn of journals issued in that city every two or bardo-veneto-traspadano''; the ''Libero Veneto";
three da3rs, sometimes even diuly, under the siu^eil- the ''Italiano rieenerato^'; and the ''Raccolta delle
limce of the Govemmelit. These sheets, called iim«t. carte pubbliche. When Venice became Austrian,
for the most part in manuscript, were distributed these journals disappeared, and the former "Gazzetta
among the governors of provinces and the ambassa- Urbana" became the "Gazzetta Veneta privilegiata''
dors to foreign courts: they were later read in public, (1799). The "Diario di Roma" was discontinued
and sold after the reading for a gazzetta (14.6 gazzettas from the close of 1798 until October of the succeeding
s=l lira), hence the name "gazette". At first these year, again from 1808 to 1814, and from this last date
journals had an official character; but in 1538, during contmued up to the middle of the century. Durine
the Turkish War, their publication was entrusted to the first French occupation thfe '^Monitore di Roma
private enterprise, thou^ they continued to be super- was published in Rome; the "Gazzetta Romana",
vised b^ the (jrovemment. Under these new auspices founded in 1808 and edited in two languages, was fol-
journalism was carried on without serious competition lowed in 1809 by the "Giomale del Campidoglio",
up to the first decades of the eighteenth century. and in 1812 by the "Giomale politico del diparta-
It was natural that the example of Venice should be mento di Roma", contidning treatises on antiquities
imitated elsewhere, but in Italy its functions were and the results of excavations, and other items of
mainly confined to pandering to a scandal-loving pub- interest. Mention may also be made of the " Giomale
lie. In Rome this was carried to such a degree that in patriotico della Repubblica Napolitana".
1578 Greogr^ XIII issued a Bull of excommunication The pre-revolutionary journals were all Catholic,
against the loumalists who propagated the true and In the Reign of Terror the publication of Catholic
false scandals of societv and the court. After Venice joumalB became impossible. During the time of the
came Florence, where they printed Notizie or Gazzetta, Restoration the ^vemment in Italy held the censor-
In Rome the first permanent journal was ** II Diario de ship of the press m regard to all questions of political
Roma", begun in 1716 durmg the war against the import; but journals were free to exert themselves in
Turks in Hunj^ary, printed by Luca and Giovanni behalf of Catholicism. Foreign books, however, were
Cracas, hence its faxniliar name "II Cracas". After circulated, propagating the political, social, ana reli-
1718 it was published twice a week, with a supple- gious maxims of the Revolution. Ttius the need of a
ment. At the end of the ei^teenth century, the sub- conservative Catholic press made itself felt. The first
Bcription was 24 paoli (12 lira) per annum. Towards to appear upon the field was in 1831, the ''Voce della
the middle of the eighteenth century a more intense Venta" of Modena, founded under the auspices of
Journalistic life became manifest in Venice. In 1760 Duke Francis V, and under the directorship of Antonio
another journal, the ''Gazzetta Veneta" appeared, Parenti and Professor Bartolommeo Veratti. These
edited by Gaspere Gozzi, who in the succeeding year journals continued to appear only imtil 1841. In this
foimded a literary review called the "Osservatore year Ballerini founded the "Amico Cattolico" at
Veneto". The directorship of the "Gazzetta Veneta" Milan. The Revolution of 1848 (although sisnalized by
was then assumed by the priest Chiari ; this paper sur- the founding at Romeof the " PsJlade " and the satirical
▼ived imtil 1798, though its title was changed a num- paper "Don Pirlone"; at Piacenza, the "Eridano",
ber of times. representing the Provisional Government, the "Tri-
The following papers also deserve mention: the buno" representing the Opposition), made the neces-
** Diario Veneto " (1765) ; the " Gazzetta". with sub- sity of good papers very urgent. On the return of Pius
title "Notizie del mondo" (1769): the ' Novellista IX the "Giomale di Roma" was founded at Rome
Veneto" (1775, daily); "Awisi Pubblici de Venezia" (1850-65), to which was added an evening paper, the
(1785); the "Gazzetta delle Gazzette" (1786), the "Osservatore Romano", which, when the ^'Giomale"
only one that also treated of political questions; the was suspended, became the organ of the Pontificial
"Nuovo PostigUone" (1789). From 1768 to 1791 the Government.
"Gazzetta Fiorentina was circulated at Florence. At Turin the "Armonia" was founded in 1849,
Besides the foregoing, a number of scientific and liter- which fought strenuously for the cause of the Church,
ary journals made their appearance. The first of The "UnitJl Cattolica" appeared in 1862, directed by
these is the "Giomale dei letterati", founded in Rome Margotti, and the "Armonia" was transferred to
by the learned Benedetto Bocchini (1650-1700). In Florence; at Genoa the "Eco d'ltalia" was estab-
1718 the "Giomale dei letterati d'ltaUa" of Apostolo lished in 1849. an illustrated daily paper, still pub-
Zeno appeared at Venice, where also in the same year lished under tne name of "liguria del Popolo". At
Pavini translated from the French the "Mercurio Locamo, Canton of Ticino, Switzerland, the "Cre-
Storico". To these was added in 1724 the "Gran dente Cattolico" appeared in 1856; in the same year
Giomale d'Europa", later the "Foglio per le Donne", the "Osservatore Bolognese", at Bologna founded by
the "Influssi" ofPasiello, the "Diario" of Cristoforo Fangarezzi, Casoni, Acquademi, etc., afterwards sup-
Zane (1735), and the" Giomale enciclopedico" (1777- pressed in 1859 by the provisional Govemment; m
87). The"Osservatore"of Gozzi, already mentioned, Florence the "(}ontemporaneo" (1857), founded by
belongs to this category. The most famous literary Stefano San Pol; in Naples, beginning in 1860, was
journal of this epoch was the "Frusta" of Barretti at published the "Omnibus".directea by VincenzoTorello.
Turin, which unceasingly att«tcked the decadent Utera- After the annexation of a large part of Italy to Sardinia*
FEBIODXCAL 684 PERIODICAL
when the influence of a Catholic Press was urgentlv 05). The most prominent developments of Italiiin
needed, its freedom was continually harnp^^ Dy aU journalism of the last few years are the union of the
sorts o( petty vexations. Papers that had been sup- ''Osservatore Cattolico'' of Milan with the "Lega
pressed reappeared under other names. This per- Lombarda'^ (founded in 1884), which two papers were
secution is explained either by the sectarian spint of fused as the ''Unione". Another event in Italian
those in power, or by the impression then prevailing journalism was the foundation of the "Momento"
that the Uatholic party was the declared enemv of the at Turin, and the alliance formed by the "Corriere
new Government. Thus there appeared at Bologna in d'ltalia '' (1905, originally called " Giomale di Roma ")
1861 the "Eoo delle Romagne", substituted for the with the "Awenire d'ltalia" of Bologna and with
"Osservatore Bolognese'', which in turn was sup- the "CorrieredellaSicilia'' (Palermo). The "Corre-
pressed in 1863 and succeeaed by the ''Patriotto Cat- spondance de Rome", founded in 1007 with the title
tolico", followed again by the ''Conservatore" (1868), "Corrispondenza Romana", has a scope similar to
and by the '* Unione" (1878). A similar fate befell the the paper of the same name under Pius IX. Like its
"Osservatore Lombardo" of Brescia (1862-63). The prototype, though not official in character, it is an
"Difensore" of Modena was similarly treated and echo of the Vatican.
suppressed in 1867; and the year following Mgr Ba- Before we consult the actual statistics of the Cath-
Ian founded the *' Diritto CattoUco ", still published. oHc press of Italy it may be well to survey the history
In Florence the "Contemporaneo'' succeeaed to the of that class of CathoUc periodicals which comprises
"Corriere Toscano". In Venice the "Veneto Catto- literature and erudition to the' exclusion of politics,
lico'' appeared in 1866, and in 1867 assumed the name Among these periodicals, we may mention first the
of "Difesa", which still survives. The "Osservatore "Giomale arcadico" of Rome (1810-68), revived in
Cattolico'' was founded at Milan in 1864, and was 1888 with the title "Arcadia", and in 1808 reassum-
entrusted to the editorship of Don Albertario. This ing its former title. Then came the "Tiberino"
journal undertook the refutation of the Rosminian (1833); the "Album" (1834), illustrated and treating
(1866); the "Voce Cattolica" (1866); the"Gazsetta to canon law, in 1835 issued again as the "Annali
di Mondovi" (1868): the "LibertA Cattolica" of delle scienae religiose", directed by Mgr Antonio de
Naples (1867); the "Sicilia Cattolica" of Palermo Luca and recognised as the organ of the Academy of
(1868); the "Genio CattoUco" of Reg^o EmiUa the Catholic ReUgion. In 1865 de Rossi founded the
(I860) . " Bullettino di Archeoloda Cristiana ", reappearing as
Meanwhile Pius IX felt the need at Rome of a the "Nuovo Bullettino" etc. In Modena, to the la^
dation of the "Correspondance de Rome", and the oneste". Underthetitleof "LettureCattoUche" and
"Acta SanctsB Sedis" (1865). The chief principles similar titles, periodic^ existed in various cities,
of the "Correspondance" were the support of the Padua, Naples, Genoa, Turin (this last founded by
Holy See and opposition to the Liberal Catholics and Don Bosco) , etc.
Opportunists. In 1870 this paper was moved to Among the periodicals of an earlier date we must
Geneva by Mgr Mermillod, where it altered its title cite the "Giomale scieritifico letterario" and the
to "Correspondance de Geneve". It then became an "Rivista di scienze, lettere e arti". Strictly religious
instrument of Blome in his vigorous campaign against periodicals, such as "Settimane Religiose", etc. were
Bismarck, especially during the KuUurkampf, This printed in many cities, often for the benefit of some
paper supported the intransigent party favoured by sanctuary or in behalf of some pious work. The
the pope, though it failed to obtain the sympathy of "Donna e la Famiglia" (Genoa, 1862), which had a
Cardinal Antonelli. At the death of Pius IX the con- fashion supplement ; the " Considiere delle Famiglie "
dition of Catholic journals was very favourable. They TGenoa, 1870) ; the " Missione del la Donna " (Sciacca,
were perhaps inferior to the papers of their opponent 1875), were pubUshed for circulation in families. At
in form, but were unrivalled as to the ability of their the present time we should name especially the "Pro
writers and the vigour and intelligence of their po- Fanulia" (Bergamo, splendidly illustrated). In many
lemics. Among these the "Unitli Cattolica" was espe- cities (Turin, Genoa, Massa Carrara, etc.) papers
ciallv distinguished. were published for workmen; others were devoted
The year 1870 beheld a revival of governmental and especially to the peasants. For education and the
sectarian opposition to Catholic journals, which, how- cause of Christian schools were founded the "Scuola
ever, increased in number despite the hostility mani- ItaUana Modema" (Milan, 1803) and the "Vittorino
fested toward them. This was particularly the case da Feltre" (Feltre, 1800). The "Museo delle Mia-
with those papers of periodical issue. Thus in sioni CattoUche" (Turin, 1857); the "Missionicatto-
Rome in this year was founded the "Voce della hche", (Milan); the "Missioni francescane in Pales-
Veritlt" (which ceased in 1004); the "Eco del tina" (Rome); the "OrienteSerafico" (Assisi, 1880);
litorale" at Gorisia; the"Amico del Popolo", at "Gerusalemme" (Genoa, 1877) and other bulletins
Lucca (1872); the "Discussione", at Naples (1873); of this kind indicate their subject-matter by their
the "Verona Fedele" at Verona: the "Cittadino". titles. With the periodical "La Scienza e la Fede"
at Genoa (1873); at Turin the "Corriere Nazionale" Sanseverino, the celebrated philosopher of Naples,
(1873), which in 1804 was fused with the "Italia assisted bv Signoriello and by d'Amelio, carried on a
Reale", and was founded after the transfer to Florence propaganda for the philosophy and theology of St.
of the "Uniti^ Cattolica"; at Venice the "Berico" Thomas.
(1876); at Udine the "Cittadmo Italiano" (1878); at The periodical "Scienza Italiana", founded in 1814
Perugia the "Paese" (1876); at Treviso the " Vita del by the Jesuit Comoldi and the physician Venturinij
Popolo"; etc. had a similar scope. After the encyclical "iEterm
Leo aIII also realized the need of a papal journal Patris" various other periodicals of this kind ap-
throtigh which he could commimicate with the foreign peared, such as the "Eco di S. Tommaso d'Aquino"
press, and he consequently created the "Journal de (Parma, 1870); "Divus Thomas" (Piacenza, 1880);
Home"; this paper did not fulfil his expectations, so the "Favilla" (Palermo); finally the "Rivista Neo-
it was succeeded by the" MoniteurdeKome" (1881- tomistica" waa founded at Florence (1910). Tbe
FEBIODICAL
685
PIBIODICAL
"Catechiflta Cattolico" (Piacenza, 1877), and the
"RisvegUo del catechismo" (Chieri, 1893), the "Pred-
icatore Cattolioo" (Giarre). the "Poliantea oratoria"
(Caltagirone, 1881)^ the '^Crifiostomo" (Rome) ex-
press their subjects in their titles, as also the "Moni-
tore Liturgico'^ (Macerata, 1888), the "Ephemerides
liturgicse" (Rome, 1887), the ''Rasscftna Gregoriana"
(Rome), the "Scuola Veneta di Musica Sacra" of
Tebaldini, etc. The '' Bessarione '' (1897) is devoted to
Oriental (Jhristian studies. The ''Scuola Cattolica".
founded by Cardinal Parocchi (1878), embraces all
branches of theology and discipline. For social stud-
ies made after the encvclical ''Rerum Novarum"
in 1892, Benigni founded the "Rassegna sociale"
(Peruda, afterwards Genoa); and in the next year
Mgr Talamo began the "Rivista intemaxionale di
Bcienze sociali ", etc. In 1898 Muni founded a period-
ical of social studies, the "Cultura sociale", which
deviated into forbidden tendencies of thought.
Historical periodicals are: "Rivista storica" of
Pavia (now at Saronne); the "Muratori'' (PubbU-
cazione di testi per la storia d'ltalia); the "Rivista
storica benedettma"; the ''Archiviun franciscanum
historicum" (Rome); the ''Miscellanea francescana''
of Mgr Faloci Pulignani (Foligno, 1887): the "Mi»>
cellanea di Storia Ecclesiastica e stuai ausiliari"
(Rome, 1904-07), and the '' Rivista storico-critica delle
scienze teologiche'' (Rome, 1905), recently condenmed
by the Holy Office. Among the existing scientific and
literary reviews, the oldest and most widely-circulated
is the ''Civilt& Cattolica", conducted bv priests of the
Society of Jesus, formine a community by themselves,
and directly subject to the general. This was foimdea
in 1850 imder tne auspices of Pius IX. Among the
founders and earlv writers Bresciani, Curci, Brunengo,
Taparelli, Comofdi, Liberatore, etc. won distinction.
Mention must be made of ''Acta Apostolicee Sedis",
the official bulletin of the Holy See, founded by motu
moprio in 19(^ in which are published the Bulls,
Constitutions, Encyclicals, and other acts of the pope,
together with the Decrees of the Roman Congrega-
tions. Several periodicals of the same kind are and
have been published in Rome, such as the "Nuntius
Romanus" (1882-1904), the "Analecta Ecclesiastica"
(1893), the "Acta Pontificia", etc., besides the "Acta
8. Sedis" already mentioned. The "Monitore Eccle-
siastico'', foimded in Conversano by Mgr Gennari,
afterwards cardinal, not only gives the more impor-
tant pontifical news, but treats of moral theology and
canon law, and publishes decisions concerning eccle-
siastical matters." The " Nuova Rivista delle lUviste"
of Macerata gives a digest of important articles ap-
pearing in national and foreign periodicals upon mat-
ters of interest to the clergy. Finally it is necessary
to note satirical and humorous periodicals. Among
these the " Vespra" of Florence and the "Frusta" of
Rome were well-known for a time, but ceased on
account of the freouent actions for damages brought
against them. Witn these may be classed the " FoUia"
of Naples, the "Mulo" of Bologna, and the "Baa-
tone" of Rome.
The above statistics have been largely gathered
from the "Annuario Ecclesiastico" which undertakes
to register all Catholic papers published throughout
Italy. This registration, however, is neither complete
nor exact, some existing periodicals being omitted,
whilst others that have stopped publication are still
on the list. Moreover the "Annuario Ecclesiastico"
does not inform us whether the journal is a daily or a
weekly. This beins the case, it is well to note that a
number of so-called daily journals appear at the most
only three times a week. Of such there were three
published at Rome and two published at Turin and
Genoa. Besides the above mentioned there are 101
political and social journals issued several times a
month; 81 religious periodicals appearing once or
twice a month; five periodicals of ^general erudition;
and five devoted to philosophical and theological stud-
ies, in which class might be included the "Rivista
Rosminiana"; and ten reviews consecrated to canon
law. This last enumeration comprises a few bulletins
of episcopal courts. Apart from the foregoing there
are also two reviews devoted to preachmg; six to
missionary interests; three to education; and one to
social studies. Other periodicals may be counted
among Catholic ones by the notably Catholic charac-
ter of their managers: such as the "Rivista di Mate-
matiche", etc., founded by Tartellini, then professor
in the University of Rome; now edited by Cardinal
Maffi. Among the political and social reviews it must
be observed that two tendencies existed, one decidedly
liberal, and the other absolutely papal. The first
dealt with the "Roman Question" as obselete. It
advocated a larger individual liberty and independ-
ence from the particular views of the Holy See and the
episcopate in politics and social matters. The reviews
taking this liberal attitude never failed however to
Srofess their allegiance and obedience to authority,
^n the other hand there existed the papal press, which
miffht be characterized by its perfect submission to
and advocacy of the prevailing opinions of the Vati-
can and the episcopate. To this last class belong:
the "Riscossa of Braganze (Mgr Scotton); the
"Unitit Cattolica" (Florence); the "Italia Reale"
(Turin); the "Liguria" (Genoa); the "Difesa"
(Venice); the "Osservatore Romano" (Rome); the
" Liberty " (Naples) ; the" (Dorrespondanoe de Rome ",
and some other small sheets.
With regard to the geographical distribution of the
Catholic press, there is an enormous disproportion
between the north and the south. Southern Italy
(Naples and Palermo) has only two dsuly papers.
But even in the North there are larse cities witnout
a daily Catholic publication, e. g., Padua and Ancona,
while Ravenna and Rimini have not even a weeklv
one. The need of weekly journals is naturally felt
still more in Southern Ituy.
FxBRANDiNA, CetitimtUo deUa aiampa'CaUoltea (Asti, 1893) ; Gi-
ACCHi, /{ otomalitmo in Italia (Rome. 1883) ; Casoni, Cinquant*
anni di giomaliamo (Bolognm, 1907) ; Cbiauoano, // giomali»mo
caUolieo (Turin, 1910); Samtbi.bna, Oiomali venetiani nel teUe-
cento (Venioe. 1908); Chibrici, Il^into potere a Roma: ttoria dei
oiomali e gionuUitti romani (Rome, 1905) ; RoviTO, Dizionario dei
UUerati e qiomalitti italiani eonUmporanoi (Naples, 1907]!; dblla
Caba, / No»tri (TreviBO, 1903), Uvea of illuatriouB Cmthouc preea-
men.
U. Benigni.
Mexico.— CoIonioZ Period. — During the administra-
tion of the viceroy Baltaaar de ZlUiiga Gusmto de
Sotomayor, Marqu^ de Valero, the first newspaper,
supervised bv J. Ignacio Maria de Caatorena y Ursiia
(precentor of the Cathedral of Mexico and afterwards
Bishop of Yucatan), was published in Mexico, Janu-
ary, 1722, with the heacung "Gaoeta de Mexico y
Noticias de Nueva Espafia que se imprimirdn Cada
mes y comienzan desde primero de Ejiero de 1722"
(Gazette of Mexico and notices of New Spain, which
will be published every month, and which will begin
the first of January, 1722). Later the name was
changed to "Florilegio Historial de Mexico etc.", and
in June of this year the enterprise was abandoned.
In the numbers published^ the news items were ar-
ranged according to the prmcipal cities of the colony.
With the second issue bnef notices of the books being
published in Mexico and Spain were added and also
accounts of important events in Lower California and
the principal cities of Europe. In January, 1728, the
second publication, the ''Compendio de Noticias Mex-
icanas , edited by J. Francisco Sahagtin de Ar^valo
Ladr6n de Guevara, appeared. This continued in cir-
culation until November, 1739, when it was succeeded
by the "Mercurio de Mexico", edited by the same
person. The " Mercurio " was issued monthly and in
the same form ^as th^ "Gaceta" and "Florilegio".
Among its news items ^ere, accounts of religious festi-
PIBIODICAL
686
PIBIODICAL
valSy auto8 defi, competitions for the university facul-
tiesi European events, shipping news at the port of
Vera Cruz, and news from tne Philippines, China, and
even Morocco. When there was an abundance of
news a fortnightlv issue appeared. The desire to keep
readers informed on the most important events con-
nected with the Spanish Monarchjr. e. g., the conquest
of the Kingdom of Naples, is evident. In 1742 the
''Mercurio ' discontinued publication and no paper
existed until 1784, when the new ''Gaoeta de
MMco''^ edited by M. A. Vald^, appeared and con-
tinued without interruption until 1809. It was issued
bi-monthly, modelled more or less on the gazettes of
1722 and 1728; it indicated the price of oread and
meat in the City of Mexico aiidj>ublished officially
and integrally the royal orders. To Ignacio Bartola-
che and the Rev. Jos^ Antonio Alzate (q. v.), well-
known Mexican writers of the ^ghteenth century, is
due the honour of having issued the first scientific
publications. The former published (1772) the ** Mer-
curio Volante'', which was short-lived; it was charac-
terized as a newspaper g^iving curious and important
notices upon various matters bearing on physics and
medicine (''con noticias curiosas 6 importantes sobre
varios asuntos de Flsica y Medicina'^. Alzate began
(1768) the ''Diario Literario de Mexico''; this was
suppressed, but reappeared on 26 October imder the
title of ''Asuntos Varios Sobre Ciencias y Artes'\
After eleven numbers were published it was again
suppressed, only to reappear (1787) under the title
of "Observaciones sobre Fisica, Historia Natural v
Artes Utiles'', fourteen numbers of which were issued.
In January, 1788, the famous "Gaceta deLiteratura"
appeared and was issued monthly, though with some
irregularity^ imtil 1 799. This publication was a literary
and scientific review; all subjects were examined and
discussed by the learned priest-editor. Here might be
read with benefit articles on medicine, botany, miner-
alogy, Mexican archaeology, architecture, philosophy,
ethnology, jurisprudence, phyBics, astronomy, topog-
raphy, etc. The files are a veritable encyclopedia, and
the number and variety of the subjects treated, as well
as the scholarly manner in which they are handled, are
evident proof of Father Alzate's remarkable erudition.
On 1 October. 1805, Jacobo ViUaurrutia established the
"Diario de M6xico'', the first daily paper published
in the colony; it was issued every day, including holi-
days, until 1816. Among its contributors were Nava-
rette, Sdnchez de Tagle, Barguera, Anastasio Ochoa,
and Lacunza y Burazabal. The ' ' Gaceta del Gobiemo
de Mexico", founded in 1810, was the ofl^cial organ of
the viceregal Government until 1821.
Period of the War of Indevendence. — The first news-
paper devoted to the cause of independence was the " El
Despertador M6xicano", edited oy Francbco Severo
Maldonado. It was begun on 20 December, 1810, but
did not last long. The second newspaper controlled by
the insurgents was the "Ilustrador Nacional". The
editor, Dr. Jos6 Marfa Cos, made the type from wood
and mixed indigo for the printing ink. When he was
able to procure metal type, he continued to publish his
newspaper under the title ''El Ilustrador Americano".
It lasted from May, 1812, until April, 1813. The vice-
regal Government and the ecclesiastical authorities
rigidly prohibited it. The latter obliged the faithful
to give up their copies, and denounced those who re-
tained any. The third newspaper, "El (Dorreo Ameri-
cano del Sur", appeared in February, 1813. The
priest, Jos6 Maria Morelos, after conquering Oaxaca
and organizing his government, established it and con-
fided the editing first to J. M. de Herrera, formerly
I)arish priest of Huamustitlin, and afterwards to the
awyer, Carlos M . Bustamante. The paper was issued
every Thursday until 27 May of the same year. Upon
the proclamation of the freedom of the press, two news-
papers, " El Juguetillo ** and " El Pensador M6xicano '',
edited respectively by C. M. Bustamante and Joaquin
Femdndez de Lizardi, appeared; they fearlessly at-
tacked the abuses of the viceregal Giovemment. The
"Juguetillo" published only six numbers, and both
were suppressed by the Viceroy Venegas in December.
1812. Lizardi was imprisoned, but was liberatea
shortly afterwards, and continued the publication of
his paper, eliminating, however, its offensive tone.
Bustamante escaped imprisonment and published two
more numbers of the "Juguetillo", the last in 1821.
Among other newspapers published during this period
may be mentioned : '^Clamores de la Fidefidad Ameri-
cana", published in Yucatan by Jos6 Matfas Ouin-
tana, for which he was imprisoned; the "Boletfn
Militar ' ' ^ publii^ed by General Mina f rom the printing-
press which he carried with his expedition: the army
of Iturbide published several sheets, "El M6xicano
Independiente". "Ej^rcito Imperial de las Tree Ga-
rantfas", "Diano Politico Militar M6xicano". The
"Centinela contra Seductores" was an anti-insurgent
paper, issued towards the end of 1810; the ''Ee-
peculador Patriotico" (1810-11). a weekly dedicated
to the Viceroy Venegas. J. M. Wenceslas Stochez de
la Barauera issued several interesting papers, includ-
ing "Semanario eoon^mico de noticias curiosas v
eruditas sobre Agricultura y demis Artes y Oficios
(1808-10); "El Correo de los Nifios" (1813), the first
juvenile paper published in Mexico; and "£l Amigo
de los Hoinbres" (1815). The "Noticioso General"
(1815-22), the largest newspaper of the colony, pub-
lished ofl^cid documents and news of all kinds. At
first it was issued every fortnight, but afterwards it
appeared on Monday, Wednesday, and Friday.
After the War of Independence. — ^When the Inde-
pendence of Mexico was established newspapers were
multiplied. Some approved, others condemned, the
new regime, according to the policies adopted by the
new Government. Carlos Nlaria Bustamante pub-
lished (1^1-26) thirty numbers of "La Avispa de
Chilpancingo", attacking the Iturbide administra-
tion. In 1822 were published "El Sol" and "El
Correo de la Federacion", organs respectively of the
Freemasons of the Scottish (centralistic). and York
(federalistic), Rite. The Liberals controlled two im-
portant publications, "El Siglo XIX" and "El Mo-
nitor Republicano". G6mez Pedraza, Otero, Pasmo,
de la Rci&t Zarco Vigil, and others contributed to the
first, and to the second, which was even more radical
in its ideas, Florencio Castillo, Valente, Baz, Mateoe
etc., and Castelar as Spanish correspondent. The
(Donservatives published "La Sociedad" (edited by
Jos6 M. Roa Barcena) and "La Cruz" (edited by
I«iacio Aguilar y Marocho). The first number of
"La Cruz" appeared on 1 Nov., 1855| its heading
states that 'it is an exclusively rdigious paper,
founded ex-professo to diffuse orthodox doctrines,
and to defend and vindicate them against the prev-
alent errors". In its prologue it sums up the situa-
tion of that time, deplores the attacks on the Church,
and the satires against the clergy; it urges the faith-
ful to prepare themselves for the stru^e in defence
of religion. The paper had four divisions; the first
explained the teacnings of the Church on points which
circumstances deemed it most opportune to treat;
the second refuted all errors advanced against this
teaching; the third published short essays on reli-
gious subjects ; the fourth gave accounts of all notable
events, in the Republic and in other coimtries, that
had a bearing on the special object of the publica-
tion. Unfortunatolv this weekly lasted only until 29
Julv. 1858. Its battles against the Liberals were sharp
and brilliant, and its contributors gave striking exam-
ples of their learning and profound adhesion to the
teaching of the Church. During the civil wars the
Press in manv instances, particularly during the heated
discussions that characterized the period prior to the
Constitution of 1857, deserted its office of peacemaker
and seemed to have for its only object tne arouaing
PERIODICAL
687
tiSRIODICAL
oT pofitical emmties. And it was not without danger
that a Journalistic career was followed in those days.
The '' Veracruzano'' of 7 October, 1862, referring to
the oyerthrow of the Government of Miram6n and the
capture of the capital of Mexico by Judrez (1 Jan.,
1861), announced the assassination of Vicente Segura,
editor of "Diaro de Avisos'' and political antagonist
of the victorious party, declaring that "in this truly
significant manner demagogism fulfilled the first of
the guarantees of the system of Liberalism^ freedom of
the press''. Notwithstanding the risks mvolved in
the expression of animus in connexion with this crime,
several publications endeavoured to stem the torrent
of pernicious ideas which had been loosed. The editor
of the "Pajaro Verde" had to close his establishment:
and the principal contributor to "El Amigo del
Pueblo" was imprisoned. A Spaniard, suspected of
•circulating pamphlets, was, without proof of any sort,
thrown into prison. His printing-press was oonfis-
tcated, and later he was exiled.
During the Empire of Maximilian, — Four papers,
the "Diario del impeno", "L'Ere NouveUe^ "La
Raz6n", and "L'Estafette", supported more or less
<opettly by the Imperial Government, may be men-
tioned. In their attitude towards religion (favourable
or unfavourable, according to the dictates of the
members of the imperial cabinet) they lacked the
freedom and independence which make a paper the
representative of the sentiments of the people. Some
independent journals ("La Sociedad ') were also
issued, and from time to time published articles which
called the attention of the Imperial Government to
their columns.
The Present Time. — After the fall of the empire and
especially since the presidential tenure of office of
General Porfirio Diaz, the Catholic Press has enjoyed
a little more freedom. With the exception of the local
papers published in the various states, which did not
cease to work for the cause ("El Amigo de la Verdas"
of Pueblo and others), the first newspaper to continue
the traditions of the (Jatholic journalists of other days
was "La Voz de Mexico" (1870-1900). It counted
many distinguished writers on its staff, and, as a paper
which had never been aught but loyal to the cause
it had espoused, it earned the respect and good will
of ever]^one. Shortty before it ceased publication,
"El Pais" (now in its twelfth year, and an active
defender of Catholic interests) was founded. "El
Nacional", another Catholic paper, published for a
number of years, rendered good service to the Catholic
cause. On 1 July. 1883, Victoriano Agueros founded
''El Tiempo", wnich is undoubtedly the most im-
portant of all political daily papers of the republic
supporting Catholic interests. In two years its cir-
culation increased from 1000 to 6000 copies. . By the
vigour with which it attacked the errors of the gov-
ernment of Manuel Gonzalez it won great popularity,
but this attitude won persecution for the eoitor and
contributors, who were several times imprisoned. In
1887 the editorial office was closed and publication
suspended for eleven days. But to-day the paper
defends its ideals as undauntedly as before. The
literary edition (begun in 1883), published every
Sunday and to which many notable writers, includins
Ipandro Arcdico (Arcadian name of the Bishop oT
S. Luis Potosi), Joaquin Garcia Icazbalceta, J. Nlarfa
Roa Barcena, Jos6 Sebastidn Segura, and others con-
tributed, gave prominence to the work of many native
authors, which would otherwise have remained un-
published. Its columns have always been open to
the discussion of all questions contributing to the
progress and aggrandizement of Mexico. An illus-
trated Sunday edition, "El Tiempo Ilustrado", has
also been added to the publications connected with
"El Tiempo". Among the illustrated monthly re-
views may be mentions "El Mensajero del Coraz6n
.de Jest&s ", which has received much favourable notice.
The principal organ of the Liberal party, "El Li-
beral'', has the largest circulation of any newspaper in
the Republic.
Lk6n. BMiogra/ia mexieana del aiglo X VIII (Mexioo, 190^7) S
Obkso^n, M4anco vi^o: La prerua colonial (Mexioo. 1900);
AuATB, Gaceta de Lueratitra (4 vols., Puebla, 1831): Mteieo
d travis de loe eigtoa^ 5 vols.; Icaebalceta, Biographia de D. C.
M. BtMtomante (Mexico, 1853) ; Ramos t Duabte, Diccionario de
eurioeidadee hieUhrieae (Mexioo, 1890) ; Le Mexique au dibut du
XX eiiele (2 vols., Paris, 1905) ; MixicOf «ti evolucidn social (3 vols.,
Mexioo, 1901); CoUccidn de La Cruz (7 vols.); Lefevre, Hiai,
de VifUertentionffan^iee au Mexique (Brussels and London, 1869) ;
Abbanoou, Mtxioo deede 1808 haeta 1867 (Madrid, 1872); Qab-
cf A CuBAB, Bl Libro de mi» recuerdoe (Mexico. 1904) ; Fioueboa
DoiCBBrECH. Quia general deeeriptiva de la Republica Mixicana
(Mexioo, 1899); Cavo. Lot tree siglot de Mixieo (Jalapa, 1870).
Camillus Crivelli.
Poland. — ^There was a period of slow development
from 1831 to 1864, and a period of progress from 1864
to the present day. During the first period there were
published at Warsaw 5 daily papers, 14 weeklies, and
1 monthly periodical; in Galicia, 3 daily papers, 3
semi-weeklies, and 3 weeklies; in the Grand Duchv of
Posen, 1 daily paper; in Austrian Silesia, 1 weekly.
Several of these that appeared before 1863 are still
published. The Polish Press reflects the political con-
ditions of the coimtries that have annexed the terri-
toiy of Poland. In Galicia (Austria) it is entirelv free;
in Russia it is subject to a severe oensorhsip, which is
also the case in Germany.
One of the oldest publications in Galicia is the
''Czas" (Time), daily, the organ of the Conservative
party, and well edited from the literary as well as
from the political point of view. Its publication
began in 1848. In 1866 there appeared the " Przegl^d
polski" (Polish Review), which had from its begin-
ning the collaboration ot Count Stanislas Tamowski
and Stanislas Ko^mian. It remains the most impor-
tant historical and literary periodical of Poland. The
"Czas" and the "Przeglqd polski" have always main-
tained a strictly Catholic character. In 1867 Julius
Starkla and Thaddeus Romanowicz established at
Lember^ the "Dziennik Literacki" (Literary Jour-
nal), which had a short life: John Dobrzai^i founded
the '^Gazeta Narodowa" (National Gazette), to which
was united in 1869 the ''Dziennik Polski^' (Polish
Journal). In 1871 Rev. Edward Podolski established
the "Przegl^d Iwowski" (Lemberg Review), which
strenuously defended Catholic interests during its
existence. In the same city there appeared the
''Gazeta Lwowska" (Lemberg Gazette), the organ
of the imperial viceroy in Galicia. In 1884 the Poush
Jesuits began at Cracow the publication of the
"Przeglqd powszechny" (Universal Review), a pe-
riodical still published, and which has rendered impK)r-
tant services to the Catholic cause from the scientific
and literary points of view. In the same city there was
published from 1881 to 1886 the ''PrzegjM literacki i
artystyczny" (Literary and Artistic Review). In
1894 in the whole of Austria there were published 126
Polish periodicals and daily papers, of which 65 ap-
peared at Lemberg and 29 at Cracow. At LembeYg
the daily papers were the ''Dziennik polski", the
"Gazeta lwowska", the "Gazeta narodowa", the
" Kurier Lwowski ". and the " Przegl^d " . There were
two Catholic weeklies, the '^Gazeta katolicka" and
the "T^godnik katolicki". At the present time the
Catholic Press is chiefly represented by the "Gazeta
ko^ielna" (Ecclesiastical Gazette), a small semi-
weekly, poor in doctrine and immersed in politics.
From the scientific standpoint the most important
periodical is the "Kwaltamik hystoryczny^' (Tri-
monthly historical periodical), which began publica-
tion in 1886, and tne numbers of which constitute a
valuable collection of historical works. No less im-
portant are the "Pamietniki literacki" (Literary
Monuments), the " Ateneum polskie", the "Komaos
(the organ of the society of naturalists of Lemberg),
and the ''Nasz kraj". In 1911 there appeared tne
PIRIODZGAL 688 PERIODICAL
only philoflophical periodical of Galicia, the ''Ruoh ecdeaiaatical news; and these two pubiicatioiifl ara
filosoncsny (Philosophical Movement). now united into one. A scientifically important pe-
At Cracow, besides the ''Czas", there are the nodical, the "Kwartalnik teologicsny", lasted only a
"Nowa Reforma" and the '^Glos narodu" (Voice of few years. At the present time, of the daily papers
Uie People), an orgui of the clergy and of the militant or periodicals for the clergy, or having a strictly Cath-
" : the "Polak-
CJenstochowa:
seminary of
years there has been established the "Swiat Wloslawek^ a monthly scientific pubUcation.
Slowianski" (Slav World), the organ of the Slav club In Russia the Lithuanians publish at Vilna the
of Cracow, containing valuable mformation relating "litwa" (Lithuania) in defence of their nationality;
to the various Slav coimtries. The Academy of while the Jews publish at Warsaw the ''Izraelita", a
Sciences of Cracow publishes a "Bulletin interna- weekly. The 'vPnewodnik bibliograficzny" (Biblio-
tional", monthly; and the "Rozprawy" (Disserta- graphical Guide) of Cracow, a monthly publication,
tions) of mathematics, physics^ and biology. Daily and the "Przeglcid bibliograficmy" of Prsemysl axe
papers and periodicals are published also in the other bibliographical periodicals which mention all Polish
Galician cities of Tamow, Rzeszowo, Sambor, Stan- writinm that appear, of all writings that concern
islaw, Jaroslaw, and Prsemysl. ^ Poland,^ and of tne writings that are published in the
One of Uie oldest Polish daily p&Pfn existing in principal Polish reviews. The number of scientific
Prussia is the '^Dziennik poznalidd'' (Posen Journal), periomcals devoted to medicine, veterinary sursery,
established in 1859. From 1845 to 1865 there ap- pharmaceutics, architecture, the fine arts, heraldry,
peared the "Prsegl^dpoznai&ski'', an ardent defender archieology, philology, etc., is about 100. which is
of Catholicism, ^ted by Rev. John Kofmian; in proof of Se intense scientific work of the Poles, who,
1860 Rev. John Prusinowski published the "Tygod- notwithstanding their difficult political conditions,
nik katolicki" (Illustrated Week). In 1865 Louis co-operate with much ardour in modem scientific
Rsepecki began the publication of the scientific pe- movements. The Mariavites have a special organ,
riodical ''O^ata'' (Culture), which, however, had ''Maryawita"; and their ''Wiadomosci" appears
only a short life, and was followed bv the ''Prze«l%d twice each week. At Warsaw there is published the
Wielkopolski" (Review of Great Poland)^ edited by tri-monthly periodical ''Myfl niepole^" (Inde-
Emilius Kierski. In 1870 Edmond Callier founded pendent Thought), full of vulgar calumnies and accu-
the "Ty^odnik Wielkopolski'', to which the best sations against Ca^oUcism.
Polish writers contributed. The "Kurjer Poznal&ski", In 1864 Polish fugitives established the "Ojczyna''
established by Theodor Zychlii&ski in 1872, also (Native Land) at Leipzig, the ''Przyszlo^" (The
acquired ^reat importance. In 1894 there were pub- fHiture) at Paris, and tne ^''Prz^^l^d powszechny" at
lished in Prussia and in the Grand duchy of Posen Dresden. At Chicago, U. S. A., the chief centre of
the following daily papers: the ''Dziennikpoznal&ski", Polish emigration, are published the "Dziennik
the^'Goniecwielkopolski", the^Kurjerpoznal^ski", chicagoski", the ^'Dzietidwi^ty" (Holy Day), the
the "Or^ownik" (Advocate), and the ''Wielko- <'Gazeta katolicka", the ''Gazeta polska'', the
polanin". The "Przeg^d poznafiski" resumed its "Noweiycie" (New Life), the" Sztandar", " Tygod-
publications under the Gurection of Wladislaw Rabski, nik naukowo-powie^iowy", "Wiara i ojczyna",
while other daily papers were published at Danzig, ''Zgoda", ancf "Ziamo , a musical publication.
Thorn, Pelplin, and Allenstein. In 1909, under the Other papers are published at Milwaukee, Buffalo,
direction of Wladislaw Hozakowski, rector of the New York, Detroit, Philadelphia, Winona, Cleveland,
seminary of Posen, there was published the "Unitas", Toledo, Baltimore, Pittsburg. Stevens Point, Manito-
a monthly periodical for the clergy, well edited from woe, Mohanoy City, and Wilkes-Barre. Brazil also
the theological standpoint. has a Polif^ publication.
In 1841 the publication of the '*Biblioteka War- Crmislowskx, Zarv» najnowMej lUerattay poUkiej (Cnoow,
szawska". a monthly periodical dedicated especially 15»Si .8:?i3; Naola, DnmniJmr$two poUku w ^meryeei itgo
MiaTTDBA , c* luvruvuAj ^^avkmx^ ^<o%mvm»i^ %^tr^*,m^j flOJernw ci«M[;« (Polwh Penodio»l Litetatupe ID America, and it»ni«-
to hterature, began m Russian Poland. Its excellence tory for 30 yean) (Chicago. 1894). Aubbuo Palmibri.
is still maintained. In 1904 there were published m
Warsaw 9 dailies, 33 weeklies, 7 fortniphtlies, and 5 Pobtugal. — ^An ephemeral news-sheet appeared in
poranny "}** Widomosci Codzienne " (Dailv News) ; ferences of opinion m matters of faith which nught ex-
^'Slovo**' (Word), a Nationalist paper that has great ist were not discussed in print, but, notwithstanding
influence; and the ^'Warszawska Gazeta". Other the censorship. French ideas began to filter into Por-
dailies are published at Lublin, Kieff ("Dziennik tugcd, and early in the nineteenth century the press
kijowski'')) &t Vilna (''Kurjer litewski!' and ''Goniec began to be divided between Liberal and Absolutist:
Wilenski''), at Lodz, and at St. Petersburg. Among the former advocating radical changes in State ana
the periodicals, besides the'' BibliotekaWarszawska^'j Church, the latter defending Absolutism in politics,
mention should be made of the '' Biesiada literacka'' and Catholic orthodoxy. In 1798 appeared the '' Mer-
(Literary Banquet), splendidly illustrated; the '' Kul- curio" to combat the French Revolution, and this was
tura'\ hostile to Catholicism; the ''Przeglcid filozofi- followed by other anti-French journals, among them
czny'' (Philosophical Review), a quarterly publica- the ''Observador Portuguez". On the Liberal side
tion; the ''Przegl^d history czny" (Historical Review), came the " Investigador Portuguez" in 1811 and the
scientific, twice monthlv; the "Swiat" (World), an '' Fortunes '' in 1814. both published in London, from
illustrated weekly; and tne ''Tygodnik illustrowane". which city the Liberal exiles directed their assaults on
The Catholic press until two years ago was repre- the old regime. These attacks were met by the " Ex-
ecuted by the ''Prz^l^d katoucki'', of Warsaw, a pectadorPortuguez". The Revolution of 1820 gave a
publication of very little value theolo^cally, and dedi- great stimulus to ioumaUsm, and the ''Diario dfo Go-
cated more to pontics. This paper was the one most vemo" began to be issued in that year. At first the
read by the clergy. Count Koger Lubiet^ki estab- liberal papers were rather anti-Absolutist than anti-
lished the ''Wiara" (Faith), a weekly devoted to Catholic, but the Civil War led to the formation ol
PERIODICAL
689
PERIODICAL
fcwo political camiM, and liberaliam in politics came to
mean Liberaliam in religion. The activity of Free-
masonry and the unprogressive ideas of the Absolu-
tists were the causes. As early as 1823 the ''Archivo
da Relig^fto Christft" was foimded ''to combat error
and impiety", but the papers of this period were de-
voted almost entirely to politics, all being very vio-
lent. Among those which argued for a constitution,
the "Portuguez". directed by Garrett, showed the
greatest literary sldll. The )rear 1827 saw the issue of
an avowedly anti-clerical print, while the defence of
Throne and Altar was carried on bv the redoubtable
Father Jos6 Agostinho de Maceoo (q. v.) in the
"Besta Esfol^da" (Flaved Beast) and many other
periodicals of a most beUicose character. From 1829
to 1833 the ''Defensor dos Jesuitas" was issued to de-
fend the Society, which fell with the other orders when
the Liberals triumphed and Dom Miguel lost his throne.
The constitution^ monarchy had an anti-clerical
character from the first, and most of the papers took on
the same tone. A Catholic Press became an absolute
necessity, but as its supporters were mostlv Miffuel-
ists, it was too poUtical, and never exerciseci much re-
ligious influence oyer the nation. "The Peninsula",
organ of the Migu'elist exiles, supported the Catholic
AMolutist cause until 1872, and tne "Na^fio", of the
same party, still exists. From 1840 to 1892 the chief
Radical paper was the "Revolu^fto de Septembro".
The purely religious organs included the "Annaes da
PropagaQfto da F^" (1838); the "Cruz'', an Oporto
weekly; and the "Atalaia Catholica", printed at
Braga; but the other Catholic papers had a short life,
though the " Bem Publico'' (PubUc Weal) lasted from
1859 to 1877. In 1863 came the " Boletim do Clero e
do Professorado", a pedagogic paper, in 1866 the
"Uni&o Catholica". a religious ana literary weekly,
and in 1871 the **F6^\ The "Palavra" of Oporto was
founded in 1872, and in 1874 the "Mensageiro do
Cora^fto de Jesus", the monthly oivan of the Apostle-
ship of Prayer, which in 1881 shghtfy changed its title.
In 1883 was rounded the "InstitmQOes Christfis", a
fortnightly religious and scientific review, which, how-
ever, ceased in 1893: in 1885 tiie "Clero Portuguez", a
weekly ecclesiastical review; and in 1889 the ' Voz do
Evangelho", a monthly. While the Cathotic papers
lacked support, the secular press was expanding rap-
idly, and developed a more and more irreligious, or at
least indififerentist, character. This is even more true of
the Republican papers. It would take too much space
even to name the principal secular newspapers, but it
is enough to say that they favoured the subjection of
Church to 6tate and defended the laws of Aguiar
("Kill-friars") which suppressed the religious orders.
This attitude has become more markeid since the
Revolution, nearly all the Monarchical papers having
ceased pubucation, or passed over to the Republicans,
who are mostly anti-Catholic.
The present Catholic Press consists of the following
papers: Dailiea. — ^The "Palavra", with a circulation
of 12,000 and the "Correio do Norte", with 6,000,
both at Oporto. The " Portugal " of Lisbon had a cir-
culation of 11,500, but ceased when the Republic was
proclaimed. The circulation of the irreligious "Se-
culo" and "Mundo" is no doubt greater than that of
the three Catholic dailies combine. Weeklies, — ^The
publishing house, "Veritas", at Guarda, prints a
paper which appeals under custinct titles in various
provincial towns. Lisbon has the "Bem Publico",
Guimarftes the "Restauragfio". Oporto the "Ensino",
and Vizeu the "Revista Catnohca". Monthlies. —
The "Novo Mensageiro do Cora^fto de Jesus", pub-
lished by the Jesuits, ceased when the Society was ex-
pelled in October, 1910; the "Voz de Santos Antonio",
a Franciscan print, hsid already been suspended by
order of the Holy See for its Modernism, and the only
existing review of importance is the "Rosario", is-
sued by the Irish Dominicans at Lisbon.
XI.-
If the Catholic Press limits itself in future to reH-
^ous and social action, and lays aside the old methods
m which it identified religion with the monarchy, it
may regain some influence over those who have not
altogether lost Christian sentiments. For some years
before the Revolution it was too political and fought
the enemies of the Church with their own arms.
Edqar F^bebtaqb.
Scotland. — No Catholic periodical of any kind
seems to have made its appearance in Scotland until
after the Emancipation Act of 1829. Three vears
subseouent to the passing of that act. namely in April,
1832, James Smith, an Edinburgh solicitor, and father
of William Smith (Archbishop of St. Andrews and
£dinburf;h, 1885-92). started a monthly journal cidled
the "Edinburgh Catholic Magazine", editing it him-
self. The publication was suspended with the number
of November, 1833, but was resumed in February,
1837. In April, 1838, however. Mr. Smith having
removed to England, the word "Edinburgh" was
dropped from the title of the magazine, wmch con-
tinued to be published in London until the end of 1842.
More than fifty years later another monthly magazine,
the "Scottish Catholic Monthly'^, was establishea
and edited by Goldie Wilson. It existed for three
years, from October, 1893, until December, 1896. The
Benedictines of Fort Augustus founded ana conducted
a magazine called "St. Andrew's Cross", from August,
1902, to November, 1903, as a quarterly, and from
January, 1904, to December, 1905, as a monthly, after
which it was discontinued. The French Premonstra-
tensian Canons, who .made a foundation in the Diocese
of Galloway in 1889, and remained there for & few
years, pubhshed for a short time, at irregular inter-
vals, a periodical called the "Liberator", which
was something of a literary curiosity, being written in
English by French fathers whose acquaintance with
that language was very rudimentarv. A quarterly
magazine, called "Guth na-Btiadhna" (the 'Voice of
the Year"), was started in 1904 by the Hon. R.
Erskine, a convert to Catholicism, who still (1911)
edits it. The articles, which are of Catholic and gen-
eral interest, are nearly all written in the Gaelic
lan^aee. A little monthly^ called the "Catholic
Parish Magazine", is printed in Glasgow, and is local-
ized (with parochial news) for a number of missions
in Glasgow and Galloway.
No Catholic daily paper has ever been published in
Scotland, although the possibility of successfully con-
ducting such a paper, in Glasgow, has been more than
once imder consiaeration. Of weekly papers the first
issued seems to have been the "Glasgow Free Press "^
which came into Catholic hands about 1850, and was
published, under various editors, for several years. The
''Northern Times" was started in opposition to this,
but only survived about eighteen months. The " Irish
Exile", another weekly, was started in 1884, and ran
for about eighteen months. Finally, in 1885, the
"Glae^ow Observer" came into existence, and is now,
with its afifiliated papers, printed for circulation in
Edinburgh, Aberdeen, Dundee, and Lanarkshire, the
only Catholic weekly published in Scotland. The
Glasgow "Star", which was started in 1895^ and was
conducted for some years in the interest of the pub-
Ucans, in opposition to the temperance policy of the
"Observer", was finally (in lSi08) acquired by the
latter paper, which now issues it mid-weekly.
D. O. Hunter-Blair.
Spain. — ^The periodical Press in Spain began to
exist early in the history of that country. The
"Enciclopedia Hispano-Americana ", in the article
"periodismo", mentions news publications as early
as the time of Charles V; ana "El Mundo de los
periodicos". of 1898-99 (p. 945), gives 1661 as the
date when tne first periodical appeared in Spain. The
PIBIODZGAL
690
PIBIODICAL
publication of this kind of Hterature continued to
develop in succeeding years until it reached a maxi-
mum m 1762, when fourteen periodicals were pub-
lished; the number then diminished until, in 1780,
it had sunk to two, increasing once more to fourteen
in 1786. The publications of this period treated of
political, commercial, and literary matters, though
such a periodical as the ''Apologista Univeraal^', 1^
Ueved to have been edited by Fray Pedro de Centeno,
denounced abuses and refuted errors.
The Catholic Press as we now have it did not exist
until a later period, when the attacks of gallicising
Liberals and Voltaireans upon the Catholic Religion
roused Catholics to defend the traditional doctrines.
The liberty of the Press decreed by the Cortes of
Cadis, in 1812, resulted in a remarkable ebullition
among Liberal writers, and in 1814 the number of
periodicals amounted to twenty-three, while Father
Alvarado, the Dominican, wrote his famous articles,
under the title ''Cartas ae un fil6sofo rancio" (Let-
ters of a Soured Philosopher), against the new doc-
trines which the French Revolutionists had planted
in Spain, and the nascent Liberal Press were striving
to popularize. At this time, too (181^15), Fray
Agustm de Castro, the Hieronymite, edited "La
Atalya de la Mancha" (The Watch-Tower of La
Mancha). On 25 April. 1815, a decree of Ferdinand
VII prohibited the publication of any periodical ex-
cept''La Gaceta" and ''£1 Diariode Madrid". But
when the Constitution of 1820 proclaimed the liberty
of the Press, the number of Liberal periodicids rose to
sixty-five. Mesonero Romanos, in his "Recollections
of a Septuagenarian" (Madrid, 1880), p. 453, speaking
of this era in Spanish history, uses the expression:
"the indiscreet attempt made by the political press
in the turbulent constitutional period of 1820-23".
No Catholic periodicals were published at this time,
since, as the same author tells us (p. 232), "The
Serviles and Absolutists maintained a complete silence
as the only means of avoiding the attacks of the joiir-
nalists ". It must be borne in mind that the Catholics
of that time were, as a general rule, Absolutists. In
1823 the king was again absolute, and once more he
silenced the Press, which declined for a number of
years, until the triumph of Liberalism during the
regency of Dofta Cristina gave it new life. The
number of periodicals reached forty in 1837, and con-
stantly increased thereafter.
Among the Catholic periodicals which appeared
during the reign of Isabella II, may be mentioned the
Carlist publications, "El Cat61ico" and "La Esper-
anza", the latter foimded by Pedro de la Hoz. "El
Pensamiento de la naci6n" was edited by the famous
philosopher BaJmez, who had begun his career as a
joumaJist with "La Civilizaci6n , published at Bar-
celona, in collaboration with Ferrer y Subirana, before
leaving him to found ' ' Sociedad " . Navarro Villoslada
was the editor of "El Pensamiento Espafiol", and
such distinguished writers as Gabino Tejado, Juan
M. Orti y Lara, and Suarez Bravo were among its
contributors. Candido Nocedal foimded "La Con-
stancia", a shortlived publication, in which the dis-
tinguished Catholic journalist and writer Ram6n
Nocedal made his first efforts. All these periodicals
disappeared during the period of the Revolution.
After the Revolution, and when the Carlist War had
been brought to a conclusion, Candido Nocedal,
having, with other moderate members of the Isabel-
list Part}r, joined the Carlists, founded "El Siglo
Futuro" in 1874. Vicente de la Hoz, son of the
former editor of "La Esperanza", founded "La F6*\
and Suarez Bravo "El Fenix", which lasted only two
years. Alejandro Pidal revived "La Espafia Cat6-
lica". which had existed before the Revolution. At
Seville there appeared "El Diario de Sevilla", which
will always be associated with the name of that illus-
trious writer Padre Francisco Mateos Gago. Upon
the death of Candido Nocedal, who had been ih€
leader of the Carlist Party since the end of the Civil
War, differences arose between his son Ram6n and the
other chiefs of that party, which gave rise to the
"Burgos Manifesto " of 1888. The Carlists separated
from the Integrists, who were led by Ram6n I^ocedal.
That same year, 1888, saw the first appearance of
"El Correo Espafiol", now (1910) the organ of Don
Jaime's party. In 1897 "El Universo" was founded
by Juan M. Orti, who, a few years earlier, had left the
Intergist Party.
Forty-eight Catholic dailies are now published in
Spain. They may be grouped as Integnst, Jaimist,
and Independent. The first and second of these
groups represent the two Traditionalist parties; the
third is formed of those journals which maintain
Catholic doctrines without adhering to any political
Sarty. Of the forty-ei^t, eleven are Integnst, eleven
aimist, and the remamder Independent. The most
important are "El Siglo Futuro", Integrist, founded
in 1874, now edited by Manuel Senante, a member of
the Cortes; "El Correo Espafiol", Jaimist, founded
in 1888, owned by the Duke of Madrid, edited by
Rafael Morales; "El Universo"^ founded in 1899.
owned by the Jimta Social de Acci6n Cat6lica, edited
by Rufino Blanco (these three published at Madrid) :
"La Gaceta del Norte", founded in 1901, publishea
at Bilbao, edited bv Jos6 Becerra. Tlie number of
copies printed b^ these papers naturally varies with
circumstances; it is safe to say, however, that on an
average "El Siglo Futuro" prints 7000 copies; "H
Correo EspafioT", 18,000; ^'El Universo'', 14,000;
"La Gaceta del Norte", 12,000. Against this the
anti-Catholic dailies publish: "El Pais", Socialist
Republican, 18.000 copies; "El Heraldo de Madrid",
70,000; "El Libcoid", 40,000. The Moderate period-
icals— e. g., "A. B. C". "La Correspondencia de
Espafia", and "La Epoca", the organ of the Conserv-
ative Party — have a large number of readers.
The other Catholic periodicals are: 2 tri-monthly;
7 bi-weekly; 63 weekly; 5 published every ten days;
9 semi-monthly; 9 monthly. Of these 11 are Cath«
olic-social; 9 Integrist; 19 Jaimist; the rest Inde-
pendent. The illustrated papers worthy of mention
amonjg them are "La Lectura Dominical" (Sunday
Reading), organ of the Apostolate of the Pr^, "m
Iris de raz". conducted by the Missionary Sons of
the Immaculate Heart of Mary, at Madrid; "La
Hormiga de Oro" (The Golden Ant), Catholic illus-
trated, Barcelona; "La Revista Popular", edited by
Felix Saeda y Salvany, Barcelona. There are twenty-
four semi-monthty and seventjr-four monthly reviews
published in Spain; * twenty-eight of them deal with
social questions, one is devoted to Spanish Sacred
Music, four deal with ecclesiastical sciences in gen-
eral, while the remainder handle religious and huSsiy
topics. About twelve of these are illustrated, the
principal being: "La Ciudad de Dios", founded in
1881, a semi-monthlyreview conducted by the Augu»-
tinian Fathers of the Escorial, and including among its
notable contributors the late Padre Camara, formerly
Bishop of Salamanca; "Raz6n v Fe", founded in
1901, a monthl}r review published by the Jesuit
Fathers at Madrid; "Revista de Estudios Francis-
canos", founded 1907, published b^ ti^e Capuchin
Fathers at Sarria (Barcelona), and including among
its most noteworthy contributors Padre Aimcisco
Esplugas; " La Ciencia Tomi8ta"^i-weekly, founded
in March, 1910, published by the Dominican Fathers:
"El Mensajero del Coraz6n de Jesus" (Messenger of
the Sacred Heart), a monthly review, foimded in 1869-
by Father de la Rami^re, and now edited by Padre
Remigio Vilarino. (Padre Coloma, S.J., a member
of the Academy of the Language, and celebrated as a
novelist, has published in "El Mensajero" his most
notable works.) "Revista Cat61ica de Cuestiones
Sodales", founded in 1895, at Madrid, organ of the
PIBIODZCAL
691
PIBIODICAL
general association of the "Dames de la buena
prensa '*, edited by Jos^ Ignado de Molina. ** Revista
Social Hispano-Americana", founded in 1902, semi-
monthly publication of the "Acci6n Popular'', Bar-
celona.
It is difficult to say anything with certainty as to
the future of Hie Catholic Press m Spain, thousn there
is reasonable ^und for a hopeful view. The one
thing evident is that, within the last few years, the
number of Catholic publications in this country has
considerably increased, and that an active propa-
fanda is in progress in favour of the CathoUc Press,
iany Catholics, it seems, are awakening from their
lethaxgy and are beginning to realise the necessity of
using every possible means to counteract tiie per-
nicious effect of the evil i>ress. The "Asociaci6n de
la Buena Prensa'', organized with the approval of
Cardinal Spinola, Archbishop of Seville^ has already
(1910) hela two conferences. A Cathohc agency has
been formed to supply news to Catholic periodicals,
and some of the new periodicals, such as "La Gaceta
del Norte", give mucn information and are equipped
with excellent t3rpographic facilities.
Manuel del Propaganda (Seville, 1908) ; Cabab,- Anuario de la
prenea caUlica Hiepano-Portuffueea (Orenae, 1909) ; Criado, La$
ordenea rdiffioeae en el periodiemo eevaHol (Madrid, 1907); Pb-
LABX, La importancia de la prenea (Barcelona, 1907); Idkm, La
Crutada de la Buena Prenea (Barcelona, 1908) ; Dusso, Beedn*
dalOt Becdndalo (Madrid, 190/) ; La Agenda Cat&lioa de infermor
ei&n (Saracoaaa, 1910).
Enbique Jimenez.
Switzerland. — ^The history of Swiss journalism
goes back to the beginning of the seventeenth century,
the first Swiss newspaper being issued at Basle in 1610.
It is significant that the early newspapers of Switzer-
land, which was at that time only nominally free,
hardly discussed political matters exceptinff those of
forei{p countries and this was the case until well into
the ei^teenth century. The censorship exercised at
that time was so strict that it did not seem advisable
to raise Questions concerning home politfcs. Even in
the middle of the eighteenth century, writers of objec-
tionable articles were bluntly notified to give up writ-
ing for newspapers. The political newspaper aid not
appear until at the close of the eighteenth and the
beginning of the nineteenth century, when clie free-
dom of the Press was {gradually allowed . This freedom,
however, for a long time existed chiefly in the Ihx>te8-
tant cantons. Catholic journalism in the present
sense is a recent growth, and does not extend farther
back than the third decade of the last century, when
the first Catholic newspapers appeared at Lucerne and
St. Gall. The reasons for this were partly of a political
and partly of an economic character. Switzerland is a
federation of twenty-five cantons, each of which up to
1848 was absolutely sovereign and up to 1874 was
practically sovereign. Even now the cantons possess
many of the rights of sovereignty, though not as many
as the States of the American Union. Hence the polit-
ical Press has mainly a cantonal or local character,
dealing with the interests of the sub-divisions of a
small state.
All the Catholic cantons are relatively small, some
of them not having more thim 20^000 or 30,000 inhabi-
tants. Moreover, the population is mostly rural.
Except Lucerne and Fnbourg, they do not contain
important cities, and, finally, the Catholic party for
many years totally misjudged the importance and
influence of the political Press in general, and let itself
be outstripped by their opponents. The first strong
impulse to the founding of a Catholic Press was given
by the civil war of 1847, called the war of the Sonder--
bund; the war ended with the defeat of the seven
Catholic cantons, which placed them largely at the
mercy of a violent Liberalism. This wus stiU more the
case m the cantons made up of Catholic and Protes-
tant districts. The Catholic Press grew very rapidly
during the sixth decade of the past century ana stiU
more so diuing the Swiss Ktdturkatnpf of the seventies.
More recently a large emigration of Catholics into
Protestant cantons led to the founding of Catholic
newspapers in these cantons. Switzerland has now a
Catholic Press in the Catholic cantons, in those where
Catholics and Protestants are on a parity, and in the
Protestant cantons.
The statistics are as follows: In 1911 Switzerland
had 399 political newspapers, of which 64 were Cath-
olic. Of these Cathohc papers. 1 is issued 7 times a
week. 10 are issued 6 times weekly, 1 is issued 5 times
weekly, 3 appear 4 times weekly, 22 appear 3 times, 13
appear twice weekly, and 14 once a week. 50 ar<e pub-
lished in German, 9 in French, 4 in Italian, and 1 in
Rhflsto-Romanic. The number of copies issued at an
edition are, taken altogether, as follows: the 4 daily
papers, including 1 issued 5 times weekly, have a circu-
lation of 52,000 copies; 3 that appear 4 times weekly,
8000 copies; 22 appearing 3 times weekly, 57,000; 13
appearing twice weekly, 30.000; 14 appearing once a
week. 60,000. Thus the 64 Catholic papers have a total
circulation of 207,000. The Canton of Aargau has 6;
Appenzell Outer Rhodes, none; Appenzell Inner
Rnodes. 1 ; half-canton of Basel-Stadt, 1 ; half-canton
of Basel-LAnd,none; Berne, 3: Fribourg, 4; St. Gidl,
12; Geneva, 1; Glarus, 1; Orisons, 3; Lucerne, 5;
Neuch&tel, none; Schafifhausen, 1; Schwyz, 5; Solo-
thum, 3; Ticcino, 3; Thurgau, 1; half-canton of
Nidwald, 1 ; half-canton of Obwald, 1 ; Uri, 1: Vaud,
none; Valais, 5; Zug, 1; Zurich^ 4. The Catholic
cantons have 28 Catholic papers, including 3 dailies,
the cantons having parity, 27, including 5 dailies; the
Protestant cantons, 9, including 4 dailies and 1 appear-
ing 5 times weekly.
Although the Catholic Press of Switzerland has
grown enormously in the last thirty years, and need
not fear comparison with that of other countries, even
entirely Catholic, yet the result is much less satisfac-
tory and even disappointing if we compare the Cath-
olic with the anti-Catholic press. According to the
census of 1910 Switzerlanci has in round numbers
3,700,000 inhabitants. Of these about 1,500,000 are
Catholics. From this we should deduct the libercd
Catholics, a fairly large element, and the foreign work-
men, Italian men and women, joumejrmen-mechanics,
servants, etc., that are only temporary residents.
Consequently only about 1,200,000 Catholics can be
taken into consideration for the present purpose. We
shaU compare only the dailies. A comparison between
the weekly papers would not yield a much better re-
sult, as is evident from the fact that there are only 64
CatnoUc political papers to counterbalance 399 non-
Catholic, and for 269 non-CathoUc weeklies that ap-
pear 1 to 4 times weekly there are only 53 Catholic
ones. The daily non-Catholic Press of Switzerland
includes 67 newspapers; of these 44 are extreme Lib-
eral, that is, hostile to the Church and in part disposed
to renew the Ktdtwrkampf; 3 of these appear twice a
day, total circulation, 244,000; 7 Liberal-Conserva-
tive. Protestant in faith, and generally friendly to
Catnolics, total circulation 46,000; 10 Social-Demo-
cratic and belonging to the Democratic party of the
Left, partly hostile to Catholics but not inclined to
carry on a KuUurkampff total circulation 54,000; 7
politically indifferent, total circulation 164,000. Taken
altogether, as before said, 67 papers with a total circu-
lation of 508,000, opposed to which are 12 Catholic
dailies^ one of whicn appears 5 times weekly, with a
total circulation of 52,000. In proportion to the popu-^
lation there should be at least 20 with a circulation of
150,000. The total circulation of all the 64 Catholic
Swiss papers is 207,000 copies, not the half of the total
circulation of the non-Catholic dailies, and the total
circulation of the extreme Liberal dailies alone is much
larger than the total circulation of all the Catholic
papers taken together. It* should be further addc^
that up to now ue Catholic Freim contains no paper
PIBIODIGAL 692 PIBIODIGAL
of two duly editions, and that the best non-Catholic made to ntabliah a news association of Catholie
newspapers exceed tne Catholic ones in copiousness papers, notMbly at Cincinnati, in May, 1890, but
of matter, etc. It is also worthy of notice that the nothing practical came of these efforts.
Catholic aaily with the largest circulation, the *' Vater- According to localities the Catholic publications are
land", has about 11,000 subscribers among Catholics, divided up as follows: Alabama, 2; Arisona, I;
while among the 63,000 subscribers to the politically Arkansas, 1; California, 9; Colorado, 2; Connecticut,
and ecclesiastically indifferent ''Zilrcher Tagesan- 5; Delaware, 4: Distriotof Columbia, 7; Illinois, 30;
zeiger'', there are about 20,000 Catholics. A^ain, it Indiana, 14; Iowa, 8; Kansas, 4; Kentucky, 5;
is not ja Catholic weekly that has the largest circula- Louisiana, 2 ^ Maine, 2; Maryland, 10: MaEBachu-
tion amone Catholics^ but it is the rather Liberally setts, 15; Michisan, 11; Minnesota, 7; Missouri, 15;
inclined "Schweiz. Wochenzeitung" of Zurich. Yet Montana, 1: Nebraska, 2; New Hampshire, 1; New
the CathoUc party is the second in strength in Switzer- Jersey, 4; New Mexico. 1; New York, 61; North
land. CaroUna, 2; Ohio, 23; Oregon. 7; Pennsylvania, 29;
But the Liberal and Protestant {larties are socially Rhode Island, 1; South Carolina, 2: Tennessee, 2;
and economically in a far better position, they control Texas, 6; Utaii, 1; Washington, 2; West Virginia, 1;
the larger part of the cities, while the majoritv of the Wisconsin, 21.
Cathohc population represent the country and moun- Many publications advocating Irish interests are,
tain distncts. which have less need of a daily paper, and have been, edited by Cathoucs and addressed to
On the other nand, the daily Press of the Socisd Demo- a Catholic constituency, but they are secular political
cratic party and of the Democratic party of the Left enterprises, and are not to be properly enumerated
have a total circulation of 54,000, although they draw under the head of religious publications (see laiaa,
their readers almost entirely from the lower classes of The, in Countries other than Ireland. — I. In ths
the population. However, the Swiss Catholic Press United States).
is earnest, courageous, ana on the whole is able and . Newsva'pers, — ^The first Catholic newspaper printed
efficient, and exerts a greater influence than is the in the United States was due to the enterprise of
case with the greater part of the Liberal Press. The Father Gabriel Richard, of Detroit, Michigan. In
principcd Catholic newspapers of Switzerland are: 1808 he visited Baltimore, and while there bought a
the "Vaterland". founded at Lucerne in 1873; the printing press and a font of type which he sent over
''Neuen-ZUrcher Nachrichten'', established at Zurich the mountains to Detroit (then a frontier town) and
in 1904; the "Ostschweiz'', in 1874 at St. Gall; the set up in the house of one Jacques Lasselle. in the
''BaslerVolksblatf' in 1873 at Basle; and the ''Lib- suburb of Springwells. On this press, the lever of
deceased, of the Catholic Press
cial mention should be made of
Egger, Tiandamman Baumgartner, and Jose^ Griiur server", containing sixteen columns and a half in
of St. Gall, Schultheiss von Segesser of Xuceme, English, and one column aiid a half in French, on mis-
Landamman Hftnggi of Solothum, the episcopal com- cellaneous topics. There is no local news included in
missary von Ah, and Landanmian Th. Wiras of Ob- its contents and onl)r one advertisement, that of St.
wald, Mgr Jurt of Basle, and Canon Schorderet of Anne's school, Detroit. The imprint says the paper
Fribourg. Among Catholic periodicals the following was printed and published by James M. Miller, but
should be mentioned : " Die schweiz. Kirchenzeitung , under the direction of Father Richard. It was to ap-
of Lucerne, a theological review that has a high reputa- pear every Thursday; only one issue, however, was
tion among the German clergy also: the "Schweiz. made, and of this but five copies are extant. The next
Rundschau", issued at Stans, a Catholic scientific and journalistic effort was in New York, where Thomas
literary review: the "Schweiz. sozialpolit. Bl&tter", O'Connor father of the jurist Charles O'Conor (q. v.),
of Fribourg; the "Alte und Neue Welt", of Einsie- began, lODecember, 1810, a weekly called the" Sham-
deln, an illustrated Catholic family paper, which has rock, or Hibernian Chromcle", which ceased publica-
a large circulation also in Germany and Austria; the tion 17 August, 1817. It was revived as a monthly
"Zukunft", of Einsiedeln, a Catholic review for the called "The Globe" in 1819 and lasted a year. His
Swiss associations for young men; various religious pen» says his son, "was ever directed in vindioatinjg
Sunday papers for the people; an illustrated supple- the fame of Ireland, the honour of our Umted Ameri-
ment for Catholic newspapers; a large number of can States, or the truth and purity of his cherished
Catholic calendars, as well as the organs of Catholic mother the Apostolic Church". Although these two
societies, etc. The five papers for Catholic workmen papers were not distinctively religious journals, they
and worldng women have been included among the were Catholic in tone and teaching, as might be ex-
political newspapers. pected from their Catholic direction.
Gborq Baumbergbr. Bishop England of Charleston (see England, John)
follows, in 1822. with his "United States Catholic
Thb United States.— Accordmg to "The Official Kliscellany". ''The writer would add", says the
Catholic Directory" for 1911, there are 321 Catholic bishop, m a history of his diocese which he published
periodicals published in the United States. Of these while on a visit to Dublin, m 1832, "that during up-
quarterfies, 2 bi-weeklies, 6 semi-weeklies, 4 semi- through the world, has been defended to the best of
Maine, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island support publication ceased in 1861, as a result of the War of
seven dailies, eleven weeklies, one semi-weekly, one Secesmon. One of the bishop's most efficient assist-
monthly, and a quarterly, all of which are pnnted ants in this enterprise was his sister Johanna, a
in French. From 1809 to 1911 some 550 Catholic woman of fine culture and much mental vigour, who
geriodicals were started in the United States, but only has never received proper credit for all the variety of
ve of those published during the first half of the nine- solid work she did on the paper. With the second
teenth century survive. Several attempts have been quarter of the nineteenth century came the great
PIBIODZCAL 693 PiaZODICAL
influx of Catholic immigrants and a consequent devel- 1848, Thomas D'Arcv McGee began in New York a
opment of the Catholic IVess. The pioneer journal of paper called ''The Nation'' which lasted until June,
this era was ''The Truth Teller'', the first number of 1850, its end being hastened by McGee's violent con-
which appeared in New York, on 2 April, 1825, with troversy with Bishop Hughes. Another venture of
the imprint of W. E. Andrews & Co., which was con- his, "Tlie American Celt , completed in June. 1857,
tinned on the &:st six issues of thepaper. William had a peripatetic existence of four years — ^in Boston,
Eusebius Andrews (o- v.) was the Eln^lish publisher Buffalo, and New York — ^when it was purchased by
who was so active in England, during Bishop Milner's D. & J. Sadlier and made over into a new paper, "The
time, and his connexion with the New York venture Tablet", the first number of which appeared on 5 June
is now explainable only as he was then printing a of that year, with Bernard Doran Killian as its editor.
"Truth Teller" in London. In the issue of 19 Octo- His successors in that position, imtil thepaper died in
ber, 1825, William Denman (q. v.) and George Pardow 1893, included Dr. J. V. HimtinRton; Wiluam Den-
are given as the proprietors of the New York "Truth man, Mrs. M. A. Sadlier, Dr. Henry J. Anderson,
Teller", and so contmued until 2 January, 1830, when O. A. Brownson. Lawrence Kehoe, and D. P. Conyn^-
Pardow sold his interest to Denman, and the latter ham. Archbisnop Hughes started, in 1859, as his
remained its sole proprietor until 31 March, 1855, personal organ, ''^The Metropolitan Record", which
when he disposed of it to the owners of the "IrL^ ceased publication in 1873. During all this time
American", who shortly after merged it in that paper. John MuUaly was its editor.
Denman, in the early days of the "Truth Teller", In 1872 "The Catholic Review", a paper combining
had the assistance, as contributors, of the Rev. Dr. the ideals of progressive modem joumauean under the
John Power, rector of St. Peter's Church, the Rev. direction of a man who had had practical newspaper
Thomas Levins, a former Jesuit and a man of ripe training, was b^gun by Patrick V. Hickey (b. in Dub-
leaming and ability. Dr. William James MacNeven lin, Ireland, 14 Feb., 1846; d. in Brooklyn, New York,
(q. v.), the Rev. Joseph A. Schneller, the Rev. Felix 21 Feb., 1889). For a time it met wiu success as a
Varela.andThomasO'Connor,but the paper becoming high-class weekly, and, to meet the demand for a
tainted with trusteeism (see Trustee Stbtem), ana cheap popular paper, Hickey printed also, in 1888,
opposing Bishop Dubois, a rival, the "Weekly KegL»- "The Catholic American" and the "Illustrated Cath-
ter and Cathohc Diary was started on 5 October, olic American". After his death, the Rev. J. Talbot
1833, by Fathers Schneller and Levins. It lasted three Smith edited "The Review ", which ceased to exist in
years, and was succeeded, in 1839, by the "Catholic 1899. Mr. Herman Ridder founded "The Catholic
Renter ", which, the next year, was combined with the News " in 1886, and it is notable that the historian Dr.
"Freeman's Journal ", then a year old. The editors at John Gilmary Shea closed his long and splendid career
first were James W. and John £. White, nephews of as its editor, 22 Feb., 1892. The "News" attained a
Gerald Griffin, the Irish novelist. Eugene Casserly very large and widespread circulation as a medium of
(q. V.) and John T. Devereux succeeded them^ and in entertaining and instructive reading matter for the
1842 Bishop Hughes took the paper to keep it alive, masses imder the business management of Henry
and made nis secretary, the Rev. James Roosevelt Ridder and the editorial direction of Michael J.
Bayley (afterwards Archbishop of Baltimore), its edi- Madigan.
tor. in 1848 the bishop offered to give the paper to Several attempts have been made to establish a
Orestes A. Brownson (q. v.), but soon after sola it to paper in the Diocese of Brookljm, notably the "Cath-
James A. McMaster (q. v.), the latter borrowing the olic Examiner", in 1882, and the "Leader", in 1884.
money for its purchase from George Hecker, a brother Both were shortlived. In June, 1908, the "Tablet"
of the Rev. Isaac T. Hecker (q. v.), founder of the was started. In February, 1909, it was made a dioce-
Paulists. McMaster continued as its editor and pro- san organ and purchased by a company made up of
prietor until his death, 29 Dec.. 1886. In 1861, be- diocesan priests. Albany had a "Cathohc Pioneer'' in
cause of its violent State's Rights editorials, it was 1853, followed by several other ventures with brief
suppressed by the Government, and did not resume existences. The "Catholic Sun" of Syracuse, in 1892,
publication until 19 April, 1862. Maurice Francis succeeded the "Catholic Reflector" of the early sixties
Egan was editor of the paper for two years after and the equally shortlived "Vindicator" and "Senti-
McMaster's death, and in 1894 the Rev. Dr. Louis nel". The "Sun" is also circulated as the "Catholic
A. Lamb^i; (b. at Allenport, Pennsylvania, 11 Febru- Chronicle" in Albany and the "Catholic Light" in
ary, 1835; d. at Newfoundland, New Jersey, 25 Sep- Scranton, Penn. The Newark, New Jersey, "Moni-
tember, 1910) took the position and so continued until tor" was begun in September, 1906. Buffalo, New
his death. York, also had several expenences, beginning with
New York City was, during the first half of the nine- D'Ari^ McGee's "American Celt", m 1^2, and cul-
teenth century, the leader in Catholic journalism, minating in the "Catholic Union and Times", the
The pioneer papers devoted their space mainly to con- "Union" starting in 1872, and being combined later
troversial articles explanatory of the truths of the with. the "Times", founded in 1877 by the Rev. Louis
Faith, and in defence of the teachings of the Church in A. Lambert, at Waterloo. For most of the years of its
answer to attack and calunmy. Tlie assaults of the progress the editor was the Rev. Patrick Cronin (b. in
Native American and Know-nothing periods aJso Ireland, 1835; d. at North Tonawanda, New York, 12
largely engaged their attention. In this they were Dec. 1905), a forceful and able writer and a recog-
assisted by a number of journals not strictly reugious, nizea leader among the Irish- American element in the
but political and social, edited by Catholics, and for a United States.
numerous constituency Irish by birth or descent. Of The Catholic papers of Philadelphia start with the
these the oldest, "The Irish American", foimdcd 12 Hogan schism (seeCoNWELL, Henrt), the "Catholic
August, 1849, by Patrick Ljmch (b. at Kilkenny, Ire- Henild and Weekly Register" being issued 30 Nov.,
land, 1811; d. in Brooklyn, New York, May, 1857); 1822, by E. F. Crozet to support the rebellious priest,
edited from 1857 until 1906 by his step-son Patrick J. To offset its influence and assist Bishop Conwell.
Meehan (b. at Limerick, Ireiand, 17 July, 1831; d. the "Catholic Advocate and Irishman's Journal''
Jersey City, New Jersey, 20 April, 1906), with the was started 22 Feb., 1823. In Auijust, 1822, the
"Catholic Telegraph" of Cincinnati (founded 1831). "Erin", a national paper, was first issued. These
"Pilot" of Boston (1837), "Freeman's Journal" of were followed in 1833 by the "Cathohc Herald",
New York (1840), and "Catholic" of Pittsburg which had a stormy existence under the editorial man-
(1846), alone survive in 1911, of the many Catholic agement of a convert, Henry Maior, who was a pro-
Dapers in existence in the United States during the fessor in the diocesan seminary. Disappointed in his
nrst half of the nineteenth century. In Octoberi ambition, Major reUpsed to Episcopahanigm, though
PIBIODICAL
694
PIBIODICAL
he repented in his last illness. He was a bitter antag-
onist of Orestes A. Brownson in the controversies that
were carried on during the fifties bv the editors of the
Catholic publications of that period. Another '^ Cath-
olic Herald'' was issued 22 June, 1872, by Marc F.
Vallette, and had a brief existence. The '' Catholic
Standard'', started 6 June. 1866, was suspended 20
Feb., 1867, but resumed publication on 22 June of the
same year. Its first editor was the Rev. Dr. James
Keogh; others were Mark Wilcox, George D. Wolf,
and F. T. Furey. In 1874 Hardy & Mahony became
its publishers, and 7 Dec, 1895, it combined (under
the title of ''Catholic Standard and Times") with
the ''Catholic Times", a rival which had the Revi
Louis A. Lambert as editor, and the first number of
which was dated 3 Dec., 1892. Its news^ editorials,
and correspondence are regarded as authontative, ana
frequently quoted by the secular Press. A monthly,
the "Irish Catholic Benevolent Union Journal", with
Martin I. J. Griffin as editor, began in March. 1873;
had its title changed in March, 1894, to "Griffin's
Journ^", and suspended in July, 1900.
Bishop Michael O'Connor, of Pittsburg, founded
(16 March, 1844) "The Pittsburg Catholic". Its
manager and proprietor was J. F. Boylan, with whom
was associated a printer named Jacob Porter, a con-
vert. On 30 June, 1847, Porter and Henry McNauffh-
ton bought the paper with which Porter retained his
connexion until 1 889. He died in his eighty-third year,
14 January, 1908. An earlv editor was the Rev. Hugh
P. Gallagher, president of the Pittsburg seminary, bom
in County Donegal, Ireland, in 1815, and ordained
priest in 1840. In 1852 he went to San Francisco,
where he started the "Catholic Standard" the follow-
ing year. He died there in 1883. The "Cathotic Ob-
server" of Pittsburg dates from 1899. The "Emerald
Vindicator" be^an at Pittsburg, May, 1882, moved to
Norfolk, Virgima, in August, 1888, suspended in July,
1889. During the seventies, under Bishop Mullen's
patronage the "Lake Shore Visitor" was published at
Erie, Pennsylvania, for several years.
Bishop Fenwick, feeling that a journalistic organ
was needed in Boston, started " The Jesuit, pr Catholic
Sentinel", the first number of which was (rated 5 Sep-
tember, 1829. " The rapid increase and respectabitity
of Roman Catholics in Boston and throughout the
New England States", says the prospectus, "loudly
calls for the publication of a Newspaper, in which the
Doctrine of the Holy Catholic Church, ever the same,
from the Apostolic Age down to our time, may be trulv
explained, and moderately, but firmly defended."
Objection having been made that the name "The
Jesuit" was prejudicial to the increase of circulation.
Bishop Fenwick, after four months, allowed the title
to be changed to "The Catholic Intelligencer", but in
a short time went back to the original style. This did
not improve conditions, and, on 27 December, 1834,
another title, "The Irisn and Catholic Sentinel", was
announced; during 1835, however, the pa;;er was
called "The Literary and Catholic Sentinel", and on
2 Januarv, 1836, evolved into "The Boston Pilot", a
name subsequently changed to "The Pilot". The
first editors were George Pepper and Dr. J. S. Bart-
lett, and the printers aad publishers Patrick Don-
aJioe and Henry L. Devereux. Patrick Donahoe (q.
v.), who became connected with "The Pilot", in 1835,
by the withdrawal of Devereux, assumed the owner-
ship of the enterprise, which in the course of a few
years grew into a most important paper of national
circulation and influence, advocatmg Catholic and
Irish interests. The editors under whose direction
this success was attfuned were Thomas D'Arcy Mc-
Gee, the Rev. J. P. Roddan, the Rev. Joseph M.
Finotti (q. v.), John Boyle O'Reilly, James J. Roche,
and Katherine E. Conway. Over the pen name of
"Laffan", Michael Hennessy, of the editorial staff of
th? New York daily " Tiroes '^' (b. ^t Tbowaetown, Cq.
Kilkenny, Ireland, 8 Sept., 1833; d. in Brooklyn, New
York, 23 July, 1892), contributed for years weekly
articles on Catholic and Irish historical and genealo-
gical topics that had a very wide popularity. The
Rev. John P. Roddan was a Boston priest educated at
the Propaganda, Rome, and on his return home made
pastor at Quincy, Mass., where, in addition to his pas-
toral duties, he ^ted "The Pilot". He was a fnend
of Orestes A. Brownson. and wrote many articles for
his " Review ". Boyle O^Reillv's connexion with " The
Pilot" began about 1870, and continued till his death
in 1890. On the failure of Patrick Donahoe's bank
and publishing house in 1876, Archbishop Williams
came to his rescue and purchased a three-fourths in-
terest in "The Pilot" for the benefit of the depositors
in the bank. O'Reilly held the other fourth, and was
given the business as well as the editorial manage-
ment. In 1890 the venerable Patrick Donahoe, woo
had bravely gone to work to rehabilitate his fortunes,
was able to buy back "The Pilot" and resumed its
management, which he held until his death, 18 March,
1891. In June, 1908, Archbishop O'Connell bou^t
"The Pilot" from the Donahoe family and made it the
official diocesan organ of the diocese and a distino-
tive^ Catholic journal.
When Orestes A. Brownson became a Catholic he
attended the church in East Boston of which the Rev.
Nicholas O'Brien was pastor. Father O'Brien in 1847
persuaded Brownson to join him in the pubUcation of
"The Catholic Observer". He soon proved his unfit*
ness for the management of the paper, which sus-
pended after two years' existence. In 1888 a number
of priests organized a corporation which began the
publication of "The Sacred Heart Review". Under
the direction of Mgr John O'Brien it attained a great
reputation for enterprise and literary merit. Another
Boston paper, "The Republic", was started in 1881 by
Patrick Maguire, but more as a political, than a strictly
Catholic organ. In Connecticut Bishop Fenwick was
even earlier with his ioumalistic venture than he
Was in Boston, for the "Catholic Press" was begun in
Hartford, on 1 1 July, 1829. In its office he started the
first Sunday school, 19 July, 1829, and there, too,
Mass was offered up for the few Cathohcs composing
the pioneer colony. The "Press" did not long sur-
vive, and its successor did not arrive until 1876, when
the " Connecticut Catholic " was bepun. Twelve years
later Bishop Tiemey purchased this p^>er and made
it, as the "CathoUc Transcript'.', official diocesan
Sroperty, with the Rev. T. S. Duncan as editor. In
Lhode Island the Providence "Yimtor" dates from
1877.
The "Catholic Mirror" was established at Balti-
more in 1849, and, as an expression of Southern opin-
ion and the diocesan organ, had, in its early years,
considerable influence. After the War, however, its
prestige waned, and, in spite of several efforts to keep
it alive, it suspended in 1908. Kentucky's Gust Cath-
olic paper, the "Catholic Advocate", was founded in
1835 by Ben. J. Webb, then foreman printer of the
Louisville "Journal", encouraged in the scheme by
the Rev. Dr. Reynolds and the Rev. Dr. Martin J.
Spalding. It took the place of the "Minerva", a
monthly magazine, founded in 1834. and edited by the
faculty of St. Joseph's College, Barastown. In the old
"Advocate" many of the most valuable papers writ-
ten by Bishop SpaJding first appeared. In May, 1858.
it was succei^ea by the "Catholic Guardian", startea
in Louisville by the members of the local Particular
Council of the St. Vincent de Paul Society, which had
a fair success, but was forced to suspend by the Civil
War in July, 1862. The "Catholic Advocate" was
revived later as the "Central Catholic Advocate",
and in 1896 the "Midland Review" was started to
rival it. There was not room for both so the new
absorbed the old journal; but, in spite of the fact that
the pubUc^tipn ww high-^laas, it di^ af tw a chock-
PIBIODICAL
695
PIBIODICAL
ered existence of five yean. Its editor was a versatile
writer of both poetry and prose, Charles J. O'Malley,
who left the '' Angelus'' magazine of Cincinnati to edit
the Louisville paper. When he found that his field
there was too limited for any practical success, he took
the editorial management of the ''Catholic Sun'' of
Svracuse, N. Y.. whence he went to Chicago to take
charse of the ** New World *\ in whidi position he died
26 March, 1910. He was bom in Kentuckv 9 Febru-
ary, 1857. In the period before the Civil War, the
"Advocate'' and the Baltimore ''Mirror" were impor-
tant and influential factors in Catholic affairs. The
Louisville "Catholic Record", a diocesan organ, dates
from 1878.
Other Southern papers are the New Orleans " Morn-
ing Star", establishea in 1867, and of which two poets,
the Rev. Abram J. Hyan and James R. Ra^didl, were
at times editors; "The Southern Catholic", begun in
1874 at Memphis, Tenn., suspended, and followed by
the " Catholic Journal ". In Missouri " The Shepherd
of the Valley" started at St. Louis in 1832 with a con-
vert, R. A. Bakewell, as its editor. It suspended in
1838, was revived in 1851, and lasted three years
longer. Bakewell, who died in 1909, created much
trouble by his editorials^ which were used for years as
anti-Catholic ammunition by the Native American
and Know-nothing politicians. It was the time of
O'Connell's Irish amtation for repeal of the union with
Eneland, and the Revolutionary movement of 1848,
and: he also antagonized the Irish-American element.
Although the Catholic constituency, to which their
publications appealed, was mainly Iridi, mamr of these
convert editors went out of their way to ofifend Irish
Buscei)tibilitie8. Bakewell's denimciations of Thomas
Francis Meagher, John Mitchell, the Rev. Dr. Cidiill,
and other popular Irishmen enraged "my Irish con-
stituents", he tells Brownson, in a letter dated 7 Jan-
uaiy, 1853. Brownson, in an article in his "Review"
of July, 1854, on Native-Americanism raised a storm
by the manner in which he referred to the Irish ele-
ment. After it was printed. Father Hecker, founder
of the Paulists, wrote to him: "The Irish prelates and
priests have become mighty tender on the i>oint of
Nationality. Your dose on Native-Americanism has
operated on them and operated poweif ully, and espe-
cially at the West. They felt sore, and let me add also
weak from its effects. . . . The truth is, I fear,
that there may before long come a collision on this
point in our Church. The American element is in-
creasing steadily in numerical strength, and will in
time predominate; and at the present moment, on
accoimt of the state of the public mind, has great
moral weight, and this in itself must excite unpleasant
feelines on the other side." The "Western Watch-
man''of St. Louis, Missouri, edited and controlled by
the Rev. D. S. Phelan, mav be called the last of the old
style personal organs, and has been running a strenu-
ous course since 1865. In 1846 a predecessor, the
"Catholic News Letter", began an existence of three
years, and in 1878 a stock company was formed which
combined an existing weekly, the "Catholic World",
until then published in Illinois, with the "Church
Progress" as a rival to the "Watchman". For several
years Cond^ B. Fallen held the position of editor of
the"Prop^8s".
The Cmcinnati "Catholic Tel^raph", established
in 1831, now the oldest surviving Catnolic publication
of the United States, enjoyed during the early years of
Bishop Purcell's administration a national reputation
under the editorial direction of his brother, the Rev.
Edmund Purcell, the Rev. S. H. Rosecranz, and the
Rev. J. F. Callaghan. Bishop Gilmour, of Cleveland,
was a strong advocate of the value of a Catholic paper,
and, beginnmg in 1874, spent a considerable amount of
moneys time, and personal effort in trying to establish
the " Catholic Universe " in his cathedral city. Manly
Tello was the editor during its early years. The
"Catholic Columbian" of Columbus started In 1875
and the "Record" of Toledo in 1905.
The best known and most widely circulated West-
em publication is the "Ave Maria", a scholarly liter-
ary weekly, founded by Father Sorin of the Congrega-
tion of the HoW Cross, at Notre Dame, Indiana, in
1865. For the mrst issues the editor was Father Gilles-
pie, C.S.C., and his sister, the well known Mother
Mary St. Angela Gillespie (see Gillespie, Eliza
Maria), was a frequent auxiliary. In 1874 ike Rev.
Daniel £. Hudson, C.S.C., took charge. An early
venture in Chicago was tne "Western Tablet '\ in
1852, imder the editorial direction of a convert, M. L.
Linton. Another editor was James A. Mulligan, more
famous as the colonel of the 23rd Illinois volunteers of
the Civil War (the Western Irish Brigade). He was
bom at Utica, New York, 25 June. 1830, and went to
Chicago in 1836. He studied law oefore becoming an
editor. His heroic defence of Lexington, Ky., in Sep-
tember, 1861, where, with 2800 men. he withstood an
army of 22,000, made him a popular nero. He died, 26
July, 1864, from wounds received two days before at
the battle of Kemstown. Va. The " Western Tablet "
did not survive, and it nad several illnstarred succes-
sors until the " New World " appeared in 1892. Three
years later the "Western Catholic" was printed at
Quincy, 111. The "Michigan Catholic" of Detroit
dates from 1872. In October, 1869, the "Star of Beth-
lehem" was established as a monthly at Milwaukee,
Wisconsin, by the St. Louis Brothers. Two years later
the^ sold the paper to the "Catholic Vindicator",
which had been established in November, 1870, at
Monroe, Wis., by Dr. D. W. Nolan and the Rev. John
Casey. The "Catholic Vindicator" and "Star of
Bethlehem" were consolidated, and establif^ed in
Milwaukee, November, 1871. In November, 1878,
Edward A. Bray and the Rev. G. L. Willard, havins
purchased the * Catholic Vindicator" from Dr. D. W.
Nolan, chaneed the name to the "Catholic Citizen".
In 1880 H. J. Desmond undertook its editorial man-
agement.
Other Western papers are the "Catholic Tribune",
Dubuque, Iowa (1899); "Intermoimtain Catholic",
Salt Lake Qty, Utah (1899); the "Catholic Bulletm",
St. Paul, Minn. (1911); "True Voice", Omaha, Neb.
(1903) ;/' Catholic Register", Kansas City, Mo. (1899) ;
"CathoUc Sentinel", Portland, Oregon (1870). In
San Francisco, Cal., the "Monitor is one of the
veterans dating as far back as 1852. Later enterprises
are the " Leader " of the same city (1902) ; the " Cath-
olic Herald" of Sacramento (1908); and ^'Tidings" of
Los Angeles (1895).
Magazinea and Periodical, — ^The first Catholic mag-
azine was the "Metropolitan, or Catholic Monthfy
Magazine" issued at Baltimore, Md., January, 1830.
It lived a year. Another "Metropolitan" b^an in
February, 1853, but also failed to make a permanent
impression. In January, 1842, the "Religious Cabi-
net", a monthly, edited by Rev. Dr. Charles J. White
and Rev. James Dolan, was started in Baltimore.
After a year its title was changed to the " United States
Catholic Magazine", which lasted until 1847. The
Rev. Dr. White and Dr. J. V. Huntington were its
most noted editors, and the contributors included
Archbishop M. J. Spalding, Bishop Michael O'Connor,
the Rev. Dr. C. C. Pise, and B. N. Campbell. In New
York the "CathoUc Expositor", edited by the Rev.
Dr. Charles C. Pise and the Rev. Felix Varela, lasted
three years (1842-44). Father Varela was also instru-
mental in the publication in New York, by C. H.
Gottsberger, of the "Young Catholic's Magazine" in
March, 1838; it was suspended in February, 1840.
The "National Catholic Register", a monthly, the
first issue of which appeared at Philadelphia, in Jan-
uary, 1844, did not last long.
When Father Hecker started the " Catholic World",
Sn 1865, its editor for the first five years was John R. Q,
PERZPATBTIC
69&
PEBJUBT
Hassard (q. v.), and the publisher Lawrence Kehoe
(b. in Co. Wexford, Ireland, 24 July, 1832; d. in
Brooklyn, New York, 20 Feb., 1890). To the latter
was due much of the early success of Uie magazine and
of the Catholic Publication Society. Under the pat-
ronage of the Christian Brothers the '^De La Salle
Monthly" was besun in 1867. Its name was later
changea to the ''Manhattan Monthly" and the Irish
patriot and poet John Savage was for a time its editor.
Tie "Young Crusader" of Boston (1868), "Catholic
Record", Philadelphia (1871), "Central Magazine",
St. Louis (1872), "Donahoe's Magazine", Boston
(1878).followinthelistof failures. The "Rosary Maga-
zine," begun by the Dominicans in New York, in 1891,
was transferred to Somerset, Ohio. The Sisters of
Mercy have published, since 1908, at Manchester, New
Hampshire, "The Magnificat". In April, 1866, the
Rev. B. Sestini, S.J., foimded the " Messenger of the
Sacred Heart" at Geor^town, D. C; thence it was
moved to Woodstock, Md., next to Philadelphia, and
finally to New York, in 1893. Later, in 1907, the
"Messenger of the Sacred Heart" was devoted en-
tirely to the interests of the Confraternity of the Sar
cred Heart, and the " Messenger ", a separate magazine
of general literary character, was issued. The latter
pubUcation, in April, 1910, was changed to a weekly
review, "America", which, by authority of the Gen-
eral of the Society of Jesus, was made the joint work
of the provincials of the Society in North America.
It took immediate rank as an exponent of Catholic
opinion with a national scope ana circulation. The
Rev. John J. Wynne, S.J., was its founder and first
editor-in-chief. The Catholic University, Wae^iing-
ton, publishes two magazines, the "Catholic Univer-
sity Bulletin" and the "Catholic Educational Review"
(1911), and nearly all ^e CathoUc colleges and the
academies have monthlies edited and compiled by the
students.
For historical work Philadelphia has two quar-
terly masazines, "American Catholic Historical Re-
searches and "Records of the American Catholic
Historical Society". New York has one, "Historical
Records and Studies", of the United States Catholic
Historical Society. When the reading-circle move-
ment began, Warren E. Mosher (b. at Albany, N. Y.,
1860; d. at New Rochelle. N. Y., 22 March, 1906),
who was one of the founders of the Catholic Summer
School, started the "Catholic Reading Circle Re-
view". This title was later changed to "Mosher^s
Magazine", but the periodical did not survive its
founder. The "Catholic Fortnightly Review", of
Techny, 111., edited by Arthur Preuss, and the "St.
John's Quarterly", of Syracuse, N. Y., edited by the
Rev. Dr. J. F. Mullany, are personal organs of the
editors. "Benziger's Magazine", New York, 1898.
and "Extension^', Chicago, 1907, are illustratea
monthlies. The "Ecclesiastical Review", Philadel-
phia (1889), supplies a varied and interesting quantity
of professional information for the clergy. An attempt
was made to offer from the same office in "The Dol-
phin", a similarly important publication for the laity,
but it failed to attract the necessary support. Another
failure, for a like reason, was made in New York in the
"New York Review, a journal of Ancient Faith and
Modem Thought", issued bi-monthly from St.
Joseph's Seminary, Dunwoodie, June, 1905 — May-
June, 1908.
The first quarterly review established in the United
States was the "American Review of Historv and
Politics", founded by a Catholic, Robert Walsh, at
Philadelphia, and of which two volumes were pub-
lished (1811-12). Walsh was born at Baltimore, Md.,
in 1784, and educated at Georgetown College. He
was a man of great literary ability, and died United
States consul at Paris, 7 Feb., 1859. The first and
most important Catholic quarterly was " Brownson's
Quarterly Review", which Oi«8tes A. Brownson b^an
in January, 1844, at Boston (moved to New York,
1855), after his conversion. He suspended its publica-
tion in 1864 "because he was unwilling", he said, "to
continue a periodical which had not the full oonfidoice
of the Catholic hierarchy". It was revived in 1873,
and finally ceased publication in October, 1875, with
the statement: "I discontinue the Review solely on
accoimt of my precarious health and the failure of my
eyes." The finst number of the " American Catholic
Quarterly Review" was issued at Philadelphia, in Jan-
uary, 1876, and the Rev. James A. Corcoran (a. v.),
Geoige D. Wolf, and Archbishop Patrick John Kyan
are notable as its editors. The "Globe Review", of
Philadelphia, edited by the erratic William Henry
Thome, haa a short career of violent iconoclastic
character.
Special Organs. — The fraternal organisations have
their special organs — as, for example, the ''National
Hibernian" (Washington, 1900), of the Ancient Order
of Hibernians — ^which devote their pages to the inter-
ests of the social organizations which they represent.
The German Catholic Press, led by two influential
dailies, has made much more substantial and prac-
tical progress than its English contemporaries. Imm-
inent among the editors who contributed to these
achievements were Dr. Maximilian Oertel (q. v.)
and Edward Frederic Rdnhold Preuss (b. at Kd-
ni^berg^ Germany, 10 July, 1834; d. at St. Louis,
Missoun, July, 1904). There are sixty-nine Polidi
papers printed in the United States, twenty odd
being thoroughly Catholic, and the others ranging
from neutrality to violent anti-clericalism. Of the
nine dailies four are distinctively Catholic. The
oldest paper is the "Gazeta Katolicka", founded
by Father Barzynski. He also founded, in 1889, the
"Dziennik Chicagoski" (Chicago Daily News), the
controlling interest in which is owned by the Resur-
rectionist Fathers. There are eighteen Polish papers
printed in Chicago, four of them dailies, and of the
eighteen seven are Catholic. The Bohemians have
a number of proisperous periodicals including 1 daily,
1 semi-weekly, 2 weeklies, 1 monthly, and I bi-
monthly. (See also Bohemians in the United
States; French Cathoucs in the UNmsD States;
Germans in the Unfted States. — The Press;
Italians in the United States. — Religious Or-
ffanizations; Poles in the United States.)
FiNom, B^iogravJiia Calk. Amerieana (New York, 1872);
Brown$on*» Quarterly Review (New York, Jan., 1849) ; Middubtom
in Records of Am. Cath, Hiat. Soc. (Philadelphia, Sept., 1893;
March, 1908) ; Gmms in Catholic Hiat. Reeearchea (Philadei-
fhia); U. 8. Cath. Hist. Soc.. Calk. Hiet. Reeorda and Studiea,
II (New York, Jan., 1903), part i; Mukrat, Popular Hiai. a/
Calk. Church in V. S. (New York, 1876); Catholic Citizen (Mil
waukee, Wis.), files; Catholic Neva (New York. 11 and 18 April.
1908); H. F. Bkownbon, Broumaon'a Middle Lile; Idem. Later
Life (Detroit, 189\H1900); Catholie Directory, files; Mbosmu,
Worka of the Rt. Rev, John BngUind (Cleyeland, 1908) ; Kkhos,
Worka of Moat Rev, John Hv/ghea (New York, 1864) ; Batlbt.
Brief Sketch of Hiat, of Cath. Church on the laland of New York
(New York. 1870) ; Mullant, Catholic Editara I Have Known
in St. John' a Quarterly (Syracuse, 1910-11), files.
Thomas F. Meehak.
Peripatetic School. See Aristotlb.
Perjury (Lat. per, through and jurare, to swear) is
the crime of taking a false oath (q. y.) . To the guilt of
the sin of lying it adds an infraction of the virtue of
religion. An oath properly taken is an act of worship
because it implies that God as witness to the truth is
omniscient and infallible. Hence the wickedness of
invoking the Divine testimony to confirm an untruth
is specially criminal. Prescinding from cases of ignoi^
ance or insufficient deliberation this sin is reputed to
be always mortal. When in doubt one cannot without
perjury swear to a thing as certain. When mental
reservation is permissible it is lawful to corroborate
one's utterance by an oath, if there be an adequate
cause. It is obvious, however^ that if in general it be
true that there is need of caution in the use of mental
reservations lest they be simply lies, there will be eo
PIBLO
697
RBnTUAL
additional motive for care when they are to be distin-
guiflhed with the solemnity of an oath. According to
the common doctrine as to co-operation in another's
sin, it would be a grievous offense to require a person
to take an oath when we know he is gomg to perjure
himself. This teaching, however, does not apply to
cases in which justice or necessity demand that a state-
ment be sworn to. Hence, for instance, a trial judge
may insist that evidence be presented under oath even
though it be clear that much or all of the testimony is
fiUse. Perjury, according to the divisions in vogue in
Canon Law, belongs to the category of crimes called
mixed. These may fall imder the cognizance of either
the ecclesiastical or civil court, according as they are
reputed to work diunage either to the spiritual or civil
commonwealth. No canonical penalty is incurred by
one guilty of perjury, at least directly. When, how-
ever, a person has been convicted of it before a com-
petent tribimal and sentence imposed, he is esteemed
infamous (Mamia juris) and therefore irregular.
Tauhton, Th4 Law of the Church (London. 1006); Slater,
Manual of Moral Theology (New York, 1908) ; Baluebinx, OpuM
ThoUogieum MoraU (Prato, 1899^.
Joseph F. Delant
PtrlOy Philip. See Kenia, Vicariate Apobtoiic
or.
Perxnaneder, Franz Michael, canonist, b. at
Traunstein, Bavaria, 12 Aug., 1794; d. at Ratisbon, 10
Oct., 1862. He studied theology and jurisprudence at
Landshut and in 1818 was ordamed to the priesthood
at Ratisbon. He was appointed in 1834 professor of
church history and canon law at the '^Lvceum" of
Freisin^, and m 1847 joined the theological faculty of
the Umversity of Munich. He was contributor to the
first edition of the ^^Kirchenlexicon". and also wrote:
"Handbuch des gemeingttlti^en katnolischen Kirch-
enrechts mit steter ROcksicht auf Deutschland"
(Landshut, 1846); ''Die kirchliche Baulast" (Mu-
nich, 1853); "Bibliotheca patristica" (incomplete;
Landshut, 1841-44); a continuation of the ''Annales
almsB literarum universitatis Ingolstadii" (Munich,
1859).
ScHrLTS, OesehiehU der Quell, u, Lii. dee Kan, Reehta, III
(Stuttgart. 1880), i, 35&-67.
N. A. Weber.
Pemter, Joseph Maria, scientist, b. at Neumark,
Tyrol, 15 March, 1848; d. at Arco, 20 Dec., 1908. He
entered the Society of Jesus after sraduation from the
Gymnasia at Bosen and Meran. For a time he acted
as professor of physics at Kalocsa and Kalksburg. In
1877 he was obliged to leave the order, on account of an
ailment in his head. He then studied physics at the
University of Vienna and received the doctor's degree.
After entering the Central Institute as volunteer in
October, 1878, Pemter became assistant in 1880, and
adjunct in 1884; in 1885 he also began to act as a vrv-
valdozeni at the univerraty. In 1890 he was called to
the Umversity of Innsbruck in the capacity of extraor-
dinary professor, and in 1893 was appointed ordi-
nary professor of cosmic physics. At Innsbruck he
began a number of works including papers on the
conditions of wind, humidity, radiation, and meteor-
ological optics. In his most important work ''Atmos-
pherische Optik". he collected all published treatises
and also suppliea original papers necessary to com-
plete certain subject. Unfortunately he died be-
fore he had finished this valuable publication. His
German translation of Abercromby's work, "The
weather", is also noteworthy.
In 1897 Pemter became professor at the University
of Vienna, and director of the Gentral Meteorological
Institute. He reorganised the institute and extended
it considerably, increasing the staff from fifteen to
thirty-one. He made it posnble for the institute to
take part in balloon ascents for scientific purposes. A
laboratory, a printing office, a reading room, etc..
were added, also a bureau for seismic observations.
Instruments for recording earth tremors were set up,
and the institute supervised the network of stations
for the study of earthquakes, its name being changed
to "Zentralanstalt fUr Meteorologie und Geodyna-
mik". He introduced various improvements in prac-
tical weather forecasting, such as the free delivery of
forecasts in the summer to all telegraph stations.
During his directorate were introduced the experi-
ments on so-called " weather-shooting '\ as a preven-
tion of the dangers due to hail. These experiments
created considerable excitement in the agricultural
circles of Austria and Italy. Pemter examined the
matter carefully and fearlessly, and came to a con-
clusion that proved to be the deathblow of this
practice.
He was kind towards his subordinates and inter-
ested in their welfare. It will take some time before a
full appreciation is had of all that he accomplished
for the institute. The most important of his numerous
political papers is "Voraussetzungslose Forschung.
freie Wissenschaft und Katholizismus", publish^
during the Mommsen acitation. In tms essay he
sought to prove the possibility of combining strict re-
li^ous faith with exact research. Pemter was also
one of the founders of the "Leo-Gesellschaft" in
Vienna and of the branch at Innsbruck. These socie-
ties have suffered a great loss, because he took an ac-
tive part as long as he could in all their work and prop-
aganda. During the last years of his life he was a
victim to sclerosis of the arteries, which especially
affected his heart. He suffered very much tlm)ugh
weakness of the heart, difficulty of breathing, and oc-
casional fainting spells. He was also deprea^ by the
sickness and death of his beloved young daughter and
of his wife. These numerous blows combined to
hasten his end.
WlLHBLlC TrABERT.
Perpetua, Saint. See Felicitas and Perpetua,
Saints.
Perpetual Adoration. See Adoration, Perpet-
ual.
Perpetual Adoration, Religious of (Belgium), a
congregation with simple vows, foimded at Brussels,
1857, by Anna de Meeus, daughter of Count Ferdinand
de Meeus, for whose head a price was offered by the
insurgents during the Revolution of 1830. In 1843
Mile de Meeus, then twenty years of age, at the re-
quest of the rector visited the sacristy of the church
near their chateau and other churches. Impressed by
the miserable state of the vestments and all that per-
tained to the altar, she found the inspiration of her
life's work. Considering the poverty and nef^lect of
Jesus Christ in the Blessed Sacrament and desirine to
make Reparation to Him^ she conceived the idea of an
association with the object of reviving faith in the
Real Presence: by adoration, night and day; persons
undertaking to make monthly an hour of adoration,
and give vearly an offering for the benefit of poor
churches; by working to enhance the dignity of Divine
worship by providing the necessaries for the becoming
celebration of the sacred mvsteries. The Association
of Perpetual Adoration and Work for Poor Churches
was organized in 1848 under the direction of Rev. Jean
Baptiste Boone, S.J., 'Hhe apostle of Brussels". The
necessity was soon felt that a religious body should be
its centre and support, one which would be wholly de-
voted to the propagation of the knowledge, love, and
adoration of the Blessed Sacrament.
As no community existed which made this work its
special vocation, the project of a new religious insti-
tute was formed and realized when Mile de Meeus, di-
rected by Father Boone, founded the Religious of the
Perpetual Adoration. The constitutions were defin-
itively approved by Pius IX (March, 1872). The re-
ligious must not only be adorers but also missionaries
PEEPSTVAI.
698^
PIRPITVAI.
of the Blessed Sacr&ment, devoting themselves to all
that, compatible with a life of retirement, can further
Its glory: religious instruction, preparation for first
Communion, retreats, etc. Their churches with the
Blessed Sacrament exposed are always open to the
pubhc. By their principal work, the ajssociation, they
strive to increase love for the Blessed Sacrament, by
hours of adoration, grants of vestments to poor
churches, the Forty Hours Devotion, etc. The asso-
ciation spread rapidly throughout the world (in Amer-
ica it is frequently called ''Tabernacle Society")* Ii^
1853 it was erected an archajssociation with power to
affiliate others. The decree of Leo XIII trimsferring
it to Rome (February, 1879) declares: "The archasso-
ciation is one with the institute in name and in its ob-
ject, it is subordinate to the institute as to its head, and
must be subordinate to it in virtue of the constitutions
approved by the Holy See". The archassociation was
raised to the rank of vrima primaria, July, 1895. The
institute has many nouses in Europe. In August.
1880, it was introduced into England by Cardinal
Herbert Vaughan, then Bishop of Manchester. Its
first foundation in America was at Washington, D. C,
October, 1900.
C. L. Mabttn.
Perpetual Adoration^ Reugious of the, a con-
templative religious congregation, founded in 1526 by
Sister Elisabeth Zwirer (d. 1546), at Einsiedehi, Swit-
zerland, and following the Benedictine rule. At the
beginning of the year 1789 thev commenced the prac-
tice of a£)ration of the Blessed Sacrament during the
day before the closed tabernacle. . A lay association
was established, the members of which contributed a
small sum of money for the expenses of the sanc-
tuary necessitated by perpetual adoration. On 2 May,
1798, during the French invasion the sisters were ex-
pelled and their monasterv ruined. Five years later,
after the Concordat of Napoleon, the community
returned. Acting on the advice of their confessor,
Father Pierre Perrot, the sisters, on 8 January, 1846,
began the practice of adoration by night as well as by
day. In 1852 to signify their devotion to the Blessed
Sacrament, they decided to wear a figure of an osten-
Borium on the breast of their habit. In 1859 Empress
Elizabeth of Austria presented the monastery with a
magnificent chaUce and a reliquary. A new church
was opened in 1882, and is adorned with three beauti-
ful paintings, representing^ the adoration of Christ.
The convent at Einsiedeln is the only house of its kind,
and has its own novitiate. In 1909 the community
numbered 46 professed sisters and 5 novices.
Abthur Letellddr.
Perpetual Adoration, Sisters of the (Quimper.
France), an institute of nuns devoted to perpetual
adoration of the Blessed Sacrament and to the educa-
tion of orphan children; founded at Quimper (Brit-
tany), by Abb^ Fran9ois-Marie Langrez (b. at Saint
Servan, 20 July, 1787; d. at (Quimper, 10 August,
1862). In early youth Francois-Marie had been an
apprentice rope-maker, but ne began to study the
classics at sixteen, and was ordained 19 December,
1812. In December, 1821, he conceived the first
idea of the work he subsequently founded. Two
poor homeless little girls crossed his path. He con-
fided them to Marguerite Le Mattre, a domestic serv-
ant. Other orphans were found and sheltered. In
1826 Marguerite's home contained an oratory and
was provided with a dormitory holding thirtv beds.
Three years later she received her first two co-labour-
ers, and on 21 November, 1829, the first chapel of the
institute was opened. In 1832, Mile Olympe de
Moelien, in whose family Marguerite Le Mattre had
been a servant when she be^an her charitable work,
entered the little society, being made superioress, 10
March, 1833. On 20 January, 1835, M^re Olympe
and her companions first put on the religious habit.
In September, 1835 a tentative rule of iife waa drawn
up by Abb6 Langres. In March, 1836, the first
sisters made their vows. On 27 March, 1837, Sis-
ter Marguerite Le Mattre died. Adoration of the
Blessed Sacrament which was begun in March, 1836,
did not become perpetual, day and night, till 1843,
eight days after the death of M^re Ol3rmpe, who left
after her a great reputation for sanctity. At that
time the community numbered 11 choir ststers, 4
postulants, and had charge of 70 children. In 1845
their rule was approved bv Mgr Graveran, Bishop of
euimper. A little later they were reoogniJBed by the
overnment under the title of Sisters of the Perpetual
Adoration. On 10 May, 1851, a house was founded
at Recouvrance, transferred, 28 October, 1856, to
Goat-a]>Gu6ven, near Brest. This and the house at
Quimper are the only ones that practise perpetual
adoration. In 1882, the institute containea 400 or-
phan girls and 128 religious. Since its foundation,
it has received 1754 orphan girls, of whom 1000 have
embraced the reUgious life in different congregations.
Abthur Leteljxbb.
Perpetual Adorers of the Blessed Sacrmment
(Sagramentines). — ^Anton Le Quien, b. in Paris, 23
Feb.^ 1601, the foimder of the first order exclusively
devoted to the practice of Perpetual Adoration, en-
tered the Dominican Order, ana after ordination was
named master of novices at Avignon, and later prior
of the convent at Paris. " During the seventeenth cen-
tury ", we read in his works, edited by Potton, " we find
only two religious orders that have Perpetual Adora-
tion. The first is that of the Sisters of the Blessed
Sacrament, founded by P^re Antoine, O.P.; the second
that of the Benedictine Adoratrices, founded first at
Paris and afterwards in several other cities, by the cele-
brated Mother Mechtilde. This religious, supported
by powerful protectors, easily accomplished her task.
Perpetual Adoration began among her daughters in
1654, while the Sisters of the Ble^ed Sacrament re-
ceived the privilege of reserving the Blessed Sacra-
ment only in 1659. But P^re Antoine had begun the
establishment of the Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament
about 1639, while M^re Mechtilde's work appears, ac-
cording to H^lyot, to date back no further, even in
project, than 1651. Pdre Antoine zn&yt then, be con-
sidered as possessing priority, especially as his order
was intended solely for the worship of the Holy Eu-
charist, while that pf M^re Mechtilde, although in ex-
istence, was adapted to that end only at a later pe-
riod". Migne's " Dictionnaire des Ordres reKgieuz''
mentions no religious order exclusively destined for
the worship of the Blessed Sacrament, except Uiat ^
Pdre Antoine, and that of the Adoration Reparatrice,
established in France for the first time in 1848.
In 1639 P^re Antoine b^an his work at Marseilles.
Sister Anne Negrel was named the first superioress.
But the definitive establishment of the religious took
Slace only in 1659-60, when Mgr de Puget, Bishop of
f arseilles, erected them into a congregation under the
title of Sisters of the Blessed Sacrament. The final
formalities for the approval of the order having been
concluded in Rome (1680), Innocent XI expecBted a
Brief, which could not be put in execution because
of a change of bishop. Innocent XII issued a new
Brief the same year m which the Apostolic Process
was opened for the canonization of its founder.
The only foundation of the order in the ei^teenth
century was made at BoU^ne (Vaucluae) m 1725.
Sixty years later, under the government of M&re de
La Fare, this monastery had the honour of offering to
God thirteen victims, who succeeded one another on
the scaffold, from the fifth to the twenty-sixth of July,
1794. The process for the canonisation of these
martyrs was opened at Rome, Januarv, 1907.
Mere de La Fare, having escaped the guillotiiie^
PKBPITUAL 699 PIBPITUAL
gathered together her community in 1802, and made a months, that of noviceship eighteen months, and after
foundation at Avignon in 1807. The same year a Sao- six years, isermanent vows are taken,
ramentine of Marseilles founded a convent at Aix-en- The institute has so far con&ied its activities to
Provence. In 1816 the convent of Marseilles was re- the Diocese of Quebec. In 1907-08, the constitutions
opened, and Mdre de La Fare made a new foundation were recast and made conformable to the observa-
at Carpentras. In 1859 six religious of Aix founded tions in the ''Guide canonique" by Mgr Battandier.
a house at Bemay, Normandy, and in 1863 some the superior-general and her councilors being directea
Sisters from BoUdne founded a convent of Perpetual in this work oy the Rev. Charles Gonthier, S.J., of
Adoration at Taunton, England. Oxford also has a Montreal. At present the congregation conducts 21
foundation. All the houses of this order are autono- schools in the Province of Quebec, with 2532 pupils, 1
mous and dependent on the ordinary of the diocese, hospital with 44 inmates, and 35 sisters, and has
who is their superior. In consequence of the persecu- charge of 50 orphans. The order numbers (1911) 112
tion of religious congregations m France, the Sacra-' professed sisters, 8 novices, and 12 postulants,
mentines of Marseilles were obliged to abandon their Sister St. Ignace de Lotola.
convent. The four other houses of Southern France,
being authorised by the Government, still subsist, Perpetual Sucoour, Our Ladt of. — ^The picture
thou^ their boardmg-school is closed. The Sacra- of Our Lady of Perpetual Succour is painted on wood,
mentmes of Bemay at the time of the expulsion, July, with backgsound of gold. It is Byzantine in style and
1903, were compelled to close their boarding-school ana is supposed to have been painted m the thirteenth cen-
go into exile. Thirteen of the sisters retired to Belgium, tur^. It represents the Mother of God holding the
and founded a house at Hal. The rest of the com- Divine Child while the Archangels Michael and Ga-
munity settled in England at Whitson Court, New- briel present before Him the instruments of His Pas-
port, Monmouthshire. Their existence is precarious, sion. Over the figures in the picture are some Greek
for they are not permitted to open a school. Their letters which form the abbreviated words Mother of
days are spent in prayer, adoration, and the making God, Jesus Christ, Archangel Michael, and Archangel
of altar-breads, vestments, and church ornaments. Gabriel respectively. It was brought to Rome to-
In March, 1911, the Sacramentines were permitted wards the end of tlie fifteenth century by a pious mer-
by Archbishop Farley to open a house in Holy Trinity chant, who, dying there, ordered by his will that the
parish, Yonkers, New York. picture should be exposed in a church for public vener-
HiLTOT, Hi9taire det OrrfrM. IV, 421 sq. ; Hwmbuchwi. Dm ation. It was exposed in the church of San Matteo,
Orden u, Kanoregattonen, ». y. Sakramenttnennn^, yj^ Merulana, between St. Mary Major and St.
A. Lbtbluer. John Lateran. Crowds flocked to this church, and
for nearly three himdred years many graces were ob-
Perpetual Heh>, Sisters of Oxtr Ladt of, a con- tained through the intercession of the Blessed Virgin,
gregation founded in the parish of St. Damien, Belle- The picture was then popularly called the Madonna
chasse, P. Q., Canada, 28 August, 1892, by Abb^ J. O. di San Matteo. The cnurch was served for a time by
Brousseau. The institute devotes itseljf to the follow- the Hermits of St. Augustine, who had sheltered their
ing works: the instruction of children, particularly in Irish brethren in their distress. These Augustinians
country and city parochial schools; the education of were still in charge when the French invaded Rome
orphans and the maintenance of ag^cultural orphan- (1812) and destroyed the church. The picture dis-
ages in which, together with religious instruction and appeaored; it remained hidden and neglected for over
a good education, children may be given a taste for forty years, but a series of providential circumstances
fanning; the care of the aged and infirm of both sexes, between 1863 and 1865 led to its discovery in an ora-
Abb^ J. O. Brousseau laboured earnestly to secure tory of the Augustinian Fathers at Santa Maria in
funds for the new foundation and to overcome the Posterula.
obstacles to its progress. The pastors of a number of The pope, Pius IX, who as a boy had prayed before
parishes in the Diocese of Quebec authorised him to the picture in San Matteo, became interested in the
seek pecuniary aid. on condition that he would admit discovery and in a letter dated 11 Dec., 1865 to Father
some of their aged poor and orphans to his institu- General Mauron, C.SS.R.. ordered that Our Lady of
tions. Among those who cooperated with him was Perpetual Succour should oe again publicly venerated
Mile Virginie Foumier, bom at St. Joseph de L^vis in Via Merulana, and this time at the new church of St.
but a resident of Fall River, Mass., a woman of experi- Alphonsus. The ruins of San Matteo were in the
ence and courage. She became the first sup^or of the grounds of the Redemptorist Convent. This was but
Uttle community which as M^re St. Bernard she gov- the first favour of the Holy Father towards the pict-
emed for six years, with great success. From the first ure. He approved of the solemn translation or the
year of the community's existence, the sisters have picture (26 April, 1866), and its coronation by the
conducted the principal schools of the parijEQi of St. Vatican Chapter (23 June, 1867). He fixed the feast
Damien. The demand for these religious educators as duplex secundcs dassiSf on the Sunday before the
increased and, in 1907^ having no more disengaged Feast of the Nativity of St. John the Baptist, and by a
subjects, they were obliged to refuse the direction of decree dated May, 1876, approved of a special office
seventeen municipal schools. The first profession oc- and Mass for the Congregation of the Most Holy
curred on 27 March, 1897, when fifteen sisters pro- Redeemer. This favour later on was also granted to
nounced the three vows of religion for a year, renewing others. Learning that the devotion to Our Lady under
them annually until the taking of their perpetual vows this title had spread far and wide, Pius IX raised a
on 10 July, 1908. The congregation recruits its mem- confraternity of Our Lady of Perpetual Succour and
bers from all classes of society, povertv being no St. Alphonsus, which had been erected in Rome, to
obstacle. None are received save tnose of upright in- the rank of an arch-confraternity and enriched it with
tention, sound judgment, a well-disposed wiU, and many privileges and indulgences. He was amongst
sufliciently robust health. To accept subjects under the first to visit the picture in its new home, and
fifteen years of age and over thirty, widows or persons his name is the first in the register of the arch-
having already taken either temporary or perpetual confraternity. Two thousand three hundred fac-
vows in another religious community, it is necessaiy similes of the Holy Picture have been sent from St.
to have the permission of the Holy See. The dower is Alphonsus's church in Rome to every part of the world,
fixed at a hundred dollars; in default of this the aspir- At the present day not only altars, but churches and
ant must promise to give instead what will later revert dioceses (e. g. in England, Leeds and Middlesborough;
to her by right of inheritance, bequest, or in any other in the Unit^ States, Savannah) are dedicated to Our
legitimate way. The period of postulant^p lasts six Lady of Perpetual Succour. In some places, as in
nEPKTuns 7(
the United States, the title haa been tnuuUted Our
Lady of Perpetual Help. ,
Bmiia Viroodt Prrpetua Siurvrm, id B^.dt anii^v ttprodiffiota
tmaaiiu in BctUna S. Al^umti it Urbt CuUui rtddita. ntaum di
ATcXiModalibitt wub titvio B. it. V. it Prrpriiu Sucairtu tl S. At-
fiAonn Jtf. dt Lietuino eanmiti tntia (Roma. 187S).
J. MAomiB.
Peipatutu, Saint, dg^th Bishop of Toura, d. 1
January, or S December, 490, or S April, 491. He
waa a member of the illustrious family which produced
St. Eustochiua, who had been his predece«aor, and ^so
Saint Volusianue, who became hie successor in the same
episcopal see. Appointed about 460, he guided the
ChuTcn of Toura for thirty years, and it is apparent,
from what little information we have, that during his
administration Chriatianitv was considerably devel-
oped and consoUdated in Tourune. Shortly after his
elevation, St. Perpetuus presided at a council in which
eight bishops who were reunited in Touts on the
Feast of St. Martin had participated, and at this
assembly an important rule was promulgated relative
to ecclesiastical disclphne. He maintfuned a careful
surveillance over the conduct of the clergy of his dio-
cese, and mention is made of priests who were removed
from their office because they had proved unworthy.
He built monasteries and vanous churches, but above
all he desired to replace by a beautiful batdlica (470)
the little chapel that Saint Britius had constructed,
U> protect the tomb of St. Martin. The will of St.
Pen>etuue was published for the first time in 1661 b^
Dom Luc d'AcMry in his "Spicile^um". This cun-
ous historical monument belon^np tA the end of the
fifth century gives us an excellent idea of the sanctity
of its author.
B<BONm*.Anii. (lSeG).«7-Sa. tS2:BonuH«.Lt taKaiunl di
S. Poptt^, M«iH it Tourt, in BiiU. it la Sue. orcfl. it TovraiTU,
II (Toun. 1871-3], 2S6: Ceiluu, HiM. ghi. iti auUurt hit. H
4tti.. XV IPuii. 1748), l§B-e5; HiNKHiHius. b Act. 8S. Bai-
bitd.(ie7S).Ap[., l.748-G2;HiM.liU.<l(Ianiiti«,II(Puu, 173S),
ate-3T^ Roaom dil FisciLm, Coini •Ur. intoma aJ elw. mkw
■■ - r, S. Ptr^uo (Aleuudrii, ISM); Tilluiowt, M*m.
Pwplgiiui, Diocese of (Pebpinianum), comprises
the Department of Pyr^n^es Orientales; created by
the union of the ancient See of Elne, part of the Dio-
cese of Urgel known as French Cerdagne, three can-
tons of the former Diocese of Alet, and two villages of
the ancient Dioceee of Narbonne. This department
was united in 1802 to the Diocese of Carcassonne; b^
the Concordat of 1817 it received a special see. This
see, though it continued the aforesaid ancient See of
Elne, was located at Perpignan, where the bishops of
Elne had resided smce 1601 in virtue of a Bull of Clem-
ent VIII. Elne was a suffragan of Narbonne until
1511; from ISllto 1517 it was directly subject to the
Holy See; in 1517 it became again a suffragan of Nar^
bonne; a Decree of the Council of Trent made it a
suffragan of Tarragona; after 1678 it was again a suf-
fragan of Narbonne. llie See of Perpignan as it was
re-established in 1817 is suffragan to Albi.
The first known Bishop of Elne is Dominus. men-
tioned in 571 in the Chronicle of John of Biclarum.
Among others are Cardinal Ascanio Maria Sfona
(1494-95), Cardinal Cfeaar Borgia (1495-98), Cardi-
nal Francois de Loris (1499-1506), Cardinal Jacques de
Serra (1506-12), Cardinal Hieronimo Dona (1530-
33); Olympe Gerbet (1854-64). The Cathedral of
Elne (eleventh century) and the adjoining cloister are
rich examples of elaborate medieval ornamentation.
In the later Middle Ages, and under the influence of
Roman law, Roussillon witnessed certain offensive re-
rivals of ancient slavery; this is proved by numerous
purohase deeds of Mussulman, and even Christian,
slaves, dating back to the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries. The diocese honours especially St. Vincent
de Collioure, mariyr (end of third century); and
St. Eulalia and St. Julia, virgins and martyta (end of
n PIBPIORAK
third century). In memory of former tics with the
metropolis of Tarragona, the Church of Perpignan
honours several Spanish sunts: St, Fructuoeus,
Bishop of Tarragona, and his deacons Augurius and
Eulogius. martyred at Tarragona in 259; aonie mar-
tyrs of tne Diocletian persecution (end of third cen-
tury); Justa and Rufina of Seville; Felix and Narci»-
Bus of Gerona; Aciselus and Victoria of Cordova;
Leocadia, of Toledo; St. IJdefonsus (607-67), Arch-
bishop of Toledo.
The Benedictine Dom Briard {1743-1828), who con-
tinued the important series of "Historiensde France",
belonged to Perpignan. At Perpinian Benedict XIII
(Pedro de Luna) held a council 1 Nov., 1408, to rally
Tai CATHIDBAb PaBMOH
the antipope to send ambassadors to Pisa to negotiate
with Gregory XII. Numerous councils were held at
Elne: in 1027, 1058, 1114, 1335, 1337, 1338, 1339,
1340, and 13S0. The council held m 1027 decreed that
no one should attack his enemy from Saturday at
nine o'clock to Monday at one: and that Holy Mass be
said for the excommunicated for a space of three
months, to obtain their convereion. The author of
"I'Art de verifier les Dates" wrongly maintains that
the Council of Elvira was held at Elne. The chief
places of pilgrimage of the diocese are: Notre-Dame du
Cfa&leau d'Ultr^m, at SorMe; Notre-Dame de Conso-
lation, at Collioure; Notre-Dame de Font Romeu, at
Odeillo: Notre-Dame de Forca-R4al, near Millas:
Notre-Dame de Juigues, near Rivesaltcs; the relics or
Sts. Abdon and Sennen at Artes on the Tech. Prior to
the application of the law of 1901, the Diocese of Per-
pignan had Capuchin Fathers and various orders of
teaching Brothers. The Sisters of the Most Holy Sac-
rament, mother-house at Perpignan, are a nursing
and teaching order. At the beguming of the twentieth
century the religious congregations directed in the
diocese 1 infant school, 13 day nurseries, 1 boys' or-
phanage, 2 girls' orphanages, 8 hospitals or asylums,
and 2 houses for the care of the sick in their own
homes. In 1905 there were 212,121 inhabitants, 28
parishes, 197 succursal parishes, and 43 vicariates sub-
venlioned by the state.
OaUia Chritliamt^ nm, VI (1739}, 1030-78. Imtr.. *7«-a7:
Ddchcbne, Fatttt Spiteopauj: Puiooabi, Calataffu€ Bioffn^tmt
(l«M«u«irSliH(P*niiciiMI,lSi3);auuTOIA,fli0«r>diiK«w.
PERRAUD 701 PSRBAULT
aOUm (Perpignan. 1867) ; db Bakth^lemt, »iidM 9ur u$jUahK9' couTse on the prices of iTTtue. Having been superior-
?3:r r^S2^^T".'i2i%«JlS£i7Ai^ P^^ «' the Oratoryfrom 1884 he ««gned iSlflOl
nor Vhittoire eccUatattique du dioc^e d'Blne (Paru, 1884); Bru- in Order not tO Sign the request for authonzation of
TAiLa, Btudeaur Vesdapoge en Rowtillon du XII* au X vil»itUd4 his Congregation. He was Created cardinal in petio,
te'({>^liJ^'"i88^7??S?^^«$?^^ 1? Jan 1893 the ci«ition being published at'^the
lution (3 vola.. 1896-97); Borrallo, PromenaeUt archSologiouea; Consistory of 1895. At the COnclave of 1003 he ener-
Blne et ja cath^raU (Perpiman, 1909) ; db Brauubu, L<jr 5ono- getically opposed the movement of exclusion directed
tuatre,dela Vtkrge en Ratu^U^ (2 yo\M,.P^^i^j^i^^h against Rampolla by Puczina, Archbishop of Cracow.
vfjfiUKuicB vjuYAu. ^ ^^ name of the Austrian Government. His works
UNXVERsmr of Perfiqnan. — Peter IV of Ar^on consist of the ''Etudes sur Tlrlande contemporaine"
(1327-87), having conquered (1344) the town of Per- ff^t 1^2): "L'Oratoire de France au XVII*
Signan and reunited to his estates the Kingdom of m^cle" (1865); "Paroles derheurepr^sente" (1872):
lajorca. of which Perpignan was the capital, com- "Le Cardinal de Richelieu" (1872); also oratorical
pensated that city for its loss of power by founding, works.
at the request of the magistratee 20 Ma«i, 1349, the F.?.:'^Sar'Alf?m'iSSf*'SL^l"rtS;,«S^
University of Perpignan, for the teachmg of civil li-ron^Ma (SFeb., 1907); Cravyui, L'Oraioire.
and canon law, and other arts and sciences. In the J. Lataste.
charter he praised "the deep learning of the pro- _ ,^ ^ ...
fessors of Perpignan". By the Bull of 28 November, .^Jf*"**"*' Charles, writer, b. m Paris, 12 Jan.,
1379, the antipope Clement VII confirmed the foun- 1628; d. 16 Majr, 1703. His first literary attempts
dation and privileges, and the university, in a petition were a parody of the mxth book of Virgil's iEneid, and
addressed to him in 1393, declared him its founder: a short poem, *Les Rumes de Troie ou FOripne du
"Pater et Genitor". In 1381 John I, son of Peter IV, Burlesque." After being a lawyer for some time, he
granted permission to the city authorities to build the ^^ appointed chief clerk in the king's building, su-
university near the royal castle. The institution perintendents office (1664). He suggested to his
spread in Perpignan an atmosphere of learning, the brother Claude, an architect, to build the Louvre's
study of law being specially developed. Theology colonnade, and induced Colbert to establish a fund
was taught there during the first years of the four- oaMed LdsU des Bienfaiia du RaL to give pensions to
teenth century, but it was not until 21 July, 1447, that writers and savants not only in France but in Europe,
the faculty of theology was created by a Bull of He took part in the creation of the Academy of Sci-
Nicholas V and it didnot receive its statutes until ences as w^ as the rratoration of the Academy of
1469. The university disappeared in 1793. S^JP'^^K- When the Academy of Inscriptions and
Rabhdall, Univeraaiee, I (Oxford. 1896). 90; Fournxbr, Belles-Lettres was founded by Colbert (1663), he was
Staiuudee Univ^nUefrancaisee.u (Ffau, ^91), Q5i^7i^^^ made secretary for life. Having written but a few
Vf.:S"nS:iStl1 tSJSirj;^k WI^S^'- "'^"' PO^"™' ijf «?» «'f.^> *•»« French Academy in 1671,
Gbqrobs Gotau. ¥^^ ^^ ^^^ "^y ^^ bis mauguration he caused the pub-
lic to be admitted to the meeting, a privilege that has
Perraud, Adolphe, cardinal and academician; b. ever since been continued. As a poet, he attempted to
at Lyons, France, 7 Feb., 1828; d. 18 Feb., 1906. He revive the old epic, adapting it to a Christian subject,
had a bnlliant career at the lyc^es Henri IV and St. in "Saint-Pauhn" (1686). His preface to "Le si^cle
Louis, and entered the Ecole normale, where he was de Louis le Grand", soon followed by "Paralldle des
strongly influenced by Gratry. In 1850 he secured Anciens et des Modemes", started the famous literary
the fellowship of history and for two years he taught quarrel of Ancients and Modems, which led to endless
at the lyc^e of Angers. In 1852 he abandoned teach- controversy with Boileau; he stood for the Modems,
ing to embrace the sacerdotal state. He retumed to while Bossuet, F^nelon, and Boileau fought for the An-
Paris where he joined the Oratory which was then cients. All his literary productions were surpassed by
being reorganized by Gratry and Abb^ P^tetot, cur6 a little masterpiece that gave him a lasting popularity:
ofSt. Roch. On his ordination in 1855 after a so joum "Contes de ma M^re TOye, ou Histoires du temps
at Rome he was appointed professor of history and pass^" (1697), a collection of fairy tales which, while
prefect of religion at the petit sHninaire of St. Ld displaving no special originality, were treated in a very
which had just been confided to the Oratory. At the skilfulmanner. His complete works were published in
same time he devoted himself to preaching, for which Paris, 1697-98, in one volume,
purpose he was recalled to Paris. In 1860 he visited uJ!!f!!!^^l!^ *^n'^' ^"^J"' fif^ TiSffi^ S*"^' ^^^'
f.^i««^ «*♦«« «Tk;»i. l»« »rw^4>« «r«rv»4^»*»^/v*o^.. T—^ BABiSK m Revtu dee Deux Monde* (Deo., 1890): BBrNsniBa,
Ireland, after which he wrote Contemporary Ire- Manuel derhieurirede la litUr<uurefnnea{»e(:Pt!nB,iS99).
land" (1862). In 1866 he defended a theological Louis N. Delamarrb.
thesis at the Sorbonne, where in 1866 he became pro-
fessor of ecclesiastical history and dealt brilliantly Perrault, Claude, b. at Paris, 1613; d. there,
with the history of Protestantism. He was appointed 1688. He built the main eastern fagade of the Louvre,
(1870) by E. Ollivier a member of the Committee of known as the "Colonnade". His extraordinary talent
Higher Education. In 1870 he was a chaplain in and versatility brought up on him much enmity and
MacMahon's army, and after the war preached at detraction, especially in his architectural work. He
St. Philippe du Roub and at St. Augustine. Made achieved success as physician and anatomist^ as archi-
Bishop of Autun in 1874 despite his liberal tendencies, tect and author. As physician and physicist, he re-
he interested himself especially in working-men. Aftqr ceived the degree of doctor from the University of
the catastrophe of Montceau les mines, in whic^ Paris,becameoneof the first members of the Academy
twenty-two miners perished, he preached the funeral of Sciences founded in 1666, and repeatedly won prizes
sermon; he gave seversd Lenten courses in his cathe- for his thorough knowledge of physics and cheinistry.
dral and preached the funeral sermons of Cardinal He was the author of a series of treatises on physics
Guibert, Cardinal Lavigerie, and MacMahon. He and zoology, as well as on certain interesting machines
was actively concerned in the improvement of clerical of his own invention.
studies in which connexion his sermon (1879) on "the Colbert induced him to translate Vitruvius. and
Church and light" caused a great sensation; after this work inspired him with enthusiasm for arcniteo-
the Congress of Brussels (1894) he was named hon- ture. Like his contemporary, Blondel, he contributed
oraiy president of the Society for the Encouragement to revive the feeling for the rules and principles in
of Higher Studies among the Clergy. Elected to the architecture. His Vitruvius with a good commentary
French Academy in 1882 to replace Barbier, in 1885 and tables appeared in 1673, and an epitome of it in
he welcomed Duruy and in 1889 delivered the di»- 1674. The same aims were pursued in his "Ordon-
PXBRBTVX
702
nance des cinq esp^cee des colonnes selon la m^thode
des anciens" (16*B3). Perrault's architectural draw-
ings are regarded as excellent pieces of work; before
the burning of the Louvre in 1871 there were pre-
served there, besides his drawings for the Vitruvius,
two folio volumes containing among other things the
designs for the Louvre, which had been published by
the master's brother, Charles Perrault.
Li his completed buildings, much fault is found,
e. g. in the Observatoire, the astronomical observatoiy
of Paris, althou^ in certain parts we find traces of his
later masterv. Perrault's design for a triumphal arch
on Rue St-Antoine was preferred to the aesigns of
Lebrun and Leveau, but was only partly executed in
stone. When the arch was taken aown, it was found
that the ingenious master had devised a means of so
uniting the stones without the use of mortar that it
had become an inseparable mass. In the competi-
tion for the colonnade of the Louvre he was suc-
cessful over all rivals, even Bernini, who had been
summoned from Italy expressly for that purpose.
This work claimed his attention from 1665 to 1680,
and established his reputation. He was required to
demonstrate the feasibility of his plans bv construct-
ing a model. Perrault is reproached with lacking in
consideration for the work of his predecessors, and
with positively depreciating the same. The whole
palace could not be completed at the time, but the
colonnade became wideW^ celebrated. The simple
character of the ground floor sets off the Corinthian
columns, modell^ strictly according to Vitruvius,
and coupled on a plan which Perrault himself devised.
Perrault built the church of St-Benott-l&-B6toum^,
designed a new church of Ste-Genevi^ve, and erected
an £utar in the Church of the Little Fathers, all in
Paris.
Bbbtt, L99 granda orckiUeiM francaia (Paris, 1860) ; Lancs,
Did. det archiUetea /ranoais (Paris, 1873): von CrSTift^LLBB, Die
Bauhuntt der Renatawanee in Frankreich (Stuttgart, 1898-1901).
G. GlETMANN.
Pwrayve, Hbnri, b. at Paris, 11 April, 1831; d.
there. 18 June, 1865. His father was professor at the
Faculty de Droit. He received his classical education
at the Collie Saint-Louis. According to his father's
wish he studied law. but having finished his legal
course he studied philosophy and theology. He then
became closely united with Charles and Adolphe, later
Cardinal Perraud, and this small group with Father
Gratry, under the guidance of Father P^t^tol, began
the restoration of the Oratory in France. He was or-
dained priest in 1858, appointed chaplain to the Lyc^
Saint-Ix>uis in I860, ana one year later was called to
the professorship or ecclesiastical history at the Sor-
bonne. For some time he was forced oy illness to
abandon his lectures.
He had been united in intimate friendship with the
great Catholic leaders of the time in France, including
Osanam, Montalembert, Cochin, and especially Lar
cordaire. By his kind and affectionate nature Per-
reyve exercised a great influence on those around him,
especially on young men.
Among his works were: '^De la critique des Evan-
giles'' (Paris, 1859); ''Entretiens sur l^glise catho-
uque '' (2 vols., Paris, 1901 ) ; '^ La Joum^ des malades ''
(Paris, 1908); ''Biographies et pan^gyriques" (Paris,
1907); "Souvenirs de premiere commumon" (Paris,
1899); "Sermons" (Paris, 1901); "Deux roses et deux
Noels" (Paris, 1907) ; "Meditations sur TEvangile de
Saint Jean" (Paris, 1907); "Meditations sur les saints
ordres" (Paris, 1901). Some of his letters have also
been published in book form.
Gbatbt, Henri Perreyve (London, 1872) ; Bebn abd, Lee demiere
JouredeVabbiPerreyve, GeorGE M. SaUVAGE.
Perrone, Giovanni, Jesuit theologian, b. at Chieri,
Italy, 11 March, 1794 ; d. at Rome^ 28 Aug., 1876.
A/t^ studying theology and obtaining Ine doc-
torate at Turin, he entered the Society of Jesus on 14
December, 1815. The Society had been re-established
by Pius VII only a year before, and Perrone was very
soon appointed to teach theology at Orvieto. A few
years later he was made professor of dogmatic theol-
ogy in the Roman College, and held this post till the
IU)man Republic of 1848 forced him to seek refuge in
England. After an exile of three years, Perrone again
took the chair of dogma in the Roman College, and,
excepting the years of his rectorship at Ferrara, taught
theolo|Qr till prevented by old age. He was consultor
of various congregations and was active in opposing
the errors of G^rse Hermes, as well as in the discus-
sions which ended in the dogmatic definition of the
Immaculate Conception (cf . Annali delle science re-
ligiose'', VII). Of Perrone's many writinjgs, the most
important is the ''Praelectiones Theolo^cse", which
has reached a thirty-fourth edition in nme volumes.
The compendium which Perrone made of this work
has reached its forty-seventh editicm in two volumes.
His complete theological lectures were published in
French and have run through several editions; por-
tions have been translated into Spanish, Polish, Ger-
man, Dutch, and other languages. Sommervogel
mentions forty-four different works by this great fel-
low-professor of Passaglia and Franselm in the Roman
College.
SoMMBBTOOBL, BibliotMque de la Compagnie de Jietu, VI, 558-
571 ; HuBTSR in Kirehenlexikont b. v.
Walter Drum.
Perry, Stephen Joseph, b. in London, 26 August,
1833; d. 27 Dec, 1889. He belonged to a well-known
Catholic family. His schooling was first at Gifford
Hall, and then at the Benedictine College, Douai,
whence he pjroceeded to Rome to study for the priest-
hood. Having resolved to enter the Society of Jesus,
he made his novitiate (1853-5) first at Hodder, and
then at Beaumont Lodge, after which he pursued his
studies at St. Acheul^ near Amiens, and at otonyhurst.
In consequence of his marked bent for mathematics,
he was sent to attend the lectures of Professor De
Morgan, in London, and those of Bertrand, LionviUe,
Delaunay, Cauchy, and Serret, in Paris. In the au-
tumn of 1860 he was recalled to Stonyhurst to teach
ph3rBics and mathematics, likewise taking charge of
the observatory.
In 1863 he commenced his theological studies at St.
Beuno's, N. Wales, and was ordun^ in 1866. He re-
sumed his former duties at Stonyhurst, which during
the rest of his life were uninterrupted, save by spedid
scientific engagements. In company with F^. Walt^
Sidgreaves, he made magnetic surveys, in 1868 of
Western, in 1869 of Eastern, France, and in 1871 of
Belgium. In 1870 he went in charge of a government
expedition to observe a solar eclipse at CsMdis; at Car-
riacou (West Indies) in 1886; at Moscow in 1887; and
at the Salut Islands in 1889, on which journey he lost
his life*
In 1874 he headed a party similarly sent to Keiipue-
len in the South Indian Ocean, to observe a transit of
Venus, when he also took a series of observations to
determine the absolute longitude of the place, and
others for the magnetic elements, not only at Ker^
guelen itself, but, on his way to and fro, at the Cape,
Bombay, Aden, Port Saia, Malta, Palermo^ Rome,
Naples, Florence, and Moncalieri. He likewise drew
up a Blue-book on the climate of "The Isle of Desola-
tion", as Kerguelen was called bv Caotain Cook.
In 1882 he went a^ain with W. Siagreaves, to ob-
serve a similar transit in Madagascar, and he again
took advantage of the occasion for ma^etic purposes.
In 1874 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society.
At Stony^hurst, while he greatly developed the
meteorological work of the observatorv, ana in the
Jroyince of astronomv made frequent observations of
upiter's satellites, ot stellar occultations, of comets,
and of meteerites,. it was in the department of solar
PEBSSCUnON
703
nBSEcunoN
phs^sics that he specially laboured, particular atten-
tion being paid to spots and facuke. For observation
in illustration of these an ingenious method was de-
vised and patiently pursued. Father Perry was. more-
over, much in request as a lecturer. He died while
actually performing the duty assigned him in conduct-
ing an eclipse expedition in thepestilential ^up mis-
named the "Isles de Salut''. Toe observation on this
occasion was exceedingly successful, and Father
Perry, though already severely indisposed, managed to
perform his part without interruption. As soon as it
was over, however, he became alarminglv worse, and
having got on board H.M.S. "Comus , which had
been detailed for the service, he died at sea five days
later, 27 Dec., 1889. He was buried in the Catholic
cemetery at Georgetown, Demerara.
An account of his life and scientific works by Cortib is pub-
lished by the Catholic Tkuth Socxbtt.
John Gerard.
Persecution. — General. — Persecution may be
defined in general as the unlawful coercion of another's
liberty or his unlawful punishment, for not every
kind of punishment can be regarded as persecution.
For our purpose it must be still further limited to the
sphere of religion, and in that sense persecution means
unlawful coercion or punishment for religion's sake.
The Church has suffered many kinds of persecution.
The growth and the continued existence of Christian-
ity have been hindered by cultured paganism and by
savage heathenism. And in more recent times agnos-
ticism has harassed the Church in the various states
of America and Europe. But most deplorable of all
persecutions have b^n those that Catholicism has
suffered from other Christians. With regard to these
it has to be considered that the Church herself has ap-
Eealed to force, and that, not only in her own defence,
ut also, so it is objected, in unprovoked attack. Thus
by means of the Inquisition (q. v.) or religious wars
she was herself the aggressor in many instances dur-
ing the Middle Ages and in the time of the Reforma-
tion. And even if the answer be urged that she was
only defending her own existence, the retort seems
fairly plausible that pagan and heathen powers were
only acting in their own defence when they prohibited
the spread of Christianity. The Church would there-
fore seem to be strangely inconsistent, for while she
claims toleration and liberty for herself she has been
and still remains intolerant of all other reli^ons.
In answer to this objection, we may admit the fact
and yet deny the conclusion. The Church claims to
carry a message or rather a command from God and
to be God's only messenger. In point of fact it is only
within recent years, when toleration is supposed to
have become a dogma, that the other "champions
of Revelation " have abandoned their similar claims.
That they should abandon their right to command
allegiance is a natural consequence of Protestantism:
whereas it is the Church's claim to be the accredited
and infallible ambassador of God which justifies her
apparent inconsistency. Such intolerance, however, is
not the same as persecution, by which we understand
the unlawful exercise of coercion. Every corporation
lawfully constituted has the right to coerce its subjects
within due limits. And though the Church exercises
that right for the most part by spiritual sanctions,
she has never relinquished the right to use other
means. Before examining this latter ri^t to physical
coercion,, there must be introduced the important dis-
tinction between pagans and Christians. Regularly,
force has not been employed against pagan or Jew:
" For what have I to do to judge them that are with-
out?" (I Cor., V, 12); see Jews and Judaism: Jitda-
ism and Church Legislation.
Instances of compulsory conversions such as have
occurred at different periods of the Church's histoiy
must be ascribed to tne misplaced seal of autocratic
individuals. But the Church does claim the right to
coerce her own subjects. Here again, however, a dis-
tinction must be made. The non-Catholic Christians
of our day are, strictly speaking, her subjects; but Id
her legislation she treats them as if they were not her
subjects.- The "Ne temere". e. g., of Pius X (1907),
recognises the marriages of Protestants as valid,,
though not contracted according to Catholic condi-
tions: and the laws of abstinence are not considered
to be binding on Protestants. So, with regard to her
right to use coercion, the Church only exercises her
authority over those whom she considers personally
and formally apostates. A modem Protestant is not
in the same category with the Albigenses or Wyclif-
ites. These were held to be personally responsible for
their apostasy; and the Church enforced her authority
over them. It is true that in many cases the heretics
were rebels against the State also; but the Church's
claim to exercise coercion is not confined to such cases
of social disorder. And what is more, her purpose was
not only to protect the faith of the orthodox, but also
to punish the apostates. Formal apostasy was then
looked upon as treason against Gkxl^a much more
heinous crime than treason against a civil ruler, which,
imtil recent times, was punished with great severity.
(See Apostasy ; Heresy.) It was a poisoning of the
Ufe of the soul in others (St. Thomas Aquinas, II-II,
Q. xi, articles 3, 4.)
There can be no doubt, therefore, that the Church
claimed the right to use physical coercion against
formal apostat^. Not, of course, that she would exer-
cise her authority in the same way to-day, even if
there were a Catholic State in which other Christians
were personally and formally apostates. She adapts
her discipline to the times and circumstances in order
that it may fulfil its salutary purpose. Her own chil-
dren are not punished by fines, imprisonment, or other
temporal punishments, but by spiritual pains and
penalties, and heretics are treated as she treated
pagans: "Fides suadenda est, non imponenda"
(Faith is a matter of persuasion, not of compulsion) —
a sentiment that goes back to St. Basil ("Revue de
I'Orient Chretien's 2nd series, XIV, 1909, 38) and to
St. Ambrose, in the fourth century, the latter applying
it even to the treatment of formal apostates. It must
also be remembered that when she did use her right to
exercise physical coercion over formal apostates, that
ri^t was then universally admitted. Churchmen had
naturally the ideas of their time as to why and how
penalties should be inflicted. Withal, the Roman In-
quisition (q. V.) was very different from that of Spain,
and the popes did not approve the harsh proceeoings
of the latter. Moreover, such ideas of physical coer-
cion in matters spiritual were not peculiar to Catholics
(see Toleration) . The Reformers were not less, but,
if anything, more, intolerant (see Inquisition). If
the intolerance of Churchmen is blamable, then that
of the Reformers is doubly so. From their own stand-
point, it was unjustifiable. First, they were in revolt
against the established authority of the Church, and
^condly they could hardljr use force to compel the
unwilling to cbnf orm to their own principle of private
judgment. With this clear demarcation of the Re-
former's private judgment from the Catholic's author-
ity, it hardly serves our puipose to estimate the rela-
tive violence of Catholic and Protestant Governments
during the times of the Reformation. And yet it is
well to remember that the methods of the maligned
Inquisition in Spain and Italy were far less destructive
of life than the religious wars of France and Germany.
What is, however, more to our purpose is to notice the
outspoken intolerance of the Protestant leaders; for
it gave an additional right to the Church to appeal to
force. She was punishmg her defaulting subjects and
at the same time defenmng herself against their at-
tacks.
Such compulsion, therefore, as is used by legitimate
nBsscunoN
704
psBsscnnoN
ftuthority cannot be called pjersecution, nor can its
victims be called mart3rr8. It is not enough that those
who are condemned to death should be suffering for
their relimous opinions. A martyr is a witness to the
truth; whereas those who suffered the extreme pen-
fdty of the Church were at the most the witnesses to
their own sincerity, and therefore unhappily no more
than pseudo-mart3rr8. We need not dwell upon the
second objection which pretends that a pa^an govern-
ment might be justified m harassing Chnstiaii mission-
aries in so far as it considered Christianity to be
subversive of established authority. The Christian
revelation is the supernatural message of the Creator
to His creatures, to which there can be no lawful resist-
ance. Its missionaries have the right and the duty
to preach it everywhere. They who die in the propa-
gation or maintenance of the Gospel are God s wit-
ne^es to the truth, suffering persecution for His sake.
Stdnbt Smith, The Pope and the Spanish Inquiailum in The
Month, LXXIV (1892). 376-99; of. Dublin Review, LXI (1867).
177-78; KoHUBB. Reform und Ketzerproeeee (TQbingen, 1901);
Gamut, La ToUrnnce proteetante (Pans, 1903) ; Russell, Mary-
land; The Land of Sanctuary (B<imore, 1907); Paulus. Zu
Lvthere Theee liber die Ketzerverbrennung in Hiet. Polit. BUUter,
CXL (1908). 357-67; Moulakd. Le Catholique et le pouvoir
coercitifde VBgliee in Revite pnUiaue de VApologitique, VI (1908),
721-36; Kbatino, Intolerance, PeraectUion, and Protelytietn in
The Month, CXIII (1909). 612-22; db Cauzous. Hietoire de Vln-
quieition en France, I ^Paris. 1909).
Outline of Principal Persecutigns. — The brief
outline here given of persecutions directed ajgainst the
Church follows the chronological order, and is scarcely
more than a catalogue of the principal formal and
pubUc onslaughts acainst Catholicism. Nor does it
take into accoimt other forms of attack, e. g., literary
and social persecution, some form of suffering for
Christ's sake being a sure note of the True Church
(John, XV, 20, II Tim., iii, 12; Matt., x, 23). For a
popular general account of persecutions of Catholics
Srevious to the nineteenth century see Leclercq, ''Les
lartyrs" (6 vols., Paris, 1902-09).
Roman Persecutions {52-312), The persecutions of
this period are treated extensively under Martyr.
See also Martyrs, Acts of the, and the articles on
individual martyrs or groups of martyrs (Martyrs,
The Ten Thousand; Forty Martyrs; Aqaunum,
for the Theban Legion). An exhaustive and reUable
work is AUard, "Les Pers^utions" (5 vols., Paris,
1885) ; also his " Ten Lectures on the Mart3rrs" (New
York, 1907); and for an exhaustive literature see
Healy, "The Valerian Persecution" (Boston).
Under Julian the ApostcUe (361-63). — (Ik)nstantine's
edict of toleration had accelerated the final triumph
of Christianity. But the extreme measures passed
against the ancient religion of the empire, and espe-
cially by Constans, even though they were not strictly
earned out, roused considerable opposition. And
when Julian the Apostate (361-63) came to the throne,
he supported the defenders of paganism, though he
strove to strenp^hen the old religion by recommendine
works of chanty and a priesthood of strictly moral
lives which, a tmng unheard of, should preach and in-
struct. State protection was withdrawn from Chris-
tianity, and no section of the Church favoured more
than another, so that the Donatists and Arians were
enabled to return.
All the privileges formerly granted to clerics were
repealed; civil jurisdiction taken from the bishops,
and the subsidies to widows and virgins stopped.
Higher education, also, was taken out of the hands of
Christians by the prohibition of anyone who was not a
pagan from teaching classical literature. And finally,
the tombs of martyrs were destroyed. The emperor
was afraid to proceed to direct persecution, but he
fomented the cussensions among the Christians, and
he tolerated and even encouraged the persecutions
raised by pagan communities and governors, espe-
ciaUy in Alexandria, Heliopolis, Maiouma, the port of
Oams, Antioch, Arethusa, and Cssarea in Cappadocia
(cf. Gergory of Nazianzus, Orat. IV, 86-95; P. G-
XXXV, 613-28). Manv, in different places, suffered
and even died for the Faith, though another pretext
was found for their death, at least by the emperor.
Of the martyrs of this period mention may be made
of John and Paul (q. v.), who suffered in Home; the
soldiers Juventinus and Maximian (cf . St. John Chry-
Bostom's sermon on them in P. G., L, 571-77) ; Mace-
donius, Tatian, and Theodulus of Meros in Phrygia
(Socrates, III, 15; Sozomen, V, 11); Baeil. a pnestof
Ancyxa (Sozomen, V, 11). Julian himself seems to
have ordered the executions of John and Paul, the
steward and secretary respectively of Constantia,
daughter of Constantine. However, he reigned only
for two years, and his persecution was. in the words of
St. Athanasius, ''but a passing cloud".
SoBOMBN, Hisi. Bed., V, 11; Socratbs. III. 15; AiotiAinni
Marcblunus, XXI-XXV: Tillxmont, Mhnotree, VII, 322-43;
717>45; Lbclbrcq. Lee Martyr; III (Paria, 1004) ; Allabo. Le
Christianiame el Vempire romain de Ntron d TKSodore (Paiii,
1897). 224-31; Idbm. Julien VApottat, III, 52-102- 152*158 (Para,
1903); DucHBSNB. Hietoire ancienne de VBgliee, II (Paria. 1907),
328-36.
In Persia. — ^When the persecution of Christianity
was abandoned by the Roman Government, it wai
taken up by Rome's traditional enemy, the Persiana,
though formerly they had been more or less tolerant
of the new religion. On the outbreak of war between
the two empires, Sapor II (31(K80), under the instig^
tion of the Persian priests, initiated a severe persecu-
tion of the Christians in 339 or 340. It comprised the
destruction or confiscation of churches and a general
massacre, especially of bishops and priests. The num^
ber of victims, according to Sozomen (Hist. EccL, U,
9-14), was no less than 16,000, among them being
Symeon, Bishop of Seleucia; there was a respite from
the general persecution, but it was resumed and with
still greater violence by Bahram V (420-38), who per-
secuted savagely for one year, and was not prevented
from causing numerous individual martyrdoms by the
treatv he made (422) with Theodosius II, Guarantee-
ing liberty of conscience to the Christians. Yezdegerd
II (438-57), his successor, began a fierce persecution
in 445 or 446, traces of which are found shortly be-
fore 450. The persecution of Chosroes I from 541 to
545 was directed chiefly against the bishops and
clerg}r. He also destroyed churches and monasteriei
and imprisoned Persian noblemen who had become
Christians. The last persecution by Persian kings
was that of Chosroes II (590-628), who made war on
all Christians alike during 627 and 628. Speaking
generally, the dangerous time for the Church in Persia
was when the kings were at war with the Roman
Empire.
SoEOMCN, OS. eit., 9-14 ; Acta Sanelorufn Martyrumt, ed.
AssBMANi, I (Rome, 1748). Syriac text with Lat. tr.; Acta Mat-
tyrum et Sanctorum, II, III, IV, ed. Bbxman (Leipsi£, 1890-95).
S3rriac text (for diBousaion of these two authoritaea aee Dvtai.
Littirature eyriaque (Paria. 1899), 130-43).
A list of martyrs who suffered under Bapor II waa first pakh
lished by Wbioht and reproduced in the Martyroloqiumn Hieromp-
mianum by de Rosai and Duchbsnb 'in Acta SS., Nov., II, part
I, Ixiii (Brussels, 1894) ; HomcANN, Aueti^;e au» eyrieekm
AHen pereieeher Martyrer, text, tr., and notea (Leipaic, 1886);
Lbclbbcq, op. cit.. Ill; Dutal, LiUirature eyriaque (Pana. 1897),
129-47; Labourt, Le Chriatianieme dane Vempire perse (Paiiii
19(H); Duchesne, op. cit. (Paris, 1910), 553-64.
Among the Ooths. — Christianity was introduced
among the Goths about the middle of the third oat'
tury, and ''Theophilus Episcopus GothisB" was pres-
ent at the Council of Nicsea (325). But, owing to the
exertions of Bishop Ulfilas (340, d. 383), an Arian,
Arianism was professed by the great majority of the
Visigoths of Dacia (Transylvania and West Hungary),
converts from paganism ; and it pamed with them into
Lower Mcesia across the Danube, when a Gothic
chieftain, after a cruel persecution, drove UlfUas and
his converts from his lands, probably in 349. And
subsequently, when in 376 the Visigoths, pressed by the
Huns, crossed the Danube and entered the Roman
Empire, Arianism was the religion practised by the
PSRSScunoN 705 persecution
Emperor Valena. This fact, along with the national „,J^- Gwctokt th« Gbbat, ^toZogwM, ill, 27, 28. 37. 89; IV,
character given to Arianismty Ulfilas (a. v.), made it ^^i^1«^^5S?i^X WV I'^JL 'S^a^J^'iFit^JS^^
the form of Chnstiamty adopted also by the Ostro- gob. et Ital. (Hanover, 1878), 45 aq.. see HoDQUM. op. eU„ V,
Koths, from whom it spread to the Burgundians, Suevi, W^; Dahh. op. ea.; Grmab. op. cU,
V juidals and Xx)Hibards
The first persecution we hear of was that directed „.4'"^ theVandak.—The Vandals, Arians likt, the
by the pagan Visigoth King Athanaric, begun about Visigoths and the others, were the most hostile of all
370 and lasting for two, or perhaps six, years after towards the Church. During the penodof their domi-
his war with Valena. St. Sabas was drowned in 372, nation m Spam (422-29) the Church suffered persecu-
others were burnt, sometimes in a body in the tents ^^^i the details of which axe unknown. In 429, under
which were used as churches. When, iii the fifth and the lead of Gensenc, the Goths crossed over to Afnca,
sixth centuries, the Visigoths invaded Italy, Gaul, and and by 455 had made themselves masters of Roman
Spain, the churches were flundered. and the Catholic Africa. In the North, the bishops were dnven from
bishops and clergy were often murdered: but their their sees into exile. When Carthage was taken m 439
normal attitude was one of toleration. Euric ^483), the churchy were given over to the Arian clergy, and
the Visigoth King of Toulouse, is especially men- the bishop Quodvultdeus (a fnend of St. Augustine)
tioned by Sidonius Apollinaris (Ep. vii, 6) as a hater and the greater part of the Cathohc clergy were stnpped
of CathoUcism and a persecutor of the CathoUcs, of what they had, put on Wdunseaworthy ships, and
though it is not clear that he pereecuted to death. In earned to Naples. Confiscation of church property
of persecution by Agila (549-564) also, and finally by however, the persecution was not severe. &)me Cath-
Leovigild (573-86). Bishops were exUed and church ohc court officials, who had accompanied Gensenc
goods seised. His son Hermenigild, a convert to the from Spam, were tortured, exiled, and finally put to
Catholic Faith, is described in the seventh century death because they refused to apostatize. No Cath-
(e. g. by St. Gregory the Great) as a martyr. Aeon- ohc. in fact, was allowed to hold any office,
temporary chromcler, John of Biclaro, who had him- Gensenc's son, Hunenc, who succeed«i in 477,
self suffered for the Faith, says that the prince was though at first somewhat tolerant, arrested and ban-
murdered in prison by an Arian, Sisibert; but he does '^^^ undw circumstances of weat cruelty nearly five
not say that LeovigUd approved of the murder Uioupand Catholics, jnjludmg bishops a^^
(see Hbrminoiu): and Hodgkin, " Italy and her In- finally by an edict of 25 Feb., 484, abohshed the Cath-
vaders", V, 255).. With the accession of Reccared, oUc worship, transferred aU churches and church prop-
who had become a CathoUc, Arianism ceased to be the erty to the Anans, exUed the bishops and clergy, and
creed of the Spanish Visigoths. depnved of civil nghts all those who would not receive
As for the Ostrogoths, they seem to have been fairly Anan baptism. Great numbers suffered savage treat-
tolerant, after the first violences of the invasion. A naent. many died, others were mutilated or crippled
notable exception was the persecution of Theodorio for Inc. His successor, Guntamund (484r-96), did not
(524-26). It was prompted by the repressive meas- relax thepersecution until 487. But in 4941he bishops
ures which Justin I had issued against the Arians of ^e^ recalled, though they had afterwards to endure
the Eastern Empire, among whom Goths would of some persecution from Trasamund (496-523). And
course be included. One of ttie victims of the persecu- complete peace came to the Church at the accession of
tion was Pope John I. who died in prison. Genseric's son Hilderic, with whom the Vandal domi-
Kauitman. Aua der Schvle df WulfUa: Auxentii Doroitorerms nation ended (see AfEUCA).
EpiUola de fide, nta dl cbitu WulfiJa (Strasburg. 1899). Auxsn- Idjltwb in Man, Oertn. Hut,: Aud, ArUiq., XI, 13-36; Mioitx.
Tivs's account is also found in Waits, Ueber dot Zeden und die p. L., LI; Victor VrnmsiB, Historia pereeeutionte Afrieanm
lehredea Ulfila CHa^over, ISiO) ; HoonKiSt Italy and Ker Invadere, nrotineia, ed. Halm in Mtm.Germ. Hist., loc eit.. Ill; Pbt-
I (Oxford, 1892). 80-93; Duchesns. op. cit., II (Paris, 1908); bcbsnio. Cc " *'
P.
MiamB, /*. L., L.1; kuinabt, titst. vert
wu u.. »«.»«.•, ^^'u^ .^.^.. «- «>»»>• I "^ "-^ — •«< u«/v«uu«u« Papsncobx»t. Oeeeh. der Vanddliemen Herrechaft in Afrtka (Ber-
on St, Nicetae, ibid., 15 Sept., and HonouN, op. eit., I, 1, 176; lin. 1837); Dahn, op, eit.; HonoKiN, op. eii., II, 229-30, 269-82;
Dahn, Urgeechiehte der o^'^'nanieehen und romanieehen V<dker, Lsclbrcq. L'Afrique dviUienne, II (Paris. 1904); Inni, Lei
I (Berlin, 1881), 426 sq.^ for Athanaric's persecution; Sidonius Martyrt, III (Paris, 1904) ; Duchssns, op. eii.. Ill, 625-45.
Apolukaxis. ep. vii, 6 in Mon. Oerm. Hut.: Auei, Antiq., VIII,
HooGKiN, op. ett., II, 484, for Euric; John of Biclabo m Mon. * ^ t • m. '-l* -x a x j •-.* o^ xi.
Germ. Hiet.: Auct. Antiq., XI, 211; GoBRtiB, Kirehe und Stoat im in ilfoftta.— Chnstiamty penetrated mto South
Wettoctenreich ton BuruJi bis LeoviqUd in Theol. Stud, u, Krit. Arabia (Yemen) in the foiurth century. In the sixth
iM&ui^^iMa^'L^S^ century the Christians were brutally persecuted by
1906); Abchbach.'gmcA. der We^goten ^nmkfort, 1827). ' the Jewish King Dimaan, no less than five thousand,
For Ostrogoths: Vita S. Severini in Mon, Oerm. Hiet.: Auet. including the prince, ArethaS, being said to have suf-
&"!?:• '^*^lS^^!'^6^Xi^T^::SS^ JgSi f««J J^tS""""^ ^ 523 lifter the «yture of Nagra
und die Katholiecho Kirehe in Kirehengeechichaiche Studien, III The Faith waS only saved from Utter extmction at
^MQnster, 1896), 1, 2; Gbisab, Qeechiehu Rome und der Papete this period by the armed intervention of the King of
'"F^.J'SSJSi iiS3l.^'?f aS^IkiS'&S'oiSL, «. u««,«, Aby«mi^ And it did in fact disappear before the
Kampfe und Siege dee Chrietentume in der germaniechen WeU mvaomg lOrces Of islam.
(StuttfEBTt, 1898). Fell, THs Chrietenver/olgung in SUdarabien In Zeiteeh. der
deuteehon morgent. QeeeOeehafl (1881), XXV. (See Abasia.)
Among the Lombards. — St. Gregory the Great, in
parts of his "Dialogues", describes the suffermgs Under the Mohammedana. — ^With the spread of
which Catholics had to endure at the time of the Lorn- Mohammedanism in Syria. Egypt, Persia, and North
bard invasion under Alboin (568) and afterwards. Africa, there went a g^aauiu subjugation of Chris-
But on the whole, after Autharis's death (500) the tianity. At 4;he first onset of invasion, in the eighth
Lombards were not troublesome, except perhaps in the century, many Christians were butchered for refusing
Duchies of Benevento and Spoleto. Autharis s queen, to apostatize; afterwards they were treated as helots,
Theudelinda, a Catholic princess of Bavaria, was able subject to a special tax, and licu>le to suffer loss of goods
to use her influence with ner second husband. Agilulf , or life itself at the caprice of the caliph or the populace.
Autharis's successor, so that he. although proDably re- In Spain the first Mohammedan ruler to institute a
maining an Arian, was friendly to the Church and violent persecution of the Christians was the viceroy
allowed his son to be baptized a Catholic (see Lom- Abderrahman II (821-52). The persecution was be-
babdt). gun in 860, was continued by Mohammed (852-87)
.XL*
JPEBSBCUnON 706 PSBSSCUnOlf
and lasted with intemiptioDs till 060, when the Chri»- Governments of France. Austria, and Great Britain.
tians were strong enough to intimidate theirpersecu- After his death the Catnolics were granted a certain
tors. The number of martyrs was small, Eulogius, measure of toleration, and in 1905 Nicholas II granted
Archbishop of Toledo (1 1 March, 859), who hlis left us them full Uberty of worship , (see Poland ; Russia) .
an accoimt of the persecution, being himself the most For the persecution of CathoUcs in the Ottopian
famous (see Mohammbd and MoHAMiflBOANisM). Empire see Turkey.
Famootum, L'Bplite hyuifUiM (P«tU. .1905), 163-6, 275-9; In modem times, however, a new element has been
5^^riV^p1£r?9ot'^Tor8^^^^ added to the forces.opposing the Church. There h^ve
ography; Vita S. Btdogii, by Alvabus in P. L., CXV, 705 aq.; mdeed been occasional recrudescenoes of the ' Re-
BuLooius. Memariale 8and<>rum mu Kjn 11164 martyri^ cor- formers", violence dictated bv a frenzied fear of Cath-
dubtnnbui; Mignb, P. L., CXV, 731; Dost, Huiotre det Musnd- «• -.-^-J™ Q,i/»li wAnA tr.w ir>ataTx^^ *U^ r^k.»l.»^^«
man» d'Smgne, II (Leyden. 1861); Gaim. Ktrchenoetch. Spa^ ohc progT^. ^?uch Were for mstw^ the Charleston
nient, II (lUtisbon. 1864); Hainbs, Chri$tianitv vnd Itiam in and Philadelphia disturbances m 1834 and 1844, and
Spain, 755-1031 (London, 1889) ; Lbcuuux), VSapagn* ehr^ the "No Popery" cries against the establishment of
H^nn* (Pans. 1906). ^j^^ Catholic hierarchy in England and HoUand in
Under the Iconoclaats.— The troubles brought on the 1850 and 1853. But this was no more than the spirit
Church of the East by the Iconoclastic emperors cover of the Reformation. For the attitude of the South
a period of one hundred and twenty years. Leo III American republics during the nineteenth century, sec
(the Isaurian) published two edicts agidnst images t^c articles on those countries.
about 726 and 730. The execution of the edicts was Liberalism. — ^A new spirit of opposition appears is
strenuously resisted. Popes Xjregory II and III pro- the soHsalled "Liberalism" and in Free Tjiou«dit»
tested in vigorous language against the autocratic whose influence has been felt in Catholic as we£f as
reformer, and the peo^e resorted to open violence. Protestant countries. Its origin is to be traced baek
But Constantine V (Copronymus, 741-75) continued to the infidel philosophy of the eighteenth century.
his father's policy, summoning a council at Constanti- At the end of that century it had grown so strong that
nople in 754 and then persecuting the orthodox party, i* could menace the Church with armed violence. In
The monks formed the especial object of his attack. France six hundred priests were murdered by Jourdan,
Monasteries were demolisned, and the monks them- "the Beheader'', in 1791, and in the next year three
selves shamefully maltreated and put to death. Under hundred ecclesiastics, including an archbishop and two
Constantine VI (780-97), through the influence of his bishops, were cruelly massacred in the prisons of Paris,
mother, the regent Irene, the Seventh (Ecumenical The Reign of Terror ended in 1795. But the spirit of
Council was summoned in 787, and rescinded the de- infidehty which triumphed then has ever since sought
crees of Copronymus's Council. But there was a revi- w^d found opportunities for persecution. And it has
val of the persecution under Leo V (813-20). the been assisted by the endeavours of even so-called
bishops who stood firm, as well as the monks, oeing Catholic governments to subordinate the Church to
the special objects of lus attack, while many others the State, or to separate the two powers altogether,
were directly done to death or died as a result of cruel In Switserland the Catholics were so incensed by the
treatment in prison. This persecution, which was con- attacks of the Liberal party on their religious freedom
tinned under Michael II (820-29), reached its most that they resolved on an appeal to arms. Their
fierce phase under Theophilus (829-42). Great num- Sanderbund (q. v.) or ''Separate League" was at first
bers of monks were put to death by this monarch ; but successful in the war of 1843, and in spite of its final
at his decease the persecutions ended (842) (see Icon- defeat by the forces of the Diet in 1847 the result has
' oclasm). been to secure reUpous Uberty throughout Switaer-
Theodori studita Bpiaiota, P. G.. XCIX; Tovoaiu>. La PersS- land. Since that time the excitement caused by the
cirfion »coycJa»«€ d^^^ 5. TM^low ««dito decree on Papal Infallibility found vent in another
in Retue de* Quuliona htuoriauM, Li (1891), 80, 118; Hbbobn- _ • j # i. f-i i '^i^a: . c..* *i.^ r^-.4.i__f i.
ROTBBB. PhotiuM, 1, 226 Bqq. (Rfttfabon, 1867) ; Lombabd, Conttan- penod of hostile legislation , but the C/atholics have
fin V, Smpereur d«M Romaint (Paris, 1902) ; Parqoirb, L'Bglia^ been strong enough tO itiftinfAin and reinforce their
hvnntine ^^^^-^47 (Pane. 1906). contains abundant references position in the country.
to uvee and acts o mar yrs. j^ other countries Liberalism has not issued in such
MonBRN Period. — ^We have reviewed the persecu- direct warfare against the Church; though the de-
tions undergone by the Church during the first millen- fenders of the Church have often been ranged against
nium of her existence. During her second millennium revolutionaries who were attacking the altar along
she has continued to suffer persecution in her mission with the throne. But the history of the nineteenth
of spreading the Gos|>el, and especially in Japan and century reveals a constant opposition to the Church.
China (see Marttbs, Japanese; Martyrs in China). Her influence has been straitened by adverse legisla-
She has also had to face the attacks of her own chil- tion, the monastic orders have been expelled and their
dren, culminating in the excesses and rehgious wars of property confiscated, and, what is perhaps most char-
the^Reformation. acteristic of modem persecution, religion has been
For an account of the persecutions of Irish, English, excluded from the schools and universities. The un-
and Scotch Catholics, see England; Ireland; Scot- derlying principle is always the same, though the
LAND^ Penal Laws; and the numerous articles on form it assumes and the occasion of its development
mdividual mart3rr8, e. g. Edmund Campion, Blessed; are peculiar to the different times and places. Galli-
Plunkett, Oliver, Venerable. canism in France, Josephinism in Austria, and the
Poland, — ^Within the last century, Poland has suf- May Laws of the German Empire have all the same
fered what is perhaps the most notable of recent per- principle of subordinating the Church to the Govem-
secutions. Catholicism had continued to be the estab- ment, or separating the two powers by a secularist and
lished religion of the country until the intervention of unnatural divorce. But the solidarity of Catholics
Catherine II of Russia (1762-96). Bv means of politi- and the energetic protests of the Holy See succeeded
eal intrigues and open hostility, she first of all secured often in establishing Concordats to safeguard the
a position of poUtical suzerainty over the country, and independent rights of the Church. The terms of these
then efTectea the separation of the Ruthenians from concessions have not always been observed by Liberal or
the Holy See, and incorporated them with the Ortho- Absolutist Governments. Still they saved the Church
dox Church of Russia. Nicholas I (1825-55), and in her time of peril. And the enforced separation
Alexander II (1855-81), resumed her policy of intimi- of Church from State which followed the renunciation
dation and forcible suppression. The latter monarch of the O)ncordats has taught the Catholics in Latin
especially showed himself a violent persecutor of the countries the dangers of Secularism (q. v.) and how
CAthoUcs, the barbarities that were committed in 1863 they must defend their rights as membm of a Church
being eo savage as to call forth a joint protest from the which transcends the liimts of states and nations, and
PERSECUTIONS 707 PSBSSCUTIONS
acknowledges an authority beyond the reach of politi- Potamisena appeared, to many other persons at that
cal legislation. In the Teutonic countries, on the time, calling them to faith and mart3rrdom (Euseb.,
other hand, the Church does not loom so large a target " Hist. Eccl/', VI, iii-v) . To these conversions, Origen,
for the missiles of her enemies. Long years of per- an^ewitness, testifies in his "Contra Celsum** (1, 46;
secution have done their work, and left the Catholics P. G.,,XI, 746). Marcella, mother of Potamisna,
with a greater need and a greater sense of solidarity, who likewise perished by fire, is the only other mart3rr
Theifi is less danger of confusing friend and foe, and whose name is recorded in authentic sources, but we
the progress of the Chim;h is made more apparent, are told of legions of Christians that were sent to
BROcK-KisauNo, Gesch, der kath. Kirche im neumthfiUn JahrK, Alexandria from all points of £gypt and Thebald as
VS'Ssi^'^^ifTlk^ifJ^^'^V-^"'^^ P'**^ •*"*'*" ?^^ t %"" ^^■'f\r^
1909); GoTAu, VAUUmaone reliffinue (3 vols.. Para, 1906). famous arena of the world (£u8eb., Hist. Eccl.",
James Bbidoe. VI, i).
Persecutions of Dbcius (24^51). — Severus died
Peneeutions, Coptic (Accordino to Greek and in 211. Authentic sources mention no further official
Latin Sources). — During the first two centtiries persecution of the Christians of Egypt until the edict
the Church of Alexandria sfeems to have been freer of Decius, a. d. 249. This enactment, the exact tenor
from official persecution at the hands of the Roman of which is not known, was intended to test the loyalty
Government than its sister churches of Rome and of all Roman subjects to the nation%^ religion, but it^
Antioch. Two causes may have contribute to this: contained also a special clause against the Christians,
(1) the privileged political and religious status in denoimcing the profession of Christianity as incom-
Egypt of Jews from whom the Government foimd it patible with the demands of the State, proscribing the
of Eg3rpt were free from the obligations of the Roman ments, the nature of which in each individual case was
state religion and consequently there was no reason left to the discretion or zeal of the magistrates (see
for persecution. For it is well known that the only Gregg, "Decian Persecution", 76 sqq.). During the
cause of the persecutions in the first and second cen- long period of peace the Egyptian Church had enjoyed
turies was the incompatibility of the Christian faith since Severus' death it had rapidly increased in num-
with the state religion, which every Roman citizen, bers and wealth, much, it seems, to the detriment of
ibe Jews excepted, was obliged to practice^ though free its i)ower of endurance. And the fierce onslaught of
otherwise to follow any other form of religion he chose. Decius found it quite unprepared for the struggle.
Persecution of Severus (200-11). — But ' when Defections were numerous, especially among the rich.
Church with its famous catechetical school of Alex- The particulars of the persecution, and of the popular
andria, and the fresh impulse given by Demetrius to outbreak against the Christians in Alexandria (a. d.
the diffusion of Christianity throughout the country, 249) are known to us almost exclusively from his let-
seem to have attracted the attention of the emperor, ters as preserved by Eusebius (see Diontsius of Alex-
who had just visited Egypt. The school broke up andria). Decius death in a. d. 251 put an end to
just at that time; and its director, Clement of Alex- the persecution.
andria, being obliged to leave E^ypt, the youthful Persecution of Valerian (257-61). — ^The perse-
Origen attempted to reorganize it. He was soon cution of Valerian was even more severe than that of
arrested by the newly-appointed prefect Aquila. Decius. Dionysius who is again our chief authority
Shortly before, imder Laetus, his father Leonidas lays the responsibility for it to the emperor's chief
had been the first victim of the persecution. Origen counselor, Macrianus ''teacher and^ruler of the Magi
had earnestly encouraged him to stand firm in nis from Egypt'' (Euseb., "Hist, eccl.", VII, x, 4). A
confession, and was himself now longing for a martyr's first edict published in 257 ordered all bishops, priests,
death. His desire was frustrated through the efforts and deacons to conform with the state religion under
of Ids mother and friends. But he had the consola- penalty of exile and prohibited the Christians from
tion of assisting and encouraging a number of his nolding religious assemblies under penalty of death
pupils who died for the faith. Plutarch, who had been (Healy, " VaJerian Persecution ", 136). In 258 a sec-
nis first disciple, Serenus (burnt), Heraclides, a cate- ond edict was issued sentencing to death bishops,
chumen, and Hero, a neophyte (both beheaded), a priests, and deacons, and condemning laymen of high
woman, Herais, a catechumen (burnt), another, Se- rank to degradation, exile, and slavery, or even death
renus (beheaded), and Basilides, a soldier attached to in case of dbstinacy, according to an established scale
the office of Aquila. Potamisena, a young Christian of punishments (Healy, ibid., 169 sq.), confiscation
woman, had been condemned to be sunk by degrees in a of property resulting ipso facto in eveiy case. Diony-
cauldron of boiling pitch and was being led to death sius was still in the chair of St. Mark. On receipt of
by Basilides, who on the way protected her against the first edict ^milianus, then Prefect of Egypt, im-
the insults of the mob. In return for his kindness the mediately seized the venerable bishop with several
martyr promised him not to forget him with her Lord priests and deacons and on his refusal to worship the
when she reached her destination. Soon after Pota- gods of the empire exiled him to Kephro in Libya,
misena's death Basilides was asked by his fellow- There he was followed by some brethren from Alexan-
soldiers to take a certain oath; on answering that he *dria and others soon joined him from the provinces of
could not do it, as he was a Christian, at first they Eg3rpt, and Dionysius managed not only to hold the
thought he was jesting, but seeing he was in earnest prohibited assemblies but also to convert not a few of
they denounced him and he was condemned to be the heathens of that region where the word of God had
beheaded. While waiting in jail for lus sentence to never been preached. iEmilianus was probably igno-
be carried out some Chri^ians (Origen being possibly rant of these facts which even under the provisions of
one of them) visited him and awced him how he the first edict made the bishop and his companions
happened to be converted; he answered that three liable to capital punishment. Desuring however to
days jrfter her death, Potamisena had appeared to him have all the exiles in one district nearer at hand where
by night and placed a crown on his head as a pledge he could seice them all without difficulty whenever
that the Lord would soon receive him into his glory, he wished, he ordered their transfer to Mareotis, a
PERSSCUnONS
708
PERSECUTIONS
marshy district south-west of Alexandria, "a coun-
try", Dionysius says, "destitute of brethren and
exposed to the annoyances of the travelers and in-
cursions of robbers'', and assigned them to different
villages throughout that desolate region. Dionysius
and Ms companions were stationed at Colluthion, near
the highway, so they could be seized first. This new
arrangement, which had caused no small apprehension
to Dionysius, turned out much better than the former
one. If intercourse with Egypt was more difficult, it
was easier with Alexandria; Dionysius had the conso-
lation of seeing his friends more f requentlv, those who
were nearer to his heart, and he could hold partial
meetings with them as was customary in the most re-
mote suburbs of the capital (Euseb., "Hist, eccl.'', VII,
xi, 1-7). This is unfortunately all we know of Valerian
persecution in Egypt. The portion of Dionysius' let-
ter to Domitius and Didymus in which Eusebius refers
to the persecution of Valerian floe, cit., VII, xx) be-
longs rather to the Decian times. It is to be regretted
that Eusebius did not preserve for us in its entirety
Dionysius' letter "to Hermammon and the brethren in
Egypt, describing at length the wickedness of Decius
and his successors and mentioning the peace under
Gallienus".
Immediately after Valerian's captiu^ by the Per-
sians (260?) his son Gallienus (who had been asso-
ciated with him in the empire for several years) pub-
lished edicts of toleration if not of recognition in favour
of the Christians (see McGiffert's note 2 to Eusebius,
"Hist, eccl.", VII, xiii). But Egypt having fallen to
the lot of Macrianus it is probable that he withheld
the edicts or that the terrible civil war which then broke
out in Alexandria between the partisans of Gallienus
and those of Macrianus delayed their promulgation.
After the usurper's fall flate in 261 or early in 262),
Gallienus- issued a rescript "to Dionysius, Pinnas,
Demetrius, and the other bishops" to apprise them of
his edicts and to assure them that Aurehus Cyrenius,
"chief administrator of affairs", would observe them
(Euseb., "Hist, eccl.", VII, xiii ; and McGiflfert, note 3).
Persecutions of Diocletian (303-5) and Maxi-
MiNUS (a. d. 305-13). — For reasons on which sources
either disagree or are silent (see Duchesne, "Hist. anc.
de I'dglise^, II, 10 sq.; McGiffert in "Select Lib. of
Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, N. S. ", I, 400), Dio-
detianus, whose household was full of Christians, sud-
denly changed his attitude towards Christianity and
initiated the longest and bloodiest persecutions against
the Church. Lactantius informs us (De mort. persec.,
IX) that Diocletian acted on the advice of a council of
dignitaries in which Galerius played the principal part.
It was in a. d. 303, the nineteenth year of liis reign,
and the third of Peter Alexandrinus as Bishop of Alex-
andria. Egypt and Syria (as part of the Diocese of
Orient) were directly under the rule of Diocletian. This
general outbreak had been preceded for three years at
least by a more or less disguised persecution in the
army. Eusebius says that a certain magiater mUitum
Veturius, in the sixteenth year of Diocletian, forced a
number of high rank officers to prove their loyalty by
the usual test of sacrificing to the gods of the empire,
on penalty of losing their honours and privileges.
Many "soldiers of Christ's kingdom" cheerfully ^ave
up the seeming glory of this world and a few received
death "in exchange for their pious constancy " (Euseb.,
"Hist, eccl.", VIII, iv;"Chron.", ed. Schone, II, 186
sq.). On 23 February, 303, the Church of Nicomedia
was torn down by order of the emperors. The next
day (thus Lact., op. cit., xiii. Euseb. says "in
March, on the approach of the Passion"), a first
edict was published everywhere ordering the churches
to be destroyed, the Holy Scriptures to be burned,
and infficting degradation on those in high rank ana
slavery on their households. Two other edicts soon
followed, one ordering the imprisonment of all church
OJBScials, the other commanding them to sacrifice to
the gods (Euseb., op. cit., VIII, ii, 4, 5; vi, 8, 10).
In ^04, while Diocletian was seriously ill, a founh
edict was issued commanding all the people to saoi&y
at once in the different cities and ofifer libations to the
idols (Euseb., "Mart. Pal.", Ill, i). On 1 May, 305,
both Diocletian and Maximiaii Herculius retired
officially from the public life and a tetrarchy w»
organized with Galerius and Ck>nstantius as Augusti
and Severus and Maximinus Daia as Csefiars; ud a
new apportionment of the enopire was made, Egypt
and Syria with the rest of the Diocese of Orient going
to Maximinus. Superstitious in the extreme, sur-
rounded by magicians without whom he did not ven-
ture to move even a finger, ferocious and dissohite,
Maximinus was far more bitter against the Christiau
than Galerius himselt. v
To give a fresh impetus to the persecution, he pub-
lished again (305) in his provinces, in his own name,
the fourth edict which had been issued the year before
by all the members of the tetrarchy, thus making h
clear that no mercy was to be expected from him
(Euseb., "Mart. Pal.", IV, viii). In 307, after the
death of Constantius, his son Consfantine was nude
second Csesar and Severus promoted to the rank of
Augustus. The following year Severus, defeated by
Maxentius, was obliged to take his own life and h&
place and rank was given by Galerius to Licinius.
Maximinus then assumed the title of Augustus agaiztft
the wish of Galerius who nevertheless had to recognue
him and bestowed the same title on Constantine. It
was probably on the occasion of this quarrel with
Galerius that Maximinus for a short while in the sum-
mer of 308 relaxed somewhat his measures against the
Christians. " ReUef and liberty were grant^ to those
who for Christ's sake were labouring in the mines of
the Thebaid" (Mart. Pal., IX, i). But suddenly in
the autumn of the same year he issued anoth^ edict
(so-called fifth edict) ordering the shrines of the idds
to be speedily rebuilt and all the people, even infants
at the breast, to be compelled to sacrifice and taste of
the offerings. At the same time he commanded the
thin^ for sale in the markets to be sprinkled with the
Ubations from the sacrifices, the entrance to the public
baths to be contaminated similarly (Mart. Pal., IX, ii).
And when three years later (April, 311) Galerius, de-
voured by a terrible disease and already on the point
of death, finally softened toward the Cluistians and
asked them to pray to their God for his recovery,
Maximinus significantly kept al^of (Hist, eccl., VIII,
xvii). His name does not appear with those of Gale-
rius, Constantinus, and Licinius, in the heading of the
edict of toleration, which, moreover, was never prt>-
mulgated in his provinces. However, probably to
placate his. two colleagues on the occasion of a new
apportionment of the power as a result of Galerius*
death, he told his chief official, Sabinus, to instruct the
governors and other magistrates to relax the persecu-
tion. His orders received wider interpretation than be
expected, and while his attention was directed by the
division of the Eastern empire between himself and
Licinius, the confessors who were awaiting trial in
the prisons were released and those who had been
condemned to the mines returned home in joy and
exultation.
This lull had lasted about six months when Maxi-
minus resumed the persecution, supposedly at the
request of the various cities and towns who petitioned
him not to allow the Christians to dwell within thdr
walls. But Eusebius declares that in the case of
Antioch the petition was Maximinus' own work, and
that the other cities had sent their memorials at- the
solicitation of his officials who had been instructed by
himself to that effect. On that occasion he created in
each city a high-priest whose office it was to make
daily sacrifices to all the (local) gods, and with the
aid of the priests of the former order of things, to
retrain the Christians from building churcl^ and
piBSScunoNS 709 pebsecutions
holding religious meetings, publicly or privately very roots by fire. In one year (308) we read of 97,
(Eusebius, op. cit., IX, ii, 4; Lactant., op. cit., and again of as many as 130, Egyptian confessors thus
XXXVI). At the same time everything was done to doomed to a fate far more cruel than death, because
excite the heathens against the Christians. Forced of the remoteness of the croWn they were impatient
Acts of Pilate and of Our Lord, full of every kmd to obtain and the privation of the encouraging
of blasphemy against Christ, were sent with the em- presence and exhortations of sympathetic bystanders
peror's approval to idl the provinces under him, with (Mart. Pal., VIII, i, 13).
written commands that they should be posted pub* Cxod in at least two instances related by Eusebius
licly in every place and that the schoolmasters should inspired the t3nrant to shorten the conflict of those
sive them to their scholars instead of their customary vahant athletes. At his command forty of them,
^SBons to be studi^ and learned by heart (Euseb., among whom were many Egyptians, were beheaded
op. cit., IX. v). Members of the hierarchy and others in one day at Zoara.. near Philnon. With them was
were seisea on the most trifling pretext afid put to Silvanus of Gaza, a bishop who had been ministering
death without mercy. In the case of Feiet of Alex- to their soUls. On ttie same occasion, Bishops Peleus
andria no cause at all was given. He was arrested and Nilus, a presbyter, and a layman, Patermuthius,
quite unexpectedly and beheaded without explanation all from Egypt, were condemned to death by fire
as if by command of Maximinus (ibid., IX, vi). This probably at Phimon, a. d. 309 (Euseb., ''Mart. Pal. ",
was in April, 312, if not somewhat earher. In the AlII^ Cureton, pp. 46-8). Besides Peter of Alex-
autumn of the same year Constantine defeated andria, but a few of the many who suffered death
Maximinus and soon after conjointly with Licinius illustriously at Alexandria and throughout E^rpt and
published the edict of Milan, a copy of which was the Thebaid are recorded by Eusebius, viz., Faust us,
sent to Maximinus with an invitation to publish it in Dius, and Ammonius, his companions, all three pres-
his own provinces. He met their wishes half way, byters of the Church of Alexandria, also Phileas,
publishing instead of the document received an edict Bishop of Thmuis and three other Egyptian bishops:
of tolerance, but so fuU of false, contradictory state- Hesychius (perhaps the author of the so-called HesV-
ments and so reticent on the pomts at issue, that the chian recension, see Hastings, " Diet, of the Bible^',
Christians did not venture to hold meeting or even IV, 445)^ Pachymius, and Theodorus (Hist, eccl.,
appearin public (Euseb., "Hist. eccL", IX, IX, 14-24). VIII, xiu. 7); fiiially Philoromus, "who held a high
It was not, however, until the following year, after office under the imperial government at Alexandria
his defeat at Adrianople (30 April, 313) at the hands and who administei^ justice every day attended by
of Licinius, with whom he was contending for the sole a military guard corresponding to his rank and Roman
supremacy over the Eastern empire, that he finally dijgnity" (ibid., ix, 7). The dates of their confessions,
made up his mind to enact a coimterpart of the edict with the exception of that of St. Peter (see above)
of Milan, and grant full and unconditional Uberty to are not certain.
the Christians. Hediedsoonafter, consiuned by "an Egyptian Marttss in Stbia and Palestine. —
invisible and God-sent fire" (Hist, eccl., IX, x, 14). Among these, Eusebius mentions Psesis and Alexander,
Lactantius says he took poison at Tarsus, where he beheaded at Csesarea in 304, with six other young
had fled (op. cit., 49). confessors. Hearing that on the occasion of a festival
Effects of the Persecutions. — On the effects the pubUc combat of the Christians who had lately
of the persecutions in Eg3rpt, Alexandria, and the been condemned ta the wild beasts would take place,
Thebaid in a general way we are well informed by they presented themselves, hands bound, to the
ocular witnesses, such as Phileas, Bishop of Thmuis, governor and declared themselves Christians in the
in a letter to his flock which has been preserved by hope of being sent to the arena. But they were
Eusebius (Hist, eccl., VIII, x), who visited Egypt thrown in prison^ tortured, and finally were beheaded
towards the end of the persecution, and seems to have (Mart. Pal., IV, lii). Elsewhere we read of five youns
been imprisoned there for the faith. Eusebius speaks Egyptians who were cast before different kinds oi
of large niunbers of men in groups from ten to one ferocious beasts, including bulls goaded to madness
hundred, with young children and women put to with red-hot irons, but none of which would attack
death in one day, and this not for a few days or a short the athletes of Christ who, though unbound, stood
time, but for along series of years. He describes the motionless in the arena, their arms stretched out in
wonderful ardour of the faithful, rushing one after the form of a cross, earnestly engaged in prayer,
another to the judgment seat and confessing them- FinaUy they were also beheaded and cast into the sea
selves Christians, the joy with which they received (Hist, eccl., VIII, vii). We must also mention with
their sentence, tne truly Divine energy with which Eusebius a party of Egyptians who had been sent to
they endured for hours and days the most excruciating minister to the confessors in Cilicia. They were
tortures; scraping, racking, scourging. Quartering, seized as they were entering Ascalon. Most of them
crucifixion he^id (K)wnwards, not only without com- received the same sentence as those whom they had
Kiiiea oy Lne swora, nre, or arowning vi^useD., xiisi*. were oeneaaea, a. u. ouo v^^iarii. inw., -a., ij, xiie
eccl.", VlII, viii, 9). Frequently they were thrown following year five others who had accompanied the
again into prison to die of exhaustion or hunger. If confessors to the mines in Cilicia were returning to
perchaace they recovered under the care of friends their homes when they were arrested as they were
and were offered their freedom on condition of sac- passing the gates of Csesarea, and were put to death
rificing, they cheerfully chose again to face the judge after being tortured, a. d. 309 (ibid., vi-xiii).
and his executioners (Letter of Phileas, ibid., 10). Not We close this section with the name of iEdesius,
all, however, received their crowns at the end of a a young Lycian and brother of Apphianus (Mart.
few hours or days. Many were condemned to hard Pal., IV). He had been condemned to the mines of
labour in the quarries of Porphyry in Assuan, or, espe- Palestine. Having somehow been released, he came
cially after a. d. 307. in the still more dreaded copper to Alexandria and fell in with Hierocles, the Kovemor,
mines of PhAnon (near Petra, see Revue Biblique. while he was trying some Christians. Unable to con-
1898, p. 112), or in those of Cilicia. Lest they should tain his indignation at the sight of the outrages in-
eecape, they were previously deprived of the use of flicted by this magistrate on the modesty of some pure
their left legs by having the sinews cut or burnt at the women, he went forward and with words and deeds
knee or at the ankle, and again their right eyes were overwhelmed him with shame and disgrace. Forth-
blinded with the sword and then destroyed to the with he was conmiitted to the executioners, tortured
PERSECUTIONS 710 PERSECUTIONS
and cast into the sea (Mart. Pal., V, ii-iii). This tian, as the Christians were preparing to celebrate the
glorious page of the history of the Church of E^gypt Passion, an edict was issued everywhere, ordering
IS not of course quite free from some dark epoi8. their churches to be destroyed, their Holy Scriptures
Many were overcome by the tortures at various burnt, and their slaves hberated, while other edicts
stages of their confesdons and apostatized more or were promulgated demanding the unprisonnient and
less explicitly. This is attested by the "Liber de punishment of the ministers of the Christian Church
Pcenitentia" of Peter of Alexandria, dated from unless they sacrificed to the gods. This is uninistak-
Easter, 306 (published in Routh, Reliquise Sacrse, 2nd ably a translation of Eusebius, ''Hist, eccl.", VIII, ii,
ed., IV, 23 sqq.). (See Lapsi.) 4-5, and although it shows three omissions, viz., the
Persecution of Diocletian in the Acts of indication of the month; the mention that this was
Martyrs of the Coptic Church. — ^The Acts of the first edict, and the third provision of the edict,
Martyrs of Egypt in their i)resent form have been, together with the wrone translation of the fourth
with few exceptions, written in Coptic, and were cur- clause, however^ two of the omissions are supplied by
rently read in the churches and monasteries of Egypt the ''Acts of Epime" (B-H, 122; comp. Didymus H.,
at least from the ninth to the eleventh century. Later 285), in which we find as heading of tne general edict
they were, like the rest of the Coptic literature, trans- (fourth edict, see p. 707c) these curious words: ThU
lated into Arabic and then into Ethiopic for the use was the first edict [apographi] that was against all the
of the Abyssinian Church. The Coptic Acts have saints. He [the king] got up e^ly on the first day of
often come down to us both in Bohairic and in Sahidic, the month of^Pharmvihi [27 March-25 April], as he
those in the latter dialect being as a rule fragmentary, was to pass into a new year and wrote an edict
as most of its literature. Where we have the same [dialagma] etc. It needs but a superficial comparison
Acts in two or more dialects or languages, it generally between Eusebius, "Hist, eccl.", VIII. ii, 4-5, and
happens that the vmious versions represent more or " Mart. Pal. ", III, i, to see that the italics in the
less different recensions, and this is sometimes the Coptic version above belong to the former passage,
case even between two copies of the same Acts in while the rest represent a (fistorted rendering ofthe
the same language. The greater part of the extant latter. The Coptic has even retained to some extent
Bohairic Acts have been published with a French the difference of style in the two places, having apo-
translation by the present writer of this article in graphs for graphs in the first case and dicUagma for
" Lea Actes des Martyrs de TEgypte", etc., I (here= proslagma in the latter. The other omission, vis., the
H), and by J. Balestri and the present writer, with a third clause of the edict, may be lurking in some other
Latin translation, in "Acta Martvrum", I (here= text already extant or yet to b^ discovered. As for
B-H). Two of the Arabic Acts have appeared in having misunderstood the fourth clause of the edict,
French translation only, and without indication of the the Coptic compiler may well be forgiven his error in
MSS. from which thev were taken, under the name view of the divergence of opinion still obtaining among
of E. Ain^lineau in "Contes et romans", etc., II scholars as to the right interpretation of this somewhat
(here = A). For the publication of some of the obscure passage. (See McGiffert on the passage, note
mg • tneir' oeiore "nousenoia j tnus making
those of the Coptic Church, almost without any ex- fourth clause in reality a continuation of the third one.)
ception, contain some historical data of a more general Here is now anotner passage in which the text of
character, which are as the background of the narra- Eusebius is gradually transformed so as to lose prac-
tive proper. Put side by side, the data furnished by tically everything of its primitive aspect. In the
the various Acts of martyrs referred to the persecu- "Acts of Theodore the Eastern" (one of the most
tion of Diocletian prove on careful examination to legendary compositions in the Coptic Martyiology).
constitute just such an outline of the history of that we read that Diocletian, having written tne edict,
persecution as could result from a condensed com- handed it to one of the magistrates, Stephen by name,
pilation of the writings of Eusebius. Indeed it seems who was standing by him. Stephen took it and tore
as thou^ each individual writer of those Acts had it up in the presence of the king. Whereupon the
before his eyes a compilation of that nature and took latter grasped his sword and cut Stephen in twain,
from it iust what best served his purpose. Sometimes and wrote the edict over again whicn he sencis aU
the original text is almost literaJly rendered in Coptic over the world (P., 120 sq.). The legend process has
(and what is still more surprising in Arabic or in begun, to say the least. Yet everybody will recog-
Ethiopic), with here and there an occasional distor- nize in this story a translation, distorted as it may be,
tion owing to the failure on thepart of the translator to of Eusebius, VIII, v (those in Nicomedia) . As in Euse-
grasp the ri^t meaning of a difncul t or obscure passage ; bins it is a man in hi^ rank who tears the edict. Only
sometimes it is paraphrased; frequently it has been in Eusebius the edict was posted up inst^ul of being
amplified or developed, and still more frequently we handed by the emperor, and the act took place "while
fina it more or less curtailed. In other cases several two of the emperors were in the same city" not "in
passages have been condensed into one^ so as to spake the presence of the emperor"; finally, Eusebius does
appear simultaneous facts chronologically distinct, not say with what death the perpetrator of the act
Finally, it not seldom occurs that a paragraph or even met (Lactantius, " De mort. persec. ", XIII, says he
a ^ort passage of Eusebius has been transformed was burnt). In the "Acts of Epime", the lesend
into a real historical romance. In the latter case all takes another step forward. A young soldier of high
proper names are fictitious, and the same historical rank, seeing the edict (posted up) takes off his swoiS-
eharacter appears under various names. Antiochia belt and presents himself to the king. The king asks
is universally substituted for Nicomedia as the capital him who ne is. The soldier answers that he is Chris-
of the eastern empire. Naturally also some violence todorus.sonof Basilide8theSt^atelates,butthathOTce-
is inflicted on the original at the point where the forth he shall not serve an impious king, but confess
romance is grafted upon it. A few examples will Christ. Then the long takes the sword of one of the
suffice to illustrate our view and at the same time we soldiers and runs it through the young man (B-H, 122
hope to show its correctness. sq.). There is almost nothing left of Eusebius' ac-
Bringing together the data furnished by the "Acts count of this story. In fact it looks as if the writer of
of Claudius" (P., 175, and A., 3), and Theodore the "Acts of Epime" had taken it from those of
Stratelates (B-H, 157), we can easily reconstruct the Theodore the Eastern, or some other already dis-
primitive Coptic version of the beginning of the per- torted version of the Eusebian account, and spoiled
Becution aa follows : In the nineteenth year of Diode- it still more in his effort to conceal his act of plagiarism.
PSR8SVB&ANCI 711 PERSEVERANCE
We could cite many more passages of the Acts of above phrase, if it feuls to reach the hour of death,
martyrs of Egypt, thus reproducing more or less On the other hand the saying of St. Matthew does not
exactly, yet unmistakably^ the account of the per- necessarily im{)Iy a lifelong and unbroken continu-
secution of Diocletian as given by Eusebius. In fact ance in grace, since it is of faith that lost grace can be
almost every chapter of the eighth book of his ''His- recovered. Between the temporary continuance or
tory" is represented there by one or more passages, imperfect perseverance and the lifelong continuance
also some chapters of the seventh and ninth books, or zpost perfect perseverance there is room for final
and of the book on the Martyrs of Palestine, so that perseverance as conmionly imderstood, i. e., the pres-
there can be no serious doubt as to the existence of ervation of grace from the last conversion till death,
a Coptic history of the persecution of Diocletian based It may be viewed as a power or as an actual fact. As
on Eusebius. This may have been a distinct work, or a power it means the ensemble of spiritual means
it may have been part of the Coptic church history, in wnerebv the human will is -enabled to persevere unto
twelve books, of which consiaerable fragments are the end if it duly co-operates. As an actual fact it
known to be extant (see Egypt, History). From means the <2e /acto preservation of grace and implies
that same Coptic church historv were taken, possibly, two factors, one internal^ i. e., the steadfast use of the
the several excerpts from Eusebius to be found in the various means of salvation, the other external, i. e.,
having active and the latter passive perseverance.
been used by him [Graffin-Nau, "Patrolosia Orien- may be passive perseverance without active, as when
talis'* ' -" ' ^ ..^ ' ,. , ., « . „ ._r-_. ..._.__......,-..,.__ «._...-__ ,_„..._
ety c
However,
Greek works spoken of by Severus were lives of the well-doing. By what agency the combined stability
individual patriarchs, the compil«i9 of which may p holiness ana timeliness of death are brought about
have used either Eusebius' original text or moreproti- is a problem^ long debated among Christian writers.
ably the Coptic work in question. The semipela^ans of the fifth century, while forsak-
There are also in the Acts of martyrs of Egypt clear ing the sweeping ethical naturalism of Pelagius and
traces of other sources of information as to the pet- admitting on principle the graces of the will, contended
secution of Ltiocletian. This is generally the case nevertheless, that thefinal perseverance of the justified
with some of the more legendary pieces. For instance, was sufficiently accounted for by the natural ]X)wer of
in the introduction to the "Acts of Epime", we read our free will; if sometimes, in order to tally with con-
that Diocletian, formeriy a Christian (probably here ciliar definitions, they called it a grace, it was but a.
confused with Julian the Apostate), apostatized and misnomer, as that grace could be merited" by man's
made for himself seventy gods, calling the first of natural exertions. Oppositely, the Reformers of the
them Apollo, and so on. Then he called a council of sixteenth century, partly followed by the Baianist and
dignitaries of the empire and told them that Apollo Jansenist school, so minimized the native power and
and the rest of the gods had appeared to him, and moral value of our free will as to make final persever-
demanded a reward for having restored him to health ance depend on God alone, while their pretended
and given him the victory. In behalf of all, Romanus fidu6ial faith and inadmissibility of pace led to the
the Stratelates suggested to oblige all the subjects of conclusion that we can, in this world, have absolute
Diocletian to worship his gods under penalty of death, certainty of our final perseverance.
Is it not clear that the first author of the narrative The Catholic doctrme, outlined by St. Augustine,
must have read in some form or other the ninth chap- chiefly in "De dono perseveranti«" and "De correp-
ter of Lactantius' " De mortibus persecutorum "? In tione et gratia", and the Coimcil of Orange in Southern
what other source could we have found that Dio- Gaul, received its full expression in the Council of
cletian acted on the advice of a council, and that of Trent, sess. VI, c. xiii, can. 16 and 22: (1) The power
Apollo, no matter whether the god volimteered his '-of persevering.— Canon 22 (Si quisdixeritjustificatum
advice or Diocletian sought it? Can it be a mere co- vel sine special! auxilio Dei in accepta justitia perse-
incidence that both Lactantius and the Coptic writer verare posse, vel cum eo non posse, anathema at), by
explain practically in the same way Diocletian's deter- teaching that the justified cannot persevere without a
mination to persecute the Christians ? special help of God, hut with it can persevere, not only
EuBCBiuB. Historia eceUna^ica in P. (7., XX: Id.m, De mar- condemns both the naturalism of ttie Semipelagians
(i/rifriM Paia«<tna(iMdO; both works also, in Ensiiflhtr. (which we and the false supematunuism of the Reformers but
follow) with ProUo<nMna and notes by McGiffert in Seie^ also clearly imphes that the power of perseverance is
Lxbrary of Nteene and Poat-Ntcene Pathert of iMChnttian Churchy «,^:*u^- :«, «u^ u..»««^ ..rill aV^*.^ «#«• t«. Orwa**. ».«#.«
new 1^^. I (Oxford. 1890) ; Lactantius. De morie pereecuiorum neither m the human wiU alone nor m God s grace
inP. L., VII; Greoo, The Deeian PereeaUum (EdinhuTgh,lS97)\ SOlely, but m the Combination Of both, 1. e., Divme
Hbalt. rA€ TWianPerwcuiion (Boston. lOW); Mabon, Ths gjace aiding humMi will, and human will co-operating
Persecution of Dxodettan (Cambndge, 1876); Schoknaich, Die ^4.1. Tk:-^«.r -»««««> T^u^ «^w»^^ ;« ^«i<w»«;^«« ;« ^11<vrl K^
Christenverfoiguno dee Kaieers Deci^ (Jauer. 1907) ; Tillbmont. With Dlvme grace. The grace m question IS Called by
Mimoiree^oureeniri^VhxatoireeeeUsiaatiquedeetixjpTemiereeikclee, the Council a SpeCial help Of OOQ , apparently tO
Ill-V; Htvbbnat, if»,aetea dee martyre de vSgyvte Hrie dee distinguish it both from the concurrence of God in the
K^STxI^^'iS^-fll'tor^lir/llrn^i^sffiu'i; natuiS order and habitual pace, neither .of which
Christianorum Orientaltum: Scriptoree Coptici, I (third series, were domed by the SemipelSgians. Iheologians, With
Paris. 1907): Pbheiha. Ada Martyrum, ibid., Scriptoree ^thi- « few exceptions, identify this special help with the
optci.XXVIII (second series, Paris. 1907); Amblinbau. Con<«« el ^,^ x^i-oi V^t o/W^nal (n-o/»M irnnrhRAfpH ijn man ^2^
rowan* <i«rifwp««cAr«ienne (Paris. 1888). For a complete bibli- sum total of actual graces voucnsaieaxo man. (Z;
ography of the material at hand see BoLLANnisrs (Pbbtbrb). Actual perseverance. — 1 he Council of 1 rent, using an
BOd. Hagioor. Orient. (Bnissels, 1910). The only important addi- exoression coined by St. Augustine, calls it {mognun:
tion to be made to this very useful work is the reeent publication ^,^.^ -^ ^-..o-- «>^e««M>«>/>«i#4/v AnMkvn\ tliP cnvaf irift nf
of WiHBTBDT. Coptic texu 6n Saint Theodore the Oeneral, St. Theo- ^squ€ w fifiem perseverantuB Oonum) me great gilt 01
dore the Eaetem, etc. (with English tr., London, 1910). final perseverance. "It consists , says Newman, hi
H. Hyvernat. an ever watchful superintendence of us on the part of
our All-Merciful Lord, removing temptations which
PersaTerance. Final (perseverantia iinalis) , is the He sees will be fatal to us. succouring us at those times
preservation of the state of grace till the end of life, when we are in particular lynl, whether from our
The expression is taken from Matt., x. 22, "He that negligence or other cause, and ordering the course of
shall persevere unto the end, he shall be saved.'^ A our life so that we may die at a time when He sees that
temporary continuance in grace, be it ever so long, we are m the state of grace, ^e supernatural chax-
cvidently falls short of the obvious meaning of the acter of such a gift is clearly asserted by Chnst: Holy
PERSIA
712
PERSIA
Father, keep them in thy name whom thou has
given" (John, xvii, 11); by St. Paul: "he, who hath
begim a good work in you, will perfect it unto the day
of Christ Jesus" (Phil., i, 6); and by St. Peter: "But
the God of all grace, who hath called us unto his eter-
nal g^ory in Christ Jesus, after you have suffered a
little, will himself perfect you, and confirm you, and
establish you " (I Pet., v, 10). The extreme precious-
ness of that supernatural gift places it alike beyond
our certain knowledge and meriting power.
That we can never in this life be certain of our final
perseverance is defined by the Council of Trent, Sess.
Vl, can. xvi: "Si quis magnum illud usque in finem
perseverantise donum se certo habiturum, cJ>soluta et
mfallibili certitudine dixerit, nisi hoc ex speciali reve-
latione didicerit, anathema sit". What places it be-
yond our meriting power is the obvious fact that
revelation nowhere offers final perseverance, with its
retinue of efficacious graces and its crown of a good
death, as a reward for our actions, but, on the con-
trary, constantly reminds us that, as the Council of
Trent puts it, "the gift of perseverance can come only
from Him who has the power to confirm the standing
and to raise the fallen". However, from our incapa-
city to certainly know and to strictly merit the great
gift, we should not infer that nothmg can be done
towards it. Theologians imite in saying that final per«
severance comes under the impetrative power of
prayer and St. Liguori (Prayer, the great means of
Salvation) would make it the dominant note and bur-
den of our dailv petitions. The sometimes distressing
presentation of the present matter in the pulpit is due
to the many sides of the problem, the impossibility of
viewing them all in one sermon, and the idiosyncrasies
of the speakers. Nor should the timorousness of the
saints, graphically described by Newman, be so con-
strued as to contradict the admonition of the Council
of Trent, that " all should place the firmest hope in the
succour of God". Singularly comforting is the teach-
ing of such saints as St. Francis de Sales (Camus,
"The Spirit of St. Francis de Sales", III, xiii) and St;
Catherine of Genoa (Treatise of Purgatory, i v) . They
dwell on God's great mercy in granting final persever-
ance, and even in the case of notorious sinners they do
not lose hope: God suffuses the sinners' dying hour
with an extraordinary Ught and, showing them the
hideousness of sin contrasting with His own infinite
beauty. He makes a final appeal to them. For those
only who, even then, obstinately cling to their sin does
the saying of Ecclus., v, 7. assume a sombre meaning
"mercy and wrath quickly come from him, and his
wrath looketh upon sinners". (See Grace).
St. Thomas, Summa theologica, I-II. Q. cxiv, a. 9; Wilhelm
andScannell, a MantMl of Calholie Theology, II (London, 1901),
242; Hunter, OutlineM of Dogmatic Theology, III (New York,
1894), 47; Newman, Per$everance in Grace in Vitcourse* to Mixed
Congregatione (London and New York, 1906); Labauche,
L'homme dan* Vitat de grdce in Lefona de thiologie dogmatique
(Paris, 1908); Baebilles. Le caUchieme romain (Montr6jeau,
1906-10), III, 417,' and VI, 434. See also current theological
treatises D« ^oiia. J, Y. SOLLIBR.
Peraia. — The history, religion, and civilization of
Persia are offshoots from those of Media. Both Medes
and Persians are Aryans; the Aryans who settled in
the southern part of the Iranian plateau became known
as Persians, while those of the mountain regions of the
north-west were called Medes. The Medes were at
first the leading nation, but towards the middle of the
sixth century b. c. the Persians became the dominant
power, not onlv in Iran, but also in Western Asia.
Persia (in Heb. C^C, in the Sept. n«p<r/j, in the
Achsemenian inscriptions Parsa^ in Elamitic Parsin^ in
modem Persian Pars, and in Arabic Pars^ or Pdris)
was originally the name of a province in Media, but
afterwards — i. e.. towards the beginning of the fifth
century b. c. — it became the general name of the whole
eountry formerly comprising Media, Susiana, Elam,
and even MeaopotsLtnid,. What we now call Persia is
not identical with the ancient empire designated by
that name. That empire covered, from the sixth cen-
tury B. c. to the seventh of our era. such vast regions as
Persia proper. Media, Elam, Chaldea, Babylonia,
Assyria, the highlandB of Armenia and Bactriana»
North-Eastem Arabia, and even Egypt. Peraia proper
is bounded on the north by Transcaucasia, the Obi»-
pian Sea, and Russian Turkestan; on the isouth by
the Indian Ocean and the Persian Gulf; on the east by
Russian Turkestan, Afghanistan, and Beluchistan,
and on th« west by Asiatic Turkey and the Persian
Gulf; it is over one-fifth as large as the United States
(excluding Alaska) and twice as large as Germany,
having an area of about 642,000 square miles. The
whole country occupies a plateau varying in hdght
from 3000 to 5000 feet, and subiect to wide extremes
of climate, its northern edge bordering on the Caspian
Sea and tke plain of Turkestan, its southern and souths
western on the Persian Gulf and the plains of Mesopo-
Uunia. The ancient Persians were vigorous and hardy,
simple in manners, occupied in raising cattle ana
horses in the mountainous regions, aind agriculture in
the valleys and plains. The four great cities were
Ecbatana, in the north, Persepolis in the east, Susa in
the west, and SeleuciarCtesiphon in the south-west.
The provinces and towns of modem Persia will be
given below.
I. History. — ^Historians generally assign the begin-
nings of Persian history to the reign of C3rrua^ the
Great (550-529 b. c), although, strictly speaking, it
should begin with Darius (521-485 b. c). Cyrus was
certainly of Persian extraction, but when he founded
his empire he was Prince of Elam (Anzan), and he
merely added Media and Persia to his dominion. He
was neither by birth nor reUgion a true Persian, for
both he and Cambyses worshipped the Babylonian
gods. Darius, on the other hand, was both by birth
and religion a Persian, descended, uke Oyms, from the
royal Achsmenian house of Persia, ana a follower of
the Zoroastrian faith. The ancestors of Darius had
remained in Persia, whilst the branch of the family of
which Cyrus was a member had settled in Elam. The
history of Persia may be divided into five great pe-
riods, each represented by a dynasty: A. The Achse-
menian Dynasty, beginning with the kingdom -of
Cyrus the Great and endink with the Macedonian
conquest (550-331 b. c.) : B. The Greek, or Seleucian,
Dynasty (331-250 b. c); C. The Parthian Dynasty
(250 B. c.-A. D. 227); D. TheSassanian Dynasty (a. d.
227-651); E. The Mohammedan period (a« d. 651 to
the present).
A. The AchcBmenian Dynasty (550-331 B. c). —
Towards the middle of the sixth century b. c, and a
few vears after the death of Nebuchadnezzar (Nabu-
chodonosor) the Great, King of Babylon (605-562
B. c), Western Asia was divided into three kingdoms:
the Babylonian Empire, Media, and Lydia; and it was
only a question of time which of the three would anni-
hilate the other two. Astyages (585-557 b. c.)« the suc-
cessor of Cyaxares (625-5^ b. c), being engaged in
an expedition against Babylonia and Mesopotamia,
Cyrus, Prince of Anzan, in Elam, profiting by his
absence, fomented a rebelhon in Media. Astyages,
hearing of the revolt, immediately returned, but was
defeated and overthrown by Cyrus, who was pro-
claimed Kinff of Media. Thus, with the overthrow of
Astyages ana the accession of Cyrus to the throce, the
Median Empire passed into the hands of the Persians
(550 B. c). In 549, Cyrus invaded Assyria and Baby-
lonia; in 546 he attacked Croesus of Lydia, defeated
him, and annexed Asia Minor to his realm; he then
conquered Bactriana and, in 539, marched agunst
Babylon. In 538 Babylon surrendered, Nabonidus
fled, the Syro-Phcenician provinces submitted, and
Cjmis allowed the Hebrews to return to Palestine.
But in 529 he was killed in battle, and was succeeded
by Cambyses, the heir apparent, who put his brother
PERSIA 713 PERSIA
Smerdis to death. In 525 Cambysee, aided by a B. The Greek, or Seieucian, Dynasty (331-250 B. c.)»
Phceolciaii fleet, conquered Egypt and advanced — With Alexander's signal victory over Darius
against the Sudan, but was compelled to return to III at Arbela (Guagamela), in 331, the Achsmenian
Egypt. On his way home, and while in Syria, being Kingdom of Persia came to an end. Alexander
informed that Gaumata, a Magian, pretending to be founded more than seventy cities in which he planted
the murd^^ Smerdis, had seised the throne, Camby- Greek and Macedonian colonies. But the great con-
ses committed suicide (522) and was succeeded, in 521, queror, greedy for sensual pleasures, plunged into a
by Darius Hystaspes, who, with six other princes, sue- course of dissipation which ended in his death, 13
ceeded in overthrowing the usurper Gaumata. June, 323. Dissension and civil wars broke out at
With the accession oiDarius, the throne passed to the once in every quarter of the va^ empire, from India
second line of descendants of Teispes II, and thus the to the Nile, and lasted for nearly forty-two years.
Elamite dynasty came to an end. This was soon fol- Perdiceas, tne regent of Babylon cfuring the minority
lowed by a general revolt in all the provinces, including of Alexander's son, was soon assassinated, and his
Babylon, where a son of Naboniaus was proclaimea power claimed by Pitho, Satrap of Media: out Pitho
king. Susiana also rose up in arms, and Darius was was displaced by a conspiracy of the other satraps,
confronted with the task of reconquering the empire who, in 316, chose Eumenes to occupy the throne ot
founded by Cyrus. In 519 Babylon was conquered, all Alexander. Eumenes was betrayed mto the hands
the other provinces, including Egypt, were pacined of Antigonus, another great Macedonian general, who
and the wnole empire reorganize and divided into asain was obliged, in 312, to yield to Seleucus, one
satrapies with fixea administration and tcuces. In 515 of the Alexandrian eenemis, founder of the Seleucid
the Asiatic Greeks began to rebel, but were crushed by dynasty. He built the city of Seleucia, on the Tigris,
Darius. Thence he marched to the Indus and subju- making it the capital of the Persian, or rather Grseco-
gated the country along its banks. In 499 the lonians Persian, Empire. The great distuibmg element during
revolted, but were defeated and the city of Miletus the Seieucian period was the rivalry between Greeks
destroyed (494 B. c). In 492 Mardonius, one of Da- and Macedomans, as well as between cavalry and
rius's generals, set out to reconquer Greece, concen- infantry. The Greek colonists in Bactria revolted
trating all his forces in Cilicia; but the Persians were against Macedonian arrogance and were with diffi-
defeated at Marathon (490 b. c). In 485 Darius was culty pacified by Seleucus Nicator. But the dissat-
succeeded by his son, Xerxes I, who immediately set isf action continued, and, in the reign of Antiochus
out to reconquer Egypt and Babylon, and renewed the II, about 240 b. c, Diodotus, Satrap of Bactria,
war against Greece. After the indecisive battles of revolted and founded a separate Greek state in the
Thermopyke and Artemisium, he was defeated by heart of Central Asia. This Kingdom of Bactria pre-
Themistocles at Salamis near Athens (480). During sents one of the most singular episodes in history,
the years 479-4(^, Xerxes met with constant reverses: A small colony of foreigners, many hundred miles from
he gradually lost Attica, Ionia, the Archipelago, ana the sea, entirely isolated, and numbering probably
Thrace, ana at last was assassinated bjr Artabaxius not over thirty-five thousand, not only maintained
and Artaxerxes. The latter, becoming king as Arta- their independence for about one hundred years in a
zerxee I, in 464 quelled revolts in Bactria and Egypt strange land, but extended their conquests to the
in the year 454. In 449, the Persian fleet and army Ganges, and included several himdred populous cities
having been again defeated near Salamis, in Cyprus, a in their dominions.
treaty of peace was made between Persia and Athens. The reign of Seleucus Nicator lasted from 312 to
Artaxerxes died in 424 and was succeeded by his eldest 280 b. c. His first care was to reorganize his empire
son, Xerxes II, who reigned but forty-five days and and satrapies (seventy-two in number), which jrielded
was murdered by his half-brother Sogdianus. Sog- him aa annual revenue equivalent to about twenty
dianus reigned six months and was murdered by million dollars. In 289 he removed the seat of gov-
Ochus, who ascended the throne in 423 as Darius II emment from Seleucia to Antioch, in Syria. But, as
Nothus (the Bastard). it was impossible to govern proper! v so extensive an
In 412, Darius II compelled Sparta to recognise empire from so distant a capital, he found it advisable
Persian suzerainty over the Greek cities of Asia Minor, to m^^e over the upper satrapies to Antiochus, his
and reconquered the cities of Ionia and Caria. On his son, giving him Seleucia as his capital (293 b. c). In
death, in 404, Arsaces, his eldest son, ascended the 280, however, Seleucus was assassinated and was
throne as Artaxerxes II, and quelled revolts in Cy- succeeded by his son, Antiochus I (called Soter),
prus, Asia Minor, and Egypt. jBut in the last seven whose r^gn of twenty-one ^ears was devoid of in-
years of his reign, E^vpt and Asia Minor became once terest. Ifis second son, Antiochus II (called Theos),
more independent. He died in 359 and was succeeded succeeded him in 261, a drunken and dissolute prince,
by his son Ochus, known as Artaxerxes UI. In this who n^ected his realm for the society of unworthy
same year, the Persians were defeated in Egypt and favourites. During his reign, north-eastern Persia
lost Phcenicia and Cyprus (352); but in 345-340, Arta- was lost to the empire, and some Bactrians, embold-
xerxes succeeded in conquering and crushing Sidon, ened bv the weakness and effeminacy of Antiochus,
Cyprus, and Eg^t. In 338 he was murdered and was and led by the brothers, Arsaces and Tiridates, moved
succeeded bv his youngest son. Arses, who was in his west into Seleucid territoiy, near Parthia. Pherecles,
turn put to death by the eunuch Bagoas (335), and was the Seleucid satrap, having insulted Tiridates, was
succeeded by Codomannus, great-^tmdson of Darius slain, and Parthia freed from the Macedonians. Ar-
il, who assumed the name of Darius III. In 334 saces, the brother of Tiridates, was proclaimed first
Alexander, the son of Philip of Macedon, began his Kin^ of Parthia in 250 b. c, and the Seleucid dynasty
career of conquest by subduing all Asia Minor and fell mto decay.
Northern Syria. After conquering Tyre, Phoenicia, C. The Arsacid. or Parthian Dynasty (250 b. c.
Judea, and Egypt in 332, he invackd Assyria, and at -A. d. 216). — ^The rounding of the Parthian monarchy
Arbela, in 331, defeated Darius and his vast army, thus marks the opening of a glorious era in the history of
futting an end to the AchaBmenian dynasty. Darius Persia. The Parthians, though inferior in refinement,
II fled to Media, where he was seized and murdered habits, and civilization to the Persians proper, form,
by Bessus, Satrap of Bactria (330), while Alexander nevertheless, a branch of the same stock. They, were
entered Babylon and Susa, and subdued the provinces originally a nomadic tribe and, like the Persians,
of Elam, Persia, and Media. Bessus, the murderer of followers of Zoroaster. They had their own custoins,
Darius, who had proclaimed himself King of Persia and were famous for their horsemanship, their armies
under the name of Artaxerxes IV, fell into Alexander's being entirely composed of cavalry, completely clad
hands and was put to death (330 b. c.)« in cludn armour and riding without saddles. They left
PERSIA
714
PERSIA
few records; indeed, we really know very little of the
internal history of the Parthians, and would have
known still less but for the frequent wars between
them and the Greeks and Romans. Numbers of
Parthian coins are still found in northern Persia and
have been of great value to the historian who, thou-
sands of years later, has tried to put together the dis-
jointed history of this dynasty. Amid the faint and
confused outlmes which alone remain to record the
career of the mighty Parthian race which for over four
hundred years ruled in Persia with a rod of iron, and
which repeatedly hurled back the veteran lesions of
Rome, we are able to discern two or three grana figures
and some events that wUl be remembered while the
world lasts.
Of these heroes of Parthia the most important was
Mithridates the Great, who not only repaired the
losses the empire had sustained in its conflicts with
the Seleucids, but carried the conquests of Parthia
as far as India in one direction, and the banks of the
Euphrates in the other. Parthians and Romans met
for the first time, not for war, but to arranee a treaty
of peace between the two great powers of that age.
Soon after this event Demetrius III, head of the
Seleucian dynasty, was forced to surrender, with his
entire army, to Mithridates, and ended his days in
captivity. Armenia also fell under the Parthian
domination during the reign of Mithridates. The
coins of Mithridates are very numerous and clearly
cut: the design shows the portrait of that monarch,
witn a full hesad and strongly marked, but pleasing,
features. His immediate successors were men of an
entirely different stamp, and Tigranes, King of Ar-
menia, was able, not omy to revolt, but to rob Parthia
of some of her western provinces. In time Phraates
succeeded to the throne of the Arsacids and, by calling
for aid from the Romans, caused the overthrow of
Tigranes; Iwit the haughty republic of the West
granted its assistance with such ul grace that years of
warfare resulted. Phraates was murdered by his two
sons. Orodes, as the Latins called him (Huraodha. in
the Perso-Parthian tongue) ascended the thrpne; but
to avoid dissension it was agreed that his brother,
Mithridates, should rule over Media as an indepen-
dent king. It was not long before civil war broke out
between the two, and in the end Mithridates was taken
and put to death in the presence of his brother. In
54 B. c, the civil wars of Rome having ceased for a
while, Crassus, who with Caesar and Pompey, shared
the authority in the republic, took command of the
Roman armies in Asia. He needed but the merest
pretext to invade and attack Parthia; the easy vic-
tories of Pompey in Armenia led him to imagine that
he had but to reach the borders of the Persian Empire
and it would fall helpless into his grasp. He was a
brave man, and led sixty thousand of the best troops
in the world, but his contempt of the enemy, and the
greed of gold for which he was notorious, brought
him into a terrible catastrophe. The chief generalof
Orodes was Surenas, the first nobleman of the empire.
On 16 June, 54 b. c, the Romans and the Parthians
met at Carrae, near the sources of the Euphrates.
Surenas concealed the mass of his army behind the
hills, allowing the Romans to see at first only his
heavy cavalry. Little suspecting the actual force of
the enemy, Publius Crassus. son of the general,
charged with the cavalry. The Parthians, following
their usual tactics, broke and fled as if in dismay.
When they had drawn the Romans far enough from
the main body, the entire army of Surenas re-iormed,
surrounded them, and cut them to pieces. After this
success, the Parthians hovered on the flanks of the
Roman infantry, annoying them with missiles. Of the
great army whicn Crassus had led into Asia not twenty
thousand survived, and of these ten thousand were
taken captive and settled by Orodes in Margiana.
Orodes himself, after a long reign, during which
Parthia attained the climax of her power, was stran-
gled in his eightieth year by his son Phraates. He
was the first Parthiaua king to assume the title of
"Kingof Kinjgs".
Phraates, his successor, removed the seat of govern-
ment from the north of the empire to Taisefoon, or,
as the Greeks called it, Ctesiphon, a suburb of Seleu-
cia, which continued to be the capital until the Mo-
hammedan conquest, more than six hundred years
later. Hatra, in that vicinity, also acquired impor-
tance under the Parthian kings, who caused a splendid
palace to be erected there. Phraates was eminently
successful in his military operations, although steeped
in crime. Besides murdering his father, he had caused
all his near relations to be put to death, to ensure h»
own position on the throne. Phraates soon had an-
other Roman war on his hands. Before 4he deaUi
of Orodes, that monarch had associated with him his
son Pacorus, a soldier and statesman, who conquered
Syria and ruled both there and in Palestine with a
mildness which contrasted favourably with the sever-
ity of the Roman governors expelled by him. But
Pacorus was finally defeated and killed by the Roman
consul, Ventidius, and the territories he had captured
on the coast of the Mediterranean were lost to Parthia.
In the year 33 b. c. Mark Antony began a campaign
against the Parthians, whom the Romans never for-
gave for the crushing defeat at Carrse. His army
numbered one hundred thousand men, including no
less than forty thousand cavalry intended to cope
with the terrible hoBsemen of Parthia. To oppose
this immense force, Phraates could collect only forty
thousand cavali^; but he immediately began opera-
tions by surprising the baggage trains of the enemy,
and cutting to pieces the escort of seven thousand five
hundred men. Antony was at the time eng^ed in
besieging Phraaspa. He was obliged to abandon the
siege, but the piymiit of the Parthians was so vigor-
ous that the Roman general was hardly able to reach
the frontier of Armenia after losing thirty thousand
of his best troops. For one hundred years af t«r this,
Rome dared not again attack Parthia; and when, in
later ages, her legions repeated the attempts to pene-
trate into the heart of Persia, they invariably failed.
Phraates was dethroned by a conspiracy of his
brother Tiridates. He fled to Tour&n^ or Scylhia, of
which we hear so often in the legendary history of
Persia. There he succeeded in raising an immense
army of Tatars, and, hurling the usurper from power,
forced him to seek an asylum at Rome, where he en-
deavoured to obtain assistance from the Romans,
promising important concessions in return. But his
offers were declined. A century later, Trajan invaded
Parthia, but, in spite of some early successes, was
forced to retire to Syria. Vologeses II is memorable
for his death, a. d. 148, at the age of ninety>six,
iJter a reign of seventy-one years. During the reign
of Vologeses IH Western Persia was invaded by
Cassius, the Roman consul. Vologeses was defeated
in a great battle, and Cassius penetrated as far as
Babybnia, the capital of which was Seleucia, a most
flourishing city, with a population of over four hun-
dred thousand. Cassius sacked and burned Seleucia,
completely wiping it out of existence. Parthia never
recovered from the effects of this last war with Rome.
The dynasty which had founded the greatness of the
Parthian empire had becorne enervated by its suc-
cesses. In 216 the war with Rome was renewed.
King Artabanus had put down several rivals and re-
due^ the greater part of the Parthians under his
power. Macrinus, the Roman Emperor, suffered two
crushing defeats from Artabanus, and was obliged
to purchase peace by paying an indemnity of 50,000,-
000 denarii (about $9,000,000) At the very time when
the doom of Parthia was impending. With the death
of Artabanus, a. d. 216, the Parthian dynasty came
to an end.
PERSIA
715
PERSIA
D. The Sasaanian Dynasty (a. d. 227-651).— The
immediate causes which brought about the overthrow
of the Parthian kingdom and the establishment of
the dynasty of Sassan in its stead are not known. The
new dynasty of the Sassanids was a more genuine
representative of the civilised Iranian race than the
Parthian Arsacidie, especially as far as relinon was
concerned. The founder of the Sassanian dynasty,
Ardashir Papakan (Artaxerxes, son of Papak), was
bom at Persis; in central Iran; his family claimed
descent from a mythical ancestor, Sassan, and he was
therefore of the priestly caste. Babek, the father of
Ardashir, seems to have founded a 'small kingdom at
Persis, and to have annexed fhe territories of other
lesser princes, thus gradually encroaching on various
Parthian provinces. Vologeses V, the last king of the
Arsacid djmasty of Parthia, declared war against the
rising, chief, but was defeated and put to death by
Ardashir a. d. 227. Thus the Parthiim Empire passed
into the hands of the Sassanian dynastv. The sur-
viving Arsacids fled to India, and all the provinces
accepted Ardashir's rule without resistance. It was
in fact the beginning of a new national and religious
movement, the new dynasty being looked upon as
the true and genuine successor of the old and noble
Achffiipenian dynasty, and of the Zoroastrian religion.
One of the first acts of Ardashir was to send an
embassy to Rome demanding that the whole of West-
em Asia should be ceded to mm. Soon afterwards, in
230, he sought to regain the lost provinces of Meso-
Eotamia by force of arms. The emperor. Alexander
everus, opposed the W vance of Ardashir s army, but
was only partly successful. Ardashir devoted the re-
mainmg years of his reign to founding new towns,
schools, and temples, and to reorganizing the judicial
system of the courts and the army. Everywhere were
evidences of a new development of the true Iranian
spirit; and it was not long before the Persian nation
deemed itself sufficiently strong once more to enforce
its old claims to the sovereignty of Western Asia.
Sapor I, the son of Ardashir, who reupied from 240 to
273, renewed the war with Rome, first against Gor-
dian, then against Valerian. The latter emperor was
treacherously seized at a conference in 260, and spent
the rest of his life in a Persian prison subject to most
barbarous ill-usage. Sapor then conquered Syria and
destroyed Antioch, but was finally driven back by
Odenathus, King of Palmyra. After the death of
Odenathus the war was continued by his widow,
Zenobia, who was so elated by her success that she
attempted to found an independent Syrian empire
under the leadership of Palmyra, but was defeated
and taken prisoner oy the Romans imder Aurelian.
The thira Sassanid king, Hormuz, reigned only one
year; his successor, Bahram I (274-77), continued
the war with Zenobia and afterwards with Aurelian.
But this war terminated, without any result, at the
death of Aurelian, in 275. During this period, the
revival of the Zoroastrian reUgion became a move-
ment of great importance. Having attained ascend-
ancy in Persia under the early Sassanid kings, it grew
very intolerant, persecuting alike heathen and Chris-
tian. It first turned against Mani, the founder of
Manichfieism, and his followers, under Bahram I. Mani
himself, at first in favour at the Persian Court, waa^
crucified about the year 275. Under the next king,
Bahram II (277-94), Persia suffered severe reverses
from the Roman Emperor Cams, the capital city,
Ctesiphon, even f allins into the hands of the Romans.
Bahram III, son of Bahram II. reigned only eight
months, and was succeeded by nis younger brother,
Narsi I, who renewed the war with Rome with disas-
trous results. He was succeeded by his son, Hormuz
II (303-10), and he, again, by Sapor II (310-81). It
was in the latter reign that the Christians in Persia
suffered serious persecution. During the early years
of Sapor II the Christian religion received formal
recognition from Constantine, and there is no doubt
that this identification of the Church with the Roman
Empire was the chief cause of its disfavour in Persia.
Moreover, there is evidence that Christianity had
spread widely in the Persian dominions, and every
Christian was suspected of disaffection towards the
Persian king and secret attachment to the Roman
Empire, the more so because even the Persian-speak-
ing Chnstians employed the Ssrriac language in their
worship. Probably this feeling; of suspicion was in-
creased by the letter -which Constantine wrote to
Sapor (Theod., ''H. E.'', I, xxv), asking protection
for the Christians resident in Persia. (See III, below.)
To this period belongs Aphraates, a converted Persian
noble, a writer of homines. When Constantine was
dead, and the Magi had attained complete ascendancy
over the Persian king, a persecution ensued vrhich
was far more severe than any of those of the Roman
Emperors.
This attack upon. the Christians was but part of
Sapor's anti-Western poUcy. In 350 he openly de-
clared war against Rome, and marched on Syria. The
first important action was the siege of Nisibis, where
the famoud Jacob, founder of the school of Nisibis.
was then bishop. The siege lasted seventy days, anq
then the Persians having built a dam across the Kiver
Mygdonius, the waters broke down the wall. The
siege was unsuccessful, however, and the campaign
ended in a truce. Julian, who became eniperor in 361,
determined to invade the dominions of Sapor. In
March, 363, he set out from Antioch to march towards
Carrffi.' From the latter point two roads led to
Persia: one through Nisibis to the Tigris, .the other
turning south along the Euphrates and then crossing
the lower Tigris. Julian chose the second of these
and, passing through Callinicum, Carchemish, and
Zaitham, reached the Persian capital, Ctesiphon,
where he was met with proposals of peace from Sapor,
but refused them. After crossing the Tigris, he bumea
his ships to prevent their falling into the hands of
the enemy; but the result was something like a panic
amongst his followers. Supplies ran short, and the
army entered the desert, where it seems to have lost
its way. There had been no battle as yet, but almost
daily skirmishes with the li^t-armed Persian cavalry.
In one of these skirmishes Julian was slain by a jave-
lin, whether thrown by one of the enemy or by one
of his own followers has never been known. The
soldiers at once elected Jovian, one of Julian's gen-
erals, and he b^an his reign by making a thirty
years' truce with Persia. The Persians were to supply
guides and food for the retreat, while the Romans
promised to surrender Nisibis and give up their pro-
tectorate over Armenia and Iberia, which became
Persian provinces. The surrender of Nisibis put an
end to the school established there by Jacob, but his
disciple Ephraim removed to Edessa, and there re-
establishea the school, so that Edessa became once
more the centre of Syriac intellectual life. With this
school must be connected the older S3rriac martyr-
ologies, and many of the Syriac translations and edi-
tions of Greek church manuals, canons, and theological
writers. Thus were preserved Syriac versions of many
important works, the original (jreek of which is lost.
In spite of this thirty years' truce, the Persians for
a time kept up a petty warfare, the Romans acting on
the defensive. But as age rendered Sapor helpless,
this warfare died out. Sapor died in 380, at the age ot
seventy : being a posthumous son, he had spent his
whole file on the throne. During the reigns of Sapor
III and Bahram IV Persia remained at peace. In 379
the Emperor Theodosius the Great received an em-
bassy from Persia proposing friendly relations. This
was mainly due to the fact that the Persians had diffi-
culties on their northern and eastern frontiers, and
wished to have their hands free in the west. Inci-
dentally, it may be noted that the flourishing period
PKB8IA
716
of the "middle school", under the leadership of
Dorotheus, and the spread of monasticism through
Persia and Mesopotamia were contemporary with the
disastrous expedition and peace of Jovian. The great
bishop, Jacob of Nisibis, forms a connecting link
between all three: as bishop he was contemporary
with Sapor II; he encouraged Nisibis in its first
resistance to the army of Sapor: his school at Nisibis
was modelled on that of Diodorus at Antioch, and
he was the patron and benefactor of the monastery
founded by A^gin on Mount Izla.
In 399 Bahram IV was succeeded by his younger
brother Yezdegerd (399-420). Eiarly in this reign
Maruthas, Bishop of Maiperkat, in Mesopotamia, was
employed by the Roman Emperor as envoy to the
Persian Ck)urt. Manithas quickly gained great in-
fluence over the Persian king, to the annovance of
the Zoroastrian magi, and Ye^egerd allowed the free
spreBul of Christianity in Persia and the building of
churches. Nisibis once more became a Christian city.
The Persian Church at this period seems to have re-
ceived, imder Manithas (q. v.), the more developed
organization under which it lived imtil the time of the
Mohammedan conquest. (See III, below.) Later
in the reign of Yezdegerd, the Persian bishop, Abdas
of Susa, was associated with Manithas, ana, by his
impetuosity, put an end to the good relations between
the Persian Kine and the Christians. Ab^as de-
stroyed one of the fire temples of the Zoroastrians;
complaint was made to the king, and the bishop was
ordered to restore the building and make good all
damage that he had committed. Abdas refused to
rebuild a heathen temple at his own expense. The
result was that orders were issued for the destruction
of all churches, and these were carried out by the
Zoroastrians, who had regarded with great envy the
royal favour extended to Maruthas and his co-reli-
Sionists. Before long the destruction of churches
eveloped into a general persecution, in which Abdas
was one of the first martyrs. When Yezdegerd died
in 420, and was succeeded by his son Bahram V, the
persecution continued, and large numbers of Chris-
tians fled across the frontier into Roman territory. A
bitter feeling between Persia and Rome grew out of
Bahram's demand for the surrender of the Christian
fugitives, and war was declared in 422. The conflict
commenced with Roman success in Armenia and the
capture of a large number of Persian prisoners; the
Romans then advanced into Persia and ravaged the
border province of Azazena, but the seat of war was
soon transferred to Mesopotamia, where the Romans
besieged Nisibis. The Persians, hard pressed in this
siege, called in the Turks to their assistance, and
the united armies marched to the relief of the city.
The Romans were alarmed at the news of the large
numbers of the Persian forces and raised the siege,
but soon afterwards, when the Turks had retired,
there was a general engagement in which the Romans
inflicted a crushing defeat upon their adversaries, and
compelled them to sue for peace. Although the latter
half of the fourth and the beginning of the fifth cen-
tury was a period of so much distress in the Eastern
provinces, which were exposed to the growing ambi-
tion of Persia, it was a time of extension of the Chris-
tian Church and of literary activity. This literary
and ecclesiastical development led to the formation of
a Syriac literature in Persia (Syriac being the litur-
gical language of the Persian Church), and ultimately
of a Christian Persian literature.
Towards the middle of the fifth century, the Persian
Emperor Yezdegerd (442-59) was compelled to turn
his attention to the passes of the Caucasus; troops
of Huns and Scythians had already broken through
into Iran. Peroses (Firuz), his successor, made war
on the nomads of the Caspian regions, and in 484
lost his life in battle with them. Four years later
the throne of Persia was occupied by Quoad I, who
reigned from 488 to 531. During this reign there
developed in Persia a new sect of the Fire-worBhippen
(the Mazdakeans), who were at first favoured by the
king, but who subsequently involved the empire in
serious complications. The last decade of Qubad*!
reign was chiefly occupied by wars with the Romans,
in which he found a good means for diverting the
attention of his people from domestic affaire. Duiiof
the very last days of his life Qubad was compefled
once more to lead an arm^ to the West to nfii»ntAm
Persians influence over Lasistan in southern Caucaoa,
the prince of whjich country had become a convert to
Christianity, and consequently an aUy of the Byun- ^
tine Empire. It was during the same reim that the *
Nestorians began to enter more fully into Persian life,
and under him that they began their miamonary ex-
pansion eastwards. About the year 496 the patri-
archal See of SeleuciarCtesiphon fell into the hands ci
the Nestorians, and henceforth the Catholiooe of
Seleucia became the Patriarch of the Nestonan
Church of Persia, Syria, China, and India. After the
death of Qubad the usual quarrels as to the suoceaaoa
arose, and finally ended, in 531, with the accession of
Chosroes I Anushirw&n, whom Qubad had looked
upon as the most capable of his sons. Chosroes was a
champion of the ancient Iranian spirit, a friend of tiie
priest class, and an irreconcilable enemy of the Masda-
kites, who had chosen one of his numerous brothen
as their candidate for the throne. £>uring his reign
the Persian Empire attained the height of its splen-
dour: indeed, the government of CSosroes I, "the
Just , was both equitable and vigorous. One of hia
first acts was to make peace with Byzantium, the
latter agreeing to pay a large contribution towards the
fortification of the Caucasian passes. In additioo
to strengthening the Caucasus, Chosroes also sought
to fortify the north-eastern frontier of his empire by
constructing a great wall, and he asserted his claiiu
to a portion of north-western India by force of arms,
but soon turned his attention once more to the West.
In 531 he proclaimed a general toleration, in which not
only Christians, but also Manichaeans and Maida-
kites, were included.
The period 532-39 was spent in the extension and
strengthening of the eastern frontiers of Persia. In
539 uhosroes return^ to Ctesiphon, and was per-
suaded by the Bedouin Al Mondar to renew Qubad 'a
attempted conquest of Syria. The pretext was that
Justinian was aiming at universal dominion, but there
is no doubt that the real reason was that Al Mondar
remembered the ease with which he had once plun-
dered Syrian territory. In 540 the Persians invaded
Syria and captured the city of Shurab. The prisonen
taken from this citv were released at the request cl
Candidus, bishop of the neighbouring town of Sergi-
opolis, who undertook to pay a ransom of 200 pounds
of gold. Then Chosroes took Mabbogh, which paid
a ransom, then Bercea, and finally proceeded against
Antioch itself, which was captured after a short re-
sistance. From Antioch Chosroes carried off many
works of art and a vast number of captives. On h£i
way homewards he made an attack upon Edessa, a
city generally regarded as impregnable, but was taken
ill during the siege.
During Chosroes's illness trouble occurred in Per-
sia. He had married a Christian wife, and his son
Nushizad was also a Christian. When the king was
taken ill at Edessa a report reached Persia that he
was dead, and at once Nushizad seised the crown.
Ver^ soon the rumour was proved false, but Nushisad
was persuaded by persons who appear to have been
in the pay of Justinian to endeavour to maintain his
position. The action of his son was deeply distressing
to Chosroes; but it was necessary to take prompt
measures, and the commander, Ram Berzin, was sent
against the rebels. In the battle which followed Nushi*
sad was mortally woimded and carried off the fieM.
PSB8IA 717 PERSIA
In hiB tent he was attended by a Christian bishop, where Nestorianism was the prevailing type of Chris-
probably Mar Aba, and to this bishop he confessed tianity. After the death of Joseph in 567, Ezechiel, a
Lis sincere repentance for having taken up arms disciple of Mar Aba, was appointed Catholicos of
against his fatner, an act which, he was convinced, Seleucia, under whom lived the "periodeules Bodh, the
could never win the approval of Heaven. Having translator into Syriac of the Indian tales known as
professed himself a Christian he died, and the re- '^Kalilah and Dimnah'\ It is noteworthy that the
bellion was quickly put down. Nestorians were beginning to take an interest in
Mar Aba was probably the Nestorian Catholicos Indian literature, an interest probably to be referred
from 536 to 552. He was a convert from Zoroastrian- to the influence of the Diundi Shapur school,
ism, and had studied Greek at Nisibis and Edessa, Chosroes was succeeded by his son Hormuz (57^
making use of his knowledge to prepare and publish 90). For the first three years of his reign Hormuz
a new version of the Old Testament. This appears was guided by the statesman-philosopher Buzurg, but
to have been a tottJ failure, for the Nestorians, unlike after his retirement Hormuz gave himself up to every
the Jacobites, steadily adhered to the Peshito. On form of self-indulgence and tyranny. Under these
being appointed catholicos he established a school at conditions the power of Perna declined, and the land
Seleucia, which soon became a great centre of Nestor- suffered invasion on the north, east, and west. To
ian scholarship. He wrote commentaries, homilies, check the Byzantines, Bahram, a general who had
and letters, the two former classes of work represent- distinguished himself imder Chosroes, was sent to
ing, no doubt, the substance of his teaching in the invade Colchis, but he was defeated and recalled in
school which he founded. Hsrmns are extant which disgrace. Knowing that this was equivalent to sen-
are ascribed to him. Chosroes, after his return from tence of death, BcJiram revolted, and succeeded in
Syria, taunted Mar Aba with professing a tjrpe of capturing Hormuz. whom he put to death. Chosroes,
Cfhristianity unknown to the rest of the world. But the king's son, fled and was well received by Probus,
Mar Aba <ud much to remove the more marked pe- Governor of Circesiimii, and afterwards by the Emperor
culiarities of the Nestorian schism, especially again Mauritius. With the help of the Romans this younger
enforcing celibacy amongst the bishops. From time Chosroes defeated Bahram, and became king as Chos-
tp time ne held discussions with Chosroes, until on roes II. As he owed his kingdom and his wife to the
one occasion, being tactless enough not to be con- Emperor Mauritius, Chosroes was devoted to the
vinced bv the arguments of the sovereign, he was dynasty then reigning at Constantinople. Although
sentenced to banishment. As he disobeyed the decree, not himself a Christian, he paid honour to the Blessed
he was cast into prison, where he died in 552. In 542 Virgin and to the martvrs Sergius and Bacchus, two
Chosroes claimed from Bishop Candidus the payment saints popular among the Syrians, while his wife was
of the sum to which he had pledged himself as ransom an ardent Jacobite.
for the captives taken at Shurab; but the bishop was In 604 the Roman Emperor Mauritius was assas-
unable to raise the money; in fact he oonfessea that sinated, and the Persian king resolved to attack the
he had only made the promise in the expectation that empire in order to avenge his benefactor. In 604 the
the Government would find part of the sum required, Persians asain invaded the eastern provinces and took
and this had not been done. Therefore Candidus was the city of Daras. The invasion of Chosroes II was
put to death. In the course of the same year Chosroes the severest blow that the Byzantine power in Asia
advanced south and attacked Jerusalem, but was had to endure, previous to the rise of Islam. After
repulsed by Belisarius. five years of war Chosroes II reached Constantinople.
Mar Aba's foundation of a school at Seleucia seems It was not a mere plundering expedition, but a serious
to have suggested to Chosroes the idea of founding a invasion whose success clearly proved the growing
Zoroastrian school similar to it and to the Christian weakness of the Bvzantine Empire. Next year (606)
instructions at Edessa and Nisibis. In pursuance of the invaders reached Amida; in 607 they were at
this plan the king opened a college at Djundi Shapur, Edessa; in 608 at Aleppo; and by 611 they had con-
and here many Greek, Syrian, and Indian works were quered all northern Syria, and established themselves
translated into Peruan, and the ancient laws of Persia at Antioch. They then turned south and conquered
were rendered into the vernacular dialect (Pahlavi). Palestine. In 615 Jerusalem revolted, but was cruelly
Meanwhile the school at Seleucia became a centre punished, some 17,000 persons being put to death,
of Nestorian life. It was a period during which the and about 35,000 led away captive. The fragment of
Nestorians were returning to a greater conformity the True Cross, the most precious relic of the city,
to the usages of the rest of Christendom. We have was carried off. Next year (616) the Persians took
already mentioned Max Aba's restoration of celibacy, Alexandria, and in 617 besieged Constantinople. AI-
at least as far as the bishops were concerned. About thou^ the imperial city was not taken, Asia Minor
the same time two distinsiushed monks, both bearing remained in the hands of the Persians until 624.
the name of Abraham of Kashkar, introduced reforms Chosroes II was repelled, not by the Romans, but
into monastic life which also tended towards conform- by a people who were yearly growing more powerful,
ity with the practices of the Church within the Roman and were destined ultimately to displace both Rome
Empire. Probably this tendency to conformity was and Persia in Asia — the Arabs. Chosroes II had a
due to increase of Greek influence observable during harem of 3000 wives, as well as 12,000 female slaves,
the reign of Chosroes, and the contact with the empire but he now demanded as wife Hadicjah, the daughter
due to the invasion of Syria; nevertheless the Nesto- of the Christian Arab Na*aman, himself the son of
rians remained a distinct boay. Al Mondir. Na*aman refused to permit his Christian
Meanwhile the CathoUcos Mar Aba had died, and daughter to enter the harem of a Zoroastrian, and for
Chosroes appointed his favourite physician, Joseph, this refusal he was trampled to death by an elephant,
as Bishop of Seleucia (552). Many strange stories whilst Hadiqah took renige in a convent. The news
are related of his cruelty as bishop; after three years of this outrage upon an Arab provoked all the Bedouin
he was deposed on a petition of the Christians of tribes, and the Arabs revolted. Chosroes II was
Seleucia. He lived twelve years after his deposition, totally defeated, and fled to the Emperor Heraclius.
and during that period no cathoUcos was appointed. This victory made a great impression upon the Arab
About the same time the indefatigable Jacob Burde- mind, and probably led to tne Mohammedan con-
ana consecrated Achudemma as Jacobite bishop in questis.
Persia, and made a proselyte of a member of the royal E. The Mohammedan and Modem Periods (a. d.
family. Amongst the Ft<rsians it was never permitted 651r-1911). — During the reign of Yezdegerd III, the
to make converts from the state religion. The Jacob- successor of Chosroes II, and the last of the Sassanian
ites however were of little importance so far east, kings, the Arab invaders attacked Persia and vt&M5efifo-
PERSIA
718
PERSIA
potamian tenitories more and more boldly. In 650
KhAlid, one of the Arab generals, assuming the offen-
sive, defeated the Persian troops on the border of the
Euphrates valley. The Christians of this region soon
submitted to him. Then the Arabs invaded the coun-
trv about the Ti^. In 634 Abu Ubaid of Taif, to
wnom KhAlid assigned the task of annexing Persiay
was utterly defeated and slain by the Persians, who,
however, were routed in 635-66 by Caliph Omar at
Bowaib. Towards the close of the year 636, or in 637,
they were again defeated by the Arabs, under Sa'd,
at Kadisiyya. The victorious Arabs entered Baby-
lonia and took Seleucia after a lengthy siege. Thence
they crossed the Tigris and fell on Ctesiphon, Yezde-
Sera fleeing towanb the Medo-Babylonian frontier.
Meantime another army of Arabs had occupied Lower
Ir&k and entered Susiana. The decisive and final
victory took place in 640-42 at Nehavend, near
Ecbatana, when the great Persian Empire and the
Sassanian dynasty were completely destroyed.
During the reigns of Omar^ Othman, and Ali^ the
first caliphs and successors of Mohammed, as well as
under the OmayyAds (634-720), Persia was ruled by
deputy governors; but on the accession of the Abba-
siaes (a. d. 750), Bagdad became their capital, and
Khorasan their favourite province, and thus the very
heart of the former territory of the Persian Empire
became the centre of the caliphate. But their rule
soon became merely a nominal one, and ambitious
governors established independent principalities in
various parts of Persia. Many of these dynasties were
short-lived; others lasted for a considerable period
and were powerful kingdoms. For the next two cen-
turies Persia was subject to the caliphs. But in 868
an adventurer named Sofifar, who had been a pewterer
and afterwards a bandit, gathered a native force and
expelled the viceroys of the caliph, founding a dynasty
known as the Sonarid^. In the beginning of the
tenth century Persia was divided between the families
of Samani and Dilami, the first of which reigned over
eastern Pei;sia and Afghanistan, and the second over
the rest of the country. Under these dynasties Persia
fell beneath the yoke of the Seljuks, and was ruled by
Togrul Beg, Alp Arslan, and Malek Shidi, all of whom
were conquerors greatly celebrated in oriental history.
Their dynasty declined and perished in the twelfth
century. After a long period of anarchy Persia was
overrun and conquered by the Mongols led by Hulaku
Khan, grandson of Yenghis (1258), who established
the seat of his empire at Maiagha in Azerbejan.
The next important event in the history of Persia
was its conquest and devastation by Timur-Leng to-
ward the end of the fourteenth century. Under his
successors civil war prevailed almost continually, until
in the beginning of the sixteenth century Ismail, a
descendant of a famous sainty Sheik Sum, founded
the Suffavean dynasty. He died in 1523, and was suc-
ceeded by his son Tamasp, whose reign of fifty-three
years was very prosperous. Abbas, who ascehded
the throne about 1587, was a still greater sovereign,
though to his family he proved a sanguinary tyrant.
After his death in 1628 the Sufif a vean dynasty gradually
declined, and was at len^h overthrown by the Afghans,
who conquered Persia m 1722, and rul^ it for seven
years witn much tyranny, till they were expelled by
the celebrated Nadir Shah, who ascended the throne
in 1736. His reign was memorable for his'success over
foreign enemies and for his cruelty to his family and
people. After his death in 1747 a series of revolutions
occurred, and order was not fully restored till toward
the close of the century, when Agha Mohammed,
first of the reigning dynasty of Kadjars, became shah.
His successors have been Feth-Ali (1797-1834), Mo-
hammed (1835-48), and Nasr-ed-Din, who succeeded
in 1848^ being then 18 years old. Persia has been in-
volved m three wars since the accession of this dynasty.
Of these, two were with Russia, the first ending m 1813,
and the second in 1828, both of them having ben
disastrous to Persia, which lost Georgia, Min^rdia,
Erivan, Nakhitchevan, and the greater part of Taliah,
the Russian frontier being advanced to Mount Ararat
and the left bank of the Aras; the third war was with
Great Britain, and was hef\m in 1856 owing to a series
of disputes between officials of the Persian Govern-
ment and the British minister at Teheran. After re-
peated victories of the British troops in the south of
Persia under Generals Outram and Havelock, it was
terminated on 4 March, 1857, by a treaty si^ed at
Paris, favourable to the demands of the British. In
1860 pestilence and famine devastated parts of the
country; and a still greater famine in 1870 and 1871
is believed to have caused the death of two miUion
persons. In the summer of 1873 Nasr-ed-Din made
a tour throu^ Europe, visiting Vienna, Paris, and
London, and m 1878 visited Russia. In 1889 he again
made a tour of Europe. As a ruler he was energetic
and severe. He was lareely under the influence of
the Russian Court, though for a time after the failure
of his attempt to restore the Persian dominion over
Herat he maintained a somewhat friendly attitude
toward Great Britain. He sternly repressed revolts
and conspiracies, but, through the sale of the tobacco
monopoly to Enslish speculators^ he offended many of
his siibjects, and his unpopulantv was increased by.
the scarcity of food in several of the provinces in sub-
sequent years. In 1896 he was assassinated as he
was entering a shrine near Teheran, and was suc-
ceeded by his son, Muzaffer-ed-Din.
The new shah introduced several reforms in his
kingdom, and, aided by twelve ministers, assumed
personally the government of the empire. He visited
I^urope in 1900 and narrowly escaped assassination
in Paris. He became very friendly with RussiSa, to
whom his friendship proved beneficial. In 1905 a
revolution took place in Persia in which royal princes
and mullahs took part. They left the capital and took
refuge at Khum, demanding reform and a parlia-
mentary government. The shah hesitated at first,
but finally decided to convoke a Majlis, 5 August, 1906.
This was opposed by the court party, but Musaffer-
ed-Din succeeded in forcine upon the reactionaries
the establishment of a parliament. On 4 January,
1907, he died and was succeeded by his son, Mo-
hammed-Ali-Mirza (8 January^ 1907), who from the
verv first day of his reien was mvolveid in difliculties
with the Parliament. He was unduly influenced by
Russia, and was at times reluctant to conform with
the demands of the Reform and Parliamentarv party.
Unrest and antagonism were everywhere visible, and
the tension was such that a political revolution seemed
impending. Meanwhile Parliament was several times
suppressed and reconvoked; various provinces re-
belled and Teheran was at one time in a state of siege.
Finally Mohammed-Ali-Mirza was forced to abdicate
(1909) and was succeeded by his son, Ahmed Mirsa,
a boy of twelve years.
Till 1906 the Gfovemment of Persia was an absolute
monarchy. The shah was assisted by a grand vi«er
and several ministers. His will was absolute, and
that of the imamSf or priests, was paramount. To-
day, however, it is divided into three departments,
vis., the Court; the Ministerial Departments; and
the National Assembly, or Parliament (Majlis). Theo-
retically, however, the shah is still the ''king of kings"
and the supreme ruler, executive, and counsellor in
every department. The country is divided into five
great mamlikcUSf or large provinces, vis., Axerbedjan,
Farsistan, Ghilan, Khorasan, and Kirman (their cor-
responding capitals being: Ttfbris, Shirxa, Resht,
Meshhed,and Kirman), and thirty vilayets, or smaller
provinces. The present capital of the empire is
Teheran. The Governorship of Aserbedjan is alwavs
given to the heir apparent, and the governors of the
other provinces are appointed by the shah for a term
PERSIA
719
PERSIA
of one vear. In all large towns there are sub-governors
and village masters. The latter are really the tax-
collectors. The rate of taxation varies in different
parts of the country. The tax on personal i)roperty
18 li^t, while the income tax is still ughter, being paid
chiefly in kind. Justice is administered partly by the
shah and partly by the courts and the imams.
Statistics. — ^The area of modem Persia is about
635,000 square miles, a large part being desert; the
population is about 9,000,000, one-fourth of whom are
nomads. The estimated population of the principal
cities is: Teheran, 280,000; Tabris, 200,000; Ispa-
han, 70,000; Meshhed^ 60,000; Kirman, 60.000; and
Yesd, 45,000. The principal imports, whicn amount
yearly to about 450,000,000 krans (a kran is equivalent
to 7 cents of U. S. A. mon^), are cotton fabrics, sugar,
tea, woollens, petroleum, iron and steel goods, and the
precious metais. The principal exports, which amount
to about 400,000,000 krans annually, are fruits, car-
pets, cotton, fish, rice, silk and cocoons, rubber, wool,
opium, hides and skms, copper, cereals, and living
animals. Thd modem Persians are Monammedans.
Of these, nearly seven-eighths are Shiites, and only
one-eighth Sunnites. Besides, there are about 9000
Parsis, or followers of Zoroaster, 40,000 Jews, 50,000
Armenians, 25.000 Nestorians, and 10,000 Chaldeans
(Catholic). Concerning the religion of the ancient
Persians, from the time of the Ach^menian dynasty
down to the end of the Sassanian period, covering
about twelve centuries (sixth cent. b. c.~seventh cent.
A. D.), see ZoROASTRiANiBif ; the official religion of the
medieval and modem Persians is Mohammedanism
(q. v.).
II. Persian Language and Litbbature. — ^The
term Persian, as applied both to the people and their
language, has now a wider significance tnan it origi-
nally bore. A more appropriate term would be Iran or
Iranian. The early inhabitants of Iran were Aryans,
and their languages and dialects, for the last three or
four thousand years, belong to the so-called Aryan
family. Even the Persian language of to-day, not-
withstanding the immense influence exercised upon it
by Arabic, is still the lineal offspring of the language
spoken by Cyrus, Darius, and the Sassanian kings.
Tl^ contmuity, however, is broken by two great gaps,
occasioned by the Greek and Parthian invasions on
the one hancl, and by the Mohammedan domination
on the other, viz., from 331 b. c.-a. d. 227; and 635
and the following years respectively.
The history of the Persian language falls, there-
fore, into three well-defined periocis, as follows: The
Achasmenian Period (550-331 b. c), represented by
the edicts and proclamations contained in the Persian
cimeiform inscriptions, which, though of considerable
extent, are similar in character and style and yield a
vocabulary of about 400 words. The language repre-
sented by these inscriptions, deciphered by Grotefend,
Sir H. Rawlinson, Hincks, Oppert, and others towards
the middle of the last century, is generally called Old
Persian. The Sassanian Period (a. d. 227-651), repre-
sented by inscriptions on monuments, medals, gems,
seals, and coins, and by a literature estimated aa equal
in bulk to the Old Testament. This literature is en-
tirely Zoroastrian and almost entirely theological and
liturgical. The language in which it is written is little
more than a very archaic form of the present language
of Persia devoid of the Arabic element. It is gener-
ally known as Pahlavi, or Middle Persian. Properly
sp^ddng, the term Pahlad applies rather to the
script than the language. The Mohammsdan Period
(from about a. d. 900 until the present day), repre-
sented by the Persian language aa it was spoken by
the Persians after the Arab conquest, and after the
adoption of the Mohammedan religion by the vast
majority of. the inhabitants of Persia. /The difference
betweoi Late Pahlavi and the earliest form of Mod-
em Persian was, save for the Arabic element generally
contained in the latter, merely a difference of script.
This is generally called Modem Persian, or Neo-
Persian. Of Modem Persian there are many dialects
spoken in different parts of Persia at the present day.
The principal ones are^those spoken in Masandardn,
Ghilan, and Talish in the north; ^SamnAn in the
northeast; Kashdn, Quhrtid and Na'in in the centre,
with the peculiar Gabri dialect spoken by the Zoro-
astrians inhabitine Yezd^ Kirman. RafsinjAn, etc.
Siwand in the south; Lunstan, Behoeh&n and Kurd-
istan in the west; and the Sistdni and Bakhtiyari
idioms.
In Persan literature we recognize four epochs, com-
prising (1) The Old Persian cuneiform inscriptions of
the Aohsmenian kings. (2) The Avesta, the Sacred
Books of the Zoroastrians, believed by many to date
from Zoroaster's own time (about sixth cent. b. c).
(3) The Pahlavi literature, including the contempo-
rary Sassanian inscriptions. (4) The Post-Moham-
medan, or Modem Persian^ literature of the last
thousand years, which alone is usually called and un-
derstood as Persian literature. To this last may be
added the large Arabic literature produced by Per-
sians. The literature of the first penod is very scanty,*
consisting nudnly of the Achsemenian inscriptions
written in the simplest form of the cuneiform script;
principal among which is the famous trilingual in-
scription of Darius the Great (521-486 b. c), en-
graved in the rock oh Mount Behistun, neb^i Ham-
adan, and memorable in the annals of Assyriology for
furnishing scholars with the real clue for describing
and interpreting the Assyro-Babylonian language and
inscriptions (see Assyria). Most of these Achsme-
man inscriptions date from iabout the end of the
sixth century b. o. although we have specimens as
late as Artaxerxes Ochus (35^38 b. c). Very similar
to this Old Persian dialect is the language m whiph
the Sacred Books of the Zoroastrians, generally but
improperly called the Zend-Avesta, are written. This
Zoroastrian, or Avestan, literature is theological and
liturgical in character, and its production goes back
perhaps to the sixth century b. c, although in its
present form it includes many later accretions and
redactions^ mostly of post-Christian times and co-
inciding with the period of the Sassanian dynasty (see
Avesta). During the Parthian, or Arsacid dynasty,
no Uterature was produced, except the few inscrip-
tions and coins wntten in Greek.
The Pahlavi literature consists of inscriptions,
coins, and several religious, legendary, historical, ana
literary productions. The inscriptions and the coins
belong to the Sassanian dynasty, while the rest ex-
tends from their time till about the tenth century.
Prof. West divides Pahlavi literature into three
classes: (1) Pahlavi translations of Avesta texts,
represented by twenty-seven works, estimated to
contain sdlx>ut 141,000 words; (2) Pahlavi texts on
religious subjects, represented by fifty-five works,
estimated to contain an aggregate of about 446,000
wordsj mostly commentaries, prayers, traditions, ad-
monitions, injunctions, pious sayings, etc.; (3) Pah-
lavi texts on non-religious subjects, represented by
only eleven works, comprising in all about 41,000
words, but forming by far the most interesting part of
Pahlavi literature, as they contain the record of the
early legendary history of Iran and Persia, which forms
the background of the great epic of Firdiisi, the
"Shahnameh", or "Book of Kings".
The Modem, or Mohammedan, Persian Uterature
extends from about the tenth century a. d. till our
own days, and is by far the richest of the four.
The rise, aevelopment, and progress of Modem Per-
sian literature is intimately connected with the rise,
development, and progress of Arabian, or Moham-
medan, religious life and literature. The beginning
of the ninth century may be said to be the startiner
point of the modem national Persian independei^^^^'
FIRSZA 720
and literature. The earliest writer of this period was Hakim Sana'i of Ghansa (about 1190), Jdal-wkfiA
a poet, Abb^ by name, who composed in a. d. 800 Rumi (1207-73), "the most uncompromiring Sufie
a poem in honour of the Abbasid CsJiph, Ma mAn. follower, and the peatest pantheistic writer of all
Abbas 's first poetical effort was improved upon by ages", Fartd-uddin Attitf (d. 1230), and many others.
men like Hanzalah. Hakim Firus. ana Abu-Sahk, who But the greatest and most moderate of all Penian Sufie
b^an to imitate tne Arabic qcuidah form of poetical poets was Sa*di (d. about 1292), "whose two best-
composition. These were soon followed by a dozen known works, the 'Bust&n', or 'Fruit-f^uden', and
other poets who wrote some beautiful lyric and elegiae the 'Gulist^'. or 'Rose-garden', owe their great
poetry. The earliest P^sian prose writer was Bal- popularity both in the East and the West to the
ami who, by order of Shah MansOr I, translated into purity of their spiritual thoughts, their sparkling wit,
Persian, in 936, the Arabic universal history of T^bari charming style, and the very moderate use of mystie
(224-310 A. H.). Others translated Tdbari's great theories . Later didactic and mystie poets are
"Conunentary" on the Koran from Arabic into Nisari (d. 1320), Kitibi (d. 1434), Hairati (d. 1554).
' ~" -------- - uni' (d. 1487), Sana'i, Iraki (d. about 1309), Bu9aini
Persian. This was followed by Abu MansOr Mu- lami* , , , ^ ,, ^_,
waffak's book on medicine and by the great phi- (d. 1318)^ Mahmud Shabistari (d. 1320), Auhadi (d.
losopher, Avicenna (d. 1037), himself a Persian by 1338), Kasim Anv4r (d. 14M). AhE of Shiras (d.
birth, who wrote some of his i^orks in Persian and 1489), Hilali (d. 1532), Baha'-uddin 'Amill (d. 1621),
some in Arabic. But the greatest of all Modem and many others. like the Arabs^ the Persians cul-
Perman poets, the forerunner and father of Modem tivated with immense success Ivnc poetry and the
Persian poetiy, and the Homer of Persian epic-» description and idealisation oi the pleasures of love^
equal inaeed in power of imagination, wealth of poet- of women, of wine, and of the beauties of nature. The
ical descriptions, and elevated style to any old or prince of these lyric poets is H&fiz (d. 1389). He had
modem poet — ^is FirdtLsi (a. d. 94O-1020), the author many imitators, such as Salmon of S&wa (d. about
of the ^'Shahnameh" or ''Book of Kings , on which 1377), KamM Khujandi, Muhammed Shirin Maghribi
the author laboured for thirty-five years. It is about (d. 1406), Ni'mat-ullsli Wali (d. 1431), Kasimi-
eight times as long as the Iliad and contains a lengthy Anw4r, Amir Sh&hi (1453), Banna*i (d. 1512), Baba
detailed description of all the historical and legendary Fighani of Shirks (d. 1519), Nargisi (d. 1531), Lisdni
wars, conquests, heroes, traditions, and customs of (d. 1534), Ahlt of Shiras (d. 1535), Nau*i (d. 1610),
ancient and Sassanian Iran. Fiidi^ had many imita- and innumerable others who strove, more or less sue>
tors, such as the author of the ''GarshaspniLma", *Ali oeasfully, to imitate Hilfis as well as lamf and Nis&mL
ibn Ahmad Asadi (about 1066), written in 9000 dis- To more recent date belong the poets Zulidi (d.
tichs; of the ''Simn^ma'Vu^ which the heroic deeds 1592), Sa'ib (d. 1677), and Hatif of fsfahto (d. about
of Rustem's grandfather are celebrated, and which 1785).
equals in lensth the "Shahnameh" itself; the ''Sa- Persian literature is not venr rich in historical and
'hanhfmima , the "Farimurzn^ma", the "Bdnti- theological works, and even the comparative^ small
Gushiishpndma", the ''Barstinibna", the ''Shahriyar- number of these is generally based on Arabic Mo-
n^bna'V, the "Bahmanntoa", the various ''Iskandar- hammedan historical and theological productions.
nimaa", the ** Bustani-Khav&l " (a romance in fifteen Finally, it must not be forgotten that from about the
volumes), the ''Anbiydnama" and many other eighth or ninth century a. d. till about the fifteenUi
epopees, all written within the period a.d. 1066-1150. some of the greatest Mohammedan theolo^ans, his-
During the last four or five centuries, several other torians^ philosophers, grammarians, lezioogr^hen,
epic writers flourished in Persia such as Muin Almi&- and philologists, who wrote in Arabic, were of Persian
kin (d. 1501), who wrote in prose the epic of Hatim origin. It must also be noted that owing to the con-
Tay,the celebrated Arabian cnief; Hatifi (d. 1521), the stant and intimate socifd, political, literary, and reli-
author of ''Timumdma", or the epic of Tamerlane; ^ous intercourse between Arabs and Persians, espe-
Kasimi (d. about 1561), Kamali of Sabawar, Ishrfifi, cially during the Abbasid dynasty. Modem Pennan,
and the authors of the ''Shahinshahnima'' and the especially in its vocabulary, has been very extensivdv
''Georgendma''. Romantic fiction was also culti- affected by Arabic, so mudi so that a perfect knowk
vated with success by such writers as Nizami of Ganja edge of Modem Persian is impossible without ths
(1141-1203), 'Am*ak of Bokhara (d. 1149)^ author of knowledge of Arabic. Persian^ also, in its turn, e»-
the romance of Yusuf and Zuleikha, Jam*i (d. 1492), pecially during the last four or nve centuries, has very
Mauii Kasim Khan (d. 1571), Nazim of Herat (d. perceptibly affected the Turkish language.
1670h and Shaukat, Governor of Shiraz, who flour^ III. CHRisriANmr in Persia. — A.FromtheApoaiolie
ishea towards the beginning of the nineteenth cen- AgetotheTMrteerUhCentwry. — ^The beginning of C^ris-
turv. The best known Persian writers of encomium tianit^ in Persia may well oe connected with what we
and satire are: Abul-FaraJ Runi, Mas'iid ibn Sa*d ibn read m Acts (ch. ii, v. 9) viz., that on the Day of
Salm&n (about 1085), Adib Sabir (about 1145), Jau- Pentecost there were at Jerusalem "Parthians, and
hari, Amir Muizzi (d. 1147), Rashid Watwat (d. Medes^ and Elamites, and inhabitants of Meso-
1172), Abd-Alwasi Jabali, Hasan Ghaznawi (d. 1169), potamia". These, doubtless, on their return home.
Auhad-Uddin Anwarf (d. about 1196), Suzani of announced to their countr3rmen the appearance of
Samarkand (d. 1174) and his contemporaries, Abu-Ali the new religion^ Early ecclesiastical traditions, fur-
Shatranji, Lamf of Bokhara, Khakilni (d. 1199), the thermore, both forei^ and local, tenaciously main-
greatest rival of Anwari, Ubaid Zakani (d. 1370), tain that Peter and Thomas preached the Gospel to
Mujir-Uddin Bailakani (d. 1198), Zahir Fairabi (d. the Parthians; that Thaddsus, Bartholomew, and
1202), Athir Akhsikati (d. 1211), Kamal^uddin Addeus,of the Seventy, evangelized the races of Meso-
Isfahani (d. 1237), and Saif-uddin Isfarangi (d. potamia and Persia, and that Mari, a noble Persian
1267). convert, succeeded Addai (Addeus) in the govem-
Didactic and mystic poetry was ver^ successfully ment of the Persian Christian communities. He is
cultivated by several Persian poets, pnncipal among sidd to have been succeeded by the bishops Abrte.
whom are Sheikh Abu Said ibn Abu-1-Khair of Abraham, Jacob, Ahadabuhi, Tomarsa, Shahlufa, and
Khorasan (968-1049), the contemporary of FirdM Papa, which brings us down to the end of the third
and the inventor of the ruba'i, or quatrain, form of century. When we read in later Svriae documents
poetical composition; Omar Khasryim, the f anions that towards the bef^ning of the third eentury the
astronomer and the celebrated author of the Rub^ Christians in the Persian empire had some three
iyAt^ made famous by Fitzgerald's translation, Xfdal- hundred and sixty churches, and many martyrs, it is
uddm Kashi (d. 1307), Ndi^ir ibn Khosrau (d. about not difficult to imagine even if we discount the many
1325), *Ali ibn 'Uthm&n al-jull&bi (d. about 1342), legendary elements in these traditk>ns, how vigorous
PBB8XA 721 PERSIA *
and how successful the early Christian propaganda of the patriarchs of the Nestorian Church were oon*
must have been in those distant redons. verts, or sons of converts, from Ma|;ianism. While
Owing to the toleration of the rarthian Kings, numerous, however, the Persian Christians were not
Christianity kept slowly but steadily advancing in organized into a national Church. There were certain
various parts of the empire. With the advent of the differences between them and the Nestorians farther
Sassanian dynasty, however (a. d. 226-641), Chris- west, and these differences were the beginnings of
tianity was often subjected to very severe trials. Its ecclesiastical independence, but the patriarchs aa*
chief opponents ,were the Zoroastrian Magi and serted their authority in the end. Syriac was the
priestly schools,, as well as the numerous Jews scat- ecclesiastical and theological language and even in
tered through the empire. Tlie Sassanian kings in Persia proper there was at most a very scanty Chris-
general espoused the cause of Zoroastrianism, which tian literature; even the Scriptures had not been
mider them became once more the official reli- translated into the vernacular,
fiion; and, though some of this dynasty favoured It is clear that Christianity was widely diffused in
Christianity, the national feeling always clung to the Persia, that in some localities the Christians were
ancient creed. Many thousands of Persians embraced very numerous, and that the Christian religion con-
Christianity^, but Persia remained the stronghold of tinned to spread after the rise of Mohammedanism.
Zoroastrianism, and there never arose an indigenous The two forces which had most to do with this spread
Persian Church, wore^ppin^ in the Persian language of Christianity were commerce and monasticism.
and leavening the whole nation. The Persian Church Christian merchants had a share in the wholesale
was of Syrian origin, traditions, and tendencies, and, trade of Asia: trade with India opened the way for
for about three centuries, regarded Antioch as the the early introduction of Christianity there, and the
centre of its faith and the seat of authority. When the hold which Christianitv acquired on the shores of the
Christian religion was accepted bv Constantino (a. d. Persian Gulf was probably due to the Indian and
312), it was naturally regarded by the Persian em- Arabian trade routes. The strone rule of the early Ab-
perors as the religion of their rivals, the Romans, basid caliphs gave opportunity for the development
Religious and national feeling thus united against it, of commerce. The position of the Christians si the
and bitter persecutions continued in Persia for a capital as bankers and merchants would give them a
century after they had ceased in the Roman Empire, share in this trade. Christian artisans, including
Some of these persecutions — ^notably that under goldsmiths and jewellers, would find emplosrment in
Sapor II — were as terrible as any which the Chris- the large cities. In his account of the mission of
tians of the West had experienced under the Emperor the Nestorian monks, Thomas of Mar^a relates that
Diocletian. . ' the Patriarch Timothy sent his missionary with a
Notwithstanding these obstacles, the Christian reli- company of merchants who were joumeyine together
gion kept steadily growing. Towards the beginning to Mugan (the plain of Mugan?) on the River Aras
of the fourth century the head of the Persian Church (Araxes).
selected the city of Seleucia-Ctesiphon, the capital of Monasticism was imported into Mesopotamia in the
the empire, for his metropolitan see. Under his juri»- fourth centurv by monks from Egypt. The legendary
diction were several bie^ops, one of whom, John by account of Mar Aw»n, or St. Eugenius. relates that
name, was present at the Council of Nicsea (325). In his monastery near Nisibis contained three hundred
410, a synod of Christians was held at the Persian and fifty monks, while seventy-two of his disciples
capital. In 420 there were metropolitans at Merv and established each a monastery. The number of mona»-
Herat. King Yezdegerd himself sent the Patriarch teries increased rapidly in the fourth and fifth cen-
of the Persian Church on a mission to the Roman turies. In the sixth century there was a movement
emperor. Between 450 imd 500 the Nestorians, per- in the Nestorian Church against the enforced celibacy
secuted in the Roman Empire, fled to Persia for pro- of the higher clergy and against celibate monks, but
tection, and in 498 the whole Persian Church declared oeHbacy won the day, and monasticism was firmly
in favour of Nestorianism. Henceforth the history established. The monks must have been numbered
of Christianity in Persia is their history. In the next by hundreds, if not thousands, for, in addition to the
two centuries the Persian Church kept steadily in- numerous monasteries in Mesopotamia and the re-
creasing till it rivalled, and perhaps surpassed, in gions north of the Tigris, there were scattered monas-
extent, power, and wealth any other national Chris- teries in Persia and Armenia. Besides the cenobites,
tian Church: having a hierarchy of two hundred living in large communities, there were numerous
and thirty bishops, scattered over Assyria, Baby- solitaries living in caves or rude huts. These were
Ionia, Chaldea, Arabia, Media, Khorasan, Persia influential enough among the Qatrayi, on the Persian
proper, the very deserts of Turkestan, the Oasis of Gulf, to call for a separate letter from the Patriarch
Merv, both shores of the Persian Gulf, and even Ishuyabh I. Some of these monks must have been
beyond it, in the Islands of Socotra. and Ceylon, full of real missionary zeal, although of course the
through the coasts of Malabar, and at last China and prevailing and distinctive spirit of their institute was
Tatary. Mgr Duchesne rightly observes that ''the contemplative rather than missionary,
dominion of the 'Catholicos' of Seleucia was of no Yet, m spite of all, Christianity failed, and Islam
mean dimensions, and by the extension of his juri»- succeeded in gaining the Iranian race. This failure
diction this high ecclesiastical disnitary figiires in the of Christianity was not wholly due to the success of
same light as the greatest of the Byzantine patri- Islam: internal dissensions, ambition, dishonesty, and
arohs. We might almost go further and say that, corruption among the clergy ^atly contributed to
inasmuch as we can compare the Persian Empire to the ^adual dissolution of tms wonderful Church,
the Roman, the Persian (Jhurch may be compared to Under the Arabs, the Christians of Persia were not in
the CSiurch of the great western Power'' ("The wholly unfavourable circumstances. Indeed, the first
Churches Separated from Rome", tr. Mathew, New two centuries of Mohammedan domination, especially
York, 1907, p. 16). under the Abbassids, were the most glorious period in
The history of Christianity in the Sassanian empire the history of the Persian Church. It is true that at
shows that there has been a very active and successful times the Christians were Hable to excessive exao-
* propaganda among' the Iranians. We read of Chris- tions and to persecutions, but they were recognized
tians among the landlord class about Mosul and in the as the People of the Book; and the Nestorians were
mountain region east of that city. Some of the Chris- especially privileged, and held many offices of trust,
tians were of high rank. The last Chosroes was killed The missionary wofk was carried on and extended,
in an insurrection headed by a Christian whose father It could not take much root in Persian soil after the
had been the chief financial officer of the realm. Some Persians became Moslems, but it gained more and
XI.— 46
PERSIA 722 PERSIA
more influence in Tatary and China, beyond the were driven forth. Convents were plundered, and
limits of Mohammedan conquest. This was a period their inmates driven out. The captives were forced
of comparative peace in those regions, and of the to cross the Atqs without proper transfK^rts. Many
greatest missionary zeal and enterprise on the part of women and children, sick and aged, were carried
the Nestorians, who planted churches in Transoxiana away by the swift current. Two chiefs were beheaded
as far as Kashgar, in the regions of Mongolia, and to hasten the progress. Women were carried off to
throughout Northern China. To attest this fact Persian harems. Through unfrequented paths, and
there are extensive Christian graveyards containing witii untold hardships, they reached theu* destina-
memorials of the Turkish race on the borders of tions. The principal colon}^ five thousand souls, wlis
China, and the monument of Si-ngan-fu, in Shensi, settled at New Julfa, near Ispahan, where thev were
giving the history of the Nestorian Mission in China granted many privile^. Both Annenians andf GecH'-
for 145 years (a. d. 63&-781). Timotheus, a patriarch gians were scattered through Central Persia, and some
of the Church for forty years, was zealously devoted of their descendants are villagers in the Bakhtiyari
to missionary work, and many monks traversed Asia, country. A colony of seven thousand was planted at
In the eleventh and twelfth centuries there were large Ashraf , in Mezanderan, where malaria destroyed the
Christianized communities. A Mogul prince, Unkh greater portion of them; the remnant were restored
Khan, gave the name to the celebrated Prester John, to Armenia in the reign of SaH Shah. The colony at
and his successors were nominal Christians till over- Julfa (now known as Tulfa, on the River Zendeh)
thrown by Jenghis Khan. The names of twenty-five prosp^^ greatly and became very wealliiy by trade
metropolitan sees, from Cypnis in the west to Pekin and the arts.
in the east, are' recorded, and their schools were Under the Safavean kings, th^ Christians of Asar-
spread far and wide through Western and parts of bedjan and Transcaucasia suffer^ much from the
Central Asia. wars of the Turks and Persians. Both banks of the
B. From JenghU Khan to ike Present Time.-^The Arras were generally in the hands of the Persians.
last of the race of Christian kings — ^probably Christian Some of the shahs were tolerant, and the Christians
only in name — was slain by Jenghis Khan about a. d. prospered; some overtaxed them. The last, Shah
1202. Jenghis had a Christian wife, the daughter of Sultan Husain, oppressed them: he repealed the law
this king, and he was tolerant towards the Christian of retaliation, whereoy a Christian could exact
faith. In fact the Mogul conquerors were without equivalent punishment from a Mussulman criminal;
much religion, and friendly towards all creeds. The he enacted that the price of a Christian's blood should
wave of carnage and conquest swept westward, cov- be the payment of a load of grain. Julfa was sub-
ered Persia, and overwhelmed the Caliph of Baffdad jected to great suffering at the time of the invasion
in 1258. This change was for a time favourable to of the Afghan Mahinud. It was captured, and a
Christianity, as the rulers openly declared themselves ransom of seventy thousand tomans and fifty of the
Christians or were partial to Christianity. The patri- fairest and best-bom maidens exacted. The grief of
arch of the Nestorians was chosen from people of the the Armenians was so heartrending that many of the
same language and race as the conquerors; he was a Afghans were moved to pity and returned the cap-
native of Western China; he ruled the Chureh tives. When Mahmud subseauently became a maniac
through a stormy period of seven reigns of Mogul the Armenian priests were called in to pray over him
kings, had the joy of baptizing some of them, and for and exorcise the evil spirit. Nadir Shan continued to
a time hoped that thev would form such an alliance oppress the Armenians, ostracized them, and intei^
with the Christians of Europe against the Moham- dieted their worship. On this account many emi-
medans as should open all Asia, as far as China, to grated to India, Bagdad, and Georgia. About eighty
Christianity. This hope did not last long; it ended in villages remained between Hamadan and Ispanan.
a threat of ruin: the Nestorians were too degraded. Under the Kajar dynasty the state of the Chnstiana
ignorant, and superstitious to avail themselves of their is better known. Notices of them abound in the
opportunity. After a time of vacillation the Moguls narrations of travellers of the period. Agfaa Moham-
found Mohammedanism better suited to their rough med, founder of the Kajar dynasty, sacked Tiflis and
and bloody work. The emperor, having decid^, transported inany Georgians into Persia. Others
flung his sword into the scale, ana at his back were went to Russia. Their descendants, mostly Moham-
100,000 warriors. The whole structure of the Ne»- medans, are frequently met occupying hi^ poeitions
torian Church, unequal to the trial, crumbled under in the Government.
the persecutions and wars of the Tatars. With At the time of the Russian war, early in the nine-
Timur-Leng (a. d. 1379-1405) came their utter ruin, teenth century, nine thousand families of Armenians
He was a bigoted Moslem, and put to the sword all and many Nestorians emigrated from Azarbedjan.
who did not escape to the recesses of the mountains. Some, were induced to come back by Abbas Mirza,
Thus did Central Asia, once open to Christian mis- under the protection of the English. Those in Tabriz
sions, see the utter extermination of the Christians, were exempted from taxes and had the right to
not a trace of them being left east of the Kurdish appeal to tne British consul. This right of protection
Mountains. The Christian faith was thrown back was afterwards withdrawn, and finally, alter many
upon its last defences in the West, where hunted and vain protests on the part of the Armenians, the
despised, its feeble remnant of adherents continued exemption from taxes was annulled in a. d. 1894.
to retain, as it were, a death-grip on their churches The condition of Christians in Persia under Nasr-
and worship. ^ ed-Din and his successors, down to the present time,
During the last five centuries Christianity has will be described in the following section,
been simply a tolerated but oppressed and despised C. Catholic Missions. — The history of Catholic
faith in Persia. From the invasions of Timur-Leng missions in Persia is intimatelv connected with the
until the accession of Abbhs the Great (1582), a period various attempts made by the Nestorians, in the last
of two hundred years, its history is almost a blank, nine centuries, to join the Catholic Church. In some
In 1603 some Armenian chiefs appealed to Shah cases, these movements were the results of efforts
Abbas for protection against the Turks: he invaded made by the early Franciscan and Dominican, and,
Armenia, and in the midst of the war decided to after them, the Jesuit missionaries. In 1233 the Ne»-
devastate it, that the Turks might be without pro- torian catholicos, Sabarjesus, sent to Pope Gregory IX
visions. From Kars to Bayazid the Armenians were an orthodox profession of faith and was admitted to
driven before the Persian soldiery to the banks of the union with the Church of Rome. Thesame wasdone,in
Aras, near Julfa. Their cities and villages were 1304, by Jabalaha (1281-1317) during the pontificate
depopulated. From every place of concealment they of Benedict XI. In 1439 Timotheus, Nestorian
PERSIA 723 PCB8IA
Metropolitan of Tarsus and Cyprus, renouncedNestor- teenth and fourteenth centuries, when several em-
ianism, and in 1553 the patriarch John Sulaka bassies of Dominicans and Franciscans were sent by
visited Rome and submitted to Pope Julius III his the popes to the Mongol rulers both in Central Asia
profession of faith, as a result of which several thou- and in Persia; and although their noble efiforts
sand Nestorians of Persia became Catholics. His brought no permanent results, they paved the way
successor, Ebedjesus, followed his example, visited for future and more successful Catholic propaganda.
Rome, and assisted at the last (twenty-fifth) session In the early part of the seventeenth century, political
of the Council of Trent.' In 1582 Simeon Denha was aims led the kings of Persia to contract friendly rela-
elected patriarch of the converted Nestorians, hence- tions with Europe. This gave a new impetus to
forth called simply Chaldeans, and, owing to Turk- Catholic missionsuy enterprise, and Carmelite. Minor-
ish persecution, he transferred the patriarchal see to ite, and Jesuit missionaries were well received by Shah
Urumiah in Persia. Shortly afterwards, he received Abbas the Great, who allowed them to ^establish
the pallium from Gregory XIII through Laurent Abel, missionary stations all through his dominion. Ispa-
Bishop of Sidon, who was commissioned by the pope han was made the centre, and several thousand Ne^-
to investigate the condition of the various churches of torians returned to the Catholic Church. These
the East. Mar Denha's successors. Simeon VIII, IX. missionaries were soon followed by.Augustinians and
X, XI, and XII, all remained faithful to Rome, ana Capuchins, who enlarged their missionary field, ex-
fixed their patriarclml see at Urumiah and Khosrowa; tending it to Armenians and Mohammedans as well.
Simeon I A, in fact, in a letter to Pope Innocent X, The most distinguished of these -missionaries was
informs him that the Nestorian Uniats, or Chaldeans, Father de Rhodes of Avignon, the Francis Xavier of
under his patriarchal jurisdiction numbered some Persia, who became the best beloved man in Is-
200,000 solids. Simeon XI sent his profession of faith pahan. On his death in 1646 the shah himself,
to Alexander VII (elected 1653) ; and Simeon XII, to with his court and nobles, as well as the largest part
Clement X (1670). From 1670 to 1770 the relations of the population of Ispahan, attended his funeral,
between the Nestorian patriarchs and Rome were Hewascailedby them ''The Saint". After his death,
suspended. the city of Ispahan was created an episcopal see. the
But in 1770 one of the successors of Simeon XII first incumbent of which was the Carmelite Thadaeus.
addressed a letter to Pope Clement XIV in which he Under Nadir Shah and Shah Sultan Husain, however,
expresses his intention of resuming once more or- the tide turned again, and persecution followed. The
thodox and friendly relations with Rome. The sue- missionaries were forced to flee, and thousands of
cessors of this patriarch, however, completely severed Christians were compelled either to migrate or to
their relations with Rome, and transferred their patri- apostatize. This was in the early part of the eight-
archal residence from Urumiah to Kotchanes, in Kurd- eenth century. A hundred years later missionary
istan, which became thenceforward the see of the work recommenced, and thousands of Nestorians
Nestorian patriarchs. Meanwhile, the many thou- were converted to the Catholic Faith,
sand Nestorian Uniats, or Chaldeans, who remained The second epoch of Catholic missionary work in
faithful to the Catholic Faith selected for themselves Persia was begun in 1840 b^ the Lazarists, in conse-
an independent Catholic patriarch, who was con- quenoe of the representations of Eugene Bor6, a
firmed with all the patriarchal privileges by Innocent French savant and a fervent Catholic, who in 1838
XI on 20 May, 1681. To his successor, Joseph I, was was sent to Persia on a scientific mission by the
uiven the title of "Patriarch of Babylon'', i. e. of French Academv and the Minister of Public Instruc-
Seleucia-Ctesiphon, the ancient patriarchal see of the tion. He himself founded four schools, two in Tabriz
Nestorian Church. In 1695 he resigned and went to and Ispahan for the Armenians, and two in Urumiah
Rome, where he shortly afterwards died. His sue- and Stuamas for the Chaldeans. Condescending to
cessors were Joseph II, III, IV, V, and VI, all be- his advice and instructions, the Congregation of
longing to the same family of Mar Denha. Thev Ptx)paganda confided the establishm^it of the new
governed the Chaldean Church during the eighteenth mission to the Lazarists, who were joined later on
century, and their patriarchal residence was trans- by the French Sisters of Charity. The first Lazarist
ferred from Persia to Mesopotamia — ^to Diarbekir, missionary was Father Fomier, who arrived at Tabriz
Mosul; and Amida successively. in 1840 as prefect Apostolic. He was joined in the
Beginning with the early years of this century, following year by two other fathers of the same so-
several Capuchin (1725) and Dominican (1750) mis- ciety, Damis and Cluzel, who took immediate charge
sionaries were sent to Mosul, and through their efforts of the school founded by M. Bot6 and already at-
and zeal all traces of Nestorianism disappeared from tended by sixty pupils. Two years later, yielding to
the Chaldean Church in Mesopotamia. After the strong opposition on the part of the schismatical
death of Joseph VI the Congregation of Propaganda Armenian clergy, Damis lett Tabriz and established
decreed that nenceforth but one Chaldean patriarch himself at Urumiah, while Cluzel remained at Ispahan,
should be acknowledged. Leo XII confirmed the and Fomier in Tabriz. Cluzel was soon afterwards
decree, and Pius VIII put it into execution, 5 July, joined by Damis in Urumiah, the latter having left
1830, by creating Mar Hanna (Yuhanna Hormuz) the the school at Ispahan in charge of Giovanni Derder-
sole and only le^timate patriarch of the Chaldeans, ian, a most zealous Armenian Catholic priest who
He transferred Ms patriarchal see from Diarbekir to was subsequently elected bishop of that see, but did
Bagdad, where he died in 1838. His successor, not live to receive consecration.
Isaiade Yakob, who resided at Khosrowa, near Sal- On arriving at Urumiah, the first Lazarists found the
amas, in Persia, resigned in 1845^ and was succeeded, American Protestant missionaries already well estab-
in 1848, by Joseph Audo, who died in 1878, and was lished in that city, but soon outstripped them in in-
succeeded bv Eha Abbolionan, who died in 1894 and fluence and zeal, as is shown by the ract that within
was succeeded by Ebedjesus Khayyat, after whose two years the number of pupils in the Catholic school
death at Bagdad, in 1899, the patriarchal dignity was increased from 200 to over 400, with two churches,
conferred in 1900 upon the present incumbent, one in Ummiah and the other in Ardishai, the most
Joseph Emanuel. The official title and residence of populous village in the vicinity of Ummiah. Here
the Chaldean patriarchs is that of Babylon, but for again the Catholic missionanes were persecuted;
administrative reasons the^ reside at Mosul, from owing to the intrigues of the Russian consul and the
which centre they govern 5 archdioceses and 10 dio- opposition of the Nestorians, they were compelled to
ceses, containing 100,000 souls. leave their stations, while a fourth Lazarite, Father
The history of European Catholic missions in Persia Roupe, had meanwhile arrived and established a new
dates from the time of the Mongolian mle, in the thir- mission at Khosrowa. With the estaSc}^^^sss>Kc^%>^'^i^-
PERSIA
724
PERSIA
ever, of a new French representative at the Persian
Court, M. de Sartiges, the Lasarists were permitted
by the Persian Government to continue their work
unmolested^ Father Cluzel having become a great
favourite with Mirza Aghasi, the prime minister. In
1863, Father Rouge died at Urumiah and was suc-
ceeded by a native Chaldean priest, Father Dbigou-
lim, who had joined the Lazarist Order. In 1852,
Father Vardse was sent to Urumiah, and in 1856 was
followed by eight French Sisters of Charity. Mean-
while, Mgr. 'fiioche, Apostolic Delegate of Meso-
potamia, sent Dom Valerga (afterwards Latin Patri-
arch of Jerusalem) to Knosrowa^ where he built a
magnificent stone church. Damis and Cluzel soon
afterwards established there a seminary to train in-
digenous candidates for the priesthood, teaching them
Latin, French, Syriac, and Armenian, as well as
theology.
Some of the seminarians became secular priests,
others joined the Lazarists, amon^ the latter being
Dbigoulim, Paul Bedjan now residing in Bel^um,
and famous in the scientific world for nis admirable
edition of some twenty-five volumes of Syriac texts
and literature, and Dilou Solomon. In 1852, Father
Terral, a new arrival, took charge of the seminary
and a few years later became superior of the mission.
Besides the seminary, two other colleges were opened,
one for boys, the other for girls, the Tatter under the
care and direction of the newly -arrived Sisters of
Charity. To these were soon added one hospital
and one orphan asylum, where all — Mohammedans,
Nestorians, Armenians, and Catholics — were gra-
tuitously admitted and cared for. This splendid work
evoked the admiration of Shah Nasr-ed-Din himself,
and he contributed a yearly allowance of 200 tomans
($400) towurds the midntenance of the two institu-
tions. Soon after, two more hospitals were opened,
one at Urumiah and one at Khosrowa. In 1858
Father Damis died at the age of forty-four, and in his
place several new missionaries were sent. In 1862
the Lazarists established themselves permanently at
Teheran under the able direction of Fathers Var^
and Plagnard, who soon built there a church and a
mission nouse around which the European colony of
Teheran gathered, and which soon afterwards became
the most beautiful residential section of the Persian
capital. In 1874 the Sisters of Charity established
themselves at Teheran with a house, a hospital, and
two schools.
The crowning event in the history of Catholic
missions in Persia, however, took place in 1872, when
the Prefecture Apostolic of Persia was raised to the
dignity of an Apostolic Delegation, with Mgr Cluzel as
its first incumbent. In 1874 he was consecrated, in
Paris, Archbishop of Heraclea, and assumed the func-
tions of Apostohc Delegate of Persia and Adminis-
trator of the Diocese of &pahan, thus withdrawing the
Persian Mission from the jurisdiction of the Apostolic
Delegation of Mesopotamia. On his arrival in Persia,
Mgr Cluzel was immediately acknowledged by the
sh^, decorated with the insignia of the Lion and
Sun, and officially confirmed, by a special imperial
firman, as the representative of the Father of the
Faithful. During the seven years of his episcopal
activity in Persia, the Lazarist mission made won-
derful progress with the Chaldeans and Nestorians.
A great cathedral was built at Urumiah, and many
new schools were opened in the neighbouring villages.
Mgr Cluzel died in 1882 and was succeeded by Mgr
Thomas, who built a preparatory school for the sem-
inary of Khosrowa and successfully introduced celi-
bacy among the native Catholic Chaldean clergy.
Ill-health, however, compelled him to retire, and he
was succeeded by Mgr Montety, who also had to
resign for the same reason, and was succeeded, in
1896, by the present delegate Apostohc, Mgr Lesn^,
titular Archbishop of Philippopoli. Under his able
administlpation, the Catholic mission has made further
progress, extending its beneficial work far beyond
the limits of Persia proper, into Sina, the Taurus
mountains, and the regions of Persian Kurdistan and
Armenia.
The latest statistics are as follows: Catholics of the
Latin Rite, 350; Catholic Chaldeans, about 8000,
with 52 native priests and 3' dioceses; Nestorians,
about 35,000; CathoUc Armenians, about 700, with
5 priests; Protestants, about 5000. — Catholic mis-
sions: Lazarist Fathers, 19, with 5 mission stations;
churches and chapels, 48; seminaries, 2, with 17
students; schools, 55, with 800 pupils; hospitals, 3:
religious houses, 3 — 2 for men, with 18 religious, and
1 for women, with 37 sisters.
D. NonrCatholic Missiona. — ^The earliest Protestant
missionaries in Persia were Moravians who in 1747
came to evangelize the Guebers, but owing to jgolitical
disturbances were compelled to withdraw. Tlie next
missioner was Henry Martin, a chaplain in the
British army in India, who, in 1811, went to Persia
and remained at Shiraz but eleven months, having
completed there, in 1812, his Persian translation of
the New Testament. Alter many trials and much
opposition, especially from the Mohammedan mul-
lahs, or priests, he was forced to leave the country,
and died at Tokat, in Asia Minor, on his way back to
Endand. The next labourer was a German, the Rev.
C. Cr. Pfander, of the Basle Missionary Society, who
visited Persia in 1829; after some years of fruitless
labour in Kirmanshah and Georgia he too had to
leave the country, and died in 1869 at Constantinople.
He is well known for his book ''Mizan-ul-Haklc"
(The Balance of Truth), in which he points out the
superiority of Christianity over Mohammedanism.
In 1833 another German missionary, the Rev. Fred-
eric Haas, with some colleagues, bein^ forced to leave
Russia, entered Persia and for a time made their
headquarters at Tabriz; but they also had to leave
the country. In 1838, the Rev. W. Glen, a Scottish
missionary, entered Persia and spent four years at
Tabriz ana Teheran, occupied mainly in completine
and revising his own Persian translation of tne Old
Testament. The work of all these missions was prin-
cipally directed to the conversion of Mohammedans
and was therefore, as such attempts have generally
proved, a complete failure.
The first organized Protestant missionary attempt
among the Nestorian Christians of Persia took place
in 1834, when the American Board of Commissioners
of Foreign Missions (Congregational) commissioned
Justin Perkins and his wife, and Asahel Grant (1835)
and his wife to establish a mission among the Persian
Nestorians. Between 1834 and 1871 some fifty-two
missionaries, we are told, were sent by the A. B.
C. F. M. into Persia. Among these American mission-
aries were several physicians who, by ministering
gratuitously to the poor Nestorians, made some prog-
ress. In 1870 the work of the A. B. C. F.,M. was
transferred to the Board of Missions of the American
Presbyterian Church, and the mission was divided
into those of Eastern and Western Persia, the former
including Tabriz, Teheran, Hamadan, Kesth, Kas-
win, ana Kirmanshah ; the latter, the Province of
Azarbedjan (Urumiah, Khosrowa) and parts of Kurd-
istan, Caucasus, and Armenia. The work has been,
and still is, more of a humanitarian and semi-educa-
tional character than moral or religious. About
$600,000 was expended on this mission between 1834
and 1870, a larger amount between 1870 and 1800,
and about one million dollars from 1890 to the present
time, i. e., over two million dollars altogether. Yet
it is extremely doubtful whether any results com-
mensurate with this vast expenditure have been
accomplished. The latest statistics (1909) are as
follows: Missionaries, 37 (including 6 male and 3
female physicians); 35 native ministers; 7000 adher-
PEB8ICO
725
PSBSICO
ents; 3000 pommunicants; 2692 pupils distributed
among 62 schools ; 4 hospitals. The Church Mis-
sionary Society, established in 1869, has stations \n
Kirman, Yezd, Shiraz, and at Ispahan. The work is
mainly medical and educational. The statistics are:
33 missionaries, including 4 male and 5 female physi-
cians; native clergy^ 1; native teachers, 28; Cliris-
tians, 412: commumcants, 189; schools, 8, with 409
scholars; nospitals, 6. The British and Foreign Bible
Society also does an extensive work in Southern Persia.
The greatest competitor of the two above-mentioned
missionary societies is the Anglican mission known
as ''The Assyrian Mission", which was established
in 1884 by Archbishop Benson of Canterbury with
headquarters at Urumiah and Kotchanes, the seat
of the Nestorian patriarch, and having for its prin-
cipal aim the union of the Nestonan with the
Anglican Church. It is interesting to read an estimate
of the work of this mission from tne pen of an Amer-
ican Presbyterian missioner: it repudiates the name
Protestant f and has for its avowed object the streng-
thening of the Nestorian Church to resist Catholic
influences on the one hand and Protestant on the
other. It has a strong forpe of missionaries, who wear
the garb of their order, and are under temporary vows
of celibacy and obedience. Its present statistics arc:
missionaries, 2; schools, 30, with 470 scholars, besides
12 distinctly Nestorian schools in various sections of
Kurdistan. This mission originated in 1842, when
"Archbishop Howley, with the assistance of the So-
ciety for the Propagation of the Gospel, sent the Rev.
G. P. Badger to Mosul, to begin work among the
mountain Nestorians. Just at that time the Kurdish
sheikh, Berd Khan, was raging in the mountains of
Kurdistan. The general confusion and disorder were
such that Badger had to return in despair to England
within a year" (Richter. "Histoiy of Protestant
Missions in the Near East , 1910) , Thirty-four years
later the Rev. E. L. Cutts was sent to Kurdistan, but
left within a year. The Scandinavian Wahl, however,
remained for five years (1880-85) in the heart oi
Kurdistan amidst great privations. After the or-
ganization of ''The Assyrian Mission", in 1886, one
of its missionaries settled at Kotchhannes^ some 7000
feet above sea-level, while its headquarters were
established at Urumiah.
Many other small Protestant enterprises have
lately sprung up in Persia, especially at Urumiah.
The United Lutneran Church of America maintains
a few kashfu (Nestorian priests), and in 1905, sent
an American missionary, the Rev. Mr. Fossum, to
superintend the work. A Syrian congregation at
Urumiah, having left the Russian Church, has joined
this mission. The Swedish-American "Augustana
Synode" employs a kasha, who conducts two day-
schools. The Evangelical Association for the Ad-
vancement of the Nestorian Church, founded at
Berlin in 1906, employs a kasha who has had a Lu-
theran training in Germany. He co-operates to some
degree with the Anglicans, and has added a fourth to
the already existing mission printing establishments at
Urumiah. For ten years Dr. Lepsius's German
"Orientmission" maintained outside Urumiah an
orphanage for Syrian fugitives from the mountains,
but it is to be closed soon. The English Plymouth
Brethren employ three or four kashas in the "Awis-
halum" Mission, named after the chief representative
of the mission in Persia, Awishalum [Absolom] Seyad.
There are also small missions connected with the
American Dunkards, the Holiness Methodists, the
American Southern Baptists and Northern Baptists,
and the English Congregationalists.
The latest non-Catholic missionary enterprise in
Persia was that of the Russians, in 1898. The aim of
this mission is more political than educational or re-
ligious, and the extraordinary readiness with which
teveral thousand Nestorians flocked to the Russian
Orthodox Church is explained" by the fact that the
Nestorians were very anxious for foreign protection
against the tyranny of Persia and Turkey,
I. HisTORT, ETC. — Maspbro, The Patting of Empire* (London,
1899); DiBULAFOT, La Perte, la Chaldie, et la Stuiane (Paris,
1889) ; Benjamin, Pertia and the Peraiane (Boston, 1887) ; Raw-
UNSON, The Sixth and Seventh Great Monarehiee of the Ancient
Battem World (London, 1886); db Raooein, History of Media
(London, 1892); Benjamin, Hietory of Pertia (London, 1892);
Rawunbon, History of Parthia (London, 1890) (these three
in the History of the Nations series) ; Malcolm, History of Persia
(London, 1829); Barbier db Metnaro, Dictionnaxre gioffra-
pAiffue, hiHorique et litUraire de la Perse (Paris, 1861); Watbon,
History of Persia from the Beginning of the NineteerUh Century
(London, 1873); Piooot, Persia, Ancient and Modem (London,
1874); Jusn, Gesehichte des alien Persiens (Berlin, 1879); NOi/-
DEKE, Aufsdtze zuT pcrsischen Gesehichte (Leipsig, 1887); Gur-
acRMiBD, Gesehichte Irans und seiner Naaibarldnder (TQbingen,
1888); Jusn and Horn in Geioer and Kuhn, Grundriss der
iranische Philologie, II (Strasburg, 1897-1900); Ghribtenbbn,
L * Empire des SassanideSt le peitpie, VHat, la cow (Copenhagen,
1907) ; CuRZON. Persia arui the Persian Question (London, 1892);
db Morqan, Mission scientifique en Perse (Paris, 1894) ; Stkbs,
Ten Thousand Miles in Persia (London, 1902) ; Jackson, Persia,
Past and Present (New York, 1906). — On Persian Art: Dieula-
roT, VArt antique de la Perse (Paris, 1884) ; Perrot and Chipibz,
History of Art in Persia (London, 1892) ; Gatbt, VArt persan»
(Paris, 1895); Aubin, La Perse d'aujourd'hui (Paris, 1908).
II. Lanouaqb and Literature. — Hammer, Gesehichte der
schdnen RedekHnste Persiens mil einer BlUtenlese (Vienna, 1818);
OusELET, Biographical Notices of Persian Poets (London, 1846);
Pizzi, Storia delta letteratura Persiana (Turin, 1894) | Idbm,
L'Epopea persiana (Turin, 1887); Rbed, Persian Literature,
Ancient arvi Modem (Chicago, 1893); Chodzko. Spedment a/
the Popular Poetry of Persia (London, 1842) ; Mohl, Le ShoK-
Nameh de Firdousi (Paris, 1876-78); Roobrs, The Shah-Namak
of Fardusi (London, 1907); Dole and Walker, Flowers from
Persian Poets (New York, 1901) : Horn, Gesehichte der persischen
Literatur (Leipsig, 1901); and above all, Browne, Literary
History of Persia, I (London. 1902), II (1906).— See also
bibliographies to Avbsta and Atesta, Theological Aspects of.
III. CHRisTiANrrr in Persia. — ^A. Earlier Periods. — Tabari,
Gesehichte der Persen und Araber sur Zeit der Sassaniden, ed.
NOldeke (Leyden, 1879) ; Barhebrbub, Chronicon Ecclesias^
ticum, ed. Abbeloos-Lamt (Lbuvain, 1874); Assbmant, Biblio*
theca Orientalis (Rome, 1719-28), especially III, pts. i, ii; Bedjan,
Ada Martyrum et Sandorum (Leipzig, 1890-99); Hoffman,
AustUge aus Syrischen Akten persischer Mdrtyrer (Leipsig, 1886);
Thomas of Maroa, Book of Governors, ed. Budge (London, 1893) ;
Bedjan, Fr. tr. Chabot, Jabalaha: Vie de Jahalaha, etc. (Paris,
1895) ; Wright, A Short History of Syriac Literature (London,
1891); Duval, Litttrature Syriague (Paris, 1899); Duchesne,
tr. Mathew, Churches Separated from Rome (New York, 1907) ;
Burkitt, Early Eastern Christianity (New York, 1904) ; Labourt
Le Christianisme dans Vempire perse sous la dynastie Stusanids
(Paris, 1904) ; Adenet, The Greek and Eastern Churches (New York,
1908); Shbdd, Islam and the Oriental Churches (Philadelphia,
1904); O'Leart, The Syriac Church and Fathers (London,
1909); WiGRAM, An Introditction to the History of the Assyr^
ian Church, 100-640 A. D. (London, 1910); Barthold. Zur
Gesehichte des Christenthums in Mittel-Asien bis sur mongolischen
Eroherung (Tabinfen, 1901).
B. Catholic Missions. — Annales de la CongrSgation de la
Mission; Chardin, Voyages en Perse et autres lieux de I'Orienl
(Amsteidam, 1711); Mhnoires des Jisuites d IsptUuin; Piolbt,
La France au dehors, ou Les Missions oatholiques franfaises au
XlX^sikcle, I: Missions d' Orient (Paris, 1900), 185-222; Miller-
SiMONis, Du Caucase au Golfe Persigue (Paris, 1892); Giamil,
Genuina relaUiones inter syros orienUues seu chaldaos et romanos
wmtifices (Rome, 1900); Missiones oatholiom eura S. C. de Prop,
ride deseriptcB (Rome, annual).
C. Non-Catholic Missions. — Perkins, Residence of Bight
Years in Persia (Andover, 1843) ; Idem, Missionary Life in Per-
sia (Boston, 1861); Guest, Story of a Consecrated Life (London,
1870); Anderson, History of the Missions of the A. B. C. F. M.
Oriental Missions (Boston, 1874); Bassett, Persia: Eastern
Mission (Philadelphia, 1890); Wilson, Persian Life and Cus'
toms (Chicago, 1895); Idem, Persia: Western Mission (Phila-
delphia, 1896) ; Richter. A History of Protestant Missions in the
Near East (New York, 1910), 279-337; Rilet, Progress and Pros-
nects of the Archbishop of Canterbury s Mission (London, 1889) ;
Maclean and Browne, Tfie Catholicos of the Ea^ and His Peojke
(London, 1892); Lawrence, Modem Missions in the East (New
^°'*^' ^®®^^- Gabriel Oussanl
Penico, Ignatius, cardinal, b. 30 Jan., 1823, at
Naples, Italy; d. 7 Dec., 1896. He entered tke Capu-
chin Franciscan Order on 25 April, 1839. Imm^-
ately after ordination he was sent in November, 1846,
to ratna, India. The vicar Apostolic, Anastasius
Hartmann, made him his socius and confidant. In
1850 Persico accompanied Bishop Hartmann to Bom-
bay, when he was transferred to that vicariate, and aa-
sist^d him in founding a seminary and establishing the
"Bombay Catholic Examiner". At the time of the
Goanese schism in 1853, the bishop sent Persico to
Rome and London to lay the Catholic case before the
PKB80N 726 PERSON
pope and the British Government. He obUdned Thoma8 accepts it is presumably due to the fact
British recognition for Catholic ri^ts. that he found it in possession, and recognised as the
He was consecrated bishop on 8 March, 1854, traditional definition. He explains it in terms that
and nominated bishop-auxiliary to Bishop Hartmann; practically constitute a new definition. Individua
but the next year he was appointed visitor of the aubstanlia signifies, he says, substantia, €umipleia, per
Vicariate of Ami, and afterwards vicar Apostolic of se subsistenSf separata ab aliis, i. e., a substance, com-
that district. During the Indian Mutiny he was sev- plete, subsisting per se, existing apart from others
eral times in danger of his life. The anxieties of this (III, Q.xvi, a. 12, ad 2^0* If to this be added ratio-
period told upon his health and in 1860 he was com- nalis naturae we have a definition comprising liie five
pelled to return to Italy. Sent in 1866 on a mission to notes that go to make up a person: (a) substantia —
the United States, he took part in the Council of Bal- this excludes accident; (d) completa — it must form a
timore. On 20 March, 1870, he was nominated Bishop eomplete nature; that which is a part, either actually
of Savannah; buthisnealth again failing, he resigned or '^aptitudinally'' does not satisfy the definition;
in 1873. In 1874 he was sent as Apostofic delegate to (c) per se subsistens — the person exists in himself and
Canada; and in 1877 he was commissioned to settle for nimself; he is sui juris, the ultimate poesessor of
the edOfairs of the Malabar schism. On 26 March, 1879, his nature and all its acts, the ultimate subject of
he was appointed Bishop of Aquino in Italv; but in predication of all hb attributes; that which exists in
March, 1887, he was promoted to the titular Arch- another is not a person; (d) separatm ab aliis — this
bishopric of Tamiatha and sent as Apostolic delegate excludes the imiversal, substantia secunda, which has
to Ireland to report upon the relations of the clergy no existence apart from the individual ; (e) rationalis
with the political movement. He quickly saw that the naturte — excludes all non-intellectual supposiia. To
question must be considered not merely in relation to a person therefore belongs a threefold incommunicar
present politics but also in relation to the past history bility, expressed in notes (b), (c), and (d). The
of Ireland, and he delayed his final report in order to human soul belongs to the nature as a part of it, and
consider the question in this broader aspect. Mean- is therefore not a person, even when existing sepa-
while the Holy See issued its condemnation of the Plan rately. The human nature of Christ does not exist
of Campaim. Persico returned to Rome much disap- per se seorsum, but in alio, in the Divine Personality
pointed. Re was at once nominated Vicar of the Vati- of the Word. It is therefore communicated by as-
can Chapter. On 16 January, 1893, he was created sumption and so is not a person. Lastly the Divine
cardinal priest of the title of St. Peter in Chains. Essence, though subsisting per, se, is so communicated
AnaUcta Ord. Min. Capp., XII. 30-32; see also letters of to the Three Persons that it does not exist apart from
PxRBico in United Iriahman (23 April. 1904). them; it is therefore not a person.
Father Cuthbebt. Theologians agree that in the Hypostatic Union the
immediate reason why the Sacred Humanity, though
Person. — ^The Latin word persona was originally complete and individual, is not a person is that it is
used to denote the mask worn by an actor. From this not a subsistence^ not per se seorsum subsistens, lliey
it was applied to the r61e he assumed, and, finally, have, however, disputed for centuries as to what ma^
to any character on the sta^e of li/e, to any individual, be the ultimate determination of the nature which if
present would make it a subsistence and so a person,
what in other words is the ultimate foundation of
This article discusses (1) the definition of "person",
especially with reference to the doctrine of the In-
carnation; and (2) the use of the word persona and personality. According to Scotus, as he is usually
its Greek equivalents in connexion with the Trinita- understood, the ultimate foundation is a mere nega-
rian disputes. For the psychological treatment see tion. That individual intellectual nature is a person
Personalitt. which is neither of its nature destined to be commu-
(1) Definition. — The classic definition is that given nicated — as is the human soul — nor is actuallv com-
by Boethius in "De persona et duabus naturis", municat^d — as is the Sacred Humanity. If the Hy-
c. ii: Natures rationalis individua substantia (an in- postatic Union ceased, the latter would ipso facto,
dividual substance of a rational nature). "Sub- without any further determination, become a person,
stance" is used to exclude accidents: "We see that To this it is objected that the person possesses the na-
accidents cannot constitute person" (Boethius, op. ture and all its attributes. It is difficult to believe that
cit.). Substantia is used in two senses: of the con- this possessor, as distinct from the objects possessed,
Crete substance as existing in the individual, called is constituted only by a negative. Consequently, the
substantia prima, corresponding to Aristotle's o6trla traditional Thomists, following Cajetan. hold that
Tpdrrri; and of abstractions, substance as existing in there is a positive determination which tney call the
genus and species, called substantia secunda, Aris- "mode" of subsistence. It is the function of this
totle's oiffla devripa. It is disputed which of the two mode to make the nature incommunicable, terminated
the word taken by itself here signifies. It seems prob- in itself, and capable of receiving its own esse, or exis-
able that of itself it prescinds from siibstantia prima tence. Without this mode the human nature of
and substantia secunda, and is restricted to the former Christ exists only by the uncreated esse of the Word,
signification only by the word individua. Suarez also makes the ultimate foundation of per-
Individua, i. e., indivisum inse, is that which, unlike sonalitv a mode. In his view, however, as he holds
the higher branches in the tree of Porphyry, genus no real distinction between nature and esse, it does
and speciesj cannot be further (subdivided. Boethius not prepare the nature to receive its own existence,
in giving his definition does not seem to attach any but is something added to a nature conceived as al-
further signification to the word. It is merely synony- ready existing. Many theologians hold that the very
mous with singularis. concept of a mode, viz., a determination of a substance
Rationalis natures. — Person is predicated only of really distinct from it but adding no reality, involves a
intellectual beings. The generic word which includes contradiction. Of more recent theories that of Tipha-
all individual existing substances is suppositum. Thus nus (" De hypostasi et persona ", 1634) has found many
person is a subdivision of suppositum which is appUed adherents. He holds that a substance is a suppositum,
equally to rational and irrational, living and non- an intelligent substance a person, from the mere fact
living individuals. A person is therefore sometimes of its being a whole, to^txm in se. This totality, it is
defined as suppositum natures rationalis. contended, is a positive note, but adds no reauty, as
The definition of Boethius as it stands can hardly the whole adds nothing to the parts that compose it.
be considered a satisfactory one. The words taken In the Hypostatic Union the human nature is perfected
hterally can be applied to the rational soul of man, by bein^ assumed, and so ceases to be a whole, being
and also to the human nature of Christ, That St. merged m a greater totality. The Word, on the other
PERSON 727 PSB80NALIT7
hand, if not perfected, and so remains a person. Op- of the external apd visible society which oopstitutes
posing theologians, however, hold that tnis notion of the Church, and who has not been canonically expelled
totality reduces on analysis to the Scotistic negative, therefrom. But the e^roression is rarely used in this
Lastly the neo-Thomists, Terrien, Billot, etc., con- sense; customarily it indicates persons whom a special
sider personality to be ultimately constituted by the tie connects with the Church, either because they have
esse, tne actual existence, of an intelli^t substance, received ecclesiastical tonsure, minor, or higher orders,
That which subsists with its own esse is by liiat very and are a fortiori invested with a power of jurisdic-
fact incommunicable. The human nature of Christ tion; or because they have taken vows in a relimous
is possessed by the Word and exists by His infinite order or congregation approved by the Church. This
esse. It has no separate eeee of its own and tor this more intimate union with the Church involves partic-
reason is not a person. Tlie supposiium is a supposi- ular duties which are not incumbent on the general
turn as being ens in the strictest sense of the term. Of faithful (see Cleric).
all Latin Uieoriee this appears to approach most Schmmb, Handbueh d- KirehenreehU, I (Graj, 1886), 30»-12.
nearly to that of the Greek fathers. Thus in the , A. Van Hove.
" Dialogues of the Trinity " given by Migne among the Penona Oobalinus. See Gobblintjs.
works of St. Athanasius, the author, speaking of per- ,.,.',
son and nature in God, says: *H 7*^ ^Sara^ts rh dmu personality. — It is proposed in this article to give
ciltuUptt ii M Mrift r& rl elrcu (Person denotes esse, an account (1) of the physical constituents of person-
the Divine nature denotes the quidditv; M. 28, aUty in accordance with the scholastic theory; (2)
1 1 14) . An elaborate treatment is given by St. John of concepts of personality that conflict with the theory ;
Damascene, Dial. xlii. (3) of abnormalities of consciousness with reference to
(2) The use of the xoard peruana and Us Greek equita- their bearing on theories of personality.
lenU in connexion xtnth the THnitarian dispiUes.— For il) Thb Phtbical CoN8TiTUEin» op Pbbsonai/-
the constitution of a person it is required that a reality nr.— A man's personality is that of which he has
be subsistent and aosolutely distinct, i. e. incom- cognizance under the concept of ''self". It is that
municable. The three Divine realities are relations, entity, substantial, permanent, unitary, which is the
each identified with the Divine Essence. A finite rela- subject of all the states and acts that constitute his
tion has reality only in so far as it is an accident; it complete life. An appeal to self-consciousness shows
has the reality of inherence. The Divine relations, us that there is such a subject, of which thou^t, will,
however, are m the nature not by inherence but by and feeling are modifications. It is substantial, i. e.
identity. The reality they have, therefore, is not that not one or all of the changing states but the reality
of an accident, but that of a subnstence. They are underlying them, for our seu-consciousness testifies
one with ipsum esse siil>sistens. Again every relation, that, besides perceiving the thought, it has immediate
by its very nature, implies opposition and so distinc- perception in the same act of the subject to whom the
tion. In the finite relation this distinction is between thought belongs. Just as no motion can be appre-
subiect and term. In the infinite relations there is no hended without some sort of apprehension of the
subject as distinct from the relation itself; the Pater- object moved, so the p^xseption of thought carries
nity is the Father — ^and no term as distinct from the with it perception of the thinker. The changing
opposing relation; the Filiation is the Son. The states are recognised as determinations of the ''self ,
Divine realities are therefore distinct and mutually and the very concept of a determination involves
incommunicable through this relative opposition; they the presence of something determined, something not
are subsistent as being identified with the subsistence itseu a determination, i. e. a substance. It is per-
of the Godhead, i. e. they are persons, llie use of the manent, in that though one may say, "I am com-
word persona to denote them, however, led to contro- pletely changed", when referring to a former state,
versy between East and West. The precise Greek still one knows that the "I" in question is still the
equivalent was vp69vrop, likewise used originally of same numerically and essentially, though with cer-
tne actor's mask and then of the character ne repre- tain superadded differences.
sented, but the meaning of the word had not passed on. This permanence is evident from a consideration
as had that of persona, to the general signification or of our mental processes. Every act of intellectual
individual. Consequently tree personeSf rpla rfi^sttwa^ memory imphes a recognition of the fact that I,
savoured of Sabellianism to the Grec^. On the other thinking now, am the "self" as the one who had the
hand their word (nr6arwntf from hrb-'iarrifu, was taken experience which is being recalled. My former ex-
to correspond to the Latin sij^bstantia, from sub^tare, periences are referred to something which has not
Tres hypostases therefore aj^peared to conflict with passed as they have passed, to my own self or person-
the Nicsan doctrine of umty of substance in the aUty. From this permanence Bprings the consdous-
Trinity. This difference was a miun cause of the ness of self as a umtary principle. The one to whom
Antiochene schism of the fourth century (see Mele- all the variations of state belong is perceived as an
Tius OF Antioch). EventuiJly in the West, it was entity complete in itself and distinguished from^all
recognised that the true equivalent of (fwSrroffis was others. Unity of consciousness does not constitute
not substantia but subsisteniia, and in the East that but manifests unity of being. The physical principle
to understand wpAwrop in the sense of the Latin of this permanence and unity is the simple, spiritual,
persona precluded the possibilitjr of a Sabellian inter- unchangine substance of the rational soul. This does
pretation. By the Fint Council of Constantinople, not mean, however, that the soul is identical with the
ther^ore, it was recognised that the words ^Sararti, personal self. There are recosnized as modifications
TpSaunrow, and persona were equally applicable to the of the self not merely acts of thought and volition,
three Divine realities. (See Incarnation; Nature; but also sensations, of which the immediate subject
Substance; Trinit7.) is the animated body. Even in its own peculiar sphere
Bomnns. De Per$ona et Duabui Nattaria, ii, iii, in P. L., the soul works in conjunction with the body; intel-
LXIV, 1342 sqq.; Rickabt, Oeneral Melaphynea, 92-102, 27^ lAofiial n»jMnninff ia iu*<v>mnAnipH anrl nnnditionAd hv
97 (London, 1890); dk Rkonon. Btudu $ur la Tnniu, I. icciuai reasonmg IS acoompamea ima conoiuoneo oy
studies i. iy ; &r. Thomas Aquik as. III. Q. xvi. a. 12; D« Potentia, sensory images. A man's personality, then, consists
ix, 1-4; TsRBimr. s. ThomaDoctHnadeUiuone Hvpoatatica^hk. physically of soul and body. Of these the body is
'/k^i^l'SiclI'liric^n'vT^'Si.'f^ijj^^rS.rA^rX^ T^\« t«?«lr «'hola«ticIangu««e.the "matter;;.
«/iA« School, yol. I. bk. III. o. ii, art. 2 (London. 1879). the determmable pnnciple, the soul IS the "form",
L. W. Geddbb. the determining pnnciple. 'The soul is not merely the
seat of the chiS functions of man — ^thoujsht and will;
Penon, Ecclesiastical. — In its etymological sense it also determines the nature and functioning of the
this expression signifies every person who forma a part body. To its permanence is due the abiding unity
PXR80NALIT7
728
PERSONALmr
of the whole personality in spite of the constant dis-
integration and rebuilding of the body. Though not
therefore the only constituent of personality, the soul
is its formal pnnciple. Finally, for the complete
constitution of personality this compontum must exist
in such a way as to be '^subsistent" (see Person).
(2) NON-SCHOLASTIC THEORIES OF PeRSONALITT.
— Many modem schools of philosophy hold that per-
sonality is constituted not by any underlying reality
which self-consciousness reveals to us, but by the
self-consciousness itself or by intellectual operations,
Locke held that personality is determined and consti-
tuted by identity of consciousness. Without denying
the existence of the soul as the substantial principle
underlying the state of consciousness, he denied that
this identity of substance had any concern with per-
sonal identity. From what has bieen said above it is
clear that consciousness is a manifestation, not the
principle, of that unity of being which constitutes per^
sonaUty. It is a state, and presupposes something
of which it is a state. Locke's view and kindred
theories are in conflict with the Christian revelation,
in that, as in the Incarnate Word there are two in-
tellects and two ''operations", there are therefore
two consciousnesses. Hence accepting Locke's defini-
tion of personality there would be two persons.
From Locke's theory it was but a step to the denial
of any permanent substance underlying the perceived
states. For Hume the only knowable reality consists
in the succession of conscious thoughts and feelings.
As these are constantly changing it follows that there
is no such thing as permanence of the Ego. Conse-
Quently, the impression of abiding identity is a mere
nction. Subsequent theorists however, could not ac-
quiesce in this absolute demolition; an explanation
of the consciousness of unity had somehow to be
found. Mill therefore held personality to consist in
the series of states ''aware of itself as a series". Ac-
cording to James, personality is a thing of the mo-
ment, consisting in the thought of the moment: "The
passing thought is itself the thinker". But each
thought transmits itself and all its content to its
immediate successor, which thus knows and includes
all that went before. Thus is established the "stream
of consciousness" which in his view constitutes the
unity of the Ego. Besides the fundamental difficul-
ties they share in common, each of these theories is
open to objections peculiar to itself. How can a num-
ber of states, i. e. of events ex hypothesi entitatively
distinct from one another, be collectively conscious
of themselves as a unity? Similarly^ in the theory of
James, successive thoughts are distinct entities. As
therefore no thought is ever present to the one pre-
ceding it, how does it know it without some underlying
principle of unity connecting them?
Again, James does not believe in unconscious states
of mind. In what sense then does every thought
"know" all its predecessors? It is certainly not con-
scious of doing so. But the objection fundamental
to all these theories is that, while pretending to
account for all the phenomena of self-consciousness,
its most important testimony, namely that to a self
who is not the thought, who owns the thought, and
who is immediately perceived in the act of reflexion
upon the thought, is treated as a mere fiction. Against
any such position may be urged all the arguments
for the permanent and unitary nature of the self.
The modem school of empirical psychologists shows
a certain reaction against systems whicn deny to
personality a foundation in substance. Thus Ribot:
Let us set aside the hypothesis which makes of the
Ego 'a bundle of sensations', or states of conscious-
ness, as is frequently repeated after Hume. This is
... to take effects for their cause" (Diseases of
Personality, 85). For them the unity of the Ego
rests merely on the unity of the organism. "The
organism, and the brain, as its highest representation.
constitute the real personality " (op. cit. , 154) . A sys-
tem which ignores the existence of the human soul
fails to account for the purely intellectual phenomena
of consciousness, abstract ideas, judgment, and infer-
ence. These require a nmple, i. e. non-extended, and
therefore immaterial principle. The various theories
we have been considering make the whole personality
consist in what is really some part of it. Its substan-
tial constituents are soul and body, its accidental con-
stituents are all the sensations, emotions, thoug^ta,
volitions, in fact all the experiences, of this con-
posUum.
(3) ABNORMALmES OF CONSCIOTJBNSSB. — We mftj
here review briefly some forms of what are known as
"disintegrations of personality", and consider to what
extent they affect the scholastic theoiy of the oonstitn-
tion of the person. In double or multiple personality
there are manifested in the same individual two or
more apparently distinct series of conscious states.
There is a break not merely of character and habit
but of memory also. Thus in 1887 a certain Ansel
Bourne disappeared from his home c^ Coventiy,
Rhode Island, ahd two weeks later set up businen
as A. J. Browne, a baker, at Norristown. Penn^l-
vania. This new "personality" had no Imowledge
of Ansel Bourne. After eight weeks he one morning
woke up to find himself again Ansel Bourne. The
adventures, even the existence, of A. J. Browne were
a vanished episode. Subsequently under hypnotic
influence the latter "personality" was recallea, and
recounted its adventures. The phenomena of double
personality may also be recurrent apart from hyp-
nosis. In such cases the two states reappear alter-
nately, each having the chain of memories proper to
itself. The instance most frequently cdted is tnat of
"Felida X", observed for many years by Dr. Aiam.
Two states of consciousness alternated. In state II
she retained memory of what hi^pened in state I,
but not vice versa. Her character in the two states
was widely different. Frequently in such cases tJie
character in the second state tends to become more
like the character in the original state, appearing
finally as a blend of the two, as in the case of Maiy
Reynolds (cf. "Harper's Magasine", May, 1860).
In "multiple personality '"the most extraordinary
abnormalities of memory and character occur. In the
case of " Miss Beauchamp " (Proceedings of the SodeCy
for Psychical Research, xv, 466 sq . ) , besides the ori^nal
personality, there were no less than four other states
periodically reappearing, different from one anotbe
m temperament, and each with a continuous memory.
Owing to a mental shock in 1893 Miss Beauchamp's
character changed, though memory remained con-
tinuous. This state was afterwards called B I. Under
hypnotism two other states manifested themsdves
B II, and B III. Of these B III ("Sally") practicany
developed an independent existence, and continually
manifested itself apart from hypn6tic suggestion.
B I had no memory of B II or B III. B 11 knew B I,
but not B III, while B III knew both the others.
Eventually in 1899 after another mental shock there
appeared a fourth "personality" B IV, whose memory
presented a complete blank from the "disappearance
of the original Miss Beauchamp after the first shock
till the appearance of B IV after the second, six years
later. Her character was, however, very imKke that
of the original personality. B III had memory of all
that happened to B IV, but did not know her thou^ta
Furthermore, B III was exceedingly jealous boUi of
her and of B I, and played spiteful tricks on them.
In connexion with these phenomena, the theory hai
been proposed that the original personality becanie
"disinten-ated" after the first shock, and that B I
and B I V are its components, while B II and B III
are var3ring manifestations of the "subliminal self".
Sometimes again the phenomena of "double ner^
sonality " are manifested m an individual, not in alter
»ERS0H8 7:
DAting perioda, but amiult&iieoUBly. Tbits M. Toine
dtes the oaae of a lady who while conliiiuinB a coa-
veitetion would write a whole page of intelligent and
connected matter on aome quite aJiea aubject. She
had, no notion of what she had been writing, and was
frequently 'Surpriaed, aometimes even alarmed, on
reading what she had written.
In dealing with the problems suggeeted by such
phenomena, one must met of all be sure that the fact«
are well attested and that fraud is ercluded. It
should also be noted that these are abnormal condi-
tions, whereas the nature of personality must be
determined by a study of the normal individual.
Nor is it permismble even in these exceptional casee
to infer a "multiple" personality, ao long as the
phenomena can be explamed as symptoms of disease
in one and the same personality.
The various groups of phenomena enumerated
above would merit tne title of different "peraonaU
ities", if it could be shown (a) that personality ia
constituted bv functioning as such, and not by an
underlying substantial principle, or (b) that, sranted
that there be a formal principle of unity, such cases
showed the presence in the individual, sucoeeeively or
simultaneously, of two or more sucn principles, or
(c) that the principle was not simple and Bpiritual but
capi^le of cuvioon into several separately function-
ing oomponentfl. The hypothesie that functioning, as
such, constitutes personality has already been shown
insufficient to account for the facts of normal con-
sciousness, while the other theories are opposed to the
permanence and simplicity of the human soul. Nor
are any of these theories necessary to account for the
facta. The soul not being a pure spirit butthe" form"
of the body, it follows tnat while it performs acts in
which the body has no share as a eauge, atill the soul is
of memory of an action performed, but of want of
consciousness of the action during its actual perform-
ance. There are certainly d^;rees of conaciousnees,
even of intellectual operation. The doubt therefore
always remains as to whether the so-called uncon-
scious writing, if really indicative of mental operation,
be literally unconscious or only very faintly conscious.
But there is a furt;her doubt, namely, as to" whether
the writing of the "secoadaiy persowdity" is intel-
lectual at all at the moment. The nervous processes
of the brain being set in motion may run their course
without any demand arising for the intellectual action
of the soul. In the case of such highly nervous sub-
jects, it is at least possible that images imprinted on
the nervous organism are committed to writing by
purely automatic and reflex action.
Finally, there remains a sense in which phenomena
of the same nature as those we have been considering
may be indicative of the presence of a second peraon-
ality, e. g. when the body is under the influence of an
alien spirit. Possession is something the possibihty
of which the Church takes for granted. This, how-
ever^ would not imply a true double personality in
one mdividual. The invading being would not enter
into compomtion with the body to form one person
with it, but would be an extrinsic agent commumcating
local motion to a bodily frame which it did not "in-
form". (See CoNBCiouBKESs; Soci..)
Miriia. Human Ptr,i>naliivnd il> Surwiial af B< ... ..
CLoodOD, IBOal.ii. iDiimppeDdii; Riaor, Let Maladicidila Prr-
if Boitav Datik. 1
double personality, the essential feature is the break
of memoiv. Some experiences are not referred tc the
same "seu" as other eirperiencea; in fact, the mem-
ory of that former self disappears for the time being.
Concerning this one may remark that such failures
of memory are exaggerated; there is no complete loss
of all that has been acquired in the former state.
Apart from the memory of definite facts about oneself
there remcuns always much of the ordinary intel-
lectual possession. Thus the baker "A. J. Browne"
was able to keep his accounts and use the language
intelligently. That he could do so shows the perma-
nence of the same intellectual and therefore non-com-
posite principle. The disappearance from his memoiy
of most of his experiences merely shows that his
physical organism, by the state of which the action
of hia soul is conditioned, was not working in the
normal way.
In other words, while the presence of any form of
intellectual memory ahows the continuance of a per-
manent spiritual principle, the loss of memory does
not prove the contrary; it ia merely absence of evi-
dence either way. Thus the theory that the soul acts
as the "form" of the body explains the two partially
dissevered chains of memory. What sort of change
in the nervous organism would be necessary to account
for the calling up of two completely different sets
of experiences, as occurs in double personality, no
psychologists, even those who consider the physical
organism the sole principle of unity, pretend to
explain satisfactorily. It may be remarked that auch
manifestations are almost always found in hysterical
subjects, whose nervous organiiatinn ia highly un-
stable, and that frequently there are indications which
point to definite lesion or disease in the brain.
The allied oases of simultaneous double person-
ality, mamfested usually by speech in the case of
one and writing in the case of the other, present
■pecial difficulty, in that there is question not of loas
-185), tr. r*e Ditram o/ Pmtmalitj/ (ChicMO,
leoe): Mahek. P'iKMon (London. 1903): Rouhe, BiJtt.
LXXV. 35, *92. 838; R.CHUOMD, An Bttav on PtTKmalHv <u a
PhiiBtophini Principli (l/mdon. 1900); ItUNawoKra. /•»■»«*.
aliiSI. i/uruin and Diiiiu (LoDdon, ISM), i. ii: H:kHPEH. Vr4i»
phviia b/ the SdioBl, bk. V (lAiidoD. 'IRTQ], ii. iii; Bmrr, Let
AlUmtiimt di la PeriBnnaliU (Parii. 1X92}, iT. (LondoD. ISIM):
On DoiMe Ctnueiaunui (Cluoa«o, 1905).
L. W. GSddeb.
Penoni (also, but less correctly. Parsons), Rob-
ert, Jesuit, b. at Nether Stowey, Somerset, 24 June,
1546; d. in Rome, 15 April, 1610.
I. Eablt LirE.-rHis parents were of the yeoman
class (for the controversy about them, see below
"Memoira", pp. 36-47), but several M his many
brothers rose to
good positions.
By favour of the
toc&l parson, John
Hayward (once a
monk at Taun-
ton), Robert was
aent to St. MarVa
Hall, Oxford
(1562). Aftertak-
in^ his degrees
withdiatinction he
became fellow and
tutor at Balliol
(1568); but 13
Feb., 1574, he was
forced to resign,
Eartly because of
is strong Cath-
olic leanings, part-
ly through college
quarrels. Before
long he went
abroad, and was
reconciled, proba-
bly by Father
WilUam Good-
S.J., and after
ROBIRT Pauoki (PmUOHS)
year spent in travel and study, he
became a Jesuit at Rome (3 July, 1575).
II. Enolibh MiasioN, 1579-1581.— At Rome he
suggested the English mission for the Society, and
when the atudenta of the Fiuifliah College (q. v.) there
came into diflirullii'S with tliPir first rector, he exerted
himself to maintain peace, and proposed the "oath of
PERSONS 730 PSBSONS
the missions ", an idea which was taken up, and is now English Catholics living abroad, he haA many ezeuM.
in vogue throughout the Church. When the college He certainly did not contemplate the subjection of lii
was entrusted to the Jesuits, he was temporarily in- country, but its liberation from an insufferable buida
stalled as rector (19 March, 1579). Dr. Alien (q. v.) of persecution (see also Armada, Thk Spanish, IV.
came to Rome, 10 Oct., 1579, to complete the college CaihoUc Co-apercUion),
arrangements, already so well begun, and at his in- IV. Spain, 1588-97.-^Itecalled to Rome in 1585,
stance the Jesuit mission to England was decided upon he was professed there (7 May, 1587) and sent to
(Dec., 1579). The year of mission in England (12 Spain at the close of 1588, to oonciliate King Philip,
June, 1580. to late August, 1581) was the most useful who was offended with Father Acquaviva. Fetsau
of Persons s Ufe. Ever at the post of danger, he yet was successful, and then made use of the I03ral favour
managed to avoid seizure, while he organilea means to found the seminaries of Valladolid, Seville, and
of missionary enterprise not for Jesuits only but for Madrid (1589, 1592, 1598) and the residences of San-
the whole country. Laymen and secular priests car- Lucar. and of Lisbu (which became a cx>ll^e in 1622).
ried out his plans with whole-hearted enthusiasm, and Already in 1582 he had founded a school at Eu, iht
deserve unstinted praise for the results that followed, first English Catholic boys' school since the Reform*-
Persons not only oreached, confessed, arranged mis- tion; and he now succeeded in establishing at St.
sionary tours, and posts, he also wrote books and Omers (1594) a larger institution to whichuie boyi
pamphlets, and set up his ''magic press" (q. v., from Eu were transferred, and which, after a long and
Brinklev, Stephen), which printed and set forth Cam- romantic history, still flourishes at Stonyhurst (q. v.).
pion's '^Decem Rationes", while several books of his Whilst in Rome and Spain Persons wrote sevefal still
own, answers to onslaughts of Protestants, were extant State papers, which show that he was still id
brought out within a few aa^ of the attack. Consid- favour of armed intervention on behalf of the English
ering the losses previously mcurred throufl;h want of Catholics, but his main policv was to wait for the neit
courage and energy, it would be impossibre to praise succession, when he expecteci there would be a varietj
this pioneer work too highly. But later on the mis- of claimants, for it was one of £lizabeth'8 maniaa
sionary methods had to be modified: the presses were to leave the succession an open question. Persons
transferred abroad, and the challenges to disputation thought that a Catholic successor and by preference
were dropped. Though not initiated by Persons, they the Infanta (who was a representative of the house d
had been subsequently approved by him. (See Lancaster) would have a fair chance. On this topic
Counter-Refobmation, vtl. England; Edmund , there appeared in 1594, under the pseudonym of N.
Campion, Blessed.) ' Dolman, the important^ "Conference on the next sue-
III. PouTics, 1582-84. — ^After Cadipion had been cession''. The penman was really Richard Verstegan
taken (17 July, 1581) and the press captured (8 (q. v.: see also. Record Office/' Dom. EIi2.'% 252, n. 66,
August), Persons slipped across to France hoping to and Vatican Archives, *'Borghese", 448, ab, f. 339)
do some business with Allen, to set up a new press, and but both Cardinal Allen and Sir Francis Enfdefieki
return. The press was begun again under George had helped and approved, while Persons had also re-
Flinton at Rouen, but Persons never saw England vised the MS. and rewritten many passages. The
again, and found himself in entirely new circum- book was a manifesto of his party, and though de
stances, which led to new, and much less desirable re- clining the authorship, he always aefeoded its prin-
sults. He was now living under the French Provincial ciple, which was the people's right of participation in
P^re Claude Matthieu. an advocate of armed resistance the settlement of a ruler, as opposed to the GsJlican
to the Huguenots; ana he was necessarUy under the in- theory of the Divine right of kings. (See Origin op
fluence of t
afterwards
champion of Mary Stuart. A great change
come over her fortunes. Esm6 Stuart, Sieur d' Au- larity of Spain, the book was very badly received, and
bigny, created Duke of Lennox, the favourite of the he could not effectively prevent its popular attri-
youthful King James, espoused her side (7 March, bution to himself. Ten years earlier (1584) another
1582) . Never had she had such an ally, who actually political publication in favour of Mary Queen of Scots,
controlled the chief ports of Scotland, and enjoyed the widely known as " Leicester's Ck)mmonwealth ", had
king's entire confidence. Father William Crichton, also been popularlsr ascribed to him; presiunably be-
S.J., an enthusiastic Scot, who had just gone to Edin- cause he very unwisely allowed a Jesuit lay-brother,
burgh as a missioner, was completely carried away bv Rs^h Emerson, to take the first consimment of them
the prospect, and returned at once to lay Lennox's to England, where they were seized. The real author
offers before the Duke of Guise. Persons and Allen was probably Charles Arundel,
were summoned for advice, and a meeting was held in V. The Appellants, 1598-1603. — Cardinal ABen
Paris (18-24 May), in which both they and the papal died in 1594 and after- he had gone, the English
nuncio, and the Archbishop of Glaspow took part. Catholics were tried b^r a series of the most distressinf
Everyone agreed that the King of Spam and the pope disturbances, which originated in the misery and oon-
should be called upon to help. If they did not^ tiiere sequent discontent of the exiles, and which gradually
was no chance of Lennox maintaining his position for affected the seminaries, the clergy, and even the
lon^, with England and the Scottish Kirk allied Catholic prisoners. Allen had ruled by personal in-
agamst him. The congress decided that Persons fluence; and left no successor. The clergy were with-
should go to Philip, and Crichton to Pope Gregory; out superior or organisation. Persons returned to
and though the two Jesuits demurred, as having other Rome (April, 1597) to quiet the disturbances at the
orders from their superiors, the papal nuncio insisted English College, which no one else could calm. He
and his authority of course prevailed. Persons now was immediatelv and remarkably successful; mkI
undertook two journeys, to Philip in Spain (June- there was talk of making him a cardinal. But, as the
Oct., 1582) and to Rome (Sept., 1583). Pope Gregory pope never intended to do so, it is unnecessary to dis-
fully approved the plans^ but the king idways refused cuss what might have happened had he received that
to consent, with qualincations, however, which led dignity. Cardinal Cajetano, the Protector, now or-
Allen and Persons to hope on till the beginning of dered him to draw up a scheme of government for Uie
1584, by which time Lennox had fallen, and the other rest of the clenr^. His first idea was to establish an
favounui)le circumstances had ceased. Looking back archbishop in flanders, and a bishop in EIngland, but
we now recognise how great Father Persons's error considering the fury of the persecution a hierarchy of
was; but it is also easy to see that with the approba- priests was preferred. In Eneland an archpriest with
tion of the pope and of Allen and the other leading assistants wan appointed (7 March, 1598); in Flan-
731 PERTH
ders, Spun, and Rome, "Prefects of the Mission '\ (P*™. 1872), etc.; DBFamNB,iimi«M«a<iM,(Parw, 1636); Som-
while the nuncio in Flanders was to be the vicegerent 5^!°°"'" ^•"- ^ ^ ^- *^ •^•' ^^^- ^^- *'v- Ca<*.; J^- Nat.
of the cardinal-protector, with supreme jurisdiction. J. H. Pollen
In point of fact it was found more convenient to deal »^-«.u /g«..-„ . ^^\ a^ n ,„^. J
dirStly with the archpriest, George Blackwell; who, ^^'^ (Scotland). See Dunkbld.
albeit a sood scholar and an amiable man, had not the Perth (Perthensis), Diocese of, in Western Aus-
skill and experience necessary to calm the disputes tralia, suffragan to Adelaide,* bounded on the north
then raging, and his endeavours turned the com- by paxallel 31° 20' S. lat. (the Moore River), east to
plainants against himself. An appeal was carried 120r £. long., and thence by parallel 29° S. lat. to the
against him to Rome; but was decided in his favour, border of South Australia, its eastern boundary, on
6 April, 1599. But Father Persons, who had de- the south and west by the ocean. The first Cathohcs,
fended him, misunderstood the hature of the op- Irish emigrants, settled about seventy-five years ago
position, and treated the appellant envoys like near the present city of Perth. As they had no priest,
recalcitrant scholars, and Blackwell misused his ArchbieJiop Folding of Sydney appointed Rev. John
victory. A second appeal ensued (Nov., 1600), which Brady his vicar-^eneral for the western portion of
was backed up by the publication of many books, Australia. A native of Cavan, Father Brady had la-
some of which contained scandalous attacks on Father boured for twelve years in Mauritius, before going to,
Persons, who defended himself in two publications Australia in February, 1838. With Fr. John Joostens.
"A briefe Apologie" (St. Omers?, 1601), and the a former Dutch chaplain in Napoleon's forces, ana
"Manifestation" (1601). The appellants were pat- Patrick O'Reilly, a catechist, he reached Albanv, 4
ronized by the French ambassador, the archpriest November, 1843, and Perth, 13 December, 1843.
by the Spanish, and the debate grew very warm, Land for a church, presbytery, and school was donated
Father Persons's pen being busily enga^;ed the whole by Governor Hutt, and the foundation stone of the
time. Clement VIII in the end maintamed the arch- church liud, 27 December, 1843. Shortly afterwards
priest's authority, but justified the grounds of the ap- Fr. Bradv went to Europe to procure aid, and was
peal, ordering that six of the appellant party should be ordained bishop at Rome, 18 May, 1845. He returned
admitted among the assistants, cancelled the instruo- with some missionaries, including six Sisters of Mercy
tion which commanded the archpriest to seek the from Carlow, Ireland, under Mother Ursula Frayn^
advice of the Jesuit superior in matters of greater reaching Fremantle in January, 1846.
moment, and forbade all further books on either side. The early days of the mission were days of suffering
Thus the appellants won the majority of points, and and poverty. In 1848 the scattered Catholic popula-
a party supported by France, but hostile to Persons, tion, which was extremelv poor, numbered only 306
became innuential among the English clergy. out of 4600 whites. The bishop soon sent Fr. Confa-
VI. Conclusion, 1602-10. — Persons remained till lonieri with two catechists, James Fagan and Nicholas
his death rector of the English College, but he Hogan, to Port Elssington to convert the native north-
nearly lost that post in 1604. Clement VIII had em blacks. The catechists were drowned in a ship-
been told by the French ambassador that James wreck on the voyage, but Fr. Confalonieri was spared
would be favourably impressed, if he proved his in- to labour for two years, till his death by fever at Vic-
dependence of the Jesmts, by sending Father Persons toria, Melville Island, when he had converted over 400
away. Persons^ as it happened, was ill. and had to blacks. An attempt to found a southern native mis-
go to Naples (Nov., 1604); whereupon the pope gave sion failed for want of resources. A central mission
orders for him not to return. But the pontiff himself was confided to two Spanish Benedictines, Dom Serra
died 3 March, 1605, and his successor, Paul V, re- and Dom Salvado. In March, 1847, they established
versed his policy, which was unpopular at Rome, a monastery, now New Norcia (q. v.), 84 miles from
Persons returned to his post, and enjoyed full papal Perth. The first diocesan s3mod was held there, 13
favour until his death. Father Persons's greatest March, 1848, attended b^r the bishop and hb three
work, his "Christian Director3r" [originally called priests. The mission sinking heavilv in debt, Dom
"The Book of Christian Exercise", and known as oidvado was sent to Europe for funds. He returned
"The Book of Resolution" (Rouen, 1582). with in- January, 1849, but his resources were applied to New
numerable editions and translations], had been con- Norcia alone. Dom Serra, who had also gone to Eu-
ceived during his heroic mission in England. His rope, had while there been made Bishop of Port Vic-
edition of Sander's "De Schismate Ang^cano" (Rome, toria. Worn out by toil and anxiety, Dr. Brady ap-
1506) had also an immense circulation. His later plied for a coadjutor, and Dom Serra was transferred
works, were controversial, written with wonderful from Port Victoria to the titular See of Daulia and
vigour, irony, incisiveness, and an easy grasp of the appointed to administer the temporalities of Perth,
most complex subjects; but they lack the deep sym- He arrived there from Europe with a large contingent
pathy and human interest of ms missionary books, of Benedictines in 1849. Dissension broke out be-
Father Persons was a man of great parts, doquent, tween the laity and the Spanish monks, and Dr. Brady,
influential, zealous, spiritual, disinterested, fearless, unable to bear the strain, returned to Ireland in 1852;
Yet he had some of the defects of his qualities. He he died in France, 2 December, 1871. While he was in
was masterful, sometimes a special pleader, and Perth, Dr. R. R. Madden, the historian, was appointed
greater as a pioneer or sectional leader than as Gen- colonial secretary, the first Catholic to hold that office
eralissimo. Thou^ his services in the mission field, in the colonies. On Corpus Christi, 10 June, 1854, the
and in the education of the clergy were priceless, his first two black children received Holy Communion at
garticipation in politics and in clerical feuds cannot Perth. In 1859 Fr. Martin Griver was made adminis-
e justified except in certain aspects. trator of the diocese. In 1862 Dom Serra returned to
PraaoNB. Menurirt (Catholic Rbcord Socibtt). II, IV (Lon- ^P^' ?^k®^ ^® ^^A'^tJ?^' • - «„_«^ n;ol,^,>
don. 1906, 1907); Morb. HUtaria Protineim AnglieafUB (St. On 10 October, 1869, Fr. Gnver was named Bishop
Omers. 1660); Knox. LetUrt of Cardinal Allen (London. 1882); of Tloaand Administrator ApostollC of Perth. In
Pollen, Politico of BnglUh C^Jcf mThe Month (lW2r^); j j jgyg ^ became Bishop of Perth. In 1863
Krvrscrmab, Indononaprojecte der katholuehen Mdehte ffegen «'"*J» *o*"» "^ i/cv€»4xi« ^** ^ r«.,:i^r^-j ««J
Bngland (Lcipiig. 1892); Mstxb, Enf^nd vnd dU katholtteho churches Were erected at Fremantle, uuildtord, and
Kireho unter Elizabeth (Rome, 1911); Bbllsshbim, Cardinal York. The Cathedral of Perth, begun in that year, was (
iro»«r»v (Camden SociBTT, 1896. 1898) ; Coiwabd, Uneambaaaade Mercv established an orphanage at Fertn. in 1»»J
d Rome »tm» Henri IV (Paris, 1900?) ; Lafleub de Kebiiainoant the diocese contuned 8500 CathoUcs, With 1300 chil-
Chrtstophe de .^'^^'^Jk^i^^^^S^^/fJI^i^Yw^n^?^ V A^^lll drcn iu the parochial schools. Bishop Griver died on
I.«tt«r«, m vanoua editions by Amblot DE La HOUB8A1B (Amater- , xt u loon t>^.^ «a rt..««^ir».« :«* QTxa;n ll
dttn, 1708); dAobrt (Paris. 1894), Tamibbx ob Labboqub 1 November, 1886. Bom at Granollers m Spain, 11
PEETINAX
732
PERU
November, 1810, he studied medicine, but later joined
the priesthood and went out witib Dom Serra in 1849.
He laboured strenuously in building up the diocese,
and was a man of wonderful asceticism; after his
death a wooden cross twelve inches long was found
attached to his shoulders, fastened permanently into
his flesh by five iron spikes. Dr. Matthew Gibney, who
had been appointed Bishop of Scythopolis and Coad-
jutor of Perth cum jure succeasioniSf was consecrated
at Perth, 23 Jcmuary, 1887. Under his guidance the
diocese made rapid progress, as in his earlier days, so
during his episcopate, he was an ardent apostle of re-
ligious education for children. He introauced all the
rdigious congregations mentioned below, except the
Sistersof Mercy and the Sisters of St. Joseph. In 1889,
with two Vincentians, he gave a mission throughout
the whole of his diocese. In 1890 he set out for.
Beadle Bay, where he established a successful native
mission, under the care of the Trappists. who were
later replaced by the Pallotine Fathers and the Sisters
of St. John of God from Subiaco, Perth. Owing to
advanced years. Dr. Gibney resigned his see and has
been succeeded by Most Reverend P. J. Clune, C.SS.R.
(1911). Dr. Clune, bom in Clare, Ireland, 1863, was
ordained for the Diocese of Goulboum (q. v.) 24 June,
1886. In 1892 he returned to Ireland, and became a
Redemptorist. After being stationed at Dundalk and
Limerick, he was sent to Wellington, New Zealand, as
rector of the Redemptorist monastery; after which he
was superior at North Perth till his election as bishop.
From the original Diocese of Perth, three additional
ecclesiastical districts have been formed: New Norcia
(1847); the Vicariate Apostolic of Kimberley (1887);
and the Diocese of Geraldton (1898).
Statistics of reliraous congregations. — Men: Oblates
of Mary Immaculate (1894), 2 houses, 11 members;
Redemptorists'(1894). 1 monastery, 8 members; Irish
Christian Brothers (1894), 4 houses, 18 members.
Women: Sisters of Mercy (1846), 12 houses, 153 nuns;
Sisters of St. Joseph of the Apparition (1855), 6 houses,
46 nuns; Sisters of St. John of God (1885), 4 houses,
43 nuns; Sisters of Notre-Dame des Missions (1887),
4 houses, 22 nuns; Presentation Sisters (1900), 3
houses, 12 nuns; Sisters of St. Joseph of the Sacred
Heart (1890), 5 houses, 16 nuns; Institute of the
Blessed Virgin Mary, or Loreto Nuns (1897), 2 houses,
26 professed sisters. There are 22 hi^ schools (3
boys', 19 girls'), with 1238 pupils; 43 primary schools
with 5230 pupils; teachers engaged, 408; 1 boys'
orphanage; 1 girls' orphanage; 1 boys' industrial
school; 1 girls' reformatory; 1 Magdalene Asylum; 2
hospitals (these charitable institutes contain 413
inmates); 26 ecclesiastical districts; 51 churches; 44
secular and 13 regular priests ; 27 brothers ; 366 nuns;
54 lay teachers and a Catholic population of 45.000.
MoBAN, Hi»i. of the CaJthalie Church in Atutralatia (Sydney,
e. d.). 553-01; 969-79; Atutralanan Catholic Directory (Sydney,
1010). A. A. MacErlean.
Pertinaz, Pubuus HELvros, Roman Emperor (31
Dec., 192), b. at Alba Pompeia, in Liguria, 1 Au-
gust, 126; d. at Rome 28 March, 193. A freedman's
son, he taught grammar at Rome before entering the
army. Because of his military ability and his com-
petence in civil positions, he was made praetor and
consul. His services in the campaign against Avidius
Cassius led Marcus Aurelius to give Pertinax the chief
command of the army along the Danube, a position
he filled with such distinction that Marcus Aurelius
made him successively governor of Mcesia, Dacia, and
Syria.
Commodus first made him commander-in-chief of
the troops in Britain, then appointed him governor in
Africa, and finally made him prefect of the city of
Rome. On account of a conspiracy against Com-
modus many innocent persons, including Pertinax,
were banished. After tne strangling of Commodus,
Pertinax was proclaimed emperor by the aoldiefs at
the suggestion of Lstus, prefect of the prsetorian
guard. Pertinax had himself elected as head of the
State once more by the senators and revived the title
"Princeps Senatus"; on the first day of his reign he
assumed the title "Pater Patriae". Pertinax strove to
restore order in the administration of the State. By
selling at auction the costly furniture and plate of
Commodus and by a frugal administration, before
three months he was able to make gifts of money
to the people and eive to the pnetorian guaid the
promised largess. He also was able to resume public
works. He separated pubUc lands from those belong-
ing to the emperor, endeavoured to bring about the
resettling of deserted estates, to recall those arbitrarily
banished, and to bring informers to trial. He refused
the title of Augusta for his wife, or that of GsBsar for
his son until he had earned the honour. When the
prsBtorians saw that the emperor meant to restore the
ancient discipline and when the prefect Lsetus noticed
that he strove to limit his own mfluenoe, he aioused
the soldiers of the guard against the emperor. After
suppressing the revolt of the consul, Sossius Faloo,
Pertinax declined to put him to death, though the
Senate had decreed his execution. Several pnetorjans
were suspected of being members of the conspiracy;
Lsetus had these put to death without any trial and
made the soldiers believe that it was done by imperial
command. The prsetorians now resolved to depose
Pertinax. One evening a mob of about two bundled
soldiers went to the palace to murder the emperor.
The latter came out to them without arms in the hope
of quieting them by his personal influence. His words
impressed the mutineers and they put their swoids
back in the scabbards, when suddenlv a Tongrian
cavalryman fell upon Pertinax and stsJi>Ded him in the
breast. This incited the others who fell upon Pei^
tinax; the emperor's head was put on a lanoe and
carried through the streets of the city to the camp.
Severus, the second successor of Pertinax, deified him.
ScHiLLKR, Getch. der rihn, KaitrtMt, I, pt. II (Gotba, 1883);
▼ON DoMAAKKWflKi, QcBch. der rUm. Kaittr (Leipsis, 1009).
Karl Hokber.
Peru, a republic on the west coast of South Amer-
ica, founded in 1821 after the war of independence,
having been a Spanish colony. It is diflScult to ascer-
tain the true ongin of the word "Peru", as the opin-
ions advanced thereon are vague, numerous, and con-
flicting. Almost all, however, derive it from the terms
"Bern", "Pelu", and "Bmi", which were, respec-
tively, the names of an Indian tribe, a river, and a
region. Prescott asserts that "Peru" was unknown
to the Indians, and that the name was given by the
Spaniards. Peru's territory lies between V* 29' N.
and 19^ 12' 30" S. lat., and 61** 54' 45" and 81** 18' 39"
W. long. Bounded by Ecuador on the north, Braiil
and Bolivia on the east, Chile on the south, and the
Pacific Ocean on the west, its area extends over 679,000
sq. miles. The Andean range runs through Peru from
S. £. to N. W., describing a curve paraUelto the coast
History. — However true the fact may be that gold
was the object uppermost in the minds of the Si)ani8h
conquerors of the New World, it is a matter of history
that in that conquest, from the northernmost oonfin^
of Mexico to the extreme south of Chile, religion
always played a most importuit part, and tne trium-
phant march of Castile's banner was also the glorious
advance of the sign of the Saviour. That religion was
the key-note of the American Crusades is evident from
the history of their origin; the sanction given them
by the Supreme Pontiff; the throng of self -de voted
missionaries who followed in the wake of the con-
querors to save the souls of the conquered ones; the
reiterated instructions of the Crown, the ereat pur-
pose of which was the conversion of tne natives; and
irom the acts of the soldiers themselves (Prescott,
"Conquest of Peru", II, iii)- The finrt news of the
KOBteace of the great Empire of the Incaa reached the
BpaniordB in the year 1511, when Vasco NuSei de
Balboa, the discoverer of the Pacific Ocean, was en-
gaged in an expedition against some Indian tritKs in
the interior of Darien. Perhaps the glory of conquer-
ing Peru would have fallen upon Balboa had not the
jealousy of his chief, Pedro Arias de Avila, Governor
of Panama, cut short lus brilliant career. The second
attempt to reach the coveted domain of the Incas
health to return. Francisco Pizarro, after two
eeesful expeditions (1524-25 and 1526-27) and a trip to
Spwn tor the purpose of interesting Charles V in the
undertaking, finaJly started the actual work of in-
vading Peru, sailing from Panama in January, 1531.
(See PizARBO, Fhancibco.)
When the peiwstent commander finaJly reached the
country in 1532, the vast Inca empire is siud to have
extended over more than one-half of the entire South
American continent. He found a people highly civi-
Uzed, with excellent social and political institutions,
who had developed agriculture to a remarkable degree
through a splendid system of irrigation. They wor-
^ipp^ the sun as embodying their idea of a supreme
being who ruled the universe. This worship was at-
tended by an elaborate system of ptiestcr^t, ritual,
&nimal sacrifices, and other solemnities. After the
conqueet had been consummated (1^34), Father Vi-
cente Valverde, one of the five Dominicans who bad
accompanied the conqueror from Spain, was nomi-
nated Bishop of CuEco and soon afterwards confirmed
by Paul III, his juriadiction extending over the whole
territory of the newly-conquered domain. He was
assassinated by the Indians of Puna, off Guayaquil,
in 1541 when returning to Sptun. Upon taking Cuzco,
the capital of the empire, Piiarro provided a municipal
government for the city, and encouraged its settle-
ent by liberal zranta of lands and houses. On 5
Sept., 153S, Bi^op Volverde laid the foundations of
the cathedral, and later a Dominican monastery was
erected on the site of the Incaic temple of the sun, a
nunnery was established, and several churches and
monasteries built. The Dominicans, the Brothers of
Mercy, and other missionaries actively engaged in
propagating the Faith among the natives. Besides
the pnests that Pizarro was required to take in his
own vessels, the succeeding ships brought Eulditional
numbers of misaionaries, who devoted themselves
earnestly and disinterestedly to the task of spreading
the religion of Christ among the Indiana. Thrir con-
duct towards them was in marked contrast to that
of the conquerors, whose thirst for gold was never
satiated, and who, having ransacked the villages and
stripped the temples of their gold and silver orna-
ments^ had enslaved the Indiana, forcing them to
work m the mines for their benefit.
At the outlet and for several years thereafter the
missionaries had to labour under almost unsurmount-
able obstacles, such as the uprising of the Inca Manco
(a brother of Atahualpa. whom Pizarro had placed on
the vacant throne) and the first civil wars among
the conquerors themselves. These culminated in the
execution of Diego de Almagro (1538) by order of
Pizarro, and the assassination of the latter by the
former's son, and were followed by other no less
bloody conflicts between Cristobal Vacade Castro (the
newly-appointed governor) and Almagro's son (1543),
and Gonzalo Pirarro and Blasco Nufiez de Vela, the
first viceroy (1544-46). The news of this, the moat
formidable rebellion that had so far been recorded in
the history of Spun, caused a great sensation at the
Court, Father Pedro de la Gasca was aelected for the
delicate task of pacifying the colony. Provided with
unbounded powers, Gasca reached Peru in July. 1546,
and scarcely three years had elapsed when he accom-
13 PIB1T
plished the great object of his misoon. Having
reetor^l peace, his next step was to ameliorate the
condition of oppressed natives, in doing which he
went farther than was agreeable to the wishes of the
coloniats. Other reforms were introduced by the
f ar-aeeing priest, thus placiiig the administration upon
a sound oasiB and facilitating a more stable and or-
derly government by his successors. Upon his return
to Spain he was raised to the Bishopric of Palencia,
which diocese he administered until 1561, when he
was promoted to the vacant See of Siguensa. He died
in 1567 at the age of seventy-one. Unfortunately, the
disturbances of the country were renewed on the de-
parture of Gasca. The most serious uprising was that
Chitiicb or Li CoMFiilu, Auiqiiipi, Paair
of Francisco Fernandez Gir6n (1650-54) during the
r^ime of the second viceroy, Antonio de Mendota. -
Gir6n'a execution (Dec,, 1554) put on end to the last
of the civil wars among the conquerors; and through
the conciliatory and energetic measures of And^
Hurtado de Mendota, the third viceroy, the country
was at last pacified, and the authority of Spain firmly
established.
The Dominicans were the first ministers of the Gos-
pel to come to Peru, and did splendid and efficient
work in Christianizing the natives. They built many
churches, monasteries, convents, and colleges, and
acquired considerable prominence in ecclesiaaticat
matters during the seventeenth century. Saint Rose
of Lima (1586-1617), the patron of the Peruvian
capital, was educated in one of their nunneries, and
lived there until her death. The Franriscan fathers
were also among the pioneer missionaries of Peru,
and were prominent for their unceasing labours in the
remotest wilds of South America. One of them, Saint
Francis Solanua, made a' journey from Peru to the
Paraguayan Chaco, preacliing to the tribes in their
own dialects (1588-89), The Franciscan churches
and buildings are among the handsomest in the coun-
try. Likewise, the ^0<k1 work of the Order of Saint
Augustine stands high in the annals of Peruvian
church history. Of the several temples and coaventfl
PERU
734
PEBU
-erected by the order during the vioeroyalty, the church
of Our Lady of Mercy is one of the most attractive in
Lima. In 1567. at the earnest request of Philip II,
Saint Francis Boma, then General of the Society
of Jesus, sent the nrst Jesuits to Peru under Father
Geronimo Ruis Portillo, who with his six companions
arrived at Callao on 28 March, 1568, and entered
lima on 1 April. As in Paraguay and other parts of
South America, the work of the Jesuits in Peru was
most effective in propagating the Faith among the
Indians as well as in educating them. After estab-
lishing a convent, a seminanr, and a church in Lima,
they built temples and schools in almost all the towns.
At Juli, oif the shores of Titicaca Lake, they founded
a training school for missionaries (1577), where the
novices were taught the native dialects. At that time
the first printing press in South America was intro-
duced by the order. Among their number were sev-
eral of the most famous educators^ historians, scien-
tists, geographers, naturalists, and hterary men of the
period. Their educational institutions soon became
renowned, not only in the American colonies, but also
in Spain and Europe. The g^^at and redeeming work
of tne Jesuits was flourislung when the decree of
Charles III of 1769, ordering their expulsion from the
Spanish domains, reached Peru and was executed by
the Viceroy Manuel de Amat.
The Dominican Geronimo de Loayza, first Bishop
of Lima (1546-1575), was succeeded by Saint Toribio
de Mogrovejo (1538-1606). Nominated to the See
of Lima in 1578, he entered that capital on 24 May,
1581. He learned the Quichua language thoroughly
in order to find out for himself the real condition and
actual wants of the Indians, whose interests he pro-
tected and promoted with the greatest zeal and care.
Such was his activity that within comparatively few
years he held fourteen synods and tnree councils,
through which many beneficial reforms were insti-
tuted; and FjersonaUy visited twice the whole terri-
tory under his jurisdiction, comprisinp; at that time
the greater portion of the South Amencan continent.
These tours of inspection he made on foot and ac-
companied only by two of his secretaries. He had
scarcely started on his third ioumey when death sur-
prised him on 23 March, 1606. Among other works
which stand as a lasting monument to his memory
are the Seminary of Saint Toribio and the Convent
of Santa Clara in Lima. The Holy Office was estab-
lished in Peru in 1570, during the regime of the vice-
roy Francisco de Toledo, the tribunal of the Inquisi-
tion sitting at Lima and extending its jurisdiction
over the Captaincy-General of Chile, the Presidency
of Quito, the Viceroyalty of Buenos Ayres, and part
of the Viceroyalty of New Granada. It was abolished
on 23 Sept., 1813, when the Viceroy Abascal enforced
the order to that effect, enacted by the Cortes of
Cadiz on 22 Feb. of the same year, fiut shortly after
Ferdinand VII was restored to the throne of Spun,
the inquisition was re-established in Peru (16 Jan.,
1815) and operated until its definite abolition in 1820,
when the struggle for freedom had assumed fiUl sway.
By an express provision, the jurisdiction of the Holy
Office never comprised the Indians, who continued
under the authonty of the bishops and the ordinary
courts.
For nearly three centuries, Peru was ruled by thirty-
eight viceroys, or, in their stead, the ^vemment was
temporarily exercised by the Audiencia Real of Lima,
founded in 1544^ As the representative of the King of
Spain the viceroy was vested with almost absolute
powers, and besides his executive functions he dis-
charged those of Vice-Patron of the Church, Presi-
dent of the Audiencia, captain-general of the army,
and Superintendent of the Royal Exchequer. The
movement for emancipation in Peru began early in
the nineteenth century, but the first attempts were
repregaed with oondderBble severity, and it was not
until 28 July, 1821, that indep>endeiice was declared.
The defeat of the royalists at the battle of Ayacucho
(9 Dec., 1824) put an end to the Spanish rule. Under
the independent government, the executive assumed
the same rights of patronage vested in the viceroy,
and the five different constitutions adopted since the
establishment of the republic recogniz^ the Roman
Catholic religion as the official church of the countiy
with exclusion of any other.
Population. — ^The last census of Peru was taken
in 1876, hence the present population of the Tepub-
lic is known onlv approximately. According to the
enumeration of that year, the number of inhabitants
was 2,676,000. Recent ^estimates have, however,
been made (1906) that show the population to have
increased to 3,547,829. Of this total fifty per cent,
is formed bv Indians; fifteen per cent, by whites,
mostly the descendants of Spaniards ; three per cent,
by negroes; one per cent, by Chinese and Japanese;
and the remaining thirtr^-one per cent, by the off-
spring of intermarriage between the different races.
According to the ''Annuario Ecclesiastico " of Rome
(1909), the Catholic population of Peru is 3,133,830
distributed as follows among the various dioceses
Lima. 606,900; Arequipa, 270,460; Ayacucho, 200,610
Chachapoyas, or Maynas, 95,370 ; Cusco, 480,680
Hudnuco, 288,100; Huaraz, 350,000; Puno, 260,810
Trujillo, 580,900.
Ecclesiastical Divisions. — The ecclesiastical
Province of Peru comprises: one archdiocese, Lima,
erected in 1543 and raised to metropolitan rank in
1546; nine suffragan dioceses, enumerated in order
of seniority : Cuzco, 1536; Arequipa, 16O0; Ayacucho,
formerly Huamanga, 1615; Trujillo, 1616; Chacha-
g»yas, or Mavnas, 1843; Hudnuco, 1865; iSino, 1865;
uaraz, 1900; and three prefectures Apostolic: San
Leon de Amazonas, 1900; San Francisco del Ucayali,
1900; and Santo Domingo del Urubamba, 1900. The
cathedral and episcopal residences are situated in the
capital city of lima. There are 66 parish churches in
the Archdiocese of Lima, 85 in Cuzco, 71 in Arequipa,
102 in Trujillo, 87 in Ayacucho, 44 in Chachapoyas, 58
in Hudnuco, 52 in Puno. and 48 in Huaras. Tlie num-
ber of additional churcnes and public chapels is per-
haps about three times this number, as each parish
has three or four churches besides the parish church.
The number of secular priests corresponds to the
number of parishes, approximately one-fourth of the
entire number, when the number of assistant parish
priests, chapluns, and priests without regular ap-
pointments are taken into consideration. The reli-
gious orders, both male and female, are well repre-
sented. In the Archdiocese of Lima the Franciscans
have three convents, and the Lazarists, Redemptoi^
ists, Fathers of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Idaiy,
Jesuits, Mercedarians, Augustinians, and Fathers of ^.
Camillus one each. Among the women, the Tertiariee
of St. Francis have five convents; the Sisters of St.
Joseph of Cluny four; the Donunicans, Carmelitea
Conceptionists, Salesians, Religious of the Sacred
Heart, and of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary
two each* the Poor Clares, Bemardines, Capuchin-
esses, ana Augustinians one each.
In the various dioceses many retigious houses are
to be found. Cuzco: Franciscans two, Dominicans,
Mercedarians, Poor Clares, Carmelites, Dominican
nuns, Sisters of the Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary,
one each; Arequipa: Franciscans two, Jesuits, Las-
arists, Salesians, Dominicans, Mercedarians, Domin-
ican nuns, Carmelites, Sistors of the Sacr^ Hearts of
Jesus and Mary one each; Trujillo: Franciscans
two, Lazarists, Conceptionists, Carmelites, Poor
Clares, Tertiaries o^ St. Dominic one each ; Ayacucho:
Redemptorists, Franciscans, Carmelites, Poor Clares
one each; Hutouco: Franciscans, Tertiaries of St.
Francis (women), Conceptionists one each; Huarai:
Franciscans, Sisters of Our Lady of Lourdes, Tertiar-
•PERU
735
PERU
166 of St. Francis (women) each one. The Dioceses of
Chachapoyas and Puno have no refigious houses. The
three prefectures Apostolic, in the north, centre, and
south of the republic, are under the care of the Augus-
tinians, Franciscans, and Dominicans, who work
principally for the conversion of the infidel native
tribes. 'Jhe Government allows a small subsidy for
the maintenance of these misnons, but their greatest
source of income is derived from the "Propagaci6n
de la Fe en d Oriente del Perti". This pious associa-
tion has spread over the whole republic and collects
the contributions of the faithful, wnich are, relatively
speaking, very abundant. Each diocese has its own
(uocesan seminary for the ed^cation of its priests.
The Franciscans are in charge of the seminaries of the
dioceses of Cuzco and Ayacucho, the Lazarists of
those of Trujillo and Arequipa, the Fathers of the
Sacred Hearts of Jesus and Mary of that of Huaras,
and the rest are under the care of the seculars. The
Government does not claim supervision over the
seminaries, which are under the control of the respec-
tive bishops.
Charities. — ^There are some thirty hospitals in
Peru administered by various charitable societies, one
old people's home, one orphiui asyliun, and several
congregations especially dedicated to cnaritable works,
besides a great number of private associations devoted
to the work of gratuitous teaching, visiting tlie sick
poor in their homes, l^alizing illicit unions, etc.
Laws. — Beliffwn. — ^Tne constitution, promulgated
on 10 Dec., I860, expressly provides that the nation
profess the Roman Cathouc relision; that the State
protect it and does not permit tne public exercise of
any other (Art. 4). There is, however, no interference
in personal religious beliefs, and there are Protestant
churches in the republic. Under the Organic Law of
17 Sept., 1857 (Arts. 49-^54), the prefects of depart-
ments are raven certain supervisoir powers over eccle-
siastical affairs connected with the national patron-
age. Article 94 of the Constitution, on the duties of
the president of the republic, establishes that the
chief magistrate shall: exercise the ecclesiastical pat-
ronage according to law; nominate for archbishops
and bishops, with the approval of Congress, those who
have been chosen accorcung to law; nominate church
dignitaries, canons, curates, and incumbents of ec-
clesiastical benefices; conclude concordats with the
Apostolic See, according to instructions given by
Ck>ngress; grant or refuse, with the assent of Conicress,
passage to decrees of coimcils, or pontifical Bulls,
Briefs, and Rescripts; but in case that these affect
matters in litigation, the supreme court of justice of
the republic must be previously heard.
Article 1358 of the Civil Code in force, under which
the Church and religious orders were prohibited from
disposing of their property without the consent of
the Government, was repeflued, 30 Sept., 1901. Hence
the Church in Peru, as a juridical entity, can acquire
and possess property of all kinds, as well as contract
obligations and exercise civil or criminal action, ac-
cording to the statutes of the oountiy, the concordat,
and the ecclesiastic canons and discipline. Temples
and all places of worship are exempt from taxation,
but other church property yielding a revenue of $100
or more is subject to the ecclesiastical tax according
to the Reg;ulation of 20 Dec., 1886. Arts. 83 to 94
of the Civil Code refer to clergymen and relifdous,
containing a definition of who are such; the qualifica-
tions nec^saiy for the profession; their exemption
from pubUc services; the recovery of civil rights by
religious upon their secularization, etc. Tlie religious
orders are governed by the Regulations for Re^uJars
(Reqlamenio de Reaulares), approved by Resolution of
12 Jan., 1872. Although the modem law obliges all
citizens to military duty, there has never been a case
where it has been app^lied to priests or seminarists.
No q)ecial exemption is granted to clerics in regard
to trials; thev are tried in the public courts, civil or
criminal, as the case may be. There is no law enforc-
ing the observance of holy dajrs, although in the cap-
ita a particular ordinance exists which requires that
stores be closed on Sundays and Holy Days. Pro-
cessions and other public acts of worship may be held
without interference from the Government. The ad-
ministration of the different branches of the Church in
Peru, in so far as the national patronage is concerned,
is entrusted to the Minister ot Justice, Worship, ana
Public Instruction. The fiscal budget assigns the
sum of $100,000 for the maintenance of the Church,
including the salaries of prelates, rectors, etc.
WiLLfi AND Testaments. — The proceaure that ob-
tains in Peru is similar to that in force in Spain, being
based upon the Roman law. According to the Civu
Code, wills may be either open or closed. An open
will (iestamento abierto) may be executed in a public
instrument, i. e., before a notary public, in a private
document, or verbally (Arts. 651-^56). There are,
besides, special forms of wills, such as the military,
the maritime, and others, in which, on account of the
unusual circumstances attending upon each particular
case, the ordinary formalities of law are dispensed
with, and others of a less restrictive nature prescribed
instead (Arts. 674-681). A closed will (testamento
cerrado) must be duly sealed by the testator himself.
A foreigner owning property in Peru must testate
according to the provisions of the Civil Code (Art.
692) ; and if he have an estate abroad he may dispose
of it by will executed in accordance with the laws
of the countnr wherein such estate may be located, or
with those of his native land (Art. 693), provided he
have no rightful heir or heirs in Peru (Art. 695). The
substantive law governing wills and testaments, suc-
cession, etc. is contained in Arts. 651 to 954 of the
Civil Code.
Cemeteries are under the authority of charitable
associations and the parish priests. Under the Reso-
lutions of 20 Nov., 1868 and 19 Jan., 1869, the Mu-
nicipal Councils of the republic a^ instructed to estab-
lish and maintain laic cemetenes for the burial of
persons not beloi^ng to the Catholic Church.
Marriage and Divorce. — The Peruvian Civil Code
expressly prescribes that marriages in the republic
must be performed with the formalities established
by the Council of Trent; but in order to enable non-
Catholics to marry in the country a law was enacted
on 23 Dec., 1897. empowering the Akaldea (mayors)
of the Provincial Councils to solemnize marriages.
Divorce in Peru, as established by Arts. 191 seq. of the
Civil Code, is not absolute, i. e., does not terminate
the bond of union. Marriage can only be nullified
through the regular ecclesiastical procedure, if by
reason of canomcal disabilities, or tnrou^ the ordi-
nary courts of justice, if on account of civil impedi-
ments. Sec. Ill of the Qvil Code (Arts. 120-217)
is devoted to the subject of matrimony, including
divorce.
Schoole, — ^Education in Peru is a national institu-
tion under the Department of Justice, Public In-
struction, and Worship, but is also given by private
establishments, of which there are several maintained
by religious orders. It is divided into primary, sec-
ondary, and academic. Primary instruction was,
until 1905, when the new public education law went
into effect, in the hands of the municipalities, but in
view of their limited resources the national (Govern-
ment found it necessary to take charge of it. It is
free and compulsory and is given in about 2500 public
schools, with 3105 teachers, and an attendance of
162,298 pupils (1909). Secondary education is fur-
nished by thirty government colleges and several pri-
vate institutions. Academic instruction is afforded
by the universities of the republic. Foremost among
them is the Universitv of Saint Mark, founded at
lima in 1574, which has faculties of theology, law,
PEKUGIA
736
PERUGIA
medicine, letters, sciences, and political economy.
There are also the Universities of Saint Thomas of
Cuzco, Saint Thomas of Trujillo, and Saint Augus-
tine of Arequipa. Normal, agricultural, and manual
training schools are largely attended.
LoRBNTB, HUtoria del Peni (Lima, 1863-76) ; Prbscott. HU-
tory of the Conquest of Peru (Boston. 1859); Raimondi, El Peni
(Lima, 1890-1902); Bermiidez. AnaUs de la Caiedral de Lima
(Lima, 1903); Enock, The Aruiea and the Amazon (London,
1908) ; loBM, Peru (New York. 1908) ; Wright. The Old and New
Peru (Philadelphia, 1908) ; Garland, Peru in 1906 (Lima, 1907) ;
Sekbbe, Ni^ee on Peru (London, 1901); Bulletin of the Pan-
American Union (August. 1910).
J. Moren-Lacalle.
Perugia, Archdiocese of (Perusina), in Umbria,
Central Italy. The city is situated on a hill on the
right of the Tiber. The Gothic cathedral is of the
fourteenth century, its facade being yet unfinished;
it contains paintings by Baroccio, Nlanni, and Signo-
relli; there is a marble sarcophagus in which are the
remains of Urban IV and Martin IV; in the chapel
del Santo Anello is preserved an onjrx ring, which is
said to have been the marriage rin^ of Our Lad^, and
which was venerated first at Chiusi, where it was
stolen, and then taken to Perugia in the fifteenth cen-
tury; in the chapter library is preserved a codex of
the Gospel of St. Luke, of the sixth century. Other
churches are: San Pietro dei Cassinesi, the church of
a monastery founded by St. Peter Vincioh about 1000;
San Ercolano, the high altar of which is made of an
ancient sarcophagus; Sant' Angelo, a round building,
dating from the sixth century ; the Madonna delta
Luce, a graceful little temple by Galeazzo Aleesio;
San Francesco del Prato, now the seat of the " Acca-
demia" of fine arts. The university, founded in 1320,
has three faculties, and contains a museum of Etrus-
can, Roman, and Christian antiquities, with many
sculptures and inscriptions, among the latter, the
"Tabulae Perusinae", discovered in 1822. The most
notable ancient monuments of the town are the Porta
Augusta; the tomb of the Volumnii, which was dis-
covered in 1840 by Vermiglioli; and the Etruscan
walls.
Perugia was among the most important cities of
the Etruscans^ with whom it took part in the wars
against Rome m 310 and 295 b. c, as also in the Sam-
mte War. The Perugian War (41 b. c.) is famous; the
troops of Anthony were shut up here, where they were
compelled to surrender. During the Gothic War, Pe-
ru^a suffered various sieges, by the Byzantines in
537 and in 552, and by the Goths in 546 and 548.
The Lombards at the time of their first incursion had
taken possession of the city, but in 592 it came again
under the Byzantine power and was made the seat
of a dux. In 749 it was besieged by the Lombard
King Rachis, who, however, was persuaded by Pope
Zacharias to raise the siege. Pepin gave the city to
the Holy See. From the begitming of the eleventh
century, Perugia was established as a free commune
and was in struggles with the neighbouring cities of
Umbria and of Tuscany (Chiusi, 1012; Cortona,
1049; Assisi, 1054; Todi, 1056; Foligno, 1080 and
1090); it was governed by consuls (from 5 to 16), for
whom were suDstitutcd in 1303 the vriori deUe arti;
after 1174 there was a podestdf and later a capitano
del popolo.
Perugia, friendly to Florence and faithful to the Holy
See, was essentially a Guelph city, and in the thir-
teenth century the popes established their residence
here for a long time; tour of them were elected here
(Honorius III, Honorius IV, Celestine V, and Clement
V). On the other hand, continuing its wars with
neighbouring cities (Spoleto, from 1324, was besieged
for two years), Perugia extended its sovereignty over
the greater portion of Umbria, and over a part of
Tuscany. In 1375 it was among the first cities that
revolted against Gregory IX at the instance of the
Florentines. Meaowhilei there had been fonned two
parties : the Raspanti (the popular party) and the
Beccarini (the party of the nobles), and between then
they had made it possible for Biondo Michdotti to
become lord of the city in 1390; he, however, wn
killed in 1393, and then Gian GaJeasso Visconti took
possession of the town : but in 1^03 it became sub-
ject to Boniface IX. Atterwarda it fell into the power
of Ladislao di Napoli ; in 1416 the city was taken by
Braccio da Montone, who was recognised as lord of
Perugia by Martin V. At his death in 1424 tiie
nobles came into power, but contention Boon devel-
oped among them, and eventually the Baglioni nude
away with the Oddi family. Finally, Gian Paolo
Baglione became a tvrant of the city, making himself
detested by his cruelty and dissolute habits. He was
reduced to order in 1506 b^ Julius II; but fresh
cruelties against his own relations led to lus decapita-
tion by order of Leo X in 1520; Perugia then came
once more into immediate dependency upon the Holy
oee.
In 1534 Rodolfo Baglione set fire to the Apos-
tolic palace, and the vicele^ate was slain; and no
sooner had order been established after these events,
than a rebellion broke out on account of the tax on
salt, which Paul III had increased in 1540; Perugia
declared itself a ^'city of Christ", and confided its
keys to the care of a crucifix. On 6 July, however, it
was compelled to surrender to the troops of Pierluisi
Famese and lost its freedom. Paul III built a fortreBS
to prevent further revolts of the Perugians, while
Juhus III restored to them the greater part of their
privileges. In the rebellion of 1848, the first act of
the Perugians was to demolish the tower of Paul IIL
In 1859 there was a provision^ Government estab-
lished, but the Pontifical troops soon took possesBion
of the city, though they did not conunit tne acts of
cruelty of which they have been accused. Finally in
1860 General de Sonnaz took possession of the town
in the name of the Kin^ of Sardinia.
Blessed John of Perugia, one of the first companions
of St. Francis, died in 1230. In the martyrologies are
found the names of the martyrs Constantius (Coo-
stantinus, whom some believe to have been a bishop),
Florentius, and Felicissimus, who died at Pougia.
Under Decius one Decentius was bishop, according to
the tradition ; but the first bishop of whom there is any
certain knowledge was St. Herculanus, killed by Kiii£
Totilain546; many admit there were two bishops imd
saints of this name, of whom the first is said to have
died either in one of the great persecutions or under
Julian the Apostate (CappeUetti).
St. Herculanus was succeeded by Joannes, who
consecrated Pope Pelagius I (566); Aventius (591);
Laurentius(649); Benenatus (679) ; St. Asdepiodonu
(about 700), whose relics were later taken to Meti;
Conon (998) and Andreas (1033), who had various
controversies with the abbots of Sfin Pietro; Joannes
(1105), who consecrated the monasterv of Monte
dlorona; Vivianus, who was present at the council of
1179; Giovanni (1^06), who pve a convent to St.
Francis; Salvio de' Salvi (1231), a pious and learned
prelate, who restored San Stefanck the ancient cathe-
dral; Francesco Poggi, O. Min. (1312), who built S.
Domenico nuovo; Andrea Bontempi (1339), a car-
dinal, and legate general of Umbria; Andrea Giovanni
Baglione (1434), who filled several convents with
reformed religious; Dionisio Vannucci (1482), who
erected the altar of the chapel del Sacro Anello;
Giovanni Lopez (149li), a cardinal who enjoyed in-
fluence under Alexander VI; Trilo Bagfione (1501),
deposed by Alexander VI for having taken up arms
against Cssar Borgia and restored to his see by
Julius II; Antonio Ferreri (1506), who suspected
by Julius II died in the Castle of S. Angelo in 1508;
Cardinal Agostino Spinola (1510), under whom the
canons of the catb^ral, who since the tw^th century
had lived according to the Rule of St. Augustine, were
"1
y
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K0li
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•■ 4^ft h ■
T CBKWT (detail)
738
nsAso
Except for some journe3r8 to Perugia, Venice, and
Tano, Florence was his centre of operations for that
period. To it belong the "Crucifixion" and the
^'Gethsemane" of the Florence Accademia; the fa-
mous "PietA" of the same museum; the "Taking
down from the Cross " of the Pitti (1495) ; the " Vision
of St. Bernard " in the Museum of Munich; but the
most wonderful of these works is the great fresco of
the "Crucifixion" in Sta Maddalena d4 Pazzi (1496).
The beautv of the faces, the stirring gravity of the
scene, the finish of the colouring^ and the perfection of
the landscape rank this picture nrst among Perugino's
works in Italy. The triptych of the "Nativity". (1500)
at London is a miniature of this fresco almost equal to
it in beauty. Perugino shows himself an incomparable
landscape artist in the pictures of his best penod; he
was an eminent master of the punting of the atmos-
phere. He derives his expression from the rarest
artistic qualities, from a finished composition, spacing
of figures, use of oils, and deep, harmonious colouring,
thereby achieving an effect of depth and fullness. In
his masterpieces, though he transforms the reality to
a great extent, he is nevertheless very true to nature.
He copies the nude quite as accurately as the most
able of the Florentines, as is seen in the wonderful "St.
Sebastian" of the Louvre, and he is capable of the
most exact and close veracity, for example, the two
admirable heads of Carthusians at the Florence Acca-
demia, which sufiSce to place him in the front rank
of portrait painters. Perusino is one of the greatest
ana most popular artists of Italy and his work is dis-
tinctive for the creation of the "pious picture".
The decoration of the Cambio, or Bourse of
Perugia (1499), marks the beginning of a period of
decline. The effect of this h^ decorated with fres-
coes on the four waUs and with (irabesques on the
ceiline is very charming, but the conception is ex-
tremely arbitrary, and the composition worthless and
insignificant. Ancient heroes, prophets, and sibyls
all nave the same disdainful expression; the whole
is neutral, abstract, vague. The artist replaces all
semblance of thought, conscience, and enort with
an appearance of sentiment which is merely senti-
mentality. Thenceforth Perugino is a deplorable ex-
ample of a great artist who destroys himself by
subordination to mere handicraft. Unquestionably
,he had a sublime period in his life, when he first
endowed incomparable plastic bodies with an un-
looked-for expression of the infinite and the divine,
but he soon abused this oft-repeated formula, the
arrangement became purely schematic, the figures
stereotyped, the colouring sliarp and acidulous, and aJl
emotion evaporated. The only part of his genius that
persisted to the end was an eye enamoured of the skies
and light. This decline was clearly evident in 1504,
when Isabella d'Este ordered the artist to paint the
"(Combat of Love and Chastity", now in the Louvre.
At this time art was achieving its most glorious con-
quests, as testified by the two famous cartoons of
Leonardo and Michelangelo (1506) at Florence. The
works of his last twenty years, frescoes and altar-
E' *.es, are scattered through Umbria, at Perugia,
llo, Siena etc. They add nothing to his glory.
> ceiling which he pamted for Julius II in 1508 m
the Camera dell' Incendio at the Vatican has at least
a high decorative value. In 1521 the old artist worked
once more in collaboration with Raphael. The latter
had left an imfinidied fresco at S. Spirito at Perugia
and after his death Perugino was commissioned to
finish it. Nothing shows more clearly the moral differ-
ence between these two geniuses, the wonderful pro-
gress and self-development of Raphael, the inmiobility
and intellectual apathy of his master. The latter died
of the pest at the age of seventy-eight.
Vasabi, L€ ViU, ed. Milakui (Florence, 1878); Mabchbbi,
27 Cambio di Perugia (Pratro. 1868) : Passavamt, Raphael <f Urbin
§t 9on pire (Puis, 1860) ; Btwi tur let peintm de VOmbne (1860);
MoBBLU. ItaUan painters (London, 1892-3); Bi .
Pietro Perugino in Rineta Contemporanea (1888); BmAOHiBOLui
Notizie e doeumenii inediii intomo a Pietro Vanued (Peracia, 1874) ;
BuBCKHABDT, Art Outde to Painting in Italy (London, 1879);
BBoneeoLLB, PUerinagte owUfrien* (Paria. 1896); La Jeuneete
de Perugin (Paris, 1901); Bbbxkbon, Central Italian jmintov
(London, 1897) ; Wiluambom. Perugino (London. 1903).
Locns GiLixT.
Perussi, Baldassare, architect and painter, b. at
Siena, 7 March, 1481; d. at Rome, 6 Jan., 1537. He
derived much benefit from the years of apprenticeship
under Bramante, Raphael, and Sangaik> during the
erection of St. Peters. An evidence of his genius
for independent work is the Pidazso Masaimi alle
Colonne, which he began in 1535. Almost all art
critics ascribe also to him the Villa Famesina. In
this, two wings branching off from a central hall,
a simple arrangement of pilasters, and a beautiful
frieze on the exterior of the building, airy halls, and a
few splendid rooms are combined m excellent taste.
The paintings which adorn the interior are for the
most part bv Penuzi. The decoration of the fa^e,
the work of Peruzzi, has ahnost entirely poished.
To decorate this viUa on the Tiber a number of
second-rate artists were employed, and just as the
style of the villa in no wise recsIlB the old casteUated
tjrpe of country-house, so the painting in harmony
with the pleasure-loving spirits of the time were thor-
oughly antique and uninspired by Christian ideas.
It seems that Raphael desired the composition of the
story of Amor and Psyche as a continuation of the
Galatea. On a plate-glass vault Peruazi painted the
firmament, with the zodiacal signs, the planets, and
other heavenly bodies, his perspective beuig so sldlf ul
as to deceive even the eye of Titian. The close prox-
imity of Raphael's work has overshadowed Peruzzi in
the ceiling decoration of the Stanza d'Eliodoro in the
Vatican. While Raphael designed the mural paint-
ings and, it may be, the entire plan for the decoration
of the hall, it is certain that the tapestry-like frescoes
on the ceiling are to be ascribed to Peruzxi. Four
scenes represent God's saving omnipotence as shown
in the case of Noe. Abraham, Jacob, and Moses. The
manifestation of the Lord in the burning bush and the
figure of Jehovah oonmianding Noe to enter the ark
were formerly considered works of Raphael. But
some time before, Peruzzi had produced for the church
of S. Croce in Gierusalenmie a mosaic ceiling, the beau-
tiful keystone of which represented the Saviour of the
world. Other paintings ascribed to him are to be
found in S. Onofrio and S. Pietro in Mostorio. That
Peruzzi improved as time went on is evident in his
later works, e. g., the "Madonna with Saints" in S.
Maria della Pace at Rome, and the fresco of Augustus
and the Triburtine Sibyl in Fontegiusta at Siena. As
our master interested himself in the decorative art
also, he exercised a strong influence in this direction,
not oidy by his own decorative painting but also by
furnishing designs for craftsmen of various kinds.
RsDTKNBACBER, Peruzti und eeine Werke (Kariaruhe. 1875);
WsESS, Baldauare Penust'e Anteil an dom maUrisehen Sekumdte
der ViUa Fameeina (Leipxig, 1894); Richtkr. Siena (LeipBC):
Stbinmann, Rom in der Renataeance (Leipsiip: GRmm,
Preeeo Deooratione and SCueeoM of Chwr^ee and PaUieee in Ao^r
(London, 18M).
G. GnBTlfANK.
Petarot Diocese of (Pesaurenbis), in central
Italy. The city is situated at the mouth of the river
Fogiia^ on the Adriatic Sea. The industries of tbe
town include fisheries, agriculture, the manufacture
of majolicas, the working of sulphur and lignite cod
mines, bituminous schist, and marble. The cathedral
(San Francesco) has a beautiful Gothic portal and a
* * Coronation of the Madonna " , by Bellini ; Uie church
of San Domenico is a work of Yn^ Paolo Belli; in the
latter is the mausoleum of the poet Giulio Peftieari.
The Palazzo Ducale was begun by Laurana before
1405, and was finished by the Gengas, father and son.
nSCENNIUS
739
PXSCH
In the Almerici palace is a museum of ancient inscrip-
tions, coins, ana ivory carvings, a collection of majol-
ica, a small picture gallerv, and the Olivieri library.
Beside the episcopal residence is the ancient duonu),
now closed, and the remuns of a Christian nym-
phaeum . Outside the city is the Villa Imperiale, built by
Alessandro Sforza (1469). Amone the scientific insti-
tutions mention should be made ofthe Liceo Musicale,
dedicated to Rossini, a native of Pesaro. Of the char-
itable institutions, the infant asylum dates from 1257,
and the retreat for penitent women from 1619.
At the beginning of the fourth century b. c, Pesaro
was occupied by the Senonee, who were driven from
there in 283. The town became a colony in 184.
During the Gothic War, it underwent frequent sieges.
In the eighth century Pesaro fell four times into the
hands of the Lombards, and finally was annexed to the
Pontifical States. Giovanni Malatesta, the Lame, be-
came podestd of Pesaro in 1285. Galeazzo Malatesta,
having no children, gave Pe^saro as a dower to his niece,
Costanza Varano, wife of Alessandro Sforza, and the
latter was confirmed in the possession of the city by
the Holy See in 1447. Costanzo Sforza (1473) fought
against the pope in the service of Florence, and left the
duch^ to his natural son Giovanni (1481); the latter
mamed Lucrezia Borgia, from whom he was eventu-
ally separated. Costanzo II inherited the duchy in
1510, under the tutela^ of his uncle Galeazzo, but in
1512 Julius II gave Pesaro to Francesco M. della
Rovere, Duke of Urbino, and the city remained united
to this duchy, of which it became the capital. In 1860
the town was valiantly defended by 800 men of the
Pontifical troops against the army of Cialdini, but it
was compelled to smrender.
The Blessed Francis of Pesaro (1350) and the
Blessed Michelina Metelli (1356) were of this city; the
first is buried in the cathedral, and the second in the
church of the (Ilonventuals; other natives of Pesaro
were the Blessed Santo, O. Min., who died in 1393;
Blessed Pietro Giacpmo (1496), an Augustinian, and
Blessed Serafina Sforza (1478). wife of the Duke Ales-
sandro Sforza; at the cathedral is the body of the
Blessed Felice Meda (d. 1444). The people of Pesaro
have great veneration for St. Terentius, a martjnr of
uncertain date. The first bishop, St. Florentius, is
said to have governed this see in the middle of the
second century^ while the bishop, St. Decentius, ac-
cording to traaition, suffered miu*t3rrdom imder Dio-
cletian; Bishop Heraclianus was at the Council of
Sardica in 343. Other bishops were Germanus, who
went with Cresconius di Todi to Constantinople m 497
as l^ate of Anastasius II; Felix, whom St. Gregory
the Great brought to trial; Maximus (649); Bene-
natus, a legate to the Sixth General Council (680);
Stabilinus (769); Adelberto (998), founder of the
monastery of S. Tommaso in Folgia, where Clement
II died in 1047; Pietro (1070), who was deposed, beii^g
a partisan of the schism of Barbarossa; Bartolomeo
(1218); Omodio (1346); Biagio GeminelU (1354);
Leale Malatesta (1370), who was the first to convoke
a diocesan synod; Cardinal Antonio Casini (1406);
Giulio Simonetti (1560), was at the Council of Trent,
and founded the seminary; Gian Lucido Palombara
(1658), consecrated the new cathedral; Umberto
Radicati (1742), held an important diocesan sjmod;
Cardinal Gennaro Ant. de' Simoni (1775) ; and Andrea
Mastai-Ferretti (1806).
The diocese is a suffragan of Urbino; it has 39
parishes, 47,000 inhabitants, 9 religious houses of men,
7 of women, 2 educational 'establishments for male
students, and 4 for girls.
CAprKLurm. Le Chiete d'lialia. III: Makcouhi. ^oCum
itoriehs detta prtmncia di Pesaro 9 Urffino (2&d ad., Pesaro, 1883).
U. Benioni.
PMcenniuf Niger, Emperor of Rome (193-194).
He was a native of central Italy , and during the reigiia
of Marcus Aurelius and Commodus had kept the
Germans from invading Roman territory. In 192 he
suppressed an outbreak of the Jews and Saracens.
After the death of Pertinax the praetorian guards
Proclaimed Didius Julianus emperor; the troops in
»ritain elected Clodius Albinus; those on the Danube
chose Lucius Septimius Severus; and the soldiers in
Syria elected the governor of that province, (jaius
Pescennius Niger Justus. Septimius Severus aavanced
to Rome with the Pannonian legions. Julianus was
killed, and the senate acknowledged Severus. Severus
now made Albinus practically a co-emperor. Forth-
with he addressed himself against Pescennius Niger.
The latter had many adherents at Rome. Moreover,
Antioch, where the proclamation of the rival emperor
had been issued, aspired to the same position as Rome.
Pescennius gained the support of the petty Oriental
rulers. In preparation for the advance of Severus he
appointed tne able proconsul of the Province of Asia,
Asellius ^milianus, as his chief of staff. The ports of
Asia were closed; the passes over the Taurus moun-
tains were fortified: and Bvzantium was garrisoned.
Severus also had made far-reaching preparations.
Troops were sent to Africa and the seasoned army of
the Danube was brought together. The advance
guards of the opposing armies met at Perinthus, the
capital of Thrace. The soldiers of Severus were re-
pulsed. Severus. however, proceeded with his main
army across the Bosporus and by way of Candeto near
Cvzicus. Here in 194 a battle took place in which
ix!milianus waa slain. Niger himself now hastened to
the scene but was defeatea near Nicsea, witib the result
that most of the cities of the Province of Asia came
into the hands of Severus. Ni^r fled to reach Anti-
och. The possession of this city was decided by a
l^aXile fought south of Issus in which Pescennius Niger
was defeated. While making his escape to the Par-
thians he was overtaken and killed towards the end
of 194. His severed head was exhibited by order of
Severus before the besieged city of Byzantium. Se-
verus mercilessly punished Niger's adherents, whether
private individuals or cities. Byzantium did not
surrender until 196. Severus was also successful
against the vassal states of the Parthians, Adiabene
and Osrhoene. For the time being the Roman Prov-
ince of Osrhoene was established.
For bibliogr^;>hy see Pkbtxkax.
Karl Hoeber.
Pesch, TiLMANN, a Jesuit philosopher, b. at Co-
logne, 1 Feb., 1836; d. at Valkenburg, Holland,
18 Oct., 1899. He became a Jesuit on 15 October,
1852, and made his novitiate at Friedrichsburg near
MUnster; he studied classics two years at Paderbom,
philosophy two years at Bonn; taught four years at
Feldkirch, Switzerland; studied theology one year at
Paderbom and three years at Maria-Laach, after
which he made his third year of novitiate at Pader-
bom. He then taught philosophy at Maria-Laach
(1867-69). From 1870 till 1876 he worked in the min-
istry, and again taught philosophy eight years (1876-
84), at Blyenbeck. The literary activity of Pesch
began in 1876. He contributed tp ''Philosophia La-
censis " ; " Institutiones philosophise naturalis '' (1880) ;
'' Institutiones logicales" (1888); ''Institutiones psy-
chologicflB " (1896^98) . The last fifteen years of his life
were devoted entirely to writing and to the ministry.
By publishing treatises in German, Pesch' helped
much to spread Catholic truth. Such treatises were
"Weltphftnomenon" (1881), "Weltratsel" (1884),
"Seele und Leib" (1893), and ''Christliche Lebensphi-
losophie" (1895). The last work reached ita C^cscctsSc^
edition within three years. Besides these mox^^ "*^fe^c-
arly^ writings, he published popularjhiloso^J^^^^^^^^st-
apologetic articles and pamphlets, TVa. \fii5
tant of these wer^Wx^^ «s^iK^<^ \Ki53osS»ft^N^^ ^
mania " above ihA \«e?^^Qiu?3tQL '-'' ^jirNS&s^
PUCHITTO 7'
later arranKed in tvo volumM, " Briefe aua'Huiibu^ "
(1883), and " Der Krach von Wittenberg" (1889), re-
tuliug the usual calumnieB against the Church. His
moat popular book was "Das ReligidBe Leben", of
which thirteen large editiona have appeared. During
aU thia period of literary activity, Peach was tireless as
a missioDer in Germany. He was often arrested under
charge of being a Jesuit. Pescb taught tlie beat in
ScholaBticiBm, but appreciated what was ipod in other
'stems of philosophy. His Latin writings contain
_-ie latest results of natural scienoe appUed to the illus-
tration of truth by scholastic methods.
JtfiBnfuiwen aiu dcr dtuUcim Prmu (RoermoDd). d. S, TZt;
TaoiLiH. Hcnoloiniiiii odtr Ltbmilrildtr aia dtr GtKhicUt der
dtiiUtlttn Ordnupmiiu dtr amUidiafl /uu (RoenuaDd, 1901).
002.
Wai;ter Dbuii.
Puohltto. See MAmracaiFTs or the Bible; Vek-
eiONB OF THE BtBUt.
PMClft, Diocese op (Piscienhib), in Tuscany.
Italy, on the Rivera Pescia Mag^ore and Pescia Min-
ore, situated in a fertile plun; its textile industry is
a;
oonuderable. The cathedral is very ancient, but was
restored by Pern in 1663; it contains beautiful piunt-
ings by Gabbaini and the mausoleum of Boldasaare
Turini. Other churches are S. Michele and S. Stefano,
anterior to the twelfth century, and S. Francesco,
which dates .from 1211. The earliest mention of
Pescia is of the eighth century; later it belonged to the
Republic of Lucca until the fourteenth century, when
it was conquered by the Florentines, who defended it
effectively m H30 against Francesco Sforia. In 1554
Pietro StroBii, an exile from Florence, became master
of Pescia, but he was compelled to surrender to Duke
Cosimo de' Medici. Pescia is the home of the Am-
mannati family, and of the painter Mariano da Pescia.
In 1519 Leo X withdrew it from the jurisdiction of
Lucca, raising it te the dignity of a prelacy nuUius;
and in 1726 it was made a diocese, suffragan of Pisa.
Its first bishop was Bartoloouneo Pucci (1728); among
PU8IMI8M
his succeasors should be mentioned Francesco Vicaitl
(1773-1801), who in 17Si founded the seminary. The
diocese has 36 parishes, with 70,504 inhabitants; 5
religious houses of men, and 10 of women; 2 eduo'
tionol institutions for male students, and S for giris;
and 1 Catholic weekly publication.
CAPrlLLVm, U CAim ^Italia. XXt; Pdccihblu. aoriu A
U. Beniom.
Ptulmitm.— I. A Teupbr op Mind. — In popular
lan^age the term pesnmist is applied to persons who
habitually take a melanchol]^ view of life, to whom
painful experiences appeal with great intensitv, and
who have Lttle corresponding appreciation of pleasur-
able ones. Such a terajier is partly due to natural dis-
position, and partly to individual circumstances. Ac-
cording to Caro (alter von Hartmann), it is especially
prevaJeat in periods of transition, in which old ways al
thought have lost their hold, while the new order bae
not yet made itself fully known, or haa not secured
general acceptance for its principles. In such a state
of things men's minds are driven in upon thcinselvce;
the outward ordei* appears to lack stability and per-
manence, and life in general tenda consequently to be
estimated as hollow and unsatisfactory. MetchnikolT
attributes the peasimistic temper to a somewhat simii
lar period in the life history of the individual, vii.: —
that of the transition from the enthusiaain of youth to
the calmer and more settled outlook of maturity. It
may be admitted that both causes contribute to the
low estimate of Ufe which is implied in the common no-
tioti of th4 pesumistic temperament. But this tem-
perament seems to be far from rare at any time, and w
depend upon causes too complex and obscure for ei-
haustive analysis. The poetic mind has very gener-
ally emphasized the painful aspect of life, thousb it i«
seldom wholly unresponsive to itspleasurable and dndr-
able side. With Lucretius, however, life is a failure
and whoUv undeurable; with Sophoclc», and still more
with jEschylus, the tragic element in human affairs
nearly obscures theirmore cheerful aspect : "Itisbest
of all never to have been born"; the frank and unre-
flective joy in living and in the contemplation of na-
ture, which runs through the Homeric poems, and is
apparent in the work oEHedod and that of the Girek
lyrists, is but seldom found among those who look be-
low the surface of things. In proportion as humao
affairs outgrew the naive simplicity of the early pe-
riods of history, the tendency to brood over the per-
plexities of emerging spiritual and social nuestiona
naturally increased. Byron, Shelley, Baudelaire and
l.«conte de Lisle, Heine and Leopardi are the poete of
satiety, disillusion, and despair, as the genius of Goelbe
and Browning represents the spirit of cheerfulness and
At the present moment it would seem that the
variety of intereete which science and education have
brought within the reach of most persons, and the
wide possibilities opened up for the future, have done
much to discourage pesRimistic feelings and to bring
about the prevalence of a view of life which is on the
whole of an opposite character. We must not, in-
deed, expect that the darker aspect of the world will
ever he wholly abolished, or that it will ever cease to
impress itself with varying degrees of intensity upon
different temperaments. But the tendency of the
present day is undoubtedly in the direction of that
cheerful though not optimistic view of life which
George Eliot called Meliorism, or the beUef that
though a perfect state may be unattainable, yet an
indefinitely extended improvement in the conditions
of existence may be looked for, and that sufficient
satisfaction for human energy and desire may be
found in the endeavour to contribute to it.
II. A School op Philosopbt. — As a philosophical
system, Peeaimi<m may be characteriaed as one of the
PESSIMISM 741 PESSIMISM
many attempts to account for the presence of evil in age, the race has discovered the futility of its hopes
the world (see Evil). Leibniz hda that ^'metaphys- it will desire nothing but unconsciousness and so will
ical" evil is necessarily involved in the creation of cease to will, and therefore to be.
finite existences, and that the possibility of sin and Meanwhile, the moral dutv of man is to co-operate
consequent suffering is inalienable from the existence in the cosmic process which leads to this end. He is
of free and rationfu creatures. The principle from '^ to make the ends of the Unconscious his own ends",
which evil arises is thus made to be an integral part to renoimce the hope of individual happiness, aiia
of the actual constitution of nature, though its de- so by the suppression of egoism to be reconciled with
velopment is re^rded as contingent. With Scho- life as it is. Here von Hartmann claims to have
penhauer. the originator of Pessimism as a system, harmonized Optimism and Pessimism, by finding
as with those who have^ accepted his qualitative esti- in his own Pessimism the strongest conceivable im-
mate of the vahie of existence, evil in the full sense pulse to elective action. With von Hartmann, life
is not merely, as with Leibniz, a possible develop- is not, as with Schopenhauer, essentially painful; but
ment of certain fundamental principles of nature, but pain predominates greatly over pleasure : and the
is itself the fundamental principle of the life of man. world is the outcome of a sjrstematic evolution, by
The world is essentially bad and ''ought not to be", which the end of the unconscious will eventually be
Schopenhauer holds that all existence is constituted attained in the return of humanity into the peace of
by the objectivisation of will, which is the sole and unconsciousness. The world is not, as Schopenhauer
universal reality. Will is blind and unoonscioujs until considered it, the worst possible, but the best^ as is
it is objectivized in human beings, in whom it first shown by the adaptation of means to ends in the
attains to consciousness, or the power of representa- evolutionary process. Nevertheless it is altogether
tion (Idea; VorateUung), Hence arises the constant bad, and had better not have been,
suffering which is the normal condition of human life. llie unconscious of von Hartmann is involved in
The essential nature of will is to desire and strive; the same self-contradiction as the will of Schopen-
and the consciousness of this perpetual unfiilfilled de- hauer. It is difficult to attach any real significance
sire is pain. Pleasure is merielv an exception in hu- to the conception of consciousness as a function of
man experience, the rare and brief cessation of the the unconscious, or to that of purposive action by the
striving of the will, the temporarv absence of pain, unconscious. Consid^^ simply as a reasoned basis
This theory recalls that of Plato ("Phsedo") who re- for a doctrine of Pessimism, von Hartmann's system
garded pleasure as the mere absence of pain; and the app^urs much like a Gnostic msrthologv, or such
conception of conscious life as essentially painful and quasi-mystical imagery as that of Jacob Boehme.
undesirable is nearly identical with the Buddhist representing the pessimistic aspect of the actual
notion (quoted with approval by Schopenhauer) that world. From this point of view it may be said that
conscious existence is fundamentally and necessarily both Schopenhauer and Hartmann rendered some
evil. Hence, further, comes the ethical theory of service by emphasizing the perpetual contrast between
Schopenhauer, which may be summed up as the ne- desire and achievement in human affairs, and by call-
cessity for "denying the Will to live". Peace can be ing attention to the essential function of suffering in
attained only in proportion as man ceases to desire; human lUe. Schopenhauer and von Hartmann stand
thus the pain of life can be 'minimized only by an alone as the originators of metaphysical systems of
ascetic renunciation of the search after happiness, and an essentiaDy pessimistic character. The subject has
can be abolished only by ceasing to live. On the' also, however, been treated from a philosophical
same principle, the poet Leopardi extolled suicide; standpoint by Bahnsen, Mainl&nder, Duprel, and
and Mainl&nder took his own me. Preuss, and has been discussed from a more or less
Schopenhauer's philosophical system of Monism has optimistic point of view by Dtthring, Caro, Sully,
?;enerally been regarded as in a great degree purely w. James, and many others. The extravagant spec-
anciful and self-contradictory. The teleological ulations of Nietzsche are to a great extent foimded
function attributed to the unconscious will, which on his early sympathy with the point of view of
produces phenomenal existence through the inter- Schopenhauer.
vention of quasi-Platonic ideas, is obviously out of The view to be taken of the contention of Pessi-
place; and the notion that we can through conscious- mism depends mainly on whether the question can be
ness perceive will as apart from consciousness in our settled by an estimate — supposing that one can be
automatic bodily functions and thence also in the formed — of the relative amount of pleasure and pain
external world, creates a confusion between the ra- in average human life. It may well be thought that
tional will which we know in ourselves as the cause such a calculus is impossible, since it must obviously
of action, and mere tendency or instinct, for which depend in a great degree on purely subjective and
the characteristics of will are arbitrarily assumed. therefore variable considerations. Pleasure and pain
Von Hartmann endeavoured to improve upon vary indefinitdy both in kind and intensity with per-
Schopenhauer by taking the unconscious {Uribewusst) sons of differing idiosyncrasies. Life, it is contended,
as the foundation of reality. Will and idea are with may still be happy, even though its pains may exceed
him twin functions of the unconscious, which en- its pleasures; or it may be worthless even if the re-
ergizes both in them and apart from them. The idea verse is the case. The point of view involves a judg-
becomes conscious through its opposition to will, and ment of values, rather than a quantitative estimate of
from this opposition arises the incurable, because es- pleasure and pain. The true pessimistic estimate of
sential, evil of life. In order to induce men to con- life would be that it is rather unhappy, because it is
tinue to exist, the unconscious leads them on to the worthless, than worthless because it is unhappy. But
pursuit of an unattainable happiness. The delusion again, values can be estimated or judged only accord-
presents itself in three successive forms, or stages, ing to the degree of personal sati^action they imply;
corresponding to the childhood, youth, and manhood and we are brou^t back to a merely subjective view
of the race. In the first stage happiness is considered of the value of life, unless we can discover some ab-
as attainable in the present life; in the second it is solute standard, some estimate of the comparative
relented to a transcendental future beyond the grave, importance of its pleasures and pains which is invari-
and in the third (the present day) it is looked forward able and the same for all. Such a standard of value
to as the future result of human progress. All are is to be found in religious belief, and exists in its mo«^-
equally delusive; and there occurs, as a necessary con- complete form in the faith of Catholics. Relijp:^^
sequence, at the end of each stage, and before the fixes the scale of values by reference not to ^"^^^^
discovery of the next, the "voluntary surrender of individual sensibiliti«^^\i\bX\i;i'Mi.'^ja:^!>5^^»?«^"'^^
individual existence" by suicide; and when in ita old always ideally and iiia?3\»^si«MJ^ '^itofc^'^^K^
icTO:
PES8INU8 742 PE8TAL0ZZI
individual judgment. Moreover, the reoog;nition of Palatine, but the cult of the goddess continued. In
such .an absolute standard itself provides an absolute 189 b. c. the Galli sent an embassy to the consul Man-
satisfaction, arising from action in accordance with Uus, encamped on the banks of the Sangarius, and
it, which cannot exist in the absence of such recogni- later Julian the Apostate made a pilgrimage to Pes-
tion, and which is only travestied by Schopenhauer's sinus. Under the Romans the city declined. After
pseudo-mystical delight in contemplating the ''kernel Constantine it was the metropolis of Galatia Secunda
of things , or bv von Hartmann's personal adoption or Salutaris. Ten bi^ops are known: Demetrius, the
of the assiuned 'ends'' of the unconscious. friend and defender of St. John Chiysostom, who died
Thus the Christian law of duty saves to action, in in exile j Pius, present at the Coimcil of Ephesus (431);
itself possibly quite the reverse of pleasurable^ a vaJue Theoctistus, at Chalcedon (451); Acacius, at Con-
far outweighing that of the satisfaction arismg from stantinople (536); Ceorge, about 600; John, at Con-
any specific pleasure, whether sensuous or intellectual, stantinople (692); Gregory, at Nicaea (787); Eustra-
The inevitable Christian tendency to depreciate sat- tins, at (Jonstantinople (879) ; Nicholas, present at the
isf action arising from pleasure as against the peiv Council of Constantinople (1054), at which Michael
formance of duty has caused Christianity to be clas- Cserularius proclaimed the rupture with Rome. The
sified as a system of Pessimism. This is, for example, ''Notitise episcopatuiun" mention the see until the mid-
the view taken of it by Schopenhauer, who declares die of the tourteenth century. The ruins of a theatre,
that "Optimism is irreconcilable with Christianity", the temples of Cybele and of iEscuLapius are at Bala
and that true Christianity has throughout that ascetic Hissar, nine or ten miles from Sivri Hissar, chief town
fundamental, character which his plulosophy explains of the caza of the vilayet of Angora. Sooie Christian
as the denial of the will to live. inscriptions have been discovered.
Von Hartmann, in like manner, rejecting ss myth- „ l^« Quien, Orienachrui., I. 489; Smith. DUt. of Greek and
ical the foundation of the Christian Faith and its hope ^^TAi^'^!: f'^^'TxrjKJJ^n^^.^'SilSJ-/^;
of the hereafter, takes its hlStoncal and only important mineure, 473-9; Pbrrot. Galatie el BUhynie, 207 seq.
content to be the doctrine that ''this earthly vale of S. P^nuntBa.
tears has in itself no value whatever, but that, on the i * j « i _i j
contrary, the earthly life is composed of tribulation PMtaloBsi and PestaloBxianisin. — ^Johann Hein-
and daily torment." It can hardly be disputed that rich Pcstalozzi, one of the greatest pioneers of modem
the Christian view of life in itself is scarcely less peasi- education, b. at Zurich, Switzerland, 12 January,
mistic than that of Schopenhauer or Hartmann; and 1746; d. at Brugg. 17 February, 1827. Descended
its pains are regarded as essentially characteristic of from a Calvinist^ family and destined to become a
its present condition, due to the initial misdirection preacher, Pestalozzi abandoned this project for the
of human free-will. No estimate of the essential study of law. He was greatly influenced by Rous-
painfulness of human life could well exceed that of the seau^s "Social Contract" and "Emile". and tried
^'Imitatio Christi" (see, e. g.. Ill, xx). But the out- to carry into practice some of that author's idea*,
look is profoimdly modified by the introduction of the He first took up farmin|; at Neuhof (New Farm), but
"etemi values" which are the special province of failed through lack of practical talent. He then
Christianity. The unhappiness of the world is coun- gatlu^red at Neuhof (1774) waifs and castaways, who
terbalanced by the satisfaction which arises from a were to work in his spinning-miU and to receive in
peaceful conscience, and a sense of harmony between turn some industrial and moral training. Unbusiness-
mdividual action and eternal law; faith ana love con- like methods led to financial difficulties and the closing
tribute an element of joy to life which cannot be de- of the establishment in 1780. Evil days then followed
stroyed, and may even be enhanced, by temporal for Pestalozzi and his heroic wife who had sacrificed
suffering; and in some cases at least the delights all her property for his schemes; sometimes they lacked
of supernatural mystical contemplation reduce merely bread and fuel, and illness added to their suffering,
natural pain and pleasure to comparative insignifi- Sympathizing with the poor peasantry, Pestalozzi
cance. developed a plan for elevating their condition throu^
ScmonHRATjmi, The World a» WiU and Idea, tT. nxLDKKK AMD education. In 1781 appe^ed his '^Lienhard und
Kemp (London, 1886); von Habtmann, Tje Pfuiosophy of the Qertrud", a simple story which shows how a village
S!;S:SSS:j'«^-if^"pl5;*^(fe^r8iBr§i^ was regenerated, thrpuji the efforts of a good p«-
dee Lebene (Leipsig, 1881); Mainijlnder. Phiheophie der Brid- tor, an able magistrate, a zealous teacher, and chiefly
nno (Berlin, 18M); Challbmbl-Lacoub. Etudee et rijUxione through the mfluence of Gertrude, a perfect wife and
i^W:^%i^r^l^'^^.':.llAV^^ °}other, who becomes the (3ood Samaritan^of the
(Paris, 1899); Jamm, TA« FFiTi 1 ~" ~ ~"
IDEM, Pragmatiem: lecture VIII
miem (London, 1901) { Schiller,
UUimaU Philoeophy in International ^, .. — , .... ,- r«i .n * « v i i t ■ .
(1897) ; Renouyier, Notre peaeimUme in La crit, philoe. (1872) ; Self. The village of Stanz had been bumt by the
r 5'*i^^'A*P*^«^/T''*j"'"*??,i^?^2°' 1894); Malloce, Is French soldiers, and many children wandered about
Life Worth Lxvxngt (London, 1879); Mt^NSTERBERO, The Eternal j^^i.;*.,*^ ^«-rx«.«Lrl 4^ •vV><..fl:*r.Al ^w>A •»^,w.l ».:^ r> *«
Vaiuee (Bo«tonri909) ; MBTVHKikoFF, The Proloniation of Life destitute, exix)sedto physical and moral nun. Pesta-
(tr. London, 1907). lozzi was made the head of an institution at Stanz
A. B. Shakpb. in which the orphans were to be trained. When^ in
the following year, the French army needed the build-
PessinUB (T€ffffipoOt), titular see of Galatia Se- ing for a hospital, the orphans* school came to a sud-
cunda. Pessinonte, on the southern slope of Mt. Dindy- den end.
mus and the left bank of the Sangarius, was an ancient Pestalozzi then opened a school in the Castle of
city, having commercial but chiefly religious im- Burgdorf, and there laboured zealously from 1799 to
portance, owing to the cult of Cybele imder the title of 1804, though hampered by jealousies and misunder-
Agdistis, whose statue, or rather a stone supposed to standings. With this institution he connected a
represent her, was considered to have fallen from normal school, the first in the Protestant cantons of
heaven. The Galli, priests of the temple, flourished Switzerland; the Catholics already possessed one, in
under the Assyrians, Lydians, and Persians. The citv the monastery of St. Urban^ Canton of Lucerne. At
passed to the kings of rergamus, one of whom rebuilt Burgdorf Pestolazzi wrote '^ Wie Gertrud ihre iOnder
the temple; about 278 b. c. it became the capital of lehrt" (How Gertrude Teaches her Children), which,
the Tolistoboii^ one of the three Gallic tribes which better than any other of his books, explains his educa-
founded the Kingdom of Galatia. As early as 204 b. c. tional aims and methods. When sent to Paris as one
the Romans sent an embassy to procure the statue of the Swiss delegates, he tried to interest the First
which they placed in the temple of Victory on the Consul in his educational work, but Napoleon de^
PiiTAV 743 Pttklf
clared that he would not be bothered about questions other Christian, which follows Pestalozzian methods
of A B C. In 1804 Pestalozzi, driven out of the Gas- of instruction without adopting his religious views,
tie of Bursdorf, transferred bis school to Munchenbuch- To the latter school belong some prominent Catholic
see, and uience to Yverdun. Eager students of peda- educators, as Bishop Sailer of Ratisbon and Bernard
gogy flocked to Yverdun from Prussia, Russia, France, Overberg, the reformer of education in Westphalia. In
Ituy, Spain, EIngland, and othef countries, among the dealing with Catholics, and in spealdng of things
rest Frdbel, Herbart, von Raumer, and Ritter. But Catholic, Pestalozzi invariably showed tact and con-
Pestalozzi's lack of organizing talent and dissensions sideration; he never forgot that he had received kind
among his teaching staff led to the decline and finaUy treatment from Catholics at Stanz at a time when he
to the closing of the establishment (1825). was distrusted by some and ridiculed as a visionary by
Pestalozziws career is almost a puzzle. All his under- others. "You will hardly believe'', he wrote to a
takings proved failures, and yet he is the most influ- friend, ''that it was the Capuchin Friars and the nuns
entialot modem educators. There was nothing at- of the Convent that showed the greatest sympathy
tractive in his external appearance. He had read very with my work."
few books, possessed neither philosophical penetra- ThevartbibUographyonPestalMri is collected
tion nor mastery of method, an5 entireTy lackS^talent il^'^r'iS^^w'^iS^^ ^i^'?oS'iK:
for organization. A keen observer at Yverdun de- Manv separate editidna of Lienor^ u. Oer^nMl, and FFicGer^rudartf
clared that he would not have been able to conduct ^»nJer ieArt— English translation (Boston. 1885: Syracuse. 1898);
oii/iAA<Mirii11->r o ovnnll «r;i1a»A a^Uo.r%l TUo* :,* «««u^ ^f 6<1. BOrobl AND Beck, With German notes for Cathoho teachers
successfully a small village school. That, in spite of ^^ normal-school pupils (Paderbom. 1887, 1892). Translation
all these drawbacks, he exerted a profound influence of other works and articles of Pestalossi. in Barnard* Journal,
on modem education was due chiefly to his self-flacri- JJ-VH. XIH. XXX, XXXI. Biographies, etc. in English by Db
ficing love for children^ and his enthusiasm for educa- §ye'rvSnS51)?l^>.iS;X±'^'''N^'?i£.''5^)"
tional work. This enthusiasm became an inspiration, Consult also QmcK. Sducatumal Re/ormera (New York. 1890);
almost an infection for all those who came in con- Mosboe, Hi»t. of Education (Hew York, 1906). Of the numerous
tact with "Father Pestalozzi", as they affectionately by fiSi!ui^BlriL?i9*io). ' ^^ ^ ^ ' "
called him. He created a new educational spirit, in- ' Robert Schwicejbrath.
terest in education, and a new school atmosphere,
namelv, love for the children. He himself said that he Pitau, Denis (Diontsius Petavius), one of the
intencfed to ''psychologize instruction", and he may most distinguished theologians of the seventeenth cen-
be called the originator of the modem psychological tury, b. at Orleans, 1583: d. at Paris, 11 December,
tendency in education. The foundation of instruction 1652. He studied first at Orleans, then at Paris, where
he finds in Anschauung^ which has been inadequately he successfully defended his theses for the degree of
rendered in English by ''sense-impression" or "ol>- Master of Arts, not in Latin, but in Greek. . After this
servation", and is perhaps better expressed bv "intui- he followed the theological lectures at the Sorbonne.
tion". The object lesson is the core of tne whole and, on the advice of Ysambert, successfully appliea
system, and exercises are based more on the study of for the chair of philosophy at Bourges. At Pans he
objects than of words. Pestalozzi's system has been became venr intimate with Isaac Casaubon (see
severely criticized by some and extravaKantlv praised Letters MXXIV, MXXVIII, MXXXVIII, MXLIV),
by others; his work is overestimated by those who librarian at the Biblioth^aue Roy ale, where he spent
call him the "father of the elementary school", al- all his spare time stuaying the ancient Greek
though it must be admitted that he did much to im- manuscripts. At Orleans he was ordained deacon
prove it. Some of his principles involved contradic- and presented with a canoniy. After spending two
tions, not a few of his methods were one-sided and years at Bourses he returned to Paris, and en-
even unsound; but his ideas, stripped of their eccentri- tered into relations with Fronton du Due, the edi-
cities by his disciples^ became prominent features in tor of St. John Chrysostom. In 1605 he became a
modem education. Herbart and Frdbel supplemented Jesuit, taught rhetoric at Reims (1609), La Fl^che
his work — the former by developing the psychology of (1613), and at the College of Paris (1618). During
education, the latter by originating the kindergarten this last period he began a correspondence with the
system. The school systems of Prussia and other Bishop of Orleans, Gabriel de Laub^pine (Albaspi-
European states embodied many of Pestalozzi's ideas : meus) , on the first year of tHe primitive Church. From
in England a modified Pestalozzianism was carriea 1622 he taught positive theology for twenty-two
into practice by Dr. Mayo. Pestalozzian ideas were years. During this time he was about to leave
transplanted to America dv one of Pestalozzi's assist- France on two occasions — first, to teach ecclesiastical
ants, the Alsatian Joseph Neef (wrongly called a history at Madridattheinvitation of Philip IV (1629),
priest, e. g. in Schmid's "Gesch. der Erz. , V, ii, 580), secondly to become a cardinal at Rome where Urban
who opened a school in Philadelphia in 1808. and later VIII wanted him (1639). At sixty years of age he
taught at New Harmony, Indiana. Horace Mann was stopped teaching, but retained his office of librarian,
influenced by Pestalozzian principles; so was the "Os- in wnich he haa succeeded Fronton du Due (1623),
wego Movement", which emphasized the use of ob- and consecrated the rest of his life to his great work,
jects as the foundation of instruction and greatly the "Dogmata theologica". The virtues of P^tau
detennined the character of American normal-school were not mferior to his talent; he was a model of hu-
training. "For the most part, so far as principle is con- mility and regularity, and, in spite of his feeble health,
cemed, American schools are yet upon the Pestaioz- practised continu£U and severe mortifications. His
zian basis, though the special methods of applying ardent zeal for the Church inspired a rare talent to
these principles have been much improved" (Monroe, which his numerous works bear evidence: he devoted
"Hist, of Ed.", 669). himself to the study of literature (Greek and Latin
One of the weakest points in Pestalozzi's system poets) and to other more erudite forms of learning,
was his attitude towards religion. Throu^ the influ- The complete list of his works fills twenty-five col-
ence of the writings of Rousseau he had lost the strict umns in Sommervoeel: he treats of chronology, his-
religious views of his Calvinist family, and, while he tory, philosophy, polemics, patristics, and history of
stilfbelieved in a personal God and Divine Providence, dogma. The first edition of the works of Synesius ap-
his was a rationalistic and merely natural religion, pe^ed in 1612, undertaken ten years earlier at the
Although he always spoke most reverently of the advice of Casaubon ("Synesii episcopi Cyrenensis
Bible and of Christ, he never attained to a clear recog- opera", new ed., 1633); in 1613 and 1614 the dis-
nition of the Divinity of Christ, but remained outside courses of Themistius and Julian (new ed., 1630); in-
dogmatic Christianity. His disciples are divided into 1616 the "Breviarium historic\\xsv'^x^'s^$s>.^^^*^5Nsec^N
two schools — one rationalistic, led by Diesterweg, the after some poetical and oratoriceX^^^^^^^sv^^c^Msss^^s^
PETER
744
PETER
St. EpiphaniuB in two voliimes (1622; new ed., 1632),
whica had been undertaken at the aavice of Jacques
Gretaer, S. J., and was originally intended only as a re-
vised trandation of Janus Ck>mariu8. In 1622 and
1623 app&ured the ''Mastigophores", three pam-
phlets, and the notes dealing with Saumaise's ''Tertul-
liany, a bitter polemical work, .^ong his previous
writings, P^tau had inserted some masterly disserta-
tions on chronology; in 1627 he broufl^t out his ''De
doctrina temporum'', and later the ''Tabulse chrono-
logies'' (1628, 1629, 1633, 1657). It surpassed ScaU-
ger's "De Emendatione temporum" fParis, 1583),
and prepiu^ the ground for the works of the Benedic-
tines. A summary of it appeared in 1633 (1635, 1641,
etc.) under the title of '^Rationarium temporum'', of
which numerous reprints and translations into French,
English, and Itahan have been made. About the
same time (1636-44) appeami poetical works in Greek
and in Latin and dissertations (often of a polemical
nature) against Grotius, Saimiaise, Amauld, etc. His
paraphrase of the Psalms in Greek verse was dedicated
to Urban VIU (in 1637). Finally there appeared in
1643 the first three volimies ot the " Dogmata theolo-
gica'' (dated 1644); the fourth and fifth volumes were
published in 1650. The work was incomplete at the
death of the author, and, despite several attempts,
was never continued. Numerous editions of the
'* Dogmata theologica" have been published, includ-
ing that by the Cilvinist Jean le Clerc (Clericus, alias
Theophile Alethinus), published in Antwerp (Amster-
dam) in 1700: the last edition was brought out in
eight volumes by J. B. Foumials (Paris, 1866-8). In
1757 F. A. Zaccaria. S. J., republished the work in
Venice with notes, oissertations^ etc.; in 1857 Passa-
glia and Schrader imdertook a sunilar work, but they
produced only the first volume. His letters, " Episto-
larum libri tres", were published after his aeath:
though far from being complete, they give an idea of
his c^se acquaintance with the most famous men in
France, Holland, Italy, etc. ; they also furnish valuable
information on the composition of his works and his
method.
The reputation P^tau enjoyed diuing his lifetime
was especially due to his work on chron(Mogy; numer-
ous eulogies were pronounced on him by his contem-
poraries, such as Huet. Valois, Grotius. Isaac Voss, F.
Clericus, Noris, etc. His chronological work has long
since been surpassed, and a list of errors — ^inevitable
at the period — could be drawn up even in the case of
this man who boasted that he ooimted no less than eight
thousand mistakes in the * * Annals * ' of Baronius. But
the great glory, which in the eyes of posterity surround
the name of P^tau, is due to his patristic works and his
importance in the history of dogma. With good rea-
son he may be styled the ''Father of the History of
Dogma". The success of his work in this sphere was
slow to make itself felt-j-it brought on the author ac-
cusations even from within his order — but it was
highly esteemed by his pupils and far-seeing friends
(e. g., H. Valois, Huet, etc.).
To form an opinion of Patau's work it is necessary
to go back to the period in which he wrote. It is far
from being perfect and his criticism is more than once
at fault. But his merit increases in spite of his short-
comings, when it is remembered that he had at hand
only very imperfect editions of the Fathers, all inferior
to the great masterpieces of the Benedictines; that
many of the known texts only existed in translations,
or in late and poorly studied manuscripts ; that his pred-
ecessors in this line were few and practically every-
thing had to be created. What he wanted had already
been outlined by Melchior Cano in his work " De locis
theologicis". Here we pass from theory to practice
and we find a master at once. The originality of Pa-
tau's work has been questioned; it may have been in-
spired, it is said, by a similar treatise of Oregius (d.
1635), as Zockler maintains, or by the ''Confessio
catholica'' of John Gerhard (d. 1627), as conjectured
by Eckstein. But the ''Confessio catholica^' has a
quite different aim, as is stated on the very first page;
whole treatises, as for instance that on Christ, have
but scanty quotations from three or four Fathers of
the Church, and present nothing BJmilar to the long
historical developments of the sixteen books ''De In-
camatione Verbi'' of P^tau. The relationship with
Cardinal Aug. Oregius, which rests solel]^ on a conver-
sation of a reli^ous of the Minims of -Dijon related in
the "Voyage htt^raire de deux B^nddictins" (Paris,
1717, p. 147), has been examined in detail and com-
pletely disposed of by F. Oudin, S. J., in the "M^
moires de Tr^voux" (July, 1718, pp. 109-33).
The state of religious strife during the days suc-
ceeding the Council of Trent drew all minds towards
the primitive ages of the Church concerning which cer-
tain ancient documents were being discovered, while
the excessive subtlety of many Scholastics of the de-
cadence instigated a return towards positive sources.
P6tau was no doubt inspired by the same ideas, but
the execution of the work is completely his own. Hia
aim and purpose are set forth by his dedicatory letter
to the General of the Jesuits (Epist.. Ill, liv)^ and in
several parts of his "Prolegomena" (cf. I, i). His
method reveals all the resources which the sciences of
history and philosophy have furnished to the theo-
logians. He declares his opinion with full liberty as,
e. g., concerning the opinion of St. Augustine on the
problem of predestination, or the ideas on the Trinity
of the ante-Nicene writers. Even for those who do
not follow his historical plan the work has furnished a
copious supply of documents; for theologians it has
been a store of patristic arguments. We may here add
that P^tau, like Cano, took the greatest pains with his
literary style. He exaggerates the faults of Scholas-
ticism; but on the other hand he defends it against the
accusations of Erasmus. We still find the controver-
sialist in the author of the ''Dogmata" ; after giving the
history of each dogma, he adds the refutation of new
errors. In his polemical writings his style was bittor;
here and there ne is more gentle, as when engaged in
discussions with Grotius, who was drawing near the
Catholic Faith. The memory of P^tau was celebrated
the day after his death by Henri Valois, one of his best
pupils, and by L. Allatius in a Greek poem composed
at the request of Cardinal Barberini.
OuDiif, Den%» PUau in Niceron, Mhncirea pour tenfir 6. VkUL
dea homm- iUtutrM, XXXVII (1737). 81, and in Mtmoirf ^
Tritoux (July, 1718) ; Godbt and Tubmbl, Revus du eUrgi /ran-
MM, XXIX (1902). 161, 372, 449; Chatbllain, L« P*r# Dtmi$
pitau d* OrUant (1884); Stanonik, DionynuM Petawiut (Gru,
1876); SoMMBRyooBL, Bibl. det tcrit. 8. /., VI (1896); Kunt.
ShrtnrMung dea D. Fdavitu u. der hathol. Auffasaung dm- Z>«9-
mengfch. in Tvbinger theolog. QvartaUchrift., XXXn (1850) 24«i
J. DB GhEIXINCK.
Peter, Saint, Prince of the Apostles. — The life of
St. P6ter may be conveniently considered under the
following heads: I. Until the Ascension of Christ;
II. St. Peter in Jerusalem and Palestine after the
Ascension; III. Missionary Joumejrs in the East;
The Council of the Apostles: IV. Activity and Death
in Rome; Burial-place; V. Feasts of St. Peter; VI.
Representations of St. Peter.
I. Until the Ascension or Christ. — St. Peter's
true and original name was Simon (Llfuap)^ sometimes
occurring in the form 2uMec4r (Acts, xv, 14; II Pet.,
i, 1). He was the son of Jona (Johannes) and was
bom in Bethsaida (John, i, 42, 44), a town on Liake
Genesareth, the position of which cannot be estab-
lished with certainty, although it is usually sou|^t at
the northern end of the lake. The Apostle Andrew
was his brother, and the Apostle Philip came from the
same town. Simon settlea in Caphamaum, where he
was living with his mother-in-law in his own house
(Matt., viii, 14; Luke, iv. 38) at the beginning of
Christ's public ministry (about a. d. 26-i^. Simon
was thus married, and, according to Clement of
L&ke Geneearetb,
. Like BO many
attracted by the
i waa. with hie
Bethania
When, aft«r the
Alexandria (Stromata, III, vi, ed. Dindorf, II, 276),
had children. The same writer relatea the tradition
that Peter's wife Buffered martyrdom (ibid., VII, »,
ed. cit.. Ill, 306). Concerning these facta, adoptea
by EuaebiuB {Hiat. Eccl., Ill, xad) from Clement, the
ancient Chriatian literature which has come down to
lu is silent. Simon pursued in Caphu;nauro the
profitable occupation of fiaherman '
poaMwing hia own boat (Luke, v,
of hia Jewish contemporaries, he k
B^tiat'a preaching of peuant
brother Andrew, among John's
on the eastern bank of the Jordan, . ,
High Council had sent eavoya for the second time
the Baptist, the latter pointed to Jeeua who waa pass-
ing, saying, "Behold the Lamb of God", Andrew and
another disciple followed the Saviour to hia residenoe
and remained with Him one day.
Later, meeting hie brother Simon, Andreft aaid
"We have found the Mesaias", and brought him to
Jeaua, who, lookine upon him, aaid; "Thou art Simon
the son of Jona: tnou shalt be called Cephas, which
is interpreted Peter". Already, at this first meet-
ing, the Saviour foretold the change of Simon's name
to C^has (Kit^fii; Aramaic Klph&, rock), which is
translated nfrpoi (Lat., Petna) a proof that Christ
had already special views with regard to Simon.
Later, probably at the time of his definitive call to tfie
Apostolate with the eleven other Apostles, Jemia
actually (^ve Simon the name of Cephas (/"elrus),
after whicn he was usually called Peter, specially 1^
Chriat on the solemn occasion after Peter's profession
of faith (Matt., xvi, 18; cf. below). The Evangelists
often combine the two names, while St. Paul uses the
name Cephas. After the first meeting Peter with the
otber early disciples remained with Jceua for some
time, sccompanyins Him to Galilee (Marriage at
Cana), Judiea, and Jerusalem, and through Samaria
back to Galilee (John, ii-iv). Here Peter resumed hia
occupation of fisherman far a short time, but soon
received the definitive call of the Saviour to become
one of His permanent diaciples. Peter and Andrew
o be fishers of men". On the s
sons of Zebedee were called (Matt., iv, 18-22; Mark,
i, 16-20; Luke, v, 1-11; it is here assumed that Luke
lefera to the same occasion aa the other Evangelists).
"rhenceForth Peter remained alwaya in the immediate
nei^bourhood of Our Lord. Alter preaching the
Semion on the Mount and curing the son of the cen-
turion in Caphamaum, Jesua came to Peter's house
and cured hia wife's mother, who was aick of a fever
(Matt., viii, 1*^15; Mark, i, 29-31). A little later
Chriat chose His "Twelve Apostles aa Hia constant
associates in preaching the Kingdom of God.
Among the Twelve Peter soon became conspicuoua.
Though of irresolute character, he clings with the
greatest fidelity, firmness of faitn, and inward love to
the Saviour; rash alike in word and act, he is full of
seal and raithujuasm, though momentarily easily ac-
cessible to external inftueuoes and intimidated by
difficulties. The more prominent the Apostles become
in the Evangelical narrative, the more conspicuous
does Peter appear aa the first among them. In the
list of the Twelve on the occasion of their solemn call
ta the Apoetolate, not only does Peter stand always
at their nead, but the surname Petrut given him by
Christ is especially emphasised (Matt., x, 2): "Duo-
decim autera Apostolorum nomina hie; Primus
Simon qui dicitur Petrus . . ."; Mark, iii, 14-16:
"Et fecit ut eseent duodecim cum illo, et ut mitteret
eoeprsdicare . . . et impoauit Simoni nomen Petrua";
Luke, vi, 13-14: "Et cum diea factus esset, vocavit
discipulos suoe, et elegit duodecim ex ipms (quoa el
Apostolos nonimsvit): Simonem, quern cogQomin»vit
Ppt.nim . . ." On vnrimia oru*juinna Da*«. «uuk1rH m
the name of the other Apostles (Matt., Z7, 15; xix,
27; Luke, xii, 41. etc.). When Christ's words are
addreesed to all the Apostles, Peter answers in their
name {e. g,, Matt., jcvi, 16). Frequently the Saviour
turns specially to Peter (Matt., xxvi, 40; Luke, ndi.
Very characteristic is the expression of true fidelity
to Jesus, which Peter addressed to Him in the name
of the other Apostles, Chriat, after He had spoken of
the mystery of the reception of His Body and Blood
(John, vi, 22 sqq.) and many of His disciples had left
Him, asked the Twelve if they too should leave Hin^;
Pet«^'s answer comes immediately: "Lord, to whom
shall we go? thou hast the words of eternal life. And '
we have believed and have known, that thou art the
lakably ucconia
FetnuQ ..." On vuiotis occaeiona Petw speaks in difterent views concerning Him were cix'W^^^"
Crypt dI St. Pi
Peter a special precedence 'and the first place among
the Apostles, and designates hjni for such on various
occasions, Peter was one of the three Apostles (with
James and John) who were with Christ on cwtain
special occasions— the raising of the daughter of Jairus
from the dead (Mark, v 37; Luke, viii, 51); the Trans-
figuration of Christ (Matt., xvii, 1; Mark, ix, 1:
Luke, is, 28) ; the Agony in the Garden of Getbsemani
(Matt., xxvi, 37; Mark, xiv, 33). On several occa-
sions also Christ favoured him above all the others;
He enters Peter's boat on Lake Genesareth to preach
to the multitude on the shore (Luke, v, 3); when He
was miraculously walking upon the waters. He called
Peter to come to Him across the lake (Matt., xiv, 2S
sqq.); He sent h'T" to the lake to catch the fish in
whose mouth Peter found the stater to pay as tribute
(Matt, xvii, 24 sqa.).
In specially solemn fashion Christ accentuated
Peter's precedence among the Apostles, when, after
Peter had recognised Him as the Messias, He prom-
ised that he woukl be head of His flock. Jesus waa
then dwelling with His Apostles in the vicinity
of Cssarea Ptiilippi, engaged on His work of salva^
tion. As Christ's coming agreed so little in ^owet wul
dory with the expectations of the M-**i^^- "^^se.
PETER 746 PBTBB
|oumeying along with His Apostles, Jesus asks them: Peter's assurance that he was ready to accompany hit
''Whom do men say that the Son of man is?'' The Master to prison and to death, elicited Christ's predio-
Apostles answered: ''Some John the Baptist, and tion that Peter should deny Him (Matt., xxvi, ^3-35;
otner some Elias, and others Jeremias, or one of the Mark, xiv, 26-31; Luke, xxii, 31-34; John, xiii, 33-
prophets". Jesus said to them: "But whom do you 38). When Christ proceeded to wash the feet of His
say that I am?" Simon said: "Thou art Christy the disciples before the Last Supper, and came first to
Son of the Uving God". And Jesus answering said to Peter, the latter at first protested, but, on Ghrist's
him: "Blessed art thou, Simon Bar-Jona: because declaring that otherwise he should have no part with
flesh and blood hath not revealed it to thee, but my Him, inunediately sidd: "Lord, not only my feet, but
Father who is in heaven. And I sav to thee: That also my hands and my head" (John, xiii, 1—10). In
thou art Peter [KlphS, a rock]: and upon this rock the Garden of Gethsemani Peter had to submit to the
[Kipha] I will build my churcn [iKkKrffflap]^ and the Saviour's reproach that he had slept like the othep,
gates of hell shall not prevail against it. And I will while his Master suffered deadly anguish (Mark, xiv.
give to thee the keys of the kingdom of heaven. And 37). At the seizing of Jesus, Peter in an outburst of
whatsoever thou shalt bind upon earth, it shall be anger wished to defend his Master by force, but was
bound also in heaven: and whatsoever thou shalt loose forbidden to do so. He at first took ^ flight with the
on earth, it shall be loosed also in heaven". Then he other Apostles (John, xviii, 10-11; Matt., xxvi, 56);
commanded his disciples, that they should tell no one then turning he followed his captured Lord to the
that he was Jesus the Christ (Matt., xvi, 13-20; courtya(hi of the High Priest, and there denied Christ,
Mark, viii, 27-30; Luke, ix, 18-21). asserting explicitly and swearing that he knew Hihi
By the word "rock "the Saviour cannot have meant not (Matt., xxvi, 58-75; Mark, xiv, 54-72; Luke,
Himself, but only Peter, as is so much more apparent xxii, 54-62; John, xviii, 15-27). This denial was of
in Aramaic in which the same word (Kipha) is used for course due, not to a lapse of interior faith in Christ,
"Peter" and "rock". His statement then admits of but to exterior fear and cowardice. His sorrow was
but one explanation, namely, that He wishes to make thus so much the greater, when, after his Master had
Peter the head of the whole community of those who turned His gaze towards him, he clearly recognized
believed in Him as the true Messias; that through what he had done. In spite of this weakness, his posi-
this foundation (Peter) the Kingdom of Christ would tion as head of the Apostles was later connrmed by
be unconquerable; that the spiritual guidance of the Jesus, and his precedence was not less conspicuous
faithful was placed in the hanos of Peter, as the special after the Resurrection than before. ^
representative of Christ. This meaning becomes so The women, who were the first to find Christ's tomb
much the clearer when we remember that the words empty, received from the angel a special message for
"bind" and "loose" are not metaphorical, but Jewish Peter (Mark, xvi, 7). To hun alone of the Apostles
i'uridical terms. It is also clear that the position of did Christ appear on the first day after the Resurrec-
'eter among the other Apostles and in the Christian tion (Luke, xxiv, 34; I Cor., xv, 5). But, most im-
community was the basis for the Kingdom of God on portant of all, when He appeared at the Lake of
earth, that is, the Church of Christ. Peter was per- Genesareth. Christ renewed to Peter His special com-
sonally installed as Head of the Apostles by Christ mission to teed and defend His flock^ after Peter had
Himself. This foundation created for the Church by thrice affirmed his special love for his Master (John,
its Founder could not disappear with the person of xxi, 15-17). In conclusion Christ foretold the violent
Peter, but was intended to continue and did continue death Peter would have to suffer, and thus invited him
fas actual history shows) in the primacy of the Roman to follow Him in a special manner (ibid., 20-23) . Thus
Church and its bishops. Entirely inconsistent and in was Peter called and trained for the Apostleship and
itself untenable is the position of Protestants who (Uke clothed with the primacjr of the Apostles, which he
Schnitzer in recent times) assert that the primacy of exercised in a most unequivocal manner after Christ's
the Roman bishops cannot be deduced from the prece- Ascension into Heaven.
dence which Peter held among the Apostles. Just as II. St. Peter in Jerusalem and Palestine affer
the essential activity of the Twelve Apostles in build- the Ascension. — Our information concerning the ear-
ing up and extending the Church did not entirely dis- liest Apostolic activity of St. Peter in Jerusalem,
appear with their deaths, so surely did the Apostolic Judsea, and the districts stretching northwards as far
Pnmacy of Peter not completely vanish. As intended as Syria is derived mainly from the first portion of the
by Christ, it must have continued its existence and Acts of the Apostles, and is confirmed by paralld
development in a form appropriate to the ecclesiastical statements incidentally in the Epistles of St. Paul,
organism, just as the office of the Apostles contin- Among the crowd of Apostles and disciples who. after
ueS in an appropriate form. Objections have been Christ s Ascension into Heaven from Mount Olivet,
raised against the genuineness of the wording of the returned to Jerusalem to await the fulfilment of His
passage, but the unanimous testimony of the manu- promise to send the Holy Ghost, Peter is immediately
scripts, the parallel passages in the other Gospels, and conspicuous as the leader of all. and is henceforth con-
the fixed belief of pre-Constantine literature furnish stantly recognized as the head of the original Chris-
the surest proofs of the genuineness and untampered tian community in Jerusalem. He takes the initiative
state of the text of Matthew (cf . *' Stimmen aus Maria- in the appointment to the Apostolic College of another
Laach'', I, 1896, 129 sqq.; "Theologie und Glaube", witness of the life, death, and resurrection of Christ to
II, 1910, 842 sqq.). replace Judas (Acts, i, 16-26). After the descent of
In spite of his firm faith in Jesus, Peter had so far the Holv Ghost on the feast of Pentecost, Peter stand-
no clear knowledge of the mission and work of the ing at the head of the Apostles delivers the first pubho
Saviour. The sunerings of Christ especially, as con- sermon to proclaim the life, death, and resurrection of
tradictory to his worldly conception of the Messias, Jesus, and wins a large number of Jews as converts to
were inconceivable to him, and his erroneous concep- the Christian community (ibid., ii, 14-41). First of
tion occasionally elicited a sharp reproof from Jesus the Apostles he worked a public miracle, when with
(Matt., xvi, 21-23; Mark, viii, 31-33). Peter's irreso- John he went up into the temple and cured the lame
lute character, which continued notwithstanding his man at the Beautiful Gate. To the people crowding
enthusiastic fidelity to his Master, was clearly re- in amazement about the two Apostles, he preaches a
vealed in connexion with the Passion of Christ. The long sermon in the Porch of Solomon, and brmgs new
Saviour had already told him that Satan had desired increase to the flock of believers (ibid., iii, 1-iv, 4).
him that he might sift him as wheat. But Christ had In the subsequent examinations of the two Apostles
prayed for him that his faith fail not, and, being once before the Jewish High Council, Peter defends in un-
converted^ heconfinns his brethren (Luke, xxii, 31-32). dismayed and impressive fasbipn tb^ cause of Jesuf
Mitd the obU^tion and liberty of the Apoettea to preach
the GoBpel (ibid., iv, 5-21). When Aaanias and Sap-
phira attempt to decdve the Apoatlea and the people,
Peter appears as judge of their action, and God exe-
cutes the sentence of puniahment passed by the Apos-
tle by eauaing the sudden death of the two guilty
parties (ibid., v, 1-11). By numerous miracles God
confirms the Apostolic activity of Christ's confessors,
and here also there is special mention of Peter, since it
is recorded that the inhabitants of Jerusalem and
Deighbouring tonns carried their sick in their beds
into the streets so that the shadow of Peter miRht fall
OD them and they might be thereby healed (ibid., v.
12-16). The ever-increasing number of the faithful
caused the Jewish supreme council to adopt new meas-
ures ag^nst the Apostles, but "Peter and the Apos-
tles " answer that they " ought to obey God rather tJian
men"(ibid.,v, 29800.). Not only in Jerusalem itself
did Peter labour in fulfilltng
the mission entrusted to
him by his Master. He
also retained conneition with
Uie other Christian com-
munities in Palestine, and
preached the Gospel both
there and in the lands sit-
uated farther north. When
Philip the Deacon had won
a lai^ number of believers
in Samaria, Peter and John
were deputed to proceed
thither from Jerusalem to or-
ganize the community and to
mvoke the Holy Ghost to
descend upon the faithful.
Peter appears a second time
as judge, in the case of the
magician Simon, who had
wished to purchase from the
Apostle.s the power that he
also could invoke the Holy
Ghost (ibid., viii, 14^25),
On their way bock to Je-
rusalem, the two Apostles
preached the joyous tidinra
of the Kingdom of God.
Subsequently, after Paul's
departure from Jerusalem
and conversion before Da-
mascus, the Christian com-
left at peace by the Jewish
council.
Peter now undertook an e: . . .
which brought him lo the maritime cities, Lydda[
Joppe, and Cwsarea, In Wdda he cured the palsied
Eneaa; in Joppc he raised Tabitha (Dorcas) from the
dead; and at Csesarca, inatructed by a vision wiiich he
had in Joppe, he baptized and received into the
Church the first non-Jewish Christians, the centurion
Cornelius and his kinsmen (ibid., ix, 31-x, 48). On
Peter's return to Jerusalem a little later, the strict
Jewish Christians, who regarded the complete observ-
ance of the Jewish law as binding on all, aaked him
wh)[ he had entered and eaten in the house of the
uncircumcised. Peter tells of his vimon and defends
his action, which was ratified by the Apostles and the
faithful in Jerusalem (ibid., xi, t-18).
A confirmation of the position accorded to Peter by
Luke, in the Acts, is afforded by the testimony of St.
Paul (Gal., i, 18-20). After his conversion and three
years' residence in Arabia, Paul came to Jerusalem
''to see Peter". Here the Apostle of the GenUles
clearly designates Peter as the authorised head ol the
Apostles and of the early Christian Church. Peter's
long residence In Jerusalem and Palestine wxin <*">*
toanend- Herod Agrippalbegan (^.j, 42-!^) AT'*''
7 PXTER
persecution of the Church in Jerusalem; after tfae
execution of James, the son of Zebedee, this ruler had
Peter cast into prison, mtending to have him also ex-
ecuted after the Jewisn Pasch was over, Peter, how-
ever, was freed in a miraculous manner, and, proceed-
ing la the house of the mother of John Mark, where
many of the faithful were assembled for prayer, in-
formed them of his hberation from the hands of
HeitMl, commissioned them to communicate the fact
to James and the brethren, and then left Jerusalem to
go (o "another place" (Acts, lii, 1-18). Concerning
St, Peter's subsequent activity we receive no further
connected information from the extant sources, al-
though we possess short notices of certain individual
episodes of nis later life.
IH. MiSSIONABT JOTJBNBYS IN THE EaST; CottNCIt,
OF THE Apobtlbb. — St. Luke does not tell us whither
Feter went after his liberation from the prison in Jeru-
salem. From incidental
statements we know that
he subsequently made ex-
tensive missionary tours in
the East, although we are
given no clue to the chronol-
ogy of his journeys. It is
certain that he remained
for a lime at Antioch; he
may even have returned
thither several times. The
Christian community of An-
tioch was founded by
Christianiied Jews who had
been driven from Jerusalem
by the persecution (ibid., xi,>
19 sqq.). Peter's residence
among them is pro ved by the
episode concerning the ob-
servance of the Jewish cere-
monial law even by Chris-
The chief Apostles in Jeru-
salem—the ''pillars", Peter,
James, and John — bad un-
reservedly approved St.
Paul's Apostolate to the
Gentiles, while they them-
selves intended to Ifiraur
principally amonx the Jews.
While Paul was dwelling in
Antioch (thedat* cannot be
accurately determined), St.
Peter came thither and
lon-Jewish Christians of the
their houses and sharing
Christianized Jews a
heir meals. But whet _
in Jerusalem, Peter, fearine lest these rigid observers
of the Jewish ceremonial law should t^ scandalised
thereat, and his influence with the Jewish Chris-
tians be imperilled, avoided thencefort,h eating with
the uncircumcised.
His conduct made a great impression on the other
Jewish Christians at Antioch, so that even Barnabas,
St. Paul's companion, now avoided eating with the
Christianised pagans. As this action was entirety^ op-
posed to the principles and practiceof Paul, and might
lead to confusion among the converted pagans, fliis
Apostle addressed a public reproach to St. Peter, be-
cause his conduct seemed to indicate a wish to compel
the pagan converts to become Jews and accept circum-
cision and the Jewish law. The whole incident
is another proof of the authoritative position of St.
Peter in the early Chureh, since his example and con-
duct was regarded as decisive. But Paul, who rightly
saw the inconmstency in the conduct of Peter and the
Jewish Christians, did not hewtate to defend the in:*.—
munity of converted pagana from the Jewish Lk** -
PITER
748
FETJBR
Concerning Peter's subse^iuent attitude on this ques-
tion St. Paul gives us no explicit information. But it
is highly probable that Peter ratified the contention of
the Apostles of the Gentiles, and thenceforth con-
ducted himself towards the Christianized pagans as at
first. As the principal opponents of his views in this
connexion, Paul names ana combats in all his writings
only the extreme Jewish Christians coming ''from
James " (i. e. , from Jerusalem) . While the date of this
occurrence, whether before or after the Council
of the Apostles, cannot be determined, it probably
took place after the council (see below). The lat^
tradition, which existed as earl^ as the end of the sec-
ond century (Oriffen, "Hom. vi in Lucam^'; Eusebius,
"Hist. Eccl.'\ III, xxxvi), that Peter founded the
Church of Antioch, indicates the fact that he la-
boured a long perioa there, and also perhaps that he
dwelt there towards the end of his life ana then ap-
pointed Evodius, the first of the line of Antiochian
Bishops, head of the community. This latter view
woula best explain the tradition referring the foimda-
tion of the Church of Antioch to St. Peter.
It is also probable that Peter pursued his Apostolic
labours in various districts of Asia Minor, for it can
scarcely be supposed that the entire period oetween his
liberation from prison and the Council of the Apostles
was spent uninterruptedly in one city, whether Antioch,
Rome, or elsewhere. And, since he subsequently ad-
dressed the first of his Epistles to the faithful in the
Provinces of Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Asia,
one may reasonably assume that he had laboured per-
sonally at least in certain cities of these provinces,
devotmg himself chieflv to the Diaspora. The Epistle,
however, is of a general character, and gives little indi-
cation or personal relations with the persons to whom
it is adclressed. The tradition related Iw Bishop
Dionysius of Corinth (in Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.",Il,
xxvih) in his letter to the Roman Church under Pope
Soter (165-74), that Peter had (like Paul) dwelt in
Corinth and planted the Church there, cannot be
entirely rejected. Even thou^ the tradition should
receive no support from the existence of the "party of
Cephas", which Paul mentions among the other divi-
sions of the Church of Corinth (I Cor., i, 12; iii, 22),
still Peter's sojourn in Corinth (even in connexion with
the planting and government of the Church by Paul)
is not impossible. That St. Peter undertook various
Apostolic journeys (doubtless about this time, espe-
cially when he was no longer permanently resiaing in
Jerusalem) is clearly established by the general re-
mark of St. Paul in I Cor., ix, 5, concerning the "rest
of the apostles, and the brethren [cousins] of the Lord,
and Cephas", who were travelling around in the exer-
cise of their Apostleship.
Peter returned occasionally to the original Christian
Church of Jerusalem, the guidance of which was en-
trusted to St. James, the relative of Jesus, after the
departure of the Prince of the Apostles (a. d. 42-44).
The last mention of St. Peter in the Acts (xv, 1-29; cf.
Gal., ii, 1-10) occurs in the report of the Council of the
Apostles on the occasion of such a passing visit. In
consec[uence of the trouble caused by extreme Jewish
Christians to Paul and Barnabas at Antioch, the
Church of this city sent these two Apostles with other
envoys to Jerusalem to secure a defimtive decision con-
cerning the obligations of the converted pagans (see
JuDAiZERs). In akldition to James, Peter and John
were then (about a. d. 60-51) in Jerusalem. In the
discussion and decision of this important question,
Peter naturally exercised a decisive influence. When
a great divergence of views had manifested itself in the
assembly, Peter spoke the deciding word. Long be-
fore, in accordance with God's testimony, he had
announced the Gospels to the heathen (conversion of
Cornelius and his household) ; why, therefore, attempt
to place the Jewish yoke on the necks of converted
pagans? After Paul and Barnabas had related how
God had wrought among the Gentiles b^ them, James,
the chief representative of the Jewish Christians,
adopted Peter's view and in agreement therewith
made proposals which were expressed in an oicycUcal
to the converted pagans.
The occurrences in Caesarea and Antioch and the
debate at the Council of Jerusalem show clearly Peter's
attitude towards the converts from paganism. Like
the other eleven original Apostles, he regarded himself
as called to preach the Faith in Jesus first among the
Jews (Acts, X, 42), so that the chosen people of God
might share in the salvation in Christ, promised to
them primarily and issuing from their midst. The
vision at Joppe and the effusion of the Holy Ghost
over the converted pagan Cornelius and his kinsmen
determined Peter to admit these forthwith into the
community of the faithful, without imposing on them .
the Jewish Law. During his Apostolic journeys out-
side Palestine, he recognized in practice the equality
of Gentile and Jewish converts, as his original conduct-
at Antioch proves. His aloofness from the Gentile
converts, out of consideration for the Jewi^ Chns-
tians from Jerusalem, was by no means an official
recognition of the views of the extreme Judaijiers, who
were so opposed to St. Paul. This is established clearly
and incontestably by his attitude at the Council of
Jerusalem. Between Peter and Paul there was no
dogmatic difference in their conception of salvation
for Jewish and Gentile Christians. The recognition of
Paul as the Apostle of the Gentiles (Gal., ii, 1-9) was
entirelv sincere, and excludes all ouestion of a funda-
mental divergence of views. St. reter and the other
Apostles recognized the converts from paganism as
Christian brothers on an equal footing; Jewish and
Gentile Christians formed a single Kingdom of Christ.
If therefore Peter devoted the preponderating portion
of his Apostolic activity to the Jews, this arose chiefly
from practical considerations, and from the position of
Israel as the Chosen People. Baur's hypothesis of
opposing currents of "Petrinism" and Faulinism"
in the earlv Church is absolutely untenable, and is to-
day entirely rejected by Protestants.
IV. Activity AND Death IN Rome; Burial. Place.
— It is an indisputably established historical fact that
St. Peter laboured in Rome during the last portion of
his life, and there ended his earthly course by martyr-
dom. As to the duration of his Apostolic activity in
the Roman capital, the continuity or otherwise of his
residence there, the details and success of his labours,
and the chronology of his arrival and death, all these
questions are imcertain, and can be solved only on
hypotheses more or less well-founded. The essential
fact is that Peter di^ at Rome: this constitutes the
historical foundation of the claim of the Bishops of
Rome to the Apostolic Primacy of Peter.
St. Peter's residence and death in Rome are estab-
lished beyond'contention as historical facts by a series
of distinct testimonies extending from the end of the
first to the end of the second centuries, and issuing
from several lands. That the manner, and therefore
the place of his death, must have been known in widely
extended Christian circles at the end of the first cen-
tury is clear from the remark introduced into the
Gospel of St. John concerning Christ's prophecy that
Peter was bound to Him and would be led whither he
would not: "And this he said, signifymg by what
death he should glorify God" (John, xxi, 18-19, see
above). Such a remark presupposes in the readers of
the Fourth Gospel a knowledge of the death of Peter.
St. Peter's First Epistle was written almost undoubt-
edly from Rome, since the salutation at the end reads:
" The church that is in Babylon, elected together with
you, saluteth you: and so doth my son Mark" (v, 13).
Babylon must here be identified with the Roman capi-
tal; since Babylon on the Euphrates, which lay in
ruins, or New Babylon (Seleucia) on the Tigris, or the
Egyptian Babylon near Memphis, or Jerusalem can-
PKTEB 7^
not be mesjit, the reference must be to Rame, the only
city which is called Babylon elsewhere in ancient
Christian literature (Apoc., xvii, fi; xviii, 10; "Om-
cula Sibyl.", V, veraea 143 and 1S9, ed. GefFcken,
IxopMB, 1902, 111).
i^m Biehop Papiaa of Hierapolie and Clement of
Alexandria, who both appeal to the teatimoay of the
old presbyters (i, e., the disciples of the Apostles), we
learn that Mark wrote his Gospel in Rome at the re-
quest of the Roman Christians, who desired a written
memorial ot the doctrine preached to them by St,
Peter and hia disciples (Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl. , II,
xv; 111, zl; VI, xiv); this is oonfinned by Irenaua
(Adv. her., Ill, i). In connexion with this informa-
tion <y>nceming the Gospel of St. Mark, Eusebius,
relying perhaps on an earlier source, eays that Peter
desonDMl Rome figuratively as Babylon in his First
that the two Apostles laboured personally in Rome,
and with Apostolic authority preached the Gospel
there. Bishop Dionysius of Corinth, in his letttt' to
the Roman Church in the time ot Pope Soter {166-74),
says: "You have therefore by your urgent exhorta-
tion bound close together the sowing ot Peter and
Paul at Rome and Corinth, For both planted the
seed of the Gospel also in Corinth, and together in-
structed us, just as they likewise taught in the same
§lace in Italy and at the same time suffered martyr-
om" (In Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl.'|, II, xxviii). Ire-
tueus of Lyons, a native of Asia Minor and a disciple
of Polycarp ot Smyrna (a disciple of St. John), passed
a oonsiderable time in Rome shortly after the middle
of the second centui^, and then proceeded to Lvona,
where he became bishop in 177; he described the
Roman Church as the most promment and chief pr»<
Sktine Chapsl. RomI
Epistle. Another testimony concenung the martyr-
dom of Peter and Paul is supplied by Clement ot Rome
in his Epistle to the Coriatnians (written about a. d.
95-97),whereinhe8ave (v): "Through seal and cun-
nii« the greatest and most righteous supports [of the
Church] have suffered persecution and been warred to
death. Let us place before our eyes the good Apos-
tles— St. Peter, who in consequence of unjust leal,
suffered not one or two, but numerous miseries, and,
having thus given testimony iuaprvfifiai), has
sembled with
. . _ "among us" {'»
.. , e., among the Romans, the meaning that the
expression also bears in chap. Iv). He is speaking un-
doubtedly, as the whole passase proves, of the Nero-
nian persecution, and thus r^eis the martyrdom of
Peter and Paul to that epoch.
In his letter written at the beginning of the second
century (before 117), while bping brought to Rome
for martyrdom, the venerable Bishop Ignatius ot
Antioch endeavoura by every means to restrain the
Roman Christians from striving tor his pardon, re-
marking: "I issue you no commands, like Peter and
Paul: they were Apostles, while I am but a captive"
(Ad.Rom.,iv). The meaning of this remarJc n>*»t *»
server of Apostolic tradition as "the greatest and
most ancient church, known by all, founded and or-
ganiied at Rome by the two most glorious Apostles,
Peter and Paul" (Adv. hwr., Ill, ili; cf. Ill, i). He
thus makes use of the universally known and recog-
niied fact of the Apostolic activity of Peter and Paul
in Rome, to find therein a proof from tradition against
the heretics.
Inbis " Hypotyposea" (Eusebius, "Hist. Eccl. ", IV,
xiv), Clement of Alexandria, teacher in the catechet-
ical school of that city from about 190, says on the
strength of the tradition ot the presbyters; "After
Peter had announced the Word of God in Rome and
preached the Gospel in the spirit of God, the multitude
of hearers requested Mark, who had long accompanied
Peter on all his journeys, to write down what the
Apostles had preached to them" (see above). Like
Irensus, Tertullian appeals, in hie writing against
heretics, to the proof anorded by the Apostolic labours '
of Peter and Paul in Rome of the truth of ecclesiastical
tradition. In "DePrascriptione", xxxv, he says: "If
thou art near Italy, thou hast Rome where authority
is ever within reach. How fortunate is this Church
for which the Apostles have poured nut their whole
teaching with their blood, where Peter has emulated
the Passion of the Lord, where Paul naa crowned with
PETER
750
PETEB
the death of John" (scil. the Baptist) . In " Scorpiace ",
XV, he also speaks of Peter's crucifixion. ''The bud- i
ding faith Nero first made bloody in Rome. There
Peter was girded b^ another, since he was boimd to
the cross". As an illustration that it was immaterial
with what water baptism is administered, he states
in his book ("On Baptism", ch. v) that there is ''no
difference between that with which John baptised in
the Jordan and that with which Peter baptized in the
Tiber"; and against Marcion he appeals to the testi-
.mony of the Roman Christians, "to whom Peter and
Paul have bequeathed the Grospel sealed with their
blood" (Adv. Marc., IV. v).
Th^ Roman, Caius, who lived in Rome, in the time
of Pope Zephyrinus (19^217). wrote in his " Dialogue
with Proclus^' (in Eusebius, ''Hist. Eccl.'\ II, xxviii),
directed against the Montanists: "But I can show
the trophies of the Apostles. If you care to go to the
Vatican or to the road to Ostia, thou shalt find the
trophies of those who have foi^ded this Church".
By the trophies (Tp6^aia) Eusebius imderstands the
graves of the Apostles, but his view is opposed by
modem investigators, who believe that the place of
execution is meant. For our purpose it is inmiaterial
which opinion is correct, as tne testimony retains its
full value in either case. At any rate the place of
execution and burial of both were close togetner: St.
Peter, who was executed on the Vatican, received also
his burial there. Eusebius also refers to " the inscrip-
tion of the names of Peter and Paul, which have been
preserved to the present day on the burial-places
there" (i. e. at Rome). There thus existed in Home
an ancient epigraphic memorial commemorating the
death of the Apostles. The obscure notice in the
Muratorian Fragment ("Lucas optime theofile oon-
prindit quia sub prsesentia eius singula gerebantur
sicuti et semote passionem petri evidenter declarat ",
ed. Preuschen, Tubingen, 1910, p. 29) also presupposes
an ancient definite tradition concerning Peter's death
in Rome. The apocryphal "Acts of St. Peter and the
Acts of Sts. Peter and Paul likewise belong to the series
of testimonies of the death of the two Apostles in
Rome (Lipsius, "Acta Apostc^orum apocrypha", I,
Leipzig, 1891, pp. 1 sqq., 78 sqq., 118 sqa., cf. Idem,
"Die apokiypnen Apostelgeschichten una Apostelle-
genden", II, i, Brunswick, 1887, pp. 84 8<]q.).
In opposition to this distinct ana unanimous testi-
mony of early Christendom, some few Protestant his-
torians have attempted in recent times to set aside the
residence and death of Peter at Rome as legendary.
These attempts have resulted in complete failure. It
was assertea that the tradition concerning Peter's
residence in Rome first originated in Ebionite circles,
and formed part of the Legend of Simon the Magician,
in which Paul is opposed by Peter as a false Apostle
imder Simon; just as this fight was transplanted to
Rome, so also sprang up at an early date the legend
of Peter's activity m that capital (thus in Baur.
"Paulus", 2nd ed., 245 sqq., followed by Hase ana
especially Lipsius, " Die queuen der romischen Petrus-
sage", Kiel, 1872). But this hypothesis is proved
fundamentally untenable by the whole character and
purely local importance of Ebionitism, and is directly
refuted by the above genuine and entirely independent
testimonies, which are at least as ancient. It has
moreover been now entirely abandoned by serious
Protestant historians (cf., e. g., Hamack's remarks in
"Gesch. der altchristl. Literatur", II, i, 244, n. 2).
A more recent attempt was made by Erbes (Zeitschr.
fUr Kirchengesch., 1901, pp. 1 sqq., 161 sqq.) to
demonstrate that St. Peter was martyred at Jenisalem.
He appeals to the apocr3rphal Acts of St. Peter, in
which two Romans, Albinus and Agrippa, are men-
tioned as persecutors of the Apostles. These he iden-
tifies with the Albinus, Procurator of Judsa, and suc-
cessor of Festus, and Agrippa II, Prince of Galilee,
ftDd thence oondudee that Peter was condemned to
death and sacrificed by this procurator at Jerusalem.
The untenableness of this hypothesis becomes im-
mediately apparent from the mere fact that our earli-
est definite testimony concerning Peter's death in
Rome far antedates the apocryphal Acts; besides,
never throughout the whole range of Christian anti-
Quity has any city other than Rome been designated
the place of martyrdom of Sts. Peter and Paul.
Although the fact of St. Peter's activity and death
in Rome is so clearly established, we possess no precise
information regarcung the detaols of his Roman so-
i'oum. The narratives contained in the apocryphal
iterature of the second century concerning the sup-
posed strife between Peter and Simon Magus b^ong
to the domain of lej^end. From the already mentioned
statements regardmg the orinn of the Uospel of St.
Mark, we may conclude that Peter laboured for a long
period in Rome. This conclusion is confirmed by the
imanimous voice of tradition which, as early as the
second half of the second century, desig^iates the
Prince of the Apostles the founder of the Roman
Church. It is widelv held that Peter paid a first visit
to Rome after he had been miracuK)usly liberated
from the prison in Jerusalem; that, bv "another
place", Luke meant Rome, but omitted the name for
special reasons. It is not impossible that Peter made
a missionary journey to Rome about this time (after
42 A. D.), but such a journey cannot be established
with certainty. At any rate, we cannot appeal in
support of this theory to the chronological notices in
Eusebius and Jerome, since, although these notices
extend back to the chronicles of the third century,
they are not old traditions, but the result of calcula-
tions on the basis of episcopal lists. Into the Roman
list of bishops dating from the second century, there
was introduced in the third century (as we learn from
Eusebius and the "Chronograph of 354") the notice
of a twenty-five years' pontificate for St. Peter, but
we are unable to trace its origin. This entry conse-
quently affords no ground for the hypothesis of a first
visit by St. Peter to Rome after ms libu^tion from
prison (about 42). We can therefore admit only the
possibility of such an early visit to the capital.
The task of determining the year of St. Peter's
death is attended with similar difiiculties. In the
fourth century, and even in the chronicles of the third,
we find two different entries. In the "Chronicle" of
Eusebius the thirteenth or fourteenth year of Nero is
given as that of the death of Peter and Paul (67-68);
this date, accepted by Jerome, is that generally held.
The year 67 is also supported by the statement, also
accepted by Eusebius and Jerome, that Peter came
to Rome imder the Emperor Claudius (according to
Jerome, in 42), and by the above-mentioned tradition
of the twenty-five years' episcopate of Peter (cf.
Bartolini, "Sopra I'anno 67 se fosse quelle del martirio
dei gloriosi Apostoli ", Rome, 1868) . A different state-
ment is furnished by the "Chronomph of 354" (ed.
Duchesne, "Liber Pontificalia", I, 1 sqq.). This
refers St. Peter's arrival in Rome to the year 30, and
his death and that of St. Paul to 55.
Duchesne has shown that the dates in the "Chrono-
graph" were inserted in a list of the popes which con-
tains only their names and the duration of Uieir
pontificates, and then, on the chronological supposition
that the year of Christ's death was 29, the year 30
was inserted as the beginning of Peter's pontificate,
and his death referred to 55, on the baais of the
twenty-five years' pontificate (op. cit., introd., vi
sqq.). This date has however been recently defended
by Kellner ("Jesus von Nazareth u. seine Apostd im
Rahmen der Zeitge8chichte'^ Ratisbon, 1908; "Tra-
dition geschichtl. Bearbeitung u. Lesende in der
Chronologie des apostol. Zeitalters", Bonn, 1909).
Other historians have accepted the year 65 (e. g..
Bianchini, in his edition of the "Liber Pontificalis
in P. L., CXXVII, 435 sqq.) or 66 (e. g. Foggiiii»
PSTSR
751
PSTSB
"De romani b. Petri itinere et episcopatu*', Florence,
1741; also Tillemont). Harnack endeavoured to
establish the year 64 (i. e. thebeginmng of the Neronian
persecution) as that of Peters death ('^Gesch. der
altchristl. Lit. bis Eusebius^', pt. II, ''Die Chro-
nologie'', I, 240 sqq.)* This date, which had been
alrefuly supported oy Cave, du Pin, and Wicseler,
has been accepted by Duchesne (Hist, ancienne de
I'dglise, I, 64). Erbes refers St. Peter's death to 22
Feb., 63, St. Paul's to 64 ("Texte u. Untersuch-
ungen'', new series, IV, i, Leipzig, 1000, "Die Tode-
staffe der Apostel Petrus u. Paulus u. ihre rom. Denk-
miUer''). The date of Peter's death is thus not yet
decided; the period between July, 64 (outbreak of
the Neronian persecution), and the beginning of 68
(on 9 July Nero fled from Rome and conmiitted sui-
cide) must be left open for the date of his death. The
day of his martyrdom is also unknown; 29 Jime, the
accepted day of his feast since the fourth century,
cannot be proved to be the day of his death (see
below).
Concerning the manner of Peter's death, we possess
a tradition — attested to by TertuUian at the end of
the second century (see above) and by Orisen (in
Eusebius. "Hist. Eccl.", II, i) — that he suffered cruci-
fixion. Origen says: "Peter was crucified at Rome
with his head downwards, as he himself had desired
to suffer " . As the place of execution may be accepted
with great probability the Neronian Gardens on the
Vatican, since there, according to Tacitus, were
enacted in general the gruesome scenes of the Nero-
nian persecution; and in this district, in the vicinity
of the Via Cornelia and at the foot of the Vatican
Hills, the Prince of the Apostles found his burial-
place. Of this grave (since the word Tp6^au>p was, as
already remarked, rightly understood of the tomb)
Caius already speaks in the third century. For a time
the remains of <eter lay with those of Paul in a vault
on the Appian Way, at the place ad CaiacumbaSf
where the Church of St. Sebastian (which on its erec-
tion in the fourth century was dedicated to the two
Apostles) now stands. The remains had probably
been brought thither at the beginning of the Valerian
persecution in 258, to protect them from the threat-
ened desecration when the Christian burial-places
were confiscated. They were later restored to their
former resting-place, and Constantine the Great had
a magnificent basilica erected over the grave of St.
Peter at the foot of the Vatican Hill. This basiUca
was replaced by the present St. Peter's in the six-
teenth century. The vault with the altar built above
it (confessio) has been since the fourth centuiy the
most highly venerated martyr's shrine in the West.
In the substructure of the altar, over the vault which
contained the sarcophagus with the remains of St.
Peter^ a cavity was made. This was closed by a small
door in front of the altar. By opening this door the
pilgrim could enjoy the great privilege of kneeling
directly over the sarcophagus of the Apostle. Keys
of this door were given as previous souvenirs (cf.
Gregory of Tours. "De gloria martyrum", I, xxviii).
The memory of St. Peter is also closely associated
with the Catacomb of St. PriscUla on the Via Salaria.
According to a tradition, current in later Christian
antiquity, St. Peter here instructed the faithful and
administered baptism. This tradition seems to have
been based on still earlier monumental testimonies.
The catacomb is situated under the garden of a villa
of the ancient Christian and senatorial family, the
Acilii Glabriones, and its foundation extends back to
the end of the first century; and since Acilius Glabrio
(q. v.), consul in 91, was condemned to death under
Domitian as a Christian, it is quite possible that the
Christian faith of the family extended back to Apos-
tolic times, and that the Prince of the Apostles nad
been given hospitable reception in their house during
his residence at Rome. Tne relations between Peter
and Pudens, whose house stood on the site of the
present titular church of Pudens (now Santa Puden-
tiana) seem to rest rather on a legend.
Concerning the Epistles of St. 'Peter, see Pster,
Epistles of Saint; concerning the various apocrvpha
bearing the name of Peter, especially the Apocarmse
and the Gospel of St. Peter, see Apocrtpha. The
apocryphal sermon of Peter (iHipvyfUL), dating from
the second half of the second century, was probably a
collection of supposed sermons by the Apostle: sev-
eral fragments are preserved by Clement of Alexan-
dria (cf. DobschUtz, "Das Kerygma Petri kritisch
untersucht" in "Texte u. Untersuchungen", XI, i,
Leipzig, 1893).
V. Feasts op St. Peter. — As early as the fourth
century a feast was celebrated in memory of Sts. Peter
and Paul on the same day, although the day was not
the same in the East as in Rome. The Syrian Martyr-
ology of the end of the fourth century, which is an
excerpt from a Greek catalogue of samts from Asia
Minor, gives the following feasts in connexion with
Christmas (25 Dec): 26 Dec., St. Stg)hen; 27 Dec,
Sts. James and John; 28 Dec, Sts. reter and Paul.
In St. Gregory of Nyssa's panegyric on St. Basil we
are also informed that these feasts of the Apostles
and St. Stephen follow immediately after Chnistmas.
The Armemans celebrated th6 feast also on 27 Dec;
the Nestorians on the second Friday after the Epiph-
any. It is evident that 28 (27) Dec. was (like 26 Dec
for St. Stephen) arbitrarily selected, no tradition
concerning the date of the saints' death being forth-
coming. The chief feast of Sts. Peter and Paul was
kept in Rome on 29 June as early as the third or
fourth century. The list of feasts of the martyrs in
the Chronograph of Philocalus appends this notice
to the date: "III. Kal. Jul. Petri in Catacumbas et
Pauli Ostiense Tusco et Basso Coss." (=the year
258). The "Martyrologium Hieronyminanum" has,
in the Berne MS., the following notice for 29 June:
"Rom® via Aurelia natale sanctorum Apostolorum
Petri et Pauli, Petri in Vaticano, Pauli in via Ostiensi,
utrumque in catacumbas, passi sub Nerone, Basso et
Tusco consulibus" (ed. de Rossi — Duchesne, 84).
The date 258 in the notices shows that from this
year the memory of the two Apostles was celebrated
on 29 June in the Via Appia ad Catacumbas (near
San Sebastiano fuori le mura), because on this date
the remains of the Apostles were translated thither
(see above). Later, perhaps on the building of the
church over the graves on tne Vatican and in the Via
Ostiensis. the remains were restored to theor former
resting-place: Peter's to the Vatican Baealica and
Paul's io the church on the Via Ostiensis. In the
place Ad Catacumbas a church was also built as early
as the fourth century in honour of the two Apostles.
From 258 their principal feast was kept on 29 June,
on which date solemn Divine Service was held in the
above-mentioned three churches from ancient times
(Duchesne, "Origines du culte chr6tien", 5th ed.,
Paris, 1909, 271 sqo., 283 sq(i.; Urbain, "Ein Martyr-
ologium der christl. Gemeinde zu Riom an Anfang
des 5. Jahrh.", Leipzig, 1901, 169 sqq. ; Kellner,
"Heortologie", 3rd ed., Freiburg, 1911, 210 sqg.).
Legend sought to explain the temporary occupation
by the Apostles of the grave Ad Catacumbas by sup-
posing that, shortly after their death, the Oriental
Christians wished to steal their bodies and bring
them to the East. This whole story is evidently a
product of popular legend. (Concerning the Feast of
the Chair of reter, see Chair of Peter.)
A third Roman feast of the Apostles takes place on
1 August: the feast of St. Peters Chains. Tnis feast
was originally the dedication feast of the church of
the Apostle, erected on the Esquiline Hill in the foiu-th
century. A titular priest of the church, Philippus,
was papal legate at the Council of Ephesus in 431.
The churoh was rebuilt by Sixtus III (432-40) at the
PETER
752
PETER
expense of the Bysantine imperial family. Either
the solemn consecration took place on 1 August, or
this was the day of dedication of the earlier church.
Perhaps this day was selected to replace the heathen
festivities which took place on 1 August. In this
churoh, which is still standing (S. Pietro in VincoU),
were probably preserved from the fourth century St.
Peter s chains, which were greatly venerated, small
filings from tne chains being regarded as precious
relics. The church thus early received the name
in VinculiSf and the feast of 1 August became the
the feast of St. Peter's Chains (Duchesne, op. cit., 286
sqq.; Kellner, loc. cit., 216 sqq.). The memory of
both Peter and Paul was later associated also with
two places of ancient Rome: the Via Sacra, outside
the Forum, where the magician Simon was said to
have been hurled down at the prayer of Peter, and the
prison TtdHanumj or Career MamertinuSf where the
Apostles were supposed to have been kept until their
execution. At both these places, also, shrines of the
Ajiostles were erected, ana that of the Mamertine
Pnson still remains in almost its original form from
the earlv Roman time. These local commemorations
of the Apostles are based on legends, and no special
celebrations are held in the two churches. It is, how-
even not impossible that Peter and Paul were actually
connned in the chief prison in Rome at the fort of the
Capitol, of which the present Career Mameriinue is a
remnant.
VI. Representations op St. Peter. — The oldest
extant is the bronze medallion with the heads of the
Apostles; this dates from the end of the second or the
beginning of the third century, and is preserved in the
Christian Museum of the Vatican Library. Peter has a
strong, roundish head, prominent jaw-bones, a receding
forehead, thick, curly hair and beard. (See illustra-
tion in Catacombs.) The features are so individual
that it partakes of the nature of a portrait. Thist3rpeis
also found in two representations of St. Peter in a cham-
ber of the Catacomb of Peter and MarcelUnus, dating
from the second half of the third century (Wilpert.
''Die Malerein der Katakomben Rom", plates 94 ana
96). In the paintings of the catacombs Sts. Peter and
Paul frequently appear as interceders and advocates
for the dead in the representations of the Last Judg-
ment (Wilpert, 390 sqq.), and as introducing an
Orante (a praying figure representing the dead) into
Paradise.
In the numerous representations' of Christ in the
midst of His Apostles, which occur in the psdntings
of the catacombs and carved on sarcophagi, Feter and
Paul alwavs occupy the places of honour on the right
and left of the Saviour. In the mosaics of the Roman
bjtmlicas. dating from the fourth to the ninth cen-
turies, Christ appears as the central figure, with Sts.
Peter and Paul on His right and left, and besides
these the saints especially venerated in the particular
church. On sarcophasi and other memorials appear
scenes from the life of St. Peter: his walking on Lake
Genesareth, when Christ summoned him from the
boat; the prophecy of his denial: the washing of his
feet; the raising of Tabitha from the dead; the capture
of Peter and the conducting of him to the place of
execution. On two gilt glasses he is represented as
Moses drawing water from the rock with his staff;
the name Peter under the scene shows that he is
regarded as the guide of the people of God in the New
T^ament.
Particularly frequent in the period between the
fourth and sixth centuries is the scene of the delivery
of tlie Law to Peter, which occurs on various kinds of
monuments. Christ hands St. Peter a folded or open
scroll, on which is often the inscription Lex Domini
(Law of the Lord) or Dominus legem dot (The Lord
gives the Law). In the mausoleum of Constantina at
Home (S. Costanza, in the Via Nomentana) this scene
18 given as a pendant to the deUvery of the Law to
Moses. In representations on fifth-century sarco-
phaei the Lord presents to Peter (instead of the
scroll) the keys. In carvings of the fourth centunr
Peter often bears a staff in nis hand (after the fifth
century, a cross with a long shaft, carried by ^e
Apostle on his shoulder), as a land of sceptre indicative
of Peter's office. From the end of the sixth century
this is replaced by the keys (usually two, but some-
times throe), which hencefortii became the attribute,
of Peter. Even the renowned and greatly venerated
bronze statue in St. Peter's possesses them: this, the
best known representation of the Apostle, dates from
the last perioa of Christian antiquity (Grisar, " Ana-
lecta romana", I, Rome, 1899, 627 sqq.).
Biiuu, Stvdie9 of the Life and Charaetmr of St. Peter (Lonckn.
1887) : Tatlor, Peter the ApoetU, new od. by BxntNrr and IsBurm
(London, 1900): Barnes, St. Peter in Rome and hie Tomb on the
Vatican Hill (London, 1900); LiaHTroor, Apoaiolie Pathert,
2nd ed., pt. I. vol. II (London, 1890), 481 sq.. Si. PeUr in Rome:
FouARD, Let originee de VBgliee: St. Pierre et tee ftremih'ee an$Uee
du chri^ianieme (3rd ed., Paris, 1893); Filuon, Saint Pierre
(2nd ed., PariB, 1906); collection Lee Sainte; Rambaud, Hietoire
de St. Pierre apdtre (Bordeaux, 1900) ; Gthraud, La venue de S(
Pierre d Rome in Qtuetione d'hiet. et d*arch6ol. ehrH. (Paris, 1906);
FooQiNi, DeromanoD. Petri iiinere et epMcopo^ (Florence, 1741) j
RnncRi, S. Pietro in Roma ed i primi papi eecundo i jpOi vetueh
eaialoghi della diieea Romana (Turin, 1909) ; Pagaki, II erietiane'
eimo in Roma prima dei glorioei apoatoli Pietro e Paolo, e «u22c dieeree
venule de* principi degli apostoli %n Roma (Rome. 1906) ; PouDoai.
Aposlolalo di S. Pietro in Roma in Civiltd Cattolica, series 18,
IX (Rome, 1903). 141 sq.: Marucchi, Le memorie d^i apoatoU
Pietro e Paolo in Roma (2na ed., Rome, 1903) ; Lbclbb, he Romane
S. Petri epieeopatu (Louvain, 1888) ; 8chiiio, Petrue in Rom oder
Nova Vindicia • Purina (Lucerne, 1892); Emer, Dee hL Petrut
Aufenthalt, Epiekopat und Tod in Rom (Breslau, 1880) ; Kkrller,
St. Petrue, Biechofvon Rom in ZeiUehrifl f. kath. Thed., XXVI
(1902), 33 sq., 225 sq.; Marquardt, Simon Petrue ale MiUd
und Auegangepunkt der ehrietlichen Urkirche (Kempten, 1906);
Grisar, Le tombe apoetoliehe al V(Uicano ed alia via OeHonee m
Analecta Romana, I (Rome, 1899), 269 sq.
J. P. KlRSCH.
Peter, Epistles of Saint. — ^Theee two Epistles
will be treated under the following heads: I. Authen-
ticity; II. Recipients, occasion, and object; III.
Date and place of composition: Iv. Analysis.
I. First Epistle. — A. AtUkerUicity, — The authen-
ticity, universally admitted by the primitive Church,
has been denied within the past centunr by Protes-
tant or Rationalist critics (Baur and the Tubingen
School. Von Soden, Hamack, JUlicher, Hilgenfeld,
and otners). but it cannot seriously be questioned. It
is well established: (I) by extrinsic arguments: (a)
Quotations from or allusions to it are very numerous
in writings of the first and second centuries, e. g., Jus-
tin's letter to the Churches of Lyons and Vienne^
Irensus, Clement of Alexandria, Papias, Polycarp^
Clement of Rome, the "Didache**, the ** Pastor" of
Hennas, and others. The Second Epistle of St. Peter,
^mitted to be very ancient even by those who question
its authenticity, alludes to an earlier Epistle written
by the Apostle (iii, 1). The letter therefore existed
very early and was considered very authoritative, (b)
Tradition is also unanimous for- St. Peter's author-
ship. In the second and third centuries we have much
explicit testimony to this effect. Clement and Origt d
at Alexandria, Tertullian and Cyprian in Africa, the
Peshitto in Syria, IrensBUS in Gaul, the ancient Itala
and Hippolytus at Rome all agree in attributing it
to Peter, as do also the heretics, Basilides and Theo-
dore of Byzantium, (c) All the collections or Usts
of the New Testament mention it as St. Peter's; the
Muratorian Canon, which alone is at variance with
this common tradition, is obscure and bears evident
marks of textual corruption, and the subsequ^it
restoration suggested by Zahn, which seems much
more probable, is clearly favourable to the authen-
ticity. Moreover Eusebius of CsBsarea does not hesi-
tate to place it among the undisputed Scriptures.
(2) By intrinsic arguments. — Examination of the
Epistle m itself is whoU^r favourable to its authen-
ticity; the author calls himself Peter, the Apostle of
Jesus Christ (i, 1); Mark, who, according to the Acts
753
3f the Apofltles, had such dose relations with Peter,
is called oy the author ''my son" (v, 13}; the author
is represent-ed as the immediate disciple of Jesus
Christ (i. 1; v, 9, 11-14); he exercises trom Rome a
universal jurisdiction over the whole Church (v, 1).
The numerous places in which he would appear to be
the immediate witness of the life of Christ (i, 8; ii,
21-24; v, 1), as well as the similarity between his
ideas and the teaching of the Gospels, are eloquently
in favour of the Apostolic author (cf. Jacquier. 251).
Finally, some authors consider that the Epistle and
the sermons of St. Peter related in the Acts show an
analogy in basis and form which proves a conunon
origin. However, it b probable if not certain that the
Apostle made use of an mterpreter. especially of Syl va-
nus: St. Jerome says: ''The two Epistles attributed to
St. reter differ in style, character, and the construction
of the words, which proves that according to the exi-
gencies of the moment St. Peter made use of differ-
ent interpreters" (Ep. cxx ad Hedib.). Peter himself
seems to insinuate this: Aid ZtXovamO i/uif . . . typa^a
(v, 12), and the final verses (12-14) seem to have been
added by the Apostle himself. Without denying that
Peter was able to use and speak Greek, some authors
consider that he could not write it in the almost
classic manner of this Epistle. Nevertheless it is im-
possible to determine exactly the share of Sylvanus;
it is not improbable that he wrote it according to the
directions of the Apostle, inserting the ideas and
exhortations suggested by him.
Objections: (a) The relation between the First
Epistle of Peter and the Epistles of Paul, especially
Romans and Ephesians, does not prove, as has been,
claimed (Jti]icher)^hat the Epistle was written by a
disciple of Paul. This relation, which has been much
exaggerated by some critics^ does not prove a literary
dependence nor prevent this Epistle from possessing
a characteristic originality in ideas and form. The
resemblance is readily explained if we admit that
Peter employed Sylvanus as interpreter, for the latter
had been a companion of Paul, and would conse-
quently have felt the influence of his doctrine and
manner of speaking. Moreover, Peter and Sylvanus
were at Rome, where the letter was written, and they
would naturally have become acquainted with the
Epistles to the Romans and the Ephesians, written
some months before and intended, at least in part, for
the same readers, (b) It has been claimed that the
Epistle presupposes an official and general persecution
in the Roman Empire and betokens a state of things
corresponding to the reign of Vespasian, or even that
of Domitian or Trajan, out the data it gives are too
indefinite to conclucie that it refers to one of these per-
secutions rather than to that of Nero; besides, some
authors consider that the Epistle does not at all sup-
pose an official persecution, the allusions being readily
explained by the countless difficulties and annoyances
to which Jews and pagans subjected the Christians.
B. Recipient of the Epistle; Occaeion and Object, —
It was written to the faithful of "Pontus, Galatia,
Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia'' (i. 1). Were these
Christians converted Jews, oispersed among the Gen-
tiles (i, 1), as was held by Origen, Didymus of Alex-
andria, etc., and is still maintained by Weiss and Kuhl,
or were thev in great part of pagan origin? The latter
is by far the more common and the better opinion
(i, 14; ii, 9-10; iii, 6; iv. 3). The argument based on
1. 7, proves nothins, while the words ''to the strangers
oispersed throueh Pontus'' should not be taken in the
literal sense of Jews in exile, but in the metaphorical
sense of the people of God, Christians, living in exile
on earth, far from their true country. The opinions
of authors admitting the authenticity are divided with
regard to the historical circumstances which occa-
sioned the Epistle, some believing that it was written
immediately after Nero's decree proscribing the Chris-
tian religion, in which case the difficulties to which
XL- ~
Peter alludes do not consist merely of the calumnies
and vexations of the people, but also include the
judicial pursuit and condemnation of Christians (iv,
14-16; v, 12; ii, 23j iii, 18), while iv, 12, may be an
allusion to the bummg of Rome which was the occa-
sion of Nero's decree. This is the opinion of Hue,
Gloire, Batiffol, Neander, Grimm, Ewald, Allard,
Weiss, Callewaert, etc., while others date the Epistle
from the eve of that decree (Jacquier^ Brassac, Fulion,
etc.). The Epistle, they say, having been written
from Rome, where the persecution must have raged
in all its horror^ we natiirally look for clear and indis-
putable indications of it, but the general theme of the
Epistle is that the Christians should give no occasion
to the charges of the infidels, but that by their exem-
plary life they should induce them to glorifv God (ii,
12, 15; iii. 0, 16; iv, 4^; besides, the way of speaking
is generally hypothetical (i^ 6; iii, 13--14: iv, 14),
there being np question of judges, tribunals, prison,
tortures, or confiscation. The Christians have to
suffer, not from authority, but from the people among
whom they lived.
The Apostle Peter wrote to the Christians of Asia
to confirm them in the Faith, to console them amid
their tribulations, and to indicate to them the line
of conduct to follow in suffering (v, 2). Except for
the more dogmatic introduction (i, 3-12) and a few
short instructions strewn throughout the letter and
intended to support moral exhortations, the Epistle
is hortatory and practical. Only an absurd a priori
argument could permit the TQbingen critics to assert
that it had a dogmatic object and was written by a
second-centurv forger with the intention of attribut-
ing to Peter the doctrines of Paul.
C. Place and Dale of Composition, — ^The critics who
have denied Peter's sojourn at Rome must necessarily
deny that the letter was written from there, but the
great majority of critics, with all Christian antiquity,
agree that it was written at Rome itself, designated
by the metaphorical name Babylon (v, 13). This in-
terpretation has been accepted from the most remote
times, and indeed no other metaphor could so well
describe the city of Rome, rich and luxurious as it was,
and ^ven over to the worship of false gods and every
species of immoralitv. Both cities had caused trouble
to the people of God, Babylon to the Jews, and Rome
to the Christians. Moreover this metaphor was in use
among the early Christians (cf. Apoc, xiv^ 8; xvi, 19;
xvii, 5; xviii, 2, 10, 21). Finally, tradition has not
brought us the f aint^t memory of any sojourn of Peter
at Bab^rlon. The opinions of critics who deny ihe
authenticity of the Epistle range from a. d. 80 to
A. D. 160 as the date^ but as there is not the slightest
doubt of its authenticity they have no basis for their
argument. Equallv diverse opinions are found among
the authors who admit the authenticity, ranging from
the year a. d. 45 to that accepted as that of the death
of Peter* The most probable opinion is that which
places it about the end of the year 63 or the beginning
of 64; and St. Peter having suffered martyrdom at
Rome in 64 (67?) the Epistle could not be subsequent
to that date; besides, it assumes that the persecution
of Nero, which began about the end of 64, nad not vet
broken out (see above) . On the other hand the author
freouently alludes to the Epistle to the Ephesians,
making use of its very words and expressionis; con-
sequently the Epistle could not be prior to 63, since the
Epistle to the Ephesians was written at the end of
Paul's first captivity at Rome (61-63).
D. Analysis, — ^The Epistle as a whole being but
a succession of general ideas without close connexion,
there can be no strict plan of rmalysis. It is divided
as follows: the introduction contains, besides the ad-
dress (superscription and salutation, i, 7), thanksgiving
to God for the excellence of the salvation and regen-
eration to which He has deigned to call the Christians
(3-12). Thb part is dogmatic and serves as a basis
FETEB 754 PETEB
«
for all the moral exhortations in the body of the nevertheletS classes it among the disputed woiks
Epistle. The body of the Epistle may be divided into (dyriXc76/ici«), at the same time affirming that it was
three sections: (a) exhortation to a truly Christian known by most Christians and studied by a laige num-
life (i, 13~ii, 10), wherein Peter successively exhorts ber with the other Scriptures. In the Church of
his readers to holiness in general (13-21), to fraternal Antioch and Syria at that period it was ren^arded as
- ^pistle formerly accepted in that Church (Theoph-
stone, they shall be the royal priesthood and the ilus of Antioch) was not yet included in the canon
chosen people of the Lord (2-10). (b) Rules of con- was probably due to dogmatic reasons,
duct for Christians living among pagans, especially (c) In the second hall of the fourth century these
in time of persecution (ii. ll~v, 19). Let their conduct doubts rapidly disappeared in the Churches of the
be such that the infidels themselves shidl be edified East owing to the authority of Eusebius of Caesarea
and cease to speak evil of the Christians (11-12). and the fifty copies of the Scriptures distributed by
This general pnnciple is applied in detail in the ex- command of Constantine the Great. Didymus m
hortatiops relating to obedience to civil rulers (13-17), Alexandria, St. Athanasius, St. Epiphanius, St. Cyril
the duties of slaves to their masters (18-25), the of Jerusalem, St. Gregory Nazianzen, the Canon of
mutual duties of husband and wife (iii, 1-7). With Laodicea, all regard the letter as authentic. Theaddi-
regard to those who, not having the same faith, calum- tion to the text of Didymus, according to which it was
niate and persecute the Christians, the latter should the work of a forger, seems to be the error of a copyist,
return good for evil, according to the example of So in the West relations with the East and the autnor-
Christ, who though innocent suffered for us, and who itv of St. Jerome finally brought about the admission
preached the Ckx^l not only to the Uving^but also to of its authenticity. It was admitted to the Vxilgate,
the spirits that were in prison (8-22). The Apostle and the s3mod convoked by Pope Damasus in 3S2
concludes by repeating his exhortation to sanctity in expressly attributes it to St. Peter,
general (iv, 1-6), to Parity (7-11), to patience and (2) Intrinsic arguments. — If tradition does not ap-
joy in suffering for Christ (12-19). (c) Some special pear to furnish an apodictic argument in favour of the
recommendations follow (v, 1-11): let the ancients authenticity, an examination of the Epistle itself does,
be careful to feed the flock entrusted to their keeping The author calls himself Simon Peter, servant and
(1-^): let the faithful be subject to their pastor (5a); Apostle of Jesus Christ (i, 1), witness of the glorious
let all observe humility among themselves (5b); let transfiguration of Christ (i, 16-18); he recalls the
them be sober and watchful, trusting the LoM (6-11). prediction of His death which Christ made to bim
In the epilogue the Apostle Imns^ declares that he (iy 14) : he calls the Apostle Paul his brother, i. e.,
has employed Sylvanus to write the letter and affirms his colleague in the Apostolate (iii, 15) ; and he iden-
that the Divine grace possessed by his readers is the tifies himself with the author of the First Epistle,
true grace (12)^ he addresses to them the salutations Therefore the author must necessarily be St. Peter
of the Church m Rome and those of Mark (13), and himself or some one who wrote under his name, but
gives them his Apostolic blessing. nothing in the Epistle forces us to believe the latter.
Second Epistle. — ^A. AtUhenticUy, — In the present On the other hand there are several indications of its
state of the controversy over the authenticity it may authenticitv: the author shows himself to be a Jew,
be affirmed that it is solidly probable, though it is of ardent character, such as the New Testament por-
difficult to prove with certainty. (1) Extrinsic argu- trays St. Peter, while a comparison with the ioeas,
ments. — (a) In the first two centuries there is not in words, and expressions of the First Epistle affords
the Apostolic Fathers and other ecclesiastical writers, a further argument in favour of the identity of the
if we except Theophilus of Antioch (180), a single quo- author. Such, at least, is the opinion of sevend
tation properly so called from this Epistle; at most critics.
there are some more or less probable allusions in their In examining the difficulties raised against the au-
writing e. g.. the First Epistle of St. Clement of Rome thenticity of the Epistle^he following facts should be
to the Corintnians, the Didache", St. Ignatius, the remembered: (a) This Epistle has been wrongly ac-
Epistle of Barnabas, the '' Pastor'' of Hennas, the cused of being imbued with Hellenism, from winch it
Epistle of Pol^carp to the Philippians, the Dialogue is even farther removed than the writings of Luke and
of St. Justin with Trypho, St. Ireneeus, the Clementine the Epistles of Paul, (b) Likewise the lalse doctrinea
' ' Recognitions ' ' , the Acts of Peter' '. etc. The Epistle which it opposes are not the full-blown Gnosticism of
formed part of the ancient Itala, out is not in the the second century, but the budding Gnosticism as
S3rriac. This proves that the Second Epistle of Peter opposed by St. Paul, (c) The difference which some
existed and even had a certain amount of authority, authors claim to find between the doctrine of the two
But it is impossible to bring forward with certainty Epistles proves nothing against the authenticity; some
a single expucit testimony in favour of this authen- otners have even maintained that comparison of the
ticity. The Muratorian Canon presents a mutilat^ doctrines furnishes a new argument in favour of the
text of I Peter, and Zahin's suggested restoration, author's identity. Doubtless there exist undeniable
which seems vexy probable, leaves only a doubt with differences, but is an author obliged to confine himself
regard to the authenticity of the Second Epistle. within the same circle of ideas? (d) The difference
(b) In the Western Church there is no explicit tes- of style which critics have discovered between the two
timony in favour of the canonicity and Apostolicity Epistles is an argument requiring too delicate handling
of this Epistle until the middle of the fourtn century, to supply a certain conclusion, and here again some
Tertullian and Cyprian do not mention it, and Momm- others have drawn from a similarity of style an ar^
sen's Canon (360) still bears traces of the uncertainty ment in favour of a unity of authorship. Admitting
among the Churches of the West in this respect. The that the manner of speaking is not the same in both
Eastern Church gave earlier testimonv in its behaJf . Epistles, there is, nevertheless, not the slightest diffi-
According to Eusebius and Photius, Clement of Alex- culty, if it be true as St. Jerome has said (see above
andria (d. 215) commented on it, but he seems not to under First Epistle), that in the composition of the
have rsmked it with the first. It is foimd in the two Epistles St. Peter made use of different interpreters.
great Egyptian versions (Sahidic and Bohairic). It is (e) It is also incorrect to say that this Epistle sup-
probable that Firmilian of Csesarea used it and as- poses the Epistle of St. Paul to have been already
c.ibed it to St. Peter, as Methodius of Olsonpus did collected (iii, 15-16), for the author does not say that
explicitly. Eusebius of Caesarea (340), wUle person- he knew all the Epistles of St. Paul. That he ^ould
ally accepting II Peter as authentic and canonical, have regarded Paul's letters as inspired forms m
PBTEB 755 PITIB
difficulty only to those who do not admit the poasibil- BinUitung in daa new Tut. (Freiburg. igOl); Bigg, a CrUieai
ity of a revelation made to Peter on this point. Some 'im^^'S^w^Ti^I^^i^^'cf^^ ^ ^'^SfeSiJ
authors have also wrongly contested the unity of the apoaUypHm (Meckun, 1904); 'HBNKKL.*z>ar iweite bh^cUm
Epistle, some claiming that it consists of two distinct Apottel/Hraien Petnu gepm/t auf teine Bchtheit (Freiburg, 1904);
epistles, the second beginning with ch. iii, others main-' ISf ™* ?i?{^;"^ 7 "*" /ST^ ^l^i?"^"'*' ^?P^^ • P^i^'
4^I;«;»» 4.u»4- 4.k» :; i ;T: o u-- u^^^z^TlL^ii^j^ BpUres eathol. Apoealvpae (Peru, 1905); Wbjm, Der erste Petnu
taming that the U, 1-m, 2, has been mtezpolated. Re- brUf und die nntere Kritik (Lichterfelde. 1906); DiLLBNBBOBB,
Cently M. Ladeuze (Revue Biblique, 1905) has ad- VatUhnUieitt de la II Petri in MHangea de la faculU orierUaU
v^c^ an hvpothesis which seems to end numerous ilSr\U'?aV)p5i^^x^.r/fiS. cLT^iSJf V.^rlf^- &
difficulties: by an mvoluntary error of a copyist or 1908): Brassac, Manwi ww. (Paris. 1909): Vanwbbnkiot*-
by accidental transposition of the leaves of the codex Cambrltnck, Comment, in epist. ocuhoi. (Bruges. 1909).
on which the Epistle was written, one of tiie parts of A. Van der Heeren.
the Epistle was transposed, and according to the order ^^s. o a a a i_
of sections the letter should be restored as follows: *.,f*5?f' Gospel of Saint. See Apocrypha, sub-
i-ii, 3a; iu, 1-16; u, 3b-22; iii, 17-18. The hypoth- "**® ^^^•
esis seems very probable. ^ p^^^^ g^^j^^^ philanthropist, b. at Chillicothe,
?tf hiPfh^ m^f ^S^?^ n^fJnn ^^^TvtFrAH ^^^ Senate. On 15 May, 1816, she married Edward
iS^H- l^f, J??^ "^^^ ^^"^""^ ^ *^^ ^®*^ "^^ King, son of Rufus King of New York, who died 6
^n^ZiJ^ijT^Z:!^'^ n^^ nivw T* ;o i^i;^«^ Feb., 1836; and in October, 1844, she married WiUiam
fhStSTlSi HV^thTtw J^^^}L^,^rV^ Pe*«^» British consul at Philadelphia, who died 6
fUnV^ A^A^or^^^^ Feb., 1853. During her residence at Philadelphia
o^.^J^J^Tr^\ ^2.^?^ n ^19^ .J??"" F^I! she bounded, 2 DecT, 1850, the School of Design for
3S^ii^^?rifTc.^ rn,} Hiiiri^V;^ ^\' nf^ Womcu. Returning to Ciiicinnati she spent most of
teachers (u, 1), heretics and deceivers (m^ 3), of cor^ y^„ ror«oinir.ir v«o«ro« o T.of,v.« «f o^ ^a ;
rupt morals (u, 1) i
Christ and the end
Peter^ote^to^MdteThem tcTth ^^ Mermillod. The foundatfons of the Sisters of
and chiefly to turn them away from the errors and bad ^^® ^^**, Shepherd, the Sisters of Mercy, the Uttle
example of the false teachexi. S'sters of the Poor m Cincinnati, and otter mstitu-
CDaU and Place of CompMtfion.— While those Jionsowedmuchtohergeneroaty In 1862she volun-
who reject the authenticity of the Epistle place it }^^^ * f,""^' ^''.^ !l®''* ^A^ ^^5 sisters who fol-
about 150, the advocates of its authenticity maintain ViS!*^!"*^ ? Tf^ ^ ^^® south-west after the battle
that it was written after 63-4, the date of the First ^^Jj^'rii^J^^nu^'T * ^f ^s c i. pw tr^ - .-
E^->' Ai J u r fiii e Ai. J X u 1* J X 1. 4.1. J. KiKO, Memovre of the Life of Hire. Sarah Peter (Cincinnati,
iDlstle. and before 64r-5, the date beheved to be that 1889); Catholic Telegraph (Cincinnati), files; Freemen'* Journci
Of the death of St. Peter (i, 14). Like the First, it was (New York), files.
written at Rome. Thomas F. Meehan.
D. Analysis. — In the exordium the Apostle, after ^^m o a a t^ m
the inscription and salutation (i, 1-2), recalls the maa- "^•"^» Tomb op Saint. See St. Peter, Tomb of.
nificent gifts bestowed by Jesus Christ on the faithftfl; Peter Arbues, Saint. See Peter of Arbues,
he exhorts them to the practice of virtue and all the Saint.
more earnestly that he is convinced that his death is ^ ^ « ^j ^ ^ m_ m^ jt ^ a
approaching (3-16). In the body of the Epistle (i, 16- ^ ^•*^,'"*P^* "^p. i^*?*^:?;? t°??J!?*®??'
ill, 13) the author brings forward the dogma o/ the Saints d. at Nagasaki 5 Feb., 1597. In 1593 while
second coming of Christ, which he proves, recalling negotiations were pending between the Emperor of
His glorious transfiguration and the prediction of the ?^P^ *°^, *^«po^"^?.r f ^^^ Philippme Islands, the
Prophets (i, 16-21). Then he mveighs against the ^^^^^ ««?* P«*f Baptist and several other Francis-
false teachers and condemns their life and doctrines: ^^ans as his ambassadors to Japan. They were well
(a) They shall undergo Divme chastisement, in proof received by the emperor, and were able to establish con-
of which the Apostle recalls the punishment inflicted vents, s^ls, and hospit^, and eflfect many conver-
on the rebel angels, on the contemporaries of Noe, on «^^:^ ^^.^^^ Oct., 1596, a Spanish yesselof war,
the people of Sodom and Gomorrha(ii, 1-11). (b) He ^^ San Fehpe ", was stranded on the isle of Tosa, it
describes the unmoral life of the false teachers, their became, according to Japanese custom, the property of
impurity and sensuality, their avarice and duplicity J?® emperor. The captain was foolish enough to extol
(12-22). (c) He refutes their doctrine, showing that the power of his kmg, and said that the missionaries
they are wrong in rejecting the second commg of ^^ been sent to prepare for the conquest of the coun-
Christ and the end of the worid (iii, 1-4), for the Judge ^^' The emperor became furious, and on 9 Dec,
shall certainly come and that unexpectedly; even as J??^» ^^^T®^. the missionaries to be imprisoned. On 5
the ancient worid perished by the waters of the flood Feb^l597, six fnara belongjing to the Fu^t Order of
BO the present worid shall perish by fire and be re- gt. Francis (Peter Baptist, Martin of the Ascension,
placed by a new world (5-7). Then follows the moral Francis Blanco, pn^ts;Phihp of Jesus, clenc; Gon-
oonclusion: let us live holily, if we desire to be ready 8?lvo Garzia, Francis of St. Michael, lavbrothers),
for the commg of the Judge (8-13) ; let us employ the three JapMiese Jesuits (Paul Miki, John Goto, James
time given us to work out our salvation, even as Paul Kisai) and seveateen native Franciscan Tertianes
taught in his Epistles' which the false teachers abuse were crucified. They were beatified 14 Sept., 1627,
(14-17). Verse 18 consists of the epilogue and by Urban VIII, and canonized 8 June, 1862, by
doxology irius La..
Dbac^Batlb. SpUree caiholiquee (Paris. 1873); Hukd- ,J^?^* j^i^ ''^^'^ ^J^ ''^JSS^''^ ^ ''^^^
RAUBBN. Die beiden yontificalhereSm dee ApoetelfHreten Petrue 'Xj'^iiF^"w*°?i ^^2' ^^^^^■^^^'i''%^'^' ^*?- ®*"
(Mains. 1878) ; Cobkblt. »m<. «< eril. introdSctio in U. T. librae l?*».2fll-f 1 : ^ SS., Feb.. I, 729;-770; InAs, Cr&ntcade la j^o-
eacroe. III. Introduetio epecialu (Paris. 1886); Bsblbn. Hei «»«« .^^ *»» ^W^^^T^^r*** ^^^''h^
niewe Teetarnent (Bruges. 1891) ; JUuchbb. BinUitung in doe {J^n|yco«n««M««F»hwn«^
fMM Teetament (ISW); K©hl, Briefe Petri und Juda (Gattin«n. MABiiKBS. CompendwhxHirieod^U ^Po^^^. vronn^d^ San
1897); HOBT. The Viret BpietU of St. Peter CLondon, IsS) Oregorwde FU%p%naeJb&adnd, 1756); Bovrx, Uutotred^^
vohSodbn, Briefedee P««na (Freiburg, 1899); Habkacb. QeeJk. ^* "^"^/TH ^"9^^ ^ Nangaeafut(V^nB, L^ons. 16f2); Dj-
der aUchriet. Literatur, die Chronologie (Leipsig, 1900) ; Monnibb. JS^cb- ^ \^^*^ *»« •'^P^' "• ^Bredee MaHvrte 1693-1660
La premiire ijMre de Pierre (Maeon. 1900)rZAHi«, Grundriee der (Brussels, 1909).
Queh. dot neuteetamntUchen Kawmt (Leipsig, 1901); Tmjuoom, FbbdIKAND HsckmaNN.
J
PBTEBBOBOUaR 756 PinB
Peterborough Abbey, Benedictine monastery in iippointed first bishop. The new diocese then ez-
Northamptonshire. England, known at first as Me- tended about 1110 miles from south-east to north-
deiAiamstede, was founded about 654 by Peada, Kii^ west, and its southern limit reached to Lakes Superior
of the Mercians, who appointed as first abbot, Saxulf. and Huron, the Georgian Bay, and a part of Lake On-
Peada's church and monastery were completely de- * tario. Bishop Jamot was bom in France in 1828, and
stroyed by the Danes in 870. The circumstantial ac- came to the Diocese of Toronto in 1853. After serr-
count of this event, given in Abbot John's chronicle, is ing in the parish of Barrie for several years he was
fictitious, but the fact of the abbey's destruction is transferred to St. Michael's Cathedral, Toronto, and
certain. In 970. in the monastic revival associated appointed chancellor and vicar-general of the diocese,
with the name or St. Dunstan, the monastery was re- In 1874 he was appointed Bishop of Sarepta and Vicar
built through the efforts of Ethelwold, Bishop of Win- Apostolic of Northern Canada, where ne di^layed
Chester, with the aid of King Edgar. Part of the foun- zeal and*energy in seeking out tne Catholics of his ez-
dations were laid bare in lfi»7, when the central tower tensive vicariate. When m 1882 the Diocese of Peter-
of the present cathedral was rebuilt, and its dimen- borough was formed the total Catholic population was
sions seem to have been about half those of the present about 30,000, of whom 5000 were Indians, with 47
building. The abbey suffered both from fire and pil- churches and 25 priests, of whom 1 1 were Jesuits at-
lage in the unsettled period preceding the Norman tending the western part of the diocese and the Indian
conquest, and in 1116 during the abbacv of Dom John Missions. After the erection of the Diocese of Peter-
of S^ a great conflagration destroyed the monastic borough in 1882 Bishop Jamot moved his see from
buildings with the little town that had grown up Bracebridge to the city of Peterborough, where he died 4
around them. The work of rebuilding, begun by Ab- May, 1886. Rt. Rev. Thomas Joseph Dowling, then
bot John, ceased at his death, in 1125. Martin de Vicar General of the Diocese of Hamilton, succeeded
Bee, successor of Abbot Henry of Anjou, poshed the him and was consecrated 1 May, 1887. He continned
work forward, and the presbytery of the new church the many good works of his predecessor and after two
was finished and entered upon by the monks about years was transferred to the Diocese of Hamilton. Hie
1140. The work of building went on steadily until third bishop, Rt. Rev. Richard Alphonsus O'Connor,
1237, when the completed church was consecrated by was consecrated 1 Mav, 1889. He was bom at Lis-
Robert Grost^te, Bishop of Lincoln. When the mon- towel, Co. Kerry, Ireland, 15 April, 1838, came to
astery was surrendered* to King Henry VIII in 1541 Canada in 1841 with his narents. and settled at To-
the church was spared from destruction, because it ronto. He was one of the nrst students in St. Michael's
contained the remains of his first wife. It then be- College, Toronto, and made his theological course in
came the cathedral of the new Diocese of Peterbor- the Grand Seminary, Montreal. On 2 August, 1861,
ough, and the last abbot, John Chambers, was re- he was ordained priest in St. Michael's Cathedral,
warded for his compliance to the royal demands by Toronto, and, after serving in various parishes as pas-
being made the first oishop. Though the great church tor, and for eighteen years as Dean of fiarrie, he was
was begun during the Norman period, a considerable appointed Bishop of Peterborough by Leo XIII, 11
portion belongs to the thirteenth century. This is Jan., 1889.
true in particular of the glorious west front, which During the administration of Bishop O'Connor the
Fergusson and Freeman agree in calling the grandest western part of the diocese increased rapidly in popu-
and most original in Europe. It consists of three huge lation, and, that religion might keep pace witn the
arches, supported on triangular columns and enrich^ material progress of the country, many churches and
with a number of delicate shafts, which open into a schools were built. On account of the large influx of
long narthex orportico, extending the whole width of settlers into New Ontario, which embraced the west-
the building. The interior has a nave of eleven bays em part of the Diocese of Peterborough, and the de-
(228 ft.), with transepts and presbytery terminating m velopment of that district in agriculture, commerce,
a circular apse. The original ambulatory, round the mining, and manufacturing industries, a brief dated
east end, was replaced in the late fifteenth century by 14 Nov., 1904, of Pius X constituted the new Diocese
a square-ended chapel, of great delicacy, in the Per- of Sault Ste Marie by detaching from the Diocese of
pendicular style. The total interior length is 426 ft., Peterborough the western part of the District of Nipis-
interior height 78 ft,, length of transepts 185 ft. Much sing, with the Districts of Algoma and Thunder Bay.
controversy has been aroused over the rebuilding of There was then a population of 27,000 Catholics, with
the central tower and the restoration of the west front, 35 priests and 64 churches, in the new Diocese of Sault
but both these works were inevitable and have been Ste Marie; and 24,000 Catholics, with 29 priests and
carried out with the greatest regard for the designs of 45 churches, in the portion left to Peterborough. The
the original architects. city of Peterborougn has a population of about 18,000,
DuoDALE, Jif#n««jtc(mAn(^ZicanMm, l(lx>ndon,i8i7j,344-^ about one-fourth of whom are Catholics, with two
^"J^l: ZTiS °l'::LZ^'$^Z^^*T^7'^firk}r^ ^hurohee, one hospital, one House of Providence, an
aenobii BurgenaU scriptorea varii, ed. Sparks in Hitt. Angl. Orphanage, and the largest total at>Stmence SOCiety
Scriptore; Hi (London, 1723), 1-256; Euas of Tkikinqham, jn Canada, numbering over 1000 men. In the die-
^:^Te5fAlT^''^^'lI^^^!'xMtl*(^lrnJo1^ ce^e are many Catholic schoob conducted chiefly
Eccleaia Petriburgenna, 1074-1181, ed. Stapleton (London, by the Slsters Of ot. Josepn, WhO have a mother-
1849); Browne-Wilu», Survey of English CathedraU, III (Lon- house and novitiatc in the cathedral city, and have
don, 1730), 475; Britton, History and Antxquiixea of Peter' nhanra nf iht* htvmM fi\R HoiisP of Provid«»nnp and nr-
borough Cathedral (London, 1836) ; Swbetino, The Cathedral cnarge 01 tJie nospiiais, nouse oi rroviaence, ano or^
Church of Peterborough (jjondon,iS9S). phanage. They also conduct a select academy at
G. Roger Hudleston. Lindsay, besides directing the day school for girls. In
,^ Peterborough there are three large schools, with 19
Peterborough, Diocese of (Peterboroughen- teachers, 17 of whom are Sisters of St. Joseph. At
bis), in the Province of Ontario, Canada, comprises present the Catholic population of the diocese is about
the Counties of Peterborough, Northumberland, Dur- 26,000, with 29 secular priests, 3 Jesuit Fathers, 50
ham, and Victoria, with the Districts of Muskoka and churches, 2 hospitals, one House of Providence, and
Parry Sound. It was erected by Leo XIII, 11 July, Q^e orphanage.
1882, by detaching the four former counties from the ' R. A. O'Connor.
Diocese of Kingston and uniting them with the Vicari- , , , ,
ate of Northern Canada, which then included the Dis- Peter Canisius (Kannebs, Kanys, probably also
tricts of Muskoka, Parry Sound, Nipissing, Algoma, De Hondt), Blessed, b. at Nimwegen m the
and Thunder Bay. Rt. Rev. John Francis Jamot, at Netherlands, 8 May, 1521; d. in Fnbourg, 21
that time Vicar Apostolic of Northern Canada, was November, 1597. His father was the wealthy burgo-
757
maater, Jaoob CanisiuB; his mother, iEeidia van Julius III apptunted him adtninietrotor of the bishop-
Houweningen, died BhortJr after Peter'a birth. Id rio for one year, but Ganimua iucceeded in riddipg
1636 Pet«r was sent to Colt^ae, where be studied himself of this burden (cf. N. Paulua in "Zeitschrift
art«, civil law, and theology at the university; he farkatholiBcheTheologie",XXU, 742-8). Ia]555he
spent a part of 1539 at the Univeraty of Louvain, and was present at the Diet of Augsburg with Ferdinand,
in 1540 received the d^ree of Master of Arts at and m 1555-56 he preached in the cathedral of Prague.
Cologne. Nicolaus van Esche was his spiritual ad- After long n^otiations and preparations he was able
viser, and he was on t«rms of friendship with such to open Jesuit colleges at In^olstadt and Prague. In
staunch CatiioUcs as Geoig of Skodborg (the expelled the same year Ignatius appomted him first provincial
Archbishop of Lund), Johann Gropper (canon of the superior of Upper Germany (Swabis, Bavaria, Bo-
eathedral), Eberhard Billick (the Carmelite monk), hernia, Hungary, Lower and Upper Austria). During
" ■ ■ ' ..-•---' — . ^tedas ' * * " "■
Justus Laiispergius, and other Carthusian monks.
ir of 1556-57 he a
Ls adviser to the King
_ many sermons in the cathedral. By the appointment
self to ceUbacy. In 1543 he visited Peter Faber of the Catholic princes and the order of the pope he
and, having made the "Spiritual Exercisefl" under took part in the religious discussions at Worms, As
his direction, was admitted into the Society of Jesus champion of the Catholics he repeatedly spoke in
at Mains, on 8 May. With the help of Leonhard opposition to Melanchthon. The (act that the Prot-
Kessel and others, Caniflius, labouring under great estants disagreed among themselves and were obliged
dilhcultiee, founded m -.-v-
logne the first German house of
the order; at the same time
he preached in the city and
vicinity, and debated and
taught m the university. In
1S46 he was admitted to the
priesthood, and soon after-
wards was sent by the clel^
and university to obtain assist-
ance from Emperor Charles
V, the nuncio, and the clergy
of Liige against the apostate
ArchbiShop, Hermann von
Wied, who had attempted to
pervert the diocese. In 1547.
as the theologian of Cardinal
Otto Truehseas von Waldburg,
Bishop of Augsburg, he par-
ticipated in the general ecclesi-
■EIKVS CAJJlfll \3 KfcaLMJVS 30C.IE3VTH E0LOC\'
" ''•■ Junit flamxui. nd SiJirii dii-to- Jm3.
Ingolstadt;
to leave the field \t
a great measure to Canisiua.
He also preached in tbe cathe-
dral of Worms.
During Advent and Christ-
mas he visited the Bishop of
Strasburg at Zabem, started
negotiations for tbe building
of a Jeauit collie there,
preached, explained the cate-
chism to the children, and
heard their confessions. He
also preached in the cathedral
Freiburg in their faith. Ferdi-
nand, on his wav to Franlcfort
to be proclaimea emperor, met
him at Nuremburg and con~
fided bis troubles to him.
Then Duke Albert V of Bavaria
secured his services: at Strau-
bing the pastors ana preachers
hadfled, after having persuaded
the people to turn from the
Cathohc faith. Canisius re-
mained in the town for six
weeks, preaching three or four
timefl a day, and by his gen-
tleness he undid much harm.
From Straubing he was called
to Rome to be present at the
First General Ckingregation of
his order, but before its close Paul IV sent him with
Mentuati to Poland to the imperial Diet
astical council (which sat first
at Trent and then at Bologna),
and spoke twice in the con-
sr^ation of the theolo^ans.
After this he spent several
montlis under the direction of
Ignatius in Rome. In 1548
he taught rhetoric at Messina.
Sicily, preaching in Italian and
Latin. At this time Duke
William IV of Bavaria re
quested Paul III to send him
some professors from the So-
ciety of Jesus for the University
Canisius was among those selected. .._ , .. ,
On 7 Septemlier, 1549, he made his solemn pro- oif I^eterkow: at Cracow he addnssed the cleiKr luiu
fusion as Jesuit at Rome, in the presence of the members of the university. In the year 1559 he was
founder of the order. On his journey northward he summoned by the emperor to be present at the Diet
received, at Bolt^na, the degree of doctor of theology, of Augsburg. There, at the urgent request of the
On 13 November, accompanied by Fathers Jaius and chapter, he became preacher at the cathedral, and
Salmeron, he reached Ingolstadt, where he taught held this position until 1566. His manuscripts show
theology, cateduied, and preached. In 1,'>50 he was the care with which he wrote his sermons. In a
elected^rector of the university, and in 1552 was sent scrips of sermons he treats of the end of man, of the
by Ignatius to the new collie in Vienna; there he also Decalogue, the Mass, the prophecies of Jonas; at the
taught theology in the umverdty, preached at the same time he rarely omitted to expound the Gospel
Cathedra] of St. Stephen, and at the court of Ferdl- of the dav; he spoke in keeping with the spirit of the
nand I, and was confessor at the hospital and prison, age, expluned the justification of man. Christian
DuringLent, 1553 hevisitedmanyabandoned parishes liberty, the properwayof interpreting the Scriptures,
in Lower Austria, preaching and administering the defended the worship of saints, the ceremonies of
sacniments. The kmg's eldest son (later Maximilian the Church, religious vows, indulgences, urged obe-
li) had appointed to the office of court preacher, dience to me Oiurch authorities, confession, com-
Phauser, a married priest, who preached the Lutheran munion, fastiM, and almsgiving; he censured the
doctrine, Canisius warned Ferdinand I, verbally and faults of the clergy, at times perhaps too sharply,
inwritin^,andopposedPhauserinpubli(: disputations, as he felt that they were pubuc and that he must
Maximihan was obliged to dismiss Phauser and, on avoid demanding reformation from the laity only,
this account, the rest of his life he harboured a grudge Against theinflneuceofevilspiriteherecommended the
r'nst Canisiue. Ferdinand three tiroes offered him means of defence which had been in use in the Church
Bi^oprio of Vienna, but be refused. In 1657 during the fint centuries— lively faith, prayer, eccle-
PETER 758
siastical benedictions, and acts of penance. From defend the Church at the coming diet, and to nego-
1561-52 he preached about two hundred and ten ser- tiate for the founding of colleges and seminaries,
mons, besides giving retreats and teaching catechism. Canisius negotiated more or less successfully with
In the cathedral his confessional and the altar at the Electors of Mainz and Trier, with the Bishops
which he said Mass were surrounded by crowds, of Augsburg, WUrzburg, OsnabrQck. Mtinster, and
and alms were placed on the altar. The envy of some Paderborn, with the Duke of JfUich-Cleves-Berg, and
of the cathedral clergy was aroused, and Canisius and with the City and University of Cologne; he also
his companions were accused of usurping the paro- visited Nimwegen, preaching there and at other places:
chial rignts. The pope and bishop favoured the Jesu- his mission, however, was interrupted by the death of
its, but the majoritv of the chapter opposed them, the pope. Pius V decored its continuation, but Canisius
Canisius was obliged to sign an agreement according rec^uested to be relieved; he said that it aroused sua-
to which he retained the pulpit but gave iip the right piaons of espionage, of arrogance, and of Interference
of administering the sacraments in the cathedral. m politics (lor a detailed account of his mission see
In 1559 he opened a college in Munich; in 1562 he ^'Stimmen aus MariarLaach", LXXI, 58, 164. 301).
appeared at Trent as papal theologian. The council At the Diet of Augsbure (1566), Canisius ana other
was discussing the question whether communion theologians, by order of the pope, gave their services
should be administerea under both forms to those of to the carciinal legate Commendone; with the help
the lait}^ who asked for it. Lainez, the general of of his friends he succeeded, although with great diffi-
the Society of Jesus, opposed it unconditionally, culty, in persuading the le^te not to issue his protest
Canisius held that the cup might be administered to against the religious peace, and thus preventecTa new
the Bohemians and to some Catholics whose faith fratricidal war. The Catholic memoers of. the diet
was not venr firm. After one month he departed accepted the decrees of the council, the designs of the
from Trent, but he continued to support the work of Protestants were frustrated, and from that tune a new
the Fathers b^r urging the bishops to appear at the and vigorous life began for the Catholics in Grermany.
council, by giving expert opinion regarding the Index In the same year Canisius went to Wiesenst'Cig, where
and other matters, by reports on the state of public he visited and brought back to the Church the
opinion, and on newly-published books. In the spring Lutheran Count of Helfenstein and his entire oount-
of 1563 he rendered a specially important service to ship, and where he prepared for death two witches who
the Church; the emperor had come to Innsbruck had been abandoned by the Lutheran preacheis. In
(near Trent), and had summoned thither several 1567hepreached the Lenten sermons in the cathedral
scholars, including Canisius, as advisers. Some of of WUrzburg, gave instruction in the Franciscan
these men fomented the displeasure of the emperor church twice a week to the children and domestics
with the pope and the cardmals who presided over of the town, and discussed the foundmg of a Jesuit
the council. For months Canisius strove to reconcile coUege at WUrzburg with the bishop. Tnen followed
him with the Curia. He has been blamed unjustlv the mocesan Bynod of Dillingen (at which Canisius
for communicating to his general and to the pope's was principal adviser of the Bishop of Augsburg)*
representatives some of Ferdinand's plans, which journeys to WUrzburg, Mainz, Speyer, and a visit to
otnerwise might have ended contrary to the inten- the Bishop of Strasburg, whom he uivised. thoush
tion of all concerned in the dissolution of the coun- unsuccessfully, to take a coadjutor. At Dillingenhe
cil and in a new national apostasy. The emperor received the application of Stanislaus Kostka to enter
finally granted all the pope's demands and the coun- the Society of Jesus, and sent him with hearty reoom-
cil was able to proceed and to end peacefully. All mendations to the general of the order at Rome. At
Romepraised Canisius, but soon after he lost favour this time he successfully settled a diroute in the
with Ferdinand and was denounced as disloyal; at philosophical faculty of the University oi Ingolstadt.
this time he also changed his views regarding the In 1567 and 1568 he went several times to Inns-
giving of the cup to the laity (in which the emperor bruck, where in the name of the general he consulted
saw a means of relieving all his difficulties), saying with the Arehduke Ferdinand II and his sisters about
that such a concession would only tend to comuse the confessors of the archduchesses and about the
faithful Catholics and to encourage the disobedience establishment of a Jesuit house at Hall. In 1569 the
of the recalcitrant. general decided to accept the college at Hall.
In 1562 the 0)llege of Innsbruck was opened by During Lent of 1568 Canisius preached at EU-
Canisius, and at that time he acted as confessor wangen, in WUrtemberg; from there he went with
to the ''Queen" Magdalena (declared Venerable Cardinal Truchsess to Rome. The Upper German
in 1906 by Pius X ; daughter of Ferdinand I. province of the order had elected the provincial as its
who lived with her four sisters at Innsbruck), ana representative at the meeting of the procurators; this
as spiritual adviser to her sisters. At their request election was illegal, but Canisius was admitted. For
he sent them a confessor from the society, and, months he collected in the libraries of Rome material
when Magd^ena presided over the convent, which for a great woric which he was preparing. In 1569
she had founded at Hall, he sent her complete he returned to Au^burg and preached Lenten sermons
directions for attaining Christian perfection. In in the Chureh of St. Mauritius. Ha vine been a pn>>
1563 he preached at manv monasteries in Swa- vincial for thirteen years (an imusually long time) he
bia ; in 1564 he sent the first missionaries to was relieved of the office at his own rec]uest, and went
Lower Bavaria, and recommended the provincial to Dillingen, where he wrote, catechized, and heard
synod of Salzburg not to allow the cup to the laity, confessions, his respite, however, was short; in 1570
as it had authority to do; his advice, however, was he was obliged again to go to Augsburg. A year later
not accepted. In this year Canisius opened a college he was compelled to move to Innsbruck and to accept
at Dillingen and assumed, in the name of the order, the office of^ court preacher to Archduke Ferdinand il.
the administration of the university which had been In 1575 Gregory XIII sent him with papal messages
founds there by Cardinal Truchsess. In 1565 he took to the arehduke and to the Duke of Bavaria. When
part in the Second General O^n^regation of ^e order he arrived in Rome to make his report, the Third
m Rome. While in Rome he visited Philip, son of the General Congregation of the order was assembled and,
Protestant philologist Joachim Cameranus, at that by special favour, Canisius was invited to be presoit.
time a prisoner of the Inquisition, and instructed and f>om this time he was preacher in the parish church
consoled him. Pius IV sent him as his secret nimcio of Innsbruck until the Diet of Ratisbon (1576), which
to deliver the decrees of the Council of Trent to he attended •as theologian of the cardinal legate
Germany; the pope also commissioned him to urge Morone. In the following year he supervised at
their enforcement, to ask the Catholic princes to Ingolstadt the printing of an important work, and
1
?iL^
i
^^^^^^^HI^^B ^
w
1
CESABE FBACASaiNI, VATICAN
r UODCRN ART
PBTIB
759
PETER
induced the students of the university to found a
sodality of the Blessed Virgin. During Lent, 1578, he
E reached at tbe court of Duke William of Bavaria at
landshut. The nuncio Bonhomini desired to have a
college of the society at Fribourg; the order at first
refu^ on account of the lack of men, but the pope
intervened and, at the end of 1580, Canisius laid tne
foundation stone. In 1581 he founded a sodalitv of
the Blessed Virgin among the citizens and, soon after-
wards, sodalities for women and students; in 1582
schools were opened, and he preached in the parish
church and in other places until 1589.
The canton had not been left uninfluenced by the
Protestant movement. Canisius worked indefati-
gably with the provost Peter Schnewly, the PVancis-
can Johannes Michel, and others, for the revival of
religious sentiments amongst the people; since then
Fribourg has remained a stronghold of the Catholic
Church. In 1584. while on his wav to take part in
another meeting ot the order at Augsburg, he preached
at Lucerne and made a pilgrimage to the miraculous
ima^e of the Blessed Virgin at Einsiedeln. According
to his own account, it was then that St. Nicholas, the
patron saint of Fribourg, made known to him his desire
that Canisius shoxild not leave Fribourg again. Many
times the superiors of the order planned to transfer
him to another house, but the nuncio, the city council,
and the citizens themselves opposed the measure; they
would not consent to lose this celebrated and saintly
man. The last years of his life he devoted to the in-
struction of converts, to making spiritual addresses
to the brothers of the order, to writmg and re-editing
books. The city authorities ordered his body to be
buried before the high altar of the principal church,
the Church of St. Nicolaus, from which they were
translated in 1625 to that of St. Michael, the church
of the Jesuit College.
Canisius held that to defend the i Catholic truths
with the pen was just as important as to convert the
Hindus. At Rome and Trent he strongly urged the
appointment at the council, at the papal court, and in
other parts of Italv, of able theologians to write in
defence of the Catholic faith. He begged Pius V to
send yearlv subsidies to the Catholic printers of Ger-
many, and to permit German scholars to edit Roman
manuscripts; ne induced the city council of Fribours
to erect a printing establishment, and he secured
special privileges for printers. He also kept in touch
with the chief Cathouc printers of his time — Plantin
of Antwerp, Cholin of Cologne, and Mayer of Dilling-
en — ^and had foreign works ot importance reprint^
in Germany, for example, the works of Andrada.
Fontidonio, and Villalpando in defence of the Council
of Trent.
Canisius advised the generals of the order to create
a college of authors; urged scholars like Bartholomseus
Latomus, Friedrich Staphylus, and Hieronymus Tor-
rensis to publish their works; assisted Onofrio Pan-
vinio and the polemic Stanislaus Hosius, reading their
manuscripts and correcting proofs; and contributed
to the work of his friend Surius on the councils. At
his solicitation the '^ Brief e aus Indien", the first
relations of Catholic missioners, were published (Dill-
ingen. 1563-71); " Canisius "j wrote the Protestant
preacner, Witz, "by this activity gave an impulse
which deserves our imdivided recognition, indeed
which arouses our admiration" ("Petrus Canisius",
Vienna. 1897. p. 12).
The latest bibliography of the Society of Jesus de-
votes thirty-eight quarto pages to a list of the works
published by Canisius and their different editions, and
It must be added that this list is incomplete. The
most important of his works are described below; the
asterisk signifies that the work bears the name of
Canisius neither on the title page nor in the preface.
His cMef work is his triple "Catechism". In 1551 King
Ferdinand I aaked the Uwversity of Vjeuna tP write
a compendium of Christian doctrine, and Canisius
wrote (Vienna. 1555), at first for advanced students,
his "Summa aoctrinse ohristiame ... in usum Chris-
tians pueritiffi", two hundred and eleven questions
in five chapters (the first edition appeared without the
name of the author, but later all thi^ catechisms bore
his name); then a short extract for school children.
''Summa ... ad captum rudiorum accommodata
(Ingolstadt, 1556), was published as an appendix to
the "Principia Granmiatices": his catechism for
students of the lower and middle grades, "Parvus
Catechismus Catholicorum " (later knoM^n as " Institu-
tiones christians pietatis" or "Catechismus cathol-
icus"), is an extract from the larger catechism, written
in the winter of 1557-58. Of the first Latin edition
(Cologne, 1558), no copy is known to exist; the Ger-
man edition appeared at Dillingen, 1560. The
"Summa" only received its definite form in the
Cologne edition of 1556; it contains two hundred and
twentv-two questions, and two thousand quotations
from the Scriptures, and about twelve hundml quota-
tions from the Fathers of the Church are inscribed on
the margps; later all these quotations were compiled
in the original by Peter Busseus, S.J.. and appeared in
four quarto volumes under the title "Authoritates
Sacrse Scripturse et Sanctorum patrum" etc. (dk^Iogne.
1569-70); in 1557 Johannes Hasius, S.J., published
the same work in one large foUo volume, entitled
"Opus catechisticum", for which Canisius wrote an
introduction. The catechism of Canisius is remark-
able for its ecclesiastically correct teachings, its clear,
positive sentences, its mild and dignified form. It is
to-day recognizea as a masterpiece even by non-
Catholics, e. g., the historians Ranke, Menzel, Philipp-
son, and the theologians Kawerau, Rouffet, Zerscn-
witz.
Pius V entrusted Canisius with the confutation of
the Oenturiators of Magdeburg (a. v.). Canisius
undertook to prove the dishonestv ol the centuriators
by exposing their treatment of the principal persons
in the Gospel — ^John the Baptist, the Motner of God,
the Apostle St. Peter — and published (Dillingen,
1571) his next most important work, "Commentario-
rum de Verbi Dei corruptelis liber primus: in quo de
Sanctissimi Prsecursoris Domini Joannis Baptists
Historia Evangelica . . . pertractatur". Here the
confutation of the principal errors of Protestantism is
exegetical and historical rather than scholastical; in
1577 "De Maria Virgine incomparabiH, et Dei Geni-
trice sacrosancta, libri quinque" was published at
Ingolstadt. Later he united these two works into
one book of two volumes, "Commentariorum de
Verbi corruptelis" (Ingolstadt, 1583, and later Paris
and Lyons) ; the treatise on St. Peter and his primacy
was only begim; the work on the Virgin Mary con-
tains some quotations from the Fathers of the (Church
that had not been printed previously, and treats of
the worship of Mary by the Church. A celebrated
theologian of the present dav called this work a classic
defence of the whole Catholic doctrine about the
Blessed Virgin (Scheeben, "Dogmatik", III, 478); in
1543 he published (under the name of Petrus Nouio-
magus) *"Des erleuchten D. Johannis Tauleri, von
eym waren Euan^^elischen leben, Gdttliche Predig.
Leren" etc., in which several writings of the Domin-
ican mystic appear in print for the first time. This
was the first book published by a Jesuit. "Divi
CyrilliarchiepiscopiAlexandrini Opera" (Latin trans-
lation, 2 fol. vols., Cologne, 1546); "D. Leonis Paps
huius nominis primi . . . Opera" (Cologne, 1546,
later reprinted at Venice, Louvain, and Cologne),
Leo is brought forward as a witness for the Cathohc
teachings and the discipline of the Church against the
innovators; "Deconsoiandissgrotis" (Vienna, 1554),
exhortations (Latin. German, and Italian) and pray-
ers, with a preface by Canisius; •"Lectiones et Pre-
cation^? Ecclesiastics? " (Ingolstadt, 1556), a grav^^^
760
book for students, reprinted more than thirty times stains his character" ("Petnis Canimua" in "Ge-
under the titles of ^'Epistol^ et Evangelia" etc.; schichte u. Legende'', Giessen, 1808, 10). The prior
^"Principiagrammatices" (Ingolstadt, 1556} ; Hanxu- cipal trait of Lis character was love for Christ and
bal Ccklrett's Latin Grammari adapted for German for his work; he devoted his life to defend, propagate,
students bv Canisius, reprinted in 1561, 1564 and and strengthen the Church. Hence his oevotion to
1568; *''Ordnung der Letaney von vnser lieben the pope. He did not deny the abuses which existed
Frawen" [Dillingen (1558)], the first known printing in Rome; he demanded speedy remedies; but the su-
of the Litany of Loreto, the second (Macerata, 1576) preme and fuU power of the pope over the whole
was most probably arranged by Canisius; *''Vom Church, and the mfallibility of nis teaching as Head
abschiedt des Coloquij zu Wormbs" (s. 1. a., 15- of the Cnurch, Canisius championed as vigorously as the
587) . Italian and Spanish brothers of the order. He cannot
* ''Ain Christlicher Bericht, was die hcdlige Christ- be called an "EpisoopaUan" 6r "Semi-Gallican"; his
liche Kirch . . . se3r" (Dillingen. 1550), translation and motto was "whoever adheres to the Chair of St. reter
pr^ace by Canisius (cf. N. Paulus in "Historisch- is my man. With Ambrose I desire to follow the
polit. Bl&tter", CXXI, 765): "Epistote B. Hieronymi Church of Rome in every respect". Pius V wished
...selectffi" (Dillingen, 1562), a school edition arranged to make him cardinal. The bishops, Brendel of
and prefaced bv Canisius and later reprinted about Mainz, Brus of Prague, PfluK of Naumburg, Blarer
forty times; * '^Hortulus Aninue" (q. v.), a German of Basle, Cromer of Ermland, and Spaur of Brixen,
pra}rer-book arranged by Canisitis (Dillingen, 1563), held him in great esteem. St. Francis of Sales sought
reprinted later, probably published also in Lfttin by his advice by letter. He enjoyed the friendship of
him. The "Mortxili'' were placed later on the Index the most distinguished members of the College of
nisi corriganlur; *"Von der Gesellschaft Jesu Durch. Cardinals — Borromeo, Hosius, Truchsess, Commen-
Joannem Albertum Wimpinensem" (Ingolstadt,1563), done, Morone, Sirlet; of the nuncios Delfino, Portia^
a defence of the order against Chemnitz and Zander, Bonhomini and others; of many leading esqranents
the greater part of which was written by Canisius; of ecclesiastical learning; and of such prominent
''Institutiones, et Exercitamentas Christians Pie- men as the Chancellor of the University of Lou*
tatis" (Antwerp^ 1566), many times reprinted, in which vain, Ruard Tapper, the provost Martin Eisen^in,
Canisius combmed . the «atechism for the middle Friedrich Staphylus, Franz Sonnius, Martin Ritho-
grades and the ''Lectiones et Precationes ecclesi- vius, Wilhelm Lindanus, the imperial vice^han-
astics" (revised in Rome); "Beicht-und Commun- cellors Jacob Jonas and Georg Sigismund Seld, the
ionbUchlein" [Dillingen, 1567 (?), 1575, 1579, 1582, Bavarian chancellor Simon Thadc&us Eck, sjA the
1603 { Ingolstadt, 1504, etc.] j '^Christenliche . . . Fuggers and Wels^is of Augsburg. '' Canisius's whole
Predig von den vier Sonta^n im Aduent, auch vonn life , writes the Swiss Protestant theologian Gautier,
dem heiligen Christag" (Dillingen, 1570). ''is animated by the desire to form a generation of
At the request of Ferdinand II of Tyrol. Canisius devout clerics capable of serving the Church worthily"
supervised the publishing of *"Von dem noch vnd (''Etude sur la correspondance de Pierre Canisius",
weitberhUmpten Wunderzeichen, so sich . . . auff dem Geneva, 1905, p. 46). At Ingolstadt he held disputa-
Seefeld . . . zusetragen" (Dillingen. 1580), and wrote tions and homiletic exercises among the young clerics,
a Ions preface for it; then appeared '' 2wey vnd neunt- and endeavoured to raise the religious and scientific
zig Betrachtung vnd Gebett, dess . . . Bruders standard of the Georgianum. He collected for and sent
Clausen von Vnterwalden" (Fribourg, 1586): "Man- pupils to the German College at Rome and provided for
uale Catholicorum. In usum pie precanoi" (Fri- pupils who had returned home. He also urged Gregpiy
bourg, 1587); "Zwo . . . Historien . . . Die erste AIII to make donations and to found similar institu-
von . . . S. Beato, ersten Prediser in Schweitzer- tions in Germanv; soon papal seminaries were built
land. Die andere von . . . S. Friaolino, ersten Pre- at Prague, Fulda, Braunsberg, and Dillingen. At
di^er zu Claris vnd Seckingen" (Fribourg^ 1590): in Ingolstadt, Innsbruck, Munich, and Vienna schools
this, the first of the popular biographies of the were built under the guidance of Canisius for the
saints especially worshipped in Switzerland, Canisius nobility and the poor, the former to educate the
does not give a scholarly essay, but endeavours to cler^ of the cathedrals, the latter for the clergy of
strengthen the Catholic Swiss in their faith and arouse' the lower grades. The reformed ordinances pub-
their piety; "Notse in Evangelicas lectiones, qu» per hshed at tlmt time for the Universities of Cologne,
totum annum Dominicis diebus . . . recitantur" Ingolstadt, and Vienna must be credited in the main
(Fribourg, 1591), a large ouarto volume valuable for to his suggestions.
sermons and meditations tor the clergy; "Miserere, With apostolic zeal he loved the Society of Jesus;
das ist: Der 50. Psalm Davids . . . Gebettsweiss . . . the day of his admission to the order he called his
aussgelegt" (Munich, 1594, Ingolstadt, 1594); second birthday. Obedience to his siiperiors was his
" WarhaTte Histori . . . Von Sanct Moritzen . . . first rule. As a superior he cared with parental love
vnd seiner Thebaischen Legion . . . Auch insonder- for the necessities of his subordinates. Snortly before
heit von Sanct Vrso'^ (Fribourg, 1594); *" Catholische his death he declared that he had never re^tted
Kirehengesang zum theil vor vnd nach dem Cate- becoming a Jesuit, and recalled the abuses which the
cMsmo zum teil sonst durchs Jahr . . . susingen'' opponents of the Church had heaped upon his order
(Fribourg, 1596) ; "Enchiridion Pietatis quo ad pre- and his person. JohannWigand wrote a vile pamphlet
candum Deum instruitur Princeps" (s. 1., 1751), against his "Catechism"; Flacius Blyricus, Jonann
dedicated bv Canisius in 1592 to the future emperor, Gnypheus, and Paul Scheidlich wrote books against
Ferdinand II (Zeitschrift fur katholische Theologie, itj Melanchthon declared that he defended errors
XIV. 741) ; "Beati Petri CanisiiExhortationes domes- wilfully; Chemnitz called him a cynic; the satirist
tic£B , mostly short sketches, collected and edited by Fischajt scoffed at him; Andres. Dathen, Gallus.
G. Schlosser, S.J. (Roermond, 1876);- "Beati Petri Hesshusen, Osiander, Platzius, Rooins, Vergerio, ana
Canisii Epistulse et Acta": 1541-65, edited by O. others wrote vigorous attacks against him: at Prague
Braunsberger, S.J. (4 vols., Freiburg im Br., 1896- the Hussites tm-ew stones into the chureh where he
1905). There still remain unpublished four or five was saying Mass; at Berne he was derided by a Prot-
volumes containing eleven hundred and ninety-five estant mob. At Easter, 1568, he was obliged to
letters and regesta written to or by Canisius, and six preach in the Cathedral of Wilrzburg in order to dis-
hundred and twenty-five documents dealing with his prove the rumour that he had become a Protestant,
labours. Unembittered by all this, he said, "the more our
"Peter Canisius", says the Protestant professor of opponents calumniate us, the more we must love
theology, Krtiger, "wa9 a noble Jesuit; no blemish them". He requested Catholic authors to advocate
PETER 761 PETER
the truth with modesty and dignity without scofRng Johannes Janasen does not hesitate to declare that
or ridicule. The names 'of Luther and Melanohthon Canisius was the most prominent and most influential
were never mentioned in his ''Catechism". His love Catholic reformer of the sixteenth century (Ge-
for the German people is characteristic; he urjB^ed the schichte des deutschen Volkes, 15th and 16th editions,
brothers of the order to practise German dihgently, IV^ p. 406). "Canisius more than any other man",
and he liked to hear the German national hjmms sung, writes A. Chroust, ''saved for the Church of Rome the
At his desire St. Ignatius decreed that all the membera Catholic Germany of to-day" (Deutsche Zeitschrift
of the order should offer monthly Masses andprayers fOr Geschichtswissenschaft, new series, II, 106). It
for the welfare of Germany and the North. Ever the has often been declared that Canisius in many ways
faithful advocate of the Germans at the Holy See, he resembles St. Boniface, and he is therefore called
obtained clemency for them in questions of ecclesias- the second Apostle of Germany. The Protestant pro-
tical censures, and permission to give extraordinary fessor of theologrv^, Paul Drews, says: "It must be
absolutions and to dispense from the law of fasting, admitted that^ itorn the standpoint of Rome, he
He idso wished the Index to be modified that German deserves the title of Apostle of Germany" ("Petrus
confessors might be authorized to permit the reading Canisius", Halle, 1892, p. 103).
of some books, but in his sermons he warned the Soon after his death reports spread of the mirac-
faithf ul to abstain from reading such books without ulous help obtained by invoking his name. His tomb
permission. While he was rector of the University of was visited by pilgrims. The Society of Jesus decided
Ingolstadt, a resolution was passed forbidding the use to urge his be&tification. The ecclesiastical investiga-
of Protestant textbooks and, at his request, the Duke tions of his virtues and miracles were at first con-
of Bavaria forbade the importation of books opposed ducted by the Bishops of Fribourg, Dillingen, and
to religion and morals. At Cologne he requested the Freising (1625-90) j the apostolic proceedings began
town council to forbid the printing or sale of books hos- in 1734, but were mterru^ed by poHtical and relig-
tile to the Faith or immoral, and in the T3rrol had ious disorders. Gregory iCVI resumed them about
Archduke Ferdinand II suppress such books. He also 1833; Pius IX on 17 April, 1864, approved of four of
advised Bishop Urban of Gurk, the court preacher of the miracles submitted, and on 20 November, 1869,
Ferdinand I, not to read so many Protestant books, the solemn beatification took place in St. Peter's at
but to study instead the Scriptures and the writings Rome. In connexion with this, there appeared be-
of the Fathers. At Nimwegen ne searched the libraries tween 1864-66 more than thirty different biographies,
of his friends, and burned all heretical books. In the On the occasion of the tercentenary of his death, Leo
midst of sdl these cares Canisius remained essentially XIII issued to the bishops of Austria^ Germany, and
a man of prayer; he was an ardent advocate of the Switzerland his much-discussed "Epistola Encyclica
Rosary and its sodaUties. He was also one of the pre- de memoria ssculari B. Petri Canisii ; the bishops of
cursors of the modem devotion of the Sacred Heart. Switzerland issued a collective pastoral; in numerous
During his lifetime his "Catechism" appeared in places of Europe and in some places in the United
more than 200 editions in at least twelve languages. States this tercentenaiv was celebrated and about
It was one of the works which influenced St. Aloy- fifty pamphlets were published. In order to encoura^^e
dusGonzaga to enter theSociety of Jesus; it converted, the veneration of Canisius there is published at Fn-
among others. Count Palatine Wolfgang Wilhelm of bourg, Switzerland, monthly since 1896, the "Cani-
Neuburg; and as late as /the eighteenth century in sius-Stimmen'' (in German and French). The infir-
many places the words '^Canisi'' and catechism were mary of the College of St. Michael, in which Canisius
synonymous. It remained the foundation and pattern died, is now a chapel. Vestments and other objects
for the catechisms printed later. His preaching also had which he used are kept in different houses of the order,
great influence; in 1560 the clergy of the cathedral The Canisius College at Buffalo possesses precious
of Augsburg testified that by his sermons nine hun- relics. In the house of Canisius in tne Broersstraat at
dred persons had been brought back to the Church, Nimwegen the room is still shown where he was bom.
and in May, 1562, it was reported the Easter com- Other memorials are: the Canisius statue in one of the
municants numbered one thousand more than in public squares of Fribourg, the statue in the cathedral
former years. Canisius induced some of the promi- of Augsburg, the Church of the Hoty Saviour and the
nent Fuggers to return to the Church, and converted Mother of Sorrows, recently built in his memory in
the leader of the Augsburg Anabaptists. In 1537 the Vienna, and the new CanisiUs College at Nimwegen.
Catholic clerg:^ had been banishea trom Auzsbur^ by At the twenty-sixth general meeting of German
the city council; but after the preaching of Canisius Catholics held at Aachen, 1879, a Canisius societv
public processions were held, monasteries gained for the religious education of the youn^ was founded,
novices, people crowded to the jubilee indulgence, The generslprayer^ said every Sunday m the churches
pilgpmages were revived, and frequent Communion originated by Canisius, is still in use in the greater
again became the rule. After the elections of 1562 part of Germany, and also in many places in Austria
there were eighteen Protestants and twenty-fieven and Switzerland. Various portraits of Canisius exist:
Catholics on the city council. He received the appro- in the Churches of St. Nicolaus and St. Michael at
bation of Pius IV by a special Brief in 1561. Great Fribourg; in the vestry of the Augsburg Cathedral;
services were rendered by Canisius to the Church in the Church of St. Michael at Munich; in the town
through the extension of the Societjr of Jesusj the hall at Nimwegen; in the town hall at Ingolstadt;
difficulties were great: lack of novices, insufficient in the Cistercian monastery at Stams. The woodcut
education of some of the younger members, poverty, in Pantaleo, "Prosopographia", III (Basle. 1566), is
plague, animosity of the Protestants, jealousy on the worthless. Copper-plates were prodwsed by Wierx
part of fellow-Catholics, the interference of princes and (1619), Custos (1612), Sadeler (1628), Hainzelmann
city councils. Notwithstanding all this, Canisius intro- (1693), etc. In the nineteenth century are : Fracas-
duced the order into Bavaria, Bohemia, Swabia, the sini'spainting in the Vatican; Jeckel's steel engraving;
Tyrol, and Hungary, and prepared the way in Alsace, Leo Samberger's painting; Steinle's engraving (1886).
the Palatinate, Hesse, and Poland. Even opponents In most of these pictures Canisius is represented with
admit that to the Jesuits principally is due the credit his catechism and other books, or surrounded by chil-
of saving a large part of Germany from reUgious in- dren whom he is instructing. (See Doctrine, Chri»-
novation. In this work Canisiiis was the leader. In tian; Counteb-Reformation; Society of Jesus.)
many respects Canisius was the product of an age b. P. Canirii Bpiat. a Acta, ed. BBAxmsBEiuiBR (5 vols.. Froi-
which beueved in strange miracles, put witches to bui» im Br., 1WHV-1906),b. v. Con/e«non«« and 7*e«tom«n<um; the
death and had recount to fore* against the ad- ^S^^'^^t^S^nl^tJy^TJl.Hir^Z^JSJ^cll^lZ
berentSOf another faith; but notWltnstanaing all thlSi Potand, EpiUola quadrimettrM miUa etc,, m far about thirty
PETER
762
PETEB
voliuxMS (Madrid, 1894 — ). Of the complete biomphies, the fol-
lowing are the most important: Raobrub, De Vita Caniaii ^Mimich,
1614) ; SACCHiNXia, De vita «t relma geslit P. Petri Canieii (Ingol-
■tadt. 1616) ; Bobro, Vita del Beato Pietro Canieio (Rome, 1864) ;
RiBAS. Der aelige Petrue C^aniuiue (Freiburg, 1865) ; Lb Bachblbt
in Dui. de Thiol. Cath. (Parisj 1005). a. v. Canieius. Biographies,
in German: by Pbatibs (Vienna, 1865), Marcoub (Freiburg.
1881), PfOlf (Einaiedeln, 1897), Mehlbb (Ratisbon, 1897); in
Latin by Ptthon (Munich. 1710); in French by Doriont
(Paria, 1707), SAguin (Paris, 1864), Bovbt (Fribourg, 1866,
1881), DB Bertignt (Fribourg, 1865), Michel (Lille, 1897);
in Dutch by db Smidt (Antwerp, 1652), SlbauiN-ALULRD
(Nimwegen. 1897); in Italian by Fulioattx (Rome, 1649), Oooi
(Naples, 1755}: in Spanish by Nierembbro (Madrid, 1633),
Gabcla (Madna, 1865). Cf. also Kross, Der eeUge Petnu Canieiue
in Oetterreieh (Vienna, 1898), from manuscript sources; Reiser,
B. Petrue Caninue ale Katechet (Mains, 1882) ; Allard, Caniai'
ana, from the Dutch Studien (Utrecht, 1898-99) ; Bbaunbberqer,
BntJdehung u. erete Entwicklung d. Katechiemen d. edigen Petrue
Canieiue (Freiburg, 1893); SoMifBRVooBL, Bibliothique de la
C. de J. (new ed., Brussels and Paris, 1890-1900), II, 617-88;
VIII, 1974-83; Duhr, Geach. d. Jeauiten in den Ldnden deutaeher
Zunge, I (Freiburg, 19()7) ; various Nuntiature Repcrta of Germany
and Switserland published by Steinherz, Schellhass, Hansen,
Stefpens-Rbinhardt, etc. OtTO BraXTNSBBRGER.
Peter Cantor, theologian, b. probably at GUberoi,
near Beauvais. France; d. at Ix)ng Pont Abbey, 22
Sept., 1 197. He was a member of the Hosdenc family ;
when still youn^ he went to Reims, which may possi-
bly have been his birthplace, and was educated at the
cathedral school. He was a professor for many years,
canon of the cathedral, and would seem to have had
iUso the office of cantor or s^iccenior.
Towards 1170, we find Peter as canon and professor
of theology of the cathedral school at Paris, where in
1180 he is again invested with the office of cantor, for
his predecessor appears on the documents for the last
time in 1180, whilst mention is first made of him in
1184. This is what caused him to be designated
Petrus Cantor, Cantor Parisiensis, or simply Cantor;
and his name is found on many charters. At the same
time, his capabiUties led him to be frequently chosen
by tne iK)pes as a judge, e. g-t at Troyes in 1188, and
also during 1196 and 1197 at Compi^gne for the royal
divorce case with Ingeberse. In 1191 the people and
clergy of Toumai chose him for their bishop, but
his election was annulled bv Bishop Guillaume de
Champagne of Reims. At the death of Maurice de
Sulty m 1196, it is said that he was elected Bishop of
Pans, but refused the dignity.
In 1196 Peter was elected dean of the cathedral
chapter of Reims. Whilst on his journey from Paris
to Reims, Peter visited the Cistercians at Long Pont
Abbey, was taken ill there, died, and was buried,
probably wearing the habit of tne order. In the
Cistercian menology he is honoured as one of them-
selves (19 May).
He left commentaries or glosses on all the Old Testa-
ment Books, except Judith, Esther, Tobias, and Le-
viticus; the best are those on the Psalms. In like
manner he also wrote glosses on the whole of the New
Testament, following the Harmony of the Four Gos-
pels which, under the name of Ammonius, or Tatian,
was much in use during the Middle Ages. His com-
mentaries on the Gospels and on the Apocalypse are
perhaps the most worthy of praise; that on St. Paul
may be described as an interlinear gloss; in it scholas-
tic discussions are often introduced k propos of certain
subjects as they are suggested by the text. This style
of writing commentaries was by no means new to the
age in which he lived, and it is more and more de-
veloped at this period. None of these works were
printed, not even an introduction or treatise which he
wrote on the Bible in twenty folio pages variously
entitled: "De tropis theologicis", "De contrarietate
scriptursB^', or "De tropis loquendi"; in it he lays
down rules for the solution of contradictions that may
seem to exist between different passages of the Bible.
Traces of it may be found in Peters commentaries
and annotations on the Bible; the rules of Tioonius
are sometimes found following on the "De tropis" of
Peter.
There are two other unpublished works, namehr,
the "Summa de sacramentis et ammse consiliis",
which though lengthy is nevertheless precious for its
varied information on the institutions and religious
customs of the time; he develops at great length the
moral side of the question, especially when writing
on the Sacrament of Penance. He purposely leaves
aside matters already discussed by I'eter Lombud,
for as he himself says it is his intention to complete
them. The "Distinctiones'' or "Summa quse dicitur
Aber' is a theological dictionary arranged in alphabet-
ical order, "Abel" being the first word, in which is
found a short r^um^ of the ideas, doetrinee, and theo-
ries of the time; with this as title, he wrote a valuable
document which is still to be foimd in many manu-
The "Verbum Abbreviatum", his only work that
was entirely printed, with the "Contra Monachos
proprietarios' ' which in Migne forms the matter of
chapter cliii and written before 1187. is not a course of
ethics or asceticism, but a book addressed chiefly to
the clergy and more in particular to monks, wherein
he exhorts to the practice of virtue; his sources are the
Bible, the writings of the Fathers, and profane authors.
What he savs about manners, customs, etc., is veiy
instructive for the time in which he wrote. As in the
" Sunama de Sacramentis ", so here are found scholastic
theories side by side with practical remarks on daily
life from a religious point of view (Ist ed., Mons. 1639;
Migne, P. L., CCV, 23). Some sermons are also as-
cribed to Peter, but only those which are in the form
of detached chapters of the "Verbum abbreviatum"
are known.
Hiat, littir, de la Prance, XV; Haur^u. Noiicea H extraita de
ouelquea tnanuacriU, I, 76, 224, etc.; II, 14, etc.; V, 4-7, etc.;
ScHMiD-OuTJAHB, Petrua Cantor (Gras, 1809) ; DKNiPus-CHAn-
LAIN, Chartularium Uniterait<Uie Pariaieneia, 1, 13, 46; BibUotkigw
de VEcoU dea Chariea (1840), 308. —.-
J. di;.Ghellinck.
Peter Celestine, Saint. See Celbstinb V, Sadtt,
POPB.
Peter Celle&sis (db La Cells), Bishop of Char-
tres, b. of noble parentage in Champagne; d. at Char-
tres, 20 February, 1183. He was educated in the mon-
astery of St. Martin-des-Champs at Paris, became a
Benedictine, and in 1150 was made Abbot of La Celle
near Troyes, whence his surname, CeUensis. In 1162
he was appointed Abbot of St. R^my at Reims, and id
1181 he succeeded John of Salisbury as Bishop of
Chartres. He was highly esteemed by men like John
of Salisbury, Thomas k Becket, Archbishop Eskil,
Eugene HI, and especially Alexander III. His liter-
ary productions were edited by Janvier (Paris, 1671)
a-nd reprinted in P. L., CCII, 405-1146. They con-
sist of 177 epistles^ 95 sermons, and 4 treatises en-
titled: (1) "De pambus ad Joannem Sarisberiensem";
(2) "Mosaici tabemaculi mysticse et moralis exposi-
tionis libri duo"; (3) "De conscientia"; (4) "De
disciplina claustraJi ad Henricum I, Campanis Comi-
tem . His epistles, which are valuable from an histori-
cal standpoint, were edited separately by Sirmond
(Paris, 1613). His sermons and treatises are ex-
t.emely bombastic and allegorical.
GiLLKT; De Petro Cellenai, abbate Sancti Remi{/i% Remenaie at
Camotenai epiacopo diaaertatio (Paris, 1881): Gkobgbs, Pierre d$
Celiee, aatie et aea auvrea (Troyes, 1867) ; Hiat. litt, de la Pramee,
XIV. 236-67; ZimamvBxxmR, Hiat. rei literaria O. S. B., Ill, 16»-
65; Cbilubr, Hiat. gtn. dea auteure eacria, XIV (Paris, 1863),
680-13.
Michael Ott.
Potar Chmologus, Saint, b. at Imola, 406: d.
there, 450. His biography, first written by Agn^us
(Liber pontificalis ecclesise Ravennatis) in the ninth
century, gives but scanty information about him.
He was baptized, educated, and ordained deacon
by Cornelius, Bishop of Imoia, and was elevated to
PETER 763
the Bishopric of Ravenna in 433. There are indica- boat, carrying food and delicacies. The negroes,
tions that Ravenna held the rank of metropolitan cooped up in the hold, arrived crazed and brutalized
before his time. His piety and zeal won for him univer- by sufiFering and fear. Claver went to«each, cared for
sal admiration, and his oratory merited for him the hmi, and ^owed him kindness, and made him under-
name Chrysologus. He shared the confidence of Leo stand that henceforth he was nis defender and father,
the Great and enjoyed the patronage of the Empress He thus won their good will. To instruct so many
Galla Placidia. After his condemnation by the Synod speaking different dialects, Claver assembled at Carta-
of Constantinople (44S), the Monophysite Eutyches gena a group of interpreters of various nationalities, of
endeavoured to win the support of Peter, but without whom he made -catechists. While the slaves were
success. penned up at Cartagena waiting to be purchased and
A collection of his homilies, numbering 176, was dispersed, Claver instructed and baptized them in the
made by Felix, Bishop of Ravenna (707-17). Some Faith. On Sundays during Lent he assembled them,
are interpolations, and several other homilies known inquired concerning their needs, and defended them
to be written by the saint are included in other collec- against their oppressors. This work caused Claver
tions under different names. They are in a great severe trials, and the slave merchants were not his only
measure explanatory of Biblical texts and are orief enemies. The Apostle was accused of indiscreet zeal,
and concise. He has explained beautifully the mys- and of having profaned the Sacraments by giving
tery of the Incarnation, the heresies of Arius and them to creatures who scarcely possessed a soul.
Eutyches, the Apostles' Creed, and he dedicated a Fashionable women of Cartagena refused to enter the
series of homilies to the Blessed Virfpn and St. John churches where Father Claver assembled his negroes,
the Baptist. His works were first edited by Agapitus The saint's superiors were often influenced by the
Vicentinus (Bologna, 1534), and later by D. Mita many criticisms which reached them. Nevertheless,
(Bologna, 1634), and S. Pauli (Venice, 1775) — ^the lat- Claver continued his heroic career, accepting all
ter collection having been reprinted in P. L., LII. Fr. humiliations and adding rigorous penances to his
Liverani C'Spicilegium Liberianum", Florence, 1863, works of charity. Lacking the support of men, the
125 seq.) edited nine new homilies and published from strength of God was given him. He became the
manuscripts in Italian libraries different readings of prophet and miracle worker of New Granada, the
several other sermons. Sever^ homilies we^ trans- oracle of Cartagena, and all were convinced that often
lat^ into German by M. Held (Kempten, 1874). God would not have spared the city save for him.
Baroknrbwsr. Patroioov, tr. Sbaban. 626 aqq.; Dapper, Der Durinff his life he baptized and instructed in the Faith
hi. PHru$ Chrysoiogua (Cologne, 1867) ; Stablbwbici, Der hHliat more than 300,000 uegToes. He was beatified 16 July,
Kirchenvater Petnu van Ravenna Chrv»ologu9 (Poaen, 1871); yotu\ Kv Pina TY rtiH nannni»v1 ^t^ Tn.n !««» Kv
Loomons, Der hi. Petrtu ChryaolooutundMeiMSehriflen in ZeU- l^^*J?X^^^.^^' ^^ canonizea ID Jan., 1»«. DV
eehrift f. kathoi. Theoi., Ill (1879), 238 seq. ; Watman, z« PctrtM Leo XIII. His feast IB celebrated on the nmth of
ChrytiAotnu in Philoiogiu, LV (1896), 464 seq. September. On 7 July, 1896, he was proclaimed the
Ignatius SifriH. special patron of all the Catholic missions among the
negroes. Alphonsus Rodriguez was canonized on the
Peter Chiver, Saint, the son of a Cataloman same day as Feter Claver.
farmer, was b. at Verdu, in 1581; d. 8 September, Livee of the saints by oa Andrada (Madrid, 1657), Dokzn-
1654. He obtained his first degrees at the Uni- op«»./>» Lara, SyARia. I^Andm, Fusurian; Sommervogbl*
vereity of Barcelona At the age of twentyhe en- f^yf^SSm^dtSTi^tyif^B^^rr^Jt^'^^
tered the Jesuit novitiate at Tarragona. While he lent article by Lrhmruhl in Stimmen atu Maria-Laaeh, XXIV,
was studying philosophy at Majorca m 1605, Alphon- 380 aqq.
sus Rodriguez, the saintly door-keeper of the college, Pierre Suau.
learned from Uod the future mission of his ^roung asso-
ciate, and thenceforth never ceased exhortinja; him to Peter Coxneator, theological writer, b. at Troves,
set out to evangelize the Spanish possessions m Amer- ^date unknown; d. at Paris about 1178. He was first
ica. Peter obeyed, and in 1610 landed at Cartagena, attached to the Church of Notre-Dame at Troyes and
where for forty-four yesis he was the Apostle of the habitually signed himself as "Presbyter Trecensis".
negro slaves. Early in the seventeenth century the Before 1148 ne became dean of the chapter and re-
masters of Central and South America afforded the ceived a benefice in 1148. About 1160 he formed one
spectacle of one of those social crimes which are en- of the Chapter of Notre-Dame at Paris, and about the
tered upon so lightly. They needed labourers to same year he replaced Eudes (Odon) as chancellor,
cultivate the soil which they had conquered and At the same time he had charee of the theological
brought from Africa. The coasts of Guinea, the aux Blanches Mains (1169-76). Alexander III or-
Congo, and Angola became the market for slave dered Cardinal Peter of St. Chrvsogonus to allow the
dealers, to whom native petty kings sold their sub- chancellor Peter to exact a small fee on conferring the
jects and their prisoners. By its position in the Ca- licence to teach, but this authorization was altogether
ribbean Sea, Cartagena became the chief slave-mart of personal. A short time afterwards the same cardinal
the New World. A thousand slaves landed there each mentioned the name of Peter to Alexander HI, as
month. They were bought for two, and sold for 200 among the three most cultured men of France. The
Sai8, Thouc^ half the cargo might die, the trade re- surname of " Comestor", given to Peter during his life,
mained profitable. Neither the repeated censures of also proves the esteem in which his learning was held:
the pope, nor those of Catholic moralists could prevail he was a peat bookworm; he often refers to his sur-
agunst this cupidity. The missionaries could not name in his sermons and in the epitaph said to be corn-
suppress slavery, but only alleviate it, and no One posed by him :"Petruseram . . . dictusque comestor,
worlced more heroically than Peter Claver. nunc comedor." He afterwards withdrew to the
Trained in the school of P^re Alfonso de Sandoval, Abbey of St. Victor and made profession of canonical
a wonderful missionary, Peter declared himself "the life. He was buried at St. Victor; and the necrology
slave of the negroes forever", and thenceforth his life of the canons mentions him as one of themselves
was one that confounds egotism by its superhuman (21 October). His works include commentaries on
charity. Although timid and lacking in self-confi- the Gospels, allegories on Holy Scripture, and a moral
dence, he became a daring and ingenious organizer, commentary on St. Paul, all of which are as yet
Every month when the arrival of the negroes was unpublished,
signalled, Claver went out to meet them on Sbe pilot's Hia "Historia Scholastica" is a kind of sacred
PETER
764
PETER
history, composed for students, and at their own
request. The author begins the sacred narrative at
the Creation, and continues it to the end of the in-
cidents related in the Acts of the Apostles; all the
books of the Bible are contained therein, except those
whose nature is purelv didactic, the Book of Wisdom,
the Psalms, the Prophets, the Epistles, etc. The dis-
courses are abbreviated. He borrows frequently from
profane authors, especially from Flavius Josephus for
the bodnning of the Grospels, and very often the text
\a as though paraphraseci ^n a commentanr where all
data, cosmological and physical, philosophical, theo-
logical, allegorical, historical, geographical, etc., are
found. It is easy to understand, of course, that there
are numerous inaccuracies and fables. The work
consists of twenty books and often small ''additions"
supply geographical or et3rmological appendixes at the
end of the chapters. This Biblical history met with
great success, as witness the lar^e number of manu-
scriptSj the mention of his name m all the libraries of
the Middle Ages, the lists of classical books for the
universities and schools, the quotations and the
eulogies with which the name of its author is every-
where accompanied (cf. the, canonist Huguccio, about
1190) and its numerous translations. In the fifteenth
century, the work was still in great demand, as can be
seen by the editions made before 1500 of the Latin
text, or of the French translation (Strasburg, 1469,
1483, 1486. 1847; Reutlingen, 1473: Lyons, 1478;
Basle, 1486; Paris, 1487, etc.). Migne (P. L.,
CXCVIII, 1053-1844) reproduces the Madrid edition
of 1699.
The sermons of Peter Comestor have been left to
lis in numerous manuscripts, often under other names,
but the complete and continued series has not yet
been published. We ought to mention here a series
of fifty-one sermons placed wrongly under the name
of Peter of Blois and printed among his works (Migne,
CCVII, and CCVIII, 1721, etc.); some figure also in
the works of Hildebert de Mans (Migne, CLXXI,
sermon 7, 15, 17, 21, 22, 23, etc.). The sermon in
which the word "transubstantiation" occurs, the
93rd (not the 73rd), is not Hildebert's but Peter
Comestor's; let us remark, however^ that the word
is already found in Roland Bandinelh (Alexander II)
before 1150. Other collections, like that of the 114
sermons copied at St. Victor before 1186, are still un-
published, more than twelve manuscripts are in the
libraries of Paris, and all has not yet been unravelled
in this assortment. As a preacher, Peter was subtle
and pedantic in his style, in keeping with the taste of
his time and of his audience of scholars and professors
assembled around the pulpit of the chancellor. The
sermons attributed to him during his stay at St.
Victor are simple in style, instructive, and natural in
tone. Also some verses are attributed to Peter
Comestor and a collection of maxims entitled "Pan-
crisis'', perhaps that which still exists in a manuscript
of Troves.
Hitt. 1%U. de la France, XIV, 1 2- 17; D«inFi.B-CHATBLAiN, Chartid.
Univ., I (Paris), 8; Fourier- Bonnabo., Hist, de Vabb. de Saint-
Victor (Paris, 1907) , 123, etc. ; F^ret, La FaculU de Thiol de Paris,
1 (Paris, 1894), 42-48; Bourqain, La Chaire Fran^aiee au XII*
tikch (Paris. 1879), 123; Haur^au, Notices et Extraits de quelquea
manuacrits I. 28. 37. etc.; II. 18. 80. etc.; IV. 2, 3, etc.
J. DE GhELLINCK.
Peter Damian (or DAMiAm) Saint, Doctor of the
Church, Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia, b. at Ravenna '* five
years after the death of the Emperor Otto III," 1007 :
d. at Faenza, 21 Feb., 1072. He was the youngest of
a lar^e family ; his parents were noble, but poor. At
his birth an elder brother protested against this new
charge on the resources of the family with such
effect that his mother refused to suckle him and the
babe nearly died. A family retainer, however, fed the
starving; child and by her example and reproaches
recalled his mother to her duty. Left an orphan in
early years, he was at first adopted by an elder brother,
who ill-treated and under-fed him while employing
him as a swineherd. The child showed signs of great
piety and of remarkable intellectual gifts, and after
some years of this servitude another brother, who was
archpriest at Ravenna, had pity on him and took him
away to be educated. This brother was called Damian,
and it is generally accepted that St. Peter added this
name to his own in grateful recognition of his brother's
kindness. He made rapid progress in his studies, first
at Ravenna, then at Faenza, foially at the University
of Parma, and when about twenty -five years old was
already a famous teacher at Parma and Ravenna.
But, though even then much given to fasting and to
other mortifications, he could not endure the scandals
and distractions of university life and decided (about
1035) to retire from the world. While m^itating on
his resolution he encountered two hermits of Fonte-
Avellana, was charmed with their spirituality and
detachment, and desired to join them. Encouraged
by them Peter, after a forty days' retreat in a small
cell, left his friends secretly and made his way to the
hermitage of Fonte-Avellana (q. v.). Here he Wte
received, and, to his surprise, clothed at once with the
monastic habit.
Both as novice and as professed religious his fervour
was remarkable and led him to such extremes of
ginance that, for a time, his he^th was a£fected.
e occupied his convalescence with a thorough study
of Holy Scripture and, on his recovery, was i^pointed
to lecture to his fellow-monks. At the reouest of
Guy of Pomposa and other heads of neigmbouring
monasteries, for two or three years he lectured to
their subjects also, and (about 1042) wrote the life of
St. Romuald for the monks of Pietrapertosa. Soon
after his return to Fonte-Avellana he was appointed
economus of the house by the prior, who also pointed
him out as his successor. This, in fact, he oecame
in 1043, and he remained prior of Fonte-Avellana
till his death. His priorate was characterized by a
wise moderation of the rule, as well as by the founda-
tion of subject-hermitages at San Severino, Gamugno,
Acerata, Murciana, San Salvatore, Sitria, and Ocri.
It was remarkable, too, for the introduction of the
regular use of the discipline, a penitential exercise
which he induced the great abbey of Monte Casino
to imitate. There was much opposition outside his
own circle to this practice, but Peter's persistent ad-
vocacy ensured its acceptance to such an extent that
he was obliged later to moderate the imprudent zeal
of some of his own hermits. Another innovation was
that 9f the daily siesta, to make up for the fatigue
of the night office. During his tenure of the priorate
a cloister was built, silver chafices and a silver pro-
cessional cross were purchased, and many books
added to the library. (See Fonte-Avellana.)
Although living in the seclusion of the cloister,
Peter Damian watched closely the fortunes of the
Church, and like his friend Hildebrand, the future
Gregonr VII (q. v.), he strove for her purification in
those deplorable times. In 1045 when Benedict IX
resigned the supreme pontificate into the hands of
the archpriest John Gratian (Gregory VI), Peter
hailed the change with joy and wrote to the pope, urg-
ing him to deal with the scandals of the Chureh m
Italy, especially with the evil bishops of Pesaro, of
Citta di Castello, and of Fano. (See Benedict IX;
Gregory VI.) He was present in Rome when Clem-
ent II crowned Henry ill and his wife Agnes, and
he also attended a synod held at the Lateran in the
first days of 1047, in which decrees were passed against
simony. After this he returned to his hermitase
(see Clement II; Damasus II). Pope St. Leo lA
(q. V.) was solemnly enthroned at IU>me, 12 Feb.,
1049, to succeed Damasus II, and about two years
later Peter Damian published his terrible treatise
on the vices of the clei^, the '^ liber GomorrhiaDUB",
765
PETIB
d^cating it to the pope. It caused a great stir
and aroused not a little enmity against its author.
Even the pope, who had at first praised the work,
was persuaided that it was exaggerated and his cold-
ness drew from Damian a vigorous letter of protest.
Meanwhile the question arose as to the validity of the
ordinations of simoniacal clerics. The prior of Fonte-
Avellana] was appealed to and wrote (about 1053) a
treatise, the "Laber Gratissimus", in favour of their
validity, a work which, thoiigh much combatted at
the time, was potent in deciding the question in their
favour before the end of the twelfth century. In June>
1055, during the pontificate of Victor II (q. v.),
Damian attended a sjmod held at Florence, where
simony and clerical incontinence were once more con-
demned. About two years later he fell ill at Fonte-
Avellana and nearly cued, but suddenly, after seven
weeks of pain, recovered, as he believed, through a
miracle.
During his illness the pope died, and Frederic, abbot
of Monte Cassino, was elected as Stephen X. In the
autumn of 1057, Stephen X determined to create
Damian a cardinal. For a long time he resistcKl the
ofTer^ but was finally forced, under threat of excom-
mumcation, to ^accept, and was consecrated Cuxiinal-
Bishop of Ostia on 30 Nov., 1057. In addition he was
appointed administrator of the Diocese of Gubbio.
The new cardinal was impressed with the great re-
sponsibilities of his office and wrote a stirring letter
to his brother-cardinals, exhorting them to shine by
their example before all^ Four months later Pope
Stephen died at Florence and the Church was once
more distracted by schism. The Cardinal of Ostia
was vigorous in his opposition to the antipope Bene-
dict A, but force was on the side of the intruder
and Damian retired to Fonte-Avellana. (See Nicho-
las II; Gregory VII.)
About the end of the year 1059 Peter was sent
as legate to Milan by Nicholas II. The Church at
Milan had been, for some time, the prey of simony and
incontinence. So bad was the state of things, that
benefices were openly bought and sold and the clergy
publicly "married" the women they lived with. But
the faithful of Milan, led by St. Ariald the Deacon and
St. Anselm, Bishop of Lucca, strove hard to remedy
these evils. At length the contest between the two
parties became so bitter that an appeal was made to
the Holy See to decide the matter. Nicholas II sent
Damian and the Bishop of Lucca as his legates.
But now the party of the irregular clerics took alarm
and raised the cty that Rome had no authority over
Milan. At once Peter took action. Boldly con-
fronting the rioters in the cathedral, he proved to
them the authority of the Holy See with such effect
that all parties submitted to his decision. He exacted
first a solemn oath from the archbishop and all his
clergy that for the future no preferment should be
paidfor; then, imposing a penance on all who had been
guilty, he re-instated in their benefices all who under-
took to live continently. This prudent decision was
attacked by some of the rigourists at Rome, but was
not revers^. Unfortunately, on the death of Nicho-
las II, the same disputes broke out; nor were they
finally settled till after the martyrdom of St. Ariald
in 1066. Meanwhile Peter was in vain pleadinjB; to be
released from the cares of his office. Neither Nicholas
II nor Hildebrand would consent to spare him.
In July, 1061, the pope died and once more a schism
ensued. Damian used all his powers to persuade the
antipope Cadalous (q. v.) to withdraw, but to no pur-
pose. Finally Hanno, the Regent of Germany, sum-
moned a coimcil at Augsburg at which along argument
by St. Peter Damian was read and greatly contributed
to the decision in favour of Alexander n (q. v.). In
1063 the pope held a s3mod at Rome, at whicn Damian
was appointed as legate to settle the dispute between
the Aboey of Cluny and the Bishop of M^U»n. He
proceeded to France, summoned a council at Chftlon-
sur-Sa6ne, proved the justice of the contentions of
Cluny, settled other questions at issue in the Church
of France, and returned in the autumn to Fonte-Avel-
lana. While he was in France the antipope Cadalous
had again become active in his attempts to gain
Rome, and Damian brought upon himself a sharp re-
proof from Alexander and Hildebrand for twice im-
prudently appealing to the hyysA power to judge the
case anew. In 1067 the cardinal was sent to Florence
to settle the dispute between the bishop and the monks
of ViJlombrosa, who accused the former of simony.
His efforts, however, were not successful, largely be-
cause he misjudged the case and threw the wei^t of
his authority on the side of the bishop. The matter
was not settled till the following year by the pope in
Sirson. In 1069 Damian went as the pope's legate to
ermany to prevent King Henry from repudiatmg his
wife Bertha. This task he accomplished at a council
at Frankfort and returned to Fonte-Avellana, where
he was left in peace for two years.
Early in 1072 he was sent to Ravenna to reconcile
its inhabitants to the Holy See, they having been ex-
communicated for supporting their archbishop in his
adhesion to the schism of Cadalous. On his return
thence he was seized with fever near Faenza. He lav
ill for a week at the monastery of Santa Maria degr
An^eli, now Santa Maria Veccnia. On the night pre-
ceding the feast of the Chair of St. Peter at Antioch,
he ordered the office of that feast to be recited and at
the end of Lauds he died. He was at once buried in
the monastery church, lest others should claim his
relics. Six times has his body been translated, each
time to a more splendid resting-place. It now lies in a
chapel dedicated to the saint in the cathedral of Fa-
enza in 1898. No formal canonization ever took place,
but his cultus has existed since Ms death at Faenza, at
Fonte-Avellana, at Monte Cassino, and at Cluny. In
1823 Leo XII extended his feast (23 Feb.) to the whole
Church and pronounced him a Doctor of the Church.
The saint is represented in art as a cardinal bearing a
discipline in his hand; also sometimes he is depicted
as a pilgrim holding a papal Bull, to signify his many
l^ations. ^
Ada SS. BoU., III. Feb. rVenioe. 1736). 406-27; Bibon, St.
Fimre Damien, 1007 -7i (Faria, 1008); CAPBCXLiLTBO, Storia
di San Pier Damiano (Rome, 1887); Klsinbbmanns, Der
heilige Petnu Damiani (Steyl, 1882); Laosrchi. Vita S. Petri
Damiani (3 vols., Rome, 1702); Mabillon, Acta SS. O.S.B.,
Snc. VI. P. ii (Venice, 1733). 253-273; MAimzr. Saint lAon IX,
lOOt-64 (Paris, 1904); Miqne, Dictionnaire de Patrologie, V
(Paris. 1864), 969-l()06; P. L., CXLIV, CXLV (Paris. 1867);
MiTTABBLU vr CosTADONi, AnnaUs Camaldulenaea, II (Venice,
1756), 40-350; Nbukibch, Da* Leben dee Petrua Damiani . , .
&M rur . . . 1069 (Gdttingen, 1875) ; PtOlf, Damiani'a Zwiitt mit
Hildebrand in Stimmen aue MariorLaaeh, XLI (1801). 281-307,
400-416. 508-525; Roth, Der heilige Petrue Damiani, O.S.B., in
Studien O. S. B., VII (1886), i, 11(V-134; ii, 357-374; iii. 43-66; iv,
321-336; VIII (1887), i, 56-44; u, 210-216.
LESLiE A. St. L. Toke.
Peter de Blois, statesman and theologian, b. at
Blois about 1 130; d. about 1203. He appears to have
first studied at Tours, and was, perhaps, the disciple
of Jean de Salisbury, who taught m Paris from 1140 to
1150; he studied law in Bologna, and theolos^ in Paris,
where he taught the liberal arts. In 1167 Count Ste-
Ehen du Perche brou^t him to Sicily (1167). Here
e became preceptor of the king, guardian of the royal
seal, and one of the queen's principal counsellors.
But the favouritism shown the foreigner excited the
jealousy of the nobles and he was obliged to leave
Sicily (1169). After several years in France, he went
to England, where he became one of Henry IPs dip-
lomatic agents and was charged with negotiations
with the pope and the King of France. In 1176 he
became cnancellor of the Archbishop of Canterbury
and Archdeacon of Bath. He became entangled in
the disputes between the archbishop and the monks
of his diocese and, in this connexion, was sent to
Rome in 1177, and to Verona in 1187, on diplomatic
766
miflsioiiB to the popes. After the death of Henry II
(1189), he fell into disgrace, and he speaks in his
letters of Richard the lion Hearted as the "new
Pharaoh '\ He entered the service of Queen Eleanor
of Aquitaine. to whom he was secretary (1190-95),
and was made Archdeacon of London. But his rev-
enue from this benefice scarcely sufficed for his living
and he wrote to Innocent III to this effect in one m
the last letters (1198) he has left us. His material
status was hardlv in keeping with the great authority
he exercised in England towards the end of the reign
of Henry II, in affairs of the State, or of the Church.
Not only was he the king's chief counsellor, but many
bishops consulted him and obtained his advice on im-
portant matters regarding their dioceses.
He wrote numerous letters, models of his epoch, but
full of the bad taste of the twelfth century. He wrote
also numerous treatises. He continued the "History
of the Monastery of Croyland of Ingulf'' (901 to
1135). Unfortunately, the "History of Henry H"
has been lost (De rebus gestis Henrici II). His other
writings are sermons, commentaries on the Scripture,
moral and ascetic treatises, in which he attacks with
blunt frankness the morals of the Englii^ and Aqui-
tainian bishopis (treatise entitled, "Quales sunt ).
In 1189, after the taking of Jerusalem by Saladin, he
composed his "De hierosolymitana perc^^rinatione
acceleranda" (P. L. CCVII, 1057), wherein he cen-
sures the indifferent faith of the princes who deferred
the undertaking of the crusade, and threatens them
with seeing the mission which they have deserted ac-
complished by the people. He also composed an
"Instruction on the Faith" which Alexander III sent
to the Sultan of Iconium. In several of his letters he
returns to the question of the crusade. His works
were edited by Giles in "Patres Ecclesiffi AngUcans",
4 vols. (Oxford, 1846-47), and in P. L., CCVII (4 vols.,
Paris).
Cklueb. Hitt. det AtUnara eeeUa., XXIII (Paris, 1763). 206-
24; Hist. LiU. de la France, XV (Paris. 1820). 341-413; Michaud.
BibUoihkque de» CrotMdes, III (Paris. 1829), 250; Noroatk. Eng-
land under the Anifevin Kinge, II (London. 18871; Chalandon.
Hiet. de la dotninalion normande en Italie et en SieiUt II (Paris,
1007) ; MouNiEB, Lee Sotareee de rhiet. de Prance^ pt. II (Paris,
1002), 203, dealing with Peter's Are dictaminie.
Louis Br£hieb.
Peter de HonestiB, b. at Ravenna about 1049; d.,
29 March, 1119. Among his ancestors was the great
St. Romuald, founder of the Camaidolese monks. All
his life Peter f asied every Saturday in honour of Our
Lady, and strongly recommended this practice to his
religious. He styled himself Peirus peccalor. He lived
for some years in the Holy Land. When returning a
preat storm arose in the Adriatic and the ship was in
imminent danger. Peter made a vow to build a
church in honour of Our Lady should he safely reach
the harbour. In fulfilment of his promise he built a
church and monastery on the family property. Near
by there was a small community of clerics, and Peter
having ioined them, was soon after made their supe-
rior, ana with them removed to the church and monas-
tery he had built, in 1099. His name is associated
with the sodality called "The Children of Mary", es-
tablii^ed in honour of a miraculous picture of Our
Lady, now called ''Madonna Greca", which tradition
says came from Constantinople. The number of his
religious increasing, Peter gave them some statutes
grounded on the rule of St. Augustine. These were
approved by Paschal II, and having afterwards been
adopted by many other communities of Canons Resu-
lar, the Portuensis Congregation was formed, bv
common consent Peter has always been called Blessed.
In former times his office and feast used to be cele-
brated at Ravenna; the process of his beatification is
now before the Holy See.
Pbkwotto, Oeneralia Sacri Ordinit Canonieorum^erieontm
Hietnria Tripartita (Rome, 1642); Buttarium Lateranenee (Rome.
1727) ; Storia deOa Madonna Qreea, da D. P. 5. (Ravenna, 18S7);
Vita del Beaio Piehro degli Oneeti (Ravenna. 1893); Pia aeeocia-
wione mondiaU, fondata nei ttOO dal B. Pietro
etoria deUa Madonna Qreca (Ravenna, 1801).
deoH Onoifti: Brme
A. At J. ART A.
Peter de Begalado (REGAiiArns), Saint, Friar
Minor and' reformer, b. at Valladolid, 1390; d. at
Aguilera, 30 March, 1456. His parents were of noble
birth and conspicuous for their wealth and virtue.
Having lost his father in his earlv youth, he was
piously educated by his mother. At the age of ten
years reter begged to be admitted into the Seraphic
Order, which favour was granted him three years
afterwards in the convent of his native town. In
1404 he became one of the first disciples of Peter de
ViUacreces, who in 1397 had introduced into Spain
the reform of the Observance of which he became one
of the most zealous propagators. In the newly-
founded convent at Aguilera Peter found the life of
solitude, prayer, and eminent poverty, which had
always been the greatest object of his desire. In 1415
he became superior of the convent at Aguilera and,
on the death of Peter de ViUacreces (14^), also oT
that at Tribulos or del Abroyo. He observed nine
Lents, fasting on bread and water, and was endowed
with the gift of miracles and prophecy and of every
virtue. When his body was exhumed thirty-six
years after his death, at the instance of Isabella the
Catholic, it was found incorrupt and placed in a more
precious tomb. He was beatified by Innocent XI,
11 March, 1684, and canonised by Benedict XIV,
29 June, 1746. His feast is celebrated 13 May, the
day of the translation of his body. In art he is repre-
sent^ with flames burstins from hb heart.
Clabt, Li^ee of the SainU and Bleeaed of the Throe Ordere of 8L
Francia, II (Taunton, 1886). 150-9; Dasa, Sxeeleneiae de la diidad
de Vcdladoltd, con la vida y nnlagroe de e. fray Pedro Regaiado etc
(Valladolid, 1627). Lat. tr. in Ad. 8S., Ill, March. 860-64; ReUUio
pro canoniaoHone, ibid., 864-70; Wadding, Ann. Min., XII, 2-9.
445-74; Bbbqdin, 8i. Pierre tUgalat, pritre de Fordre dee Frirea
Mineure de VObeerwanee, reetauratew de la dieeipUne riguiiire en
Bapagne (P«risueuz, 1898). FeBDINAND HecKMANN.
Peter da Vlnea (de Vineis, dblla Viqna), b. at
Capua about 1190; d. 1249. Peter's legal learning
ana the elegance of his Latin style in course of time
made him the most prominent statesman of public
affairs at the court of Frederick II. Frederick's po-
litical views, which aimed at absolutism in Chiui^
and State, ne succeeded in strengthening in every
direction. In his capacity as chief judge of the
court he took a prominent part in the administration
of justice and le^slation in Sicily. Perhaps he was
also associated with Archbishop James of Capua in
drawing up the new code of laws for the Kingdom of
Sicily, called the "Constitutions of Melfi" and issued in
1231 by order of Frederick. Probably Peter was the
emperor's ambassador at the Council of Lyons in
1 245. Certainit is that in the same year, as the envoy of
the emperor, he sought the mediation of St. Louis in the
conflict that was developing between Church and State.
About tlus date he was already, along with Thad-
deus of Suessa, the real director of the imperial chan-
cellery. In 1247 he was made imperial prothonotar>'
and logothete of the Kinsdom of Sicily and thus the
sole h^kd of the imperial chancellery. This important
Eosition in the State was his ruin. He sought to enrich
imself and his family. His embezzlements went so
far that, as the emperor himself said, they led to a
financial disaster which might have become dangerous
to the empire. Just at the time that Frederick made
this discovery at Cremona in February, 1249, a ph^'si-
cian attempted to rave the emperor a poisoned dnnk.
Peter was suspected of being privy to the plot. This
report, based on a statement of Matthew of Paris, has
been even recently credited by Gerdes, while Hampe
rejects it. Dante, however, goes too far when, in tne
''Inferno" (xiii, 55 sqq.), he allows Peter to say that
he has never broken faith with the emperor. Fred-
eridk, on his return to Sicily, ordered his one-time con-
767
fidAnt to be put in chaina. Peter was forced to retire
to Etruria where Frederick had him imprisoned at San
MJDiato and h^d his eyes put out. Be is said to have
committed Buicide here. His letters, a part of which
were printed in the sixteenth century, are of great
interest. He was also eeteemed eis a poet. Hia poems
contun many violent satires on the clergv.
Hirii,LAMl>-BBiflOLl.Ea. Vit et eoTT€4pondanced9 Pitrre du la
Viem {FiaiM. ISS6); Cafuw uto Tihelu. Pian deiia Vitna
£!uena, 1882); HiHinn, IMoferioJ lur AnirUiluiv drr Pttnu
Vinta-Bric/i in MMeilunten da Ootrr. /nXiluU, XXI^ u to
Uw muiiueiipU of the letten el. Archit f&r dtvUcke Oach^ VII
(1830}, SBO aqq.; Pbtbui dh Vinba, Bpitlalantm tibri VI. ed.
laiuCB (2 voIb.. Buln. 1740); Oxuca. Gueh. dtr Hohtnilatijtn
when by order of the pope he was again sent to Ger-
many. This time for nineteen months Faber was to
work for the reform of Speyer, Maini, and Cologne —
a thankless task. However, he gained the eccleeiasr
tics little by little, changed their hearts, and discov-
und ihrrr Zeit (Leipi
E, Dtaudtt KaitBgac
DruliiMandi' eac!iiiMtvu4Utn in l/ittHaLar (^tutuut. ISM):
Wenkcluamh , JaKritafhtr der dtuUchtn gtMch. untvr Friedrich tl
|2 voli. up to 1233 (Leipiia. ISBB ■nd 1SS7}).
F. Kamfebs.
P«t«r 7»b«r (Favrd or Le Ftvse), BiJiseeD, b.
13 April, 1506, at ViUaret, Savoy; d. 1 Aug., 1548, in
Rome. As a child he tended his father's sheep during
the week, and on Sunday he taught catechism to other
diildren. The instinctive knowledge of his vocation
as an apostle inspired him with a desire to study.
At first he was entrusted to the care of a priest at
Th6nes, and then to a neighbouring school. Although
without any definite plans for the future, he resolved
to goto Pans. H^ parents consented tothe separation,
and in 1525 Peter arrived in Paris. Here he acquired
the learning he deured, and found quite uneicpectedly
his real vocation. He was admitEed gratuitously to
the college of Stunt«-Barbe, and shared the lodging
of a student from Navarre, Francis Xavier, the future
saint, in a tower which still existed in 1860, They
became intimately attached to each other, receiving
on the same day m 1530 the degree of master of arts.
At the university he also met St. Ignatius Loyola
(q. V.) and became one of his associates. He was or-
dained in 1834, and received at Montmartre, on 15
August of the sameyear, the vows of Ignatius and his
fiye companions. To these first six volunteerB, titree
others were to attach themselves. Ignatius appointed
them all to meet at Venice, and charged Faber to
conduct them there. Leavin;^ Paris 15 Nov., 1536,
Faber and his compsjuons rejoined Ignatius at Venice
in Jan.g 1537. Ignatius then thoi^t of ^oing to
evangelize the Holy Land, but God bad destined nim
for a vaster field of action.
Alter Ignatius, Faber was the one whom Xavier
and his companions esteemed the most eminent. He
merited this esteem by his profound knowledge, his
gentle sanctity, and his influence over souls. Faber
now repaired to Rome, and after some months of
preaching and teaching, the pope sent b'"' to Parma
and Piacensa, where he brought atuut a revival of
Christian piety. Racalled to Rome, Faber was sent to
Germany to uphold Catholicism at the Diet of Worms.
In reality the diets which the Protestants were en-
abled to hold through the weakness of Charlee accom-
plished no good. From the Diet of Worms, convoked
m 1540, he was called to that of Ratisbon in 1541.
Faber was startled by the ruin which ftuleatantism
had caused in Germany, and by the state of decadence
presented by Catholicism; and he saw that the rem-
edy did not lie in discussiana with the heretics, but in
the reform of the futhful — above all, of the clergy.
For ten months, at Speyer, at Ratisbon, and at Mains,
he conducted himself with gentleness and success. It
was above all by the Spiritual Exercises that he accom-
plished most of his conversions. Princes, prates.
and priests revealed their consciences to him, ana
people were astounded by the efficacy of an apoetolate
accomplished so rapidly. Recalled to Spain by St.
Ignatius, Faber tore himself away from the field where
he had already gathered such a harvest, and won
Savoy, which haa oaver ceased to venerate him as a
aaint; but be had hardly been in Spain six months
toiustifyhisbeingcaiied the Apostle of Germany. The
Archbi^opiof Cologne, Herman of Wied, was already
won over by the heresy which he was later publicly
to embrace. It was also at Cologne that Faber espe-
cially exercised his zeal. After spending some months
at liouvain, in 1543, where he implanted the seeds of
numerous vocations among the young, he returned to
Cologne, and there it may be said that he extirpated
all heresy. But he was forced by obedience t^ leave
Germany in August, 1544, going at first to Portugal.
later to Spain. At the court of Lisbon and that oi
Valladolid, Faber was an angel of God. He was calW
to the principal cities of Sptun, and everywhere incul-
cated fervour and fostered vocations. Let it sufiice
to mention that of Francis Borgia, which he, more
than anyone else, was the means of strengthening.
Faber, at forty, was wasted by his incessant labours
and his unceaamg journeys always made on foot. The
pope, however, tnou^t of sending him to the Council
of Trent as theologian of the Holy See; John III
wanted him to be made Patriarch of .£thopia. Called
to Rome, Faber, weakened by fever, arrived there 17
July, 1546, to die in the arms of St. Ignatius, the firat
of the following August. Those who had known him
already invoked him as a saint. Saint l-Yancis de
Sales, whose character recalled that of Faber's, never
spoke of him except as a saint. He was beatified,
5 September, 1872; his feast is kept on 8 August,
u :,. „ D.,_- ^-i_- .J (P.™, 1873); Carfaiv
Memarialt B. pari Fabri. t ..
•trot aerilot dtl B. Ptdro Fabro (
Pierre Suao.
Pater rourler, Saint, known as ix. bon P*iie de
Mattaincoort b at Mirecourt Lorraine, 30 Nov.,
1565: d. at Gray Haute-baflnc 9 Dec 1610. At fif-
the Universitj of
Pont-A-Mousson
His piety and
learning led many
noble famihes to
ask him to educate
their sons. He be-
came a Canon Reg
ular in the Abbey
of Chaumousey
and was ordained
in 1689. By order
of his abbot he re-
turned to the uni-
versity and became
proficient in pa-
tristic thcolofty; he
knew the "Sum-
ma" of St. Thomas
by heart. In 1597
he was made parish
priest at MaHain-
court, a corrupt *'- P*''^" Foorks
district threatened with the new heresy. By his
prayers, instructions, and good example, reli^on
was soon restored. Fourier did not n^lect the tem-
poral intereets of his parishioners; to help those who
through ill-fortune had fallen into poverty, he estab-
Ushed a kind of mutual help bank. He instituted
three sodahties, of St, Sebastian for men of the Holy
Rosary for women, and of the Immaculate Concep-
tion for girls, or "Children of Mary". He composed
some dialogues which treated of the virtues opposed
to the vices most common among his people. These
dialoguee the children delivered every Sunday in pub-
PBTIE
768
lie. To perpetuate his work, Peter founded in 1598 an
order of women, the Congregation of Notre-Dame, who
teach poor girls i^atuitously . The institute spread and
with some modffications was introduced into America
by the Ven. Marguerite Bourgeovs (d. 1700).
In 1621, by order of the pishop of Toul, Fourier
undertook the reform of the canons regular in Lor-
raine who in 1629 formed the Congregation of Our
Saviour. Of this congregation he was made superior
general in 1632. He wifi£ed his brother canons to do
for boys what his nuns were doing for girls. In 1625
Peter was entrusted with the conversion of the Prin-
dpaUt^ of Salm, near Nancy, which had gone over to
Calvinism. In six lAonths all the Protes^ts, whom
he called '^poor strangers'', had returned to the
Faith. On account of his attachment to the House of
Lorraine he was driven into exile at Gray, where he
died. In 1730 Benedict XIII published the Decree of
his Beatification, and Leo XIIi canonized him in 1897.
Bbdel, Laviedu Trit RMrend Pkr9 Pierre Fourier, dii vidgairt'
meni, Le Ph-e de Mettaineourt (1645) ; Chapia, Idea boni parochi
H perfecti religioai; Vuilumin, La Vie de St. Pierre Fourier (Paris,
1897). A. AlLARIA.
Peter Fullo, intruding Monophysite Patriarch
of Antioch; d. 488. He received tne Greek surname
Tpa<f>€6t (Latin, FtJlo) from his trade of fuller of cloth,
which he practised when a monk at the monastery of
the Accemeti'in the Diocese of Chaicedon. Expelled
from his monastery on account of his dissolute life
and his heretical doctrines, he went to Constantinople
where the future Emperor Zeno obtained for him the
position of presbyter at the church of St. Bassa in
Chaicedon. Driven thence by the populace, he ac-
companied Zeno to Antioch, incited tne people against
their patriarch, Martyrius, and, upon the latter s res-
ignation, usurped the see in 470. He gained the
favour of the Monophysitcas by adding to the Trisa^on
the words ^ cravfuadtU 8i iffuis (who wast crucified
for us) in the monophysitic sense that the Father and
the Holy Ghost were crucified with the Son. In 471
he was deposed by the Emperor, but he again usurped
the see in 476 to be deposed a second time and ban-
ished in 478. The usurping Emperor Basilicus rein-
stated him in 485 and he held the see until his death.
(See MoNOPHYSiTES and Monophysitism.)
Valsbius (Valoib), De Petro Antiocheno epiacopo qui Fullo
cognominatus eat et de eynodie advereue eum eoUectie, appendix to
his ed. of Evaorius, Hiet. eccl. (Paris, 1673), reprintedin P. (#.,
LXXXVI. 2885-95; Tillbmont, Hiet. dee empereurt, VI, 404-7;
Theodorus Lector, Hiel. eccl., I, zx-xxii; Thbophanes, Chro-
noifraphia, ad ann. 456, 467, 469, 482; Liberattts, Breviarium,
zviii; xviii; Lb Quibn, Oriena ckriaL, II (Paris, 1740), 724-5.
Michael Ott.
Peter Oonzalez, Saint, popularly known as St.
Elmo, b. in 1190 at Astorga, Spain; d. 15 April. 1246,
at Tuy. He was educated by his uncle, Bishop of
Astorga, who gave him when very young a canonry.
Later he entered the Dominican Order and became
a renowned preacher; crowds gathered to hear him
and numberless conversions were the result of his
c^orts. He accompanied Ferdinand III of Leon on
his expeditions agamst the Moors, but his ambition
was to preach to tne poor. He devoted the remainder
of his life to the instruction and conversion of the
ignorant and of the mariners in Galicia and along the
coast of Spain'. He lies buried in the cathedral of
Tuy and was beatified in 1254 by Innocent IV. St.
Elmo's fire is a pale electrical discharge sometimes
seen on stormy mghts on the tips of spires, about the
decks and rigging of ships, in the shape of a ball or
brush, singly or in pairs, particularly at the mastheads
and yardarms. The manners believed them to be the
souls of the departed, whence they are also called
corposant (corpo aanto). The ancients called them
Helena fire when seen singly, and Castor and Pollux
when in pairs.
Butlxr, Livea of the Sainta; Harris, The Dioaeuri in Chriatian
Leaenda (London, 1003) ; Dbsmkl, Lehrbueh der Phyaik (Freiburg,
iwS), Francis MEBfiHMAN.
Peter Igneus (Peter Aldobrandini), Blesssd,
an Italian monk of the Benedictine congregation of the
Vallombrosians, and Cardinal-Bishop of Albano; d. c.
1089. The struggle waged against simony in the elev-
enth centuiy led to violent scenes in several ItaUan
cities. At Florence Bishop Peter Mezzobartx), known
also as Peter of Pavia, was publicly accused of simon-
iacal acquisition of the episcopal dignity. As he stren-
uously denied the charge aiid 1^ numerous and prom-
inent supporters, the controversy caused intense
agitation at Florence. The Vallombrosian monks were
bis chief accusers^ and upon the insistence of the peo-
ple for proof, the judgment of God, or trial bv fire, was
resorted to. The Abbot St. John Gualbert desisnated
for the test Peter Aldobrandini, who sucoessfuUy un-
derwent the ordeal (1068), hence cidled ''Igneus'',
or Fire-tried. This triumph of the monks was fol-
lowed by confession on the part of the bishop. Peter
I^ncus subsequentlv became abbot, and in 1074 Car-
dmal-Bishop of Albano. During the pontificate of
Gregory VII he was entrusted with important mis-
sions. In 1079 he proceeded to Germany as papal
legate with the Bishop of Padua to mediate between
the rivals Henry IV and Rudolf of Suabia. Upon the
renewal of the excommunication against Henry IV at
Salerno in 1084, Gregory VII designated him as one
of the two envoys sent to France for the promulgation
of the sentence.
Acta SS., July, III (Paris, 1867), 340-44; Mann, Lives of tka
Popea, VI (St. Lotiia. 1910), 302. N. A. WebER.
Peter Lombard, theologian, b. at Novara (or per-
haps LumeUo), Italy, about 1100; d. about 1160-64.
He studied fijBt at Bologna, later on at Reims and
Paris. St. Bernard, who naa provided for his wants
at Reims, gave him a letter of recommendation to
the Abbot of St. Victor, Gilduin (1 1 14-55) . To judge
from this letter, his stay at Pans was to be short:
"per breve tempus usque ad Nativitateni Virginis".
There is no evidence of his having gone back to Italy.
We learn from John of Cornwall, his pupil, that be
assiduously studied the works of Aoelard, whom
lectures he had probably followed about 1136. His
own writings show the influence of his master. In
1148, he was at Reims in company with Robert of
Melun. both being called "magistri scholares'' by
Otto ot Freisin^en; and he joined Adam du Petit-Pont,
Hughes of Amicus, and others, in theological discus-
sions with Gilbert de la Porr^. About the same
time (1145-51) he wrote his "Book of Sentences".
He was then professor at the school of Notre Dame.
He was acquainted before this date with the works
of Gratian tne canonist, for he utilizes the "Decre-
tum'' in his " Sentences '\ About the same time be
had in his hands the newly-finished translation of St.
John Damascene by Burgundio of Pisa; all these de-
tails show the care he had to enlarge the circle of his
knowledge. In 1152 Eugene III had a prebendary-
ship con^rred on him by the Archbishop of Beauvais
(JafT6-Wattenbach, 9534). In 1158 or 1159 he was
appointed Archbishop of Paris; but held the office for
a short time only, being succeeded by Maurice de
Sully, the builder of the present Cathedral of Notre
Dame, in 1160 or 1161. He died some time after,
but the exact date is unknown; it could not have been
later than 1 164; in the years that follow we sometimes
meet his name in the cartulary of Notre Dame of
Paris: the house he lived in is put up for sale: his
original copy of the "Sentences^' is bequeathed by
Stephen Langton, Archbishop of Canterbury, to Um
library of Notre Dame. The old legend that makes
him the brother of Gratian of Bologna and of Peter
Comestor has no foundation whatever.
The works of Peter Lombard include: (1)" Com-
mentaries on the Psalins and St. Paul" wliich have
come down to us in quite a number of manuscripts.
They are chiefly a compilation of patristic and medie-
val exegesis, after the manner of the profesaon d
^ t
PITIB
769
PETER
the age and of the old "Catenn''; (2) "Sermons'S
whidb are also found in quite a number of manuscripts;
they are rather diy^ often allegorical, and always very
meuiodical in their divisions: several of them are
printed among the works of mldebert du Mans and
others; extracts of others have been published by
Protois (cf. infra); (3) The "Sentences" ("Quatuor
Ubri Sententiarium }. It is this theological work
above aU that made the name of Peter Lombard
famous, and gives him a special place in the histoi^
of theology in the Middle Af^es. Henceforth he is
called the "Magtster SentenUarum", or simply the
"Macister". The work is divided into four books.
In a fong series of questions it covers the whole body
of theologcal doctrme and unites it in a systematized
whole. Towards the thirteenth century, the various
books were di^ded into disHnctiones (an old Latin
word that first meant a pause in reading, then a divi-
sion into chapters), though the author had done noth-
ing more than to have the questions follow one
another: in the manuscripts, these questions do not
always Dear the same title.
The first book treats of God and the Blessed Trinity,
of God's attributes, of Providence, of predestination,
and of evil; the second, of the creation, the work ot
ihe six da^, the angels, the demons, the fall, grace, and
sin; the third, of the Incarnation, the Redemption, the
virtues, and the Ten Commancunents; the fourth, of
the sacraments in general, the seven sacraments in
g articular, and the four last things, death, judgment,
e^, and heaven. The "Book of Sentences was
written about 1150. In any ease it was 8ubse<iuent
to the composition of the "Decretum" of Gratian of
Bologna, which dates from about 1140 and con-
tidns pages that bear a striking likeness to the
"Sentences". A careful examination of the texts
cited in each author, in the same order, with the
same inaccuracies or the same changes, Peter Lom-
bard's citation of some "Dicta Gratiani", and his
opposition to some of Gratian's opinions (e. g. on
the question of the essence of marriage) — all these
facts prove the priority of the "Decretum" to the
"Sentences"; the old view of the canonist Schulte
has been abandoned for that of P. Foumier, who
has demonstrated Peter's dependence on Gratian^ A
manuscript of the "Sentences" written in 1158 still
exists, but there is everjr reason to believe that the
work was finished some eight years earlier.
On the other hand, Ganduli>h of Bologna, who has
been credited with havins inspired Peter, is later than
the Lombard; he utilised, transcribed, or oynopsized
parts of the work of the "Magister Sententiarum".
The method and purpose of the book found their ex-
planation in the mtdlectual movement of the times:
arjguments from authority laying down the doc-
trine, and dialectics which reasons about dogma
or conciliatesthe " Auctoritates " (as Abelard advimd),
are the most striking features in its eomposition.
This work may be looked upon as the result of the two
tendencies of the period: the one indulging, sometimes
too much, in speculation, the other recurring to au-
thority. It must be confessed that Peter Lombard
tried to steer a middle course between these opposing
tendencies. From Abelard, whose work had hardly
lost its fascination in spite of the condemnations of
Soissons and Sens, he borrows freely; but he is on
guard against Abelard's errors. He has no desire to
make Cnristian doctrine a matter for oontroversv
after the manner of the "garruli ratiocinatores"
agednst whom he has to defend himself . But he has no
hesitation in exposing in a reasoned way the dif-
ferent points of doctrine: it is but the method
foUowea with still greater success and depth by
St. Thomas. He makcB full use of the Bible and
the Fathers, but he never goes to the point of refusing
reason its due r61e. It is here that the works of the
School of St. Victor are especially serviceable to him:
he borrows considerably from Hugo's "De Saor&«
mentis", as well as from the "Summa Sententiarum'^,
which, thou^ not written by Hugo, is veiy much in-
debted to him. In addition to the forcing, men-
tion must be made of Abelard. Gratian, Ivo of Char-
tres. and Alger of Li^e as tne chief sources of the
"liber Sententiarum' .
Amonff the Fathers of the Church Augustine is
3 noted flXK>ut ten or fifteen times as often as Ambrose,
erome, or Hilary; the Gredc Fathers, with the excep-
tion of John Damascene, who is quoted about twenty-
five times, are scarcely represented; the ante-Nicene
writers, except Origen, are mentioned on no more than
five or six occasions^ nevertheless, one may say that
the "Sentences", with Gratian's work, are the chief
sources whence many theologians of the Middle Ages
drew their knowled^p of the Fathers. Peter's work
is mainly a compilation. Whole "distinctions" have
been traced in aetiul to their sources; scarcely more
than ten hues have been found to be original. He
makes no secret of this; his plan was to write a kind
of Corpus which would save the trouble of looking up
many different volumes. But this fact cannot blind
us to the merits of his work; he opposed the excesses
of the dialecticians and at the same time found a
via media to c^hn the fears of those who advocated a
complete separation of reason and dogma. He ar-
ranged traditional doctrines and theories in a system
and summarized the controversies of the time and
the opinions involved in the different questions.
Besides, his attempted solutions of many questions
roused the students' curiosity and led the professors
to comment on him. On the whole and in spite of his
connexion with Abelard, he is orthodox; a proposition
of his on "Christological nihilism" was condemned
by Alexander III; other theses were abandoned in
the century that followed j St. Bonaventure mentions
eight of them and the Umversity of Paris later added
others. But the success of the book was incontestable ;
down to the sixteenth century it was the textbook
in the university courses, upon which each future
doctor had to lecture during two years.
The want of originality and the refusal of the "Ma-
ster" to decide upon many points between two solu-
tions were very favourable to the work of the masters
who commented upon him. But the success of Peter
Lombard was not immediate. Attacked sometimes
during his lifetime, as Maurice of Sully among others
relates, after his death he was bitterly inveic^ed
against, especially by Gautier of St. Victor and by
Joachim of Flora. This opposition even went so far as
to try to get his writings condemned. In 1215 at the
Lateran Council these attempts were baffled, and the
second canon began aprofession of faith in these words:
"Credimus cum Petro [Lombardo]". The execetical
work and the "Sentences" of Peter Lombard have
often been printed : the commentaries upon the Epistles
of St. Paul m 1474, etc. ; the "Sentences " were printed
in 1472 and for the last time in 1892 (Paris). Migne
contains these three works (P. L., CXCI, CXCII).'
The best edition of the "Sentences" is that which is
found in the commentary of St. Bonaventure (Opera
S. Bonaventurse, Quaracchi, 1885, 1-1 V).
Hist, liU. d€ la France, XII ; Psotois, Pierre Lombard (Paru,
1880); Baltskr, Die Sentemen de* Peirua Lombardue (Leipiig,
1002); EBPENBBBcnsR, Die Philoaophie dee Petrue Lombardue
(MQnster, 1001) ; db Gheluncx, TKe Book ofSenteneee in Dublin
Review (1010) ; Medicnal Theolon in American Catholic Quarterly
Review (1008) ; Reeue dee Queetione hietori^uee (July, 1010) ; Rent*
Nio-mUutique (1000). J, pB GhELLIMCK.
Pettr-Louifl-BSarie ChAnel, Blessed, b. at Cuet,
Diocese of Belley, France, 1802; d. at Futuna, 28
April, 1841. He was ordained priest in 1827, ana en-
gaged in the parochial ministry for a few years: but
the reading of letters of missionaries in far-away lands
inflamed his heart with seal, and he resolved to devote
his life to the Apoetolate. In 1831 he joined the Soci-
ety of Mary, and in 1836 he embaiiced for Oceania.
He waa aas^ned by his bishop to the Iskod of Futuna,
ftnd landed m Nov., 1S37. No Cbristiaii miBaionary
had ever set toot there, and the difficulties Peter en-
countered unidat thoee savage tribes were almoet in-
(nidible. Nevertfaeleaa, he wag beginning to see the
. reeults of hia efforts, when Niuluki, sing and also pon-
tiff of the island, already jealous ol the pr(%reB8,or the
nev rehgion, was exasperatod by the conversion of hia
Bon and daughter. At hia instigation, one of the min-
iatera gathered some of the enemiea of Christianity
and Peter waa cruelly aasasainated without uttering a
wmd of oomphunt. Through his death, the vener^le
martyr obtained nhat he had so ardently desired and
eameatly worked for, the conversion of Futuna. In
1842, two Marist mieaionaries resumed his work, and
nowhere haa the preaching of the Gospel prOaueed
more wonderfu] results. Peter waa declared Venerable
by Pius IX in 1857, and beatified by Leo XUI on 17
s publi^ par lee membree de la misdon arcMo-
I. ISBO), 3U-SZS;
Adkiam Fortbbcue.
Ju 1*1. Senilnr Ot Ditu Piiprs-lfnKf-Lsuu
CLmW (Lyon*, 18*71: Nicoin. Lift of Bltatd P. It. L. CAonW
' (DubliD. 1800) ; gudfuo lutriimu d ^rtai lignaUnt sbt^nui par
, rfHlircHiiim iJh Bimtteumz P. M. L. Chanrt (Lyou. 18S1):
. Haaim. Lh UuhimM liariati <n Octaiii (Fans, 1902] ; Liim
<a Iht Vtn. Ft. CMa, Foundtr and Fint Suprnar OrnrriU of Ilia
aodty of Mary (St. Ltnw, 1009). JoBBPH FrXRI.
PvterMongTU (*io77it, "stammerer", or "hoarse"),
Intruded Monophysite patriarch of Alexandria (d. 490) .
Under Timothy Ailuroa, who was made patriarch by
the E^OT>tian Monophysitea after Qh&lcedon (454-
460), Peter Mongus was an ardent adherent of that
party. As Timothy's deacon he took part in the per-
secution of the Melchitee, Timothy Ailuroe waa
expelled from thepatriarchal throne in 4S0 and the or-
thodoK Timothy Salophakiolos was set up by the gov
emment instead (460-75), In 475 another revolution
recalled Ailuros, who held his place till death (477).
Hia party thereupon elected Pet«r Mongus to succeed
him. TheEmperorZeno (474-91) sentenced Mongus
todeath; be escaped by flight. M ean while Salophakio-
los returned and reigned till hia death (481). TheMel-
chites chose John Talaia to succeed (481-82:see John
Talaia). Peter Mongus, always cluming to be patri-
arch, now oomee forward again. John had quarrelled
with Acaciusi patriarch of Constan'.inople, and refused
to sign Zeno's Henoticon (482; seeMENoricoN); so he
was expelled, the emperor changed his attitude, and
BupportedMongua(482). TalaiafiedtoRome, Mongua
took poeaeaaioD of the see, and sent notice of his suc-
cession to Rome, Antioch, and Constantinople. He
had signed the Henoticon and was therefore inserted
in Acaciua'a diptychs as Patriarch of Alexandria, Bgt
the pope (Felix II or III. 483-92) defended Talaia's
rights m two lettera to Acacius.
From this time Mongus became the chief champion
of all Monophysites. He held a synod to condemn
ChaJcedon, and desecrated the tombs of Proterios
and Salophakiolos, his Melchite predeceaaois. He was
excommunicated repeatedly by the pope. It was
communion with Mongus and the acceptance of the
Henotikon that cauaed the Acacion achiam of Con-
stantinople (484-519). When Acacius died and waa
succeeded by FlavitM (or Fravitaa, 489-90) Mongus
wrote to the new patriarch again condemning Chalce-
don and encouraging him in hia schism with Rome.
He died in 490 and waa succeeded by another Mono-
physite, AthanasiuB II (490-96), For a long time
after hia death the name of Peter Monies was still a
party word. To read it in the diptychs (of the dead)
was a kind of profession of Monophysitism; the first
condition of reunion with Rome and the Catholic
world generally was to erase it, with that of Dioscurus
and the other sreat champions of the heresy. In the
line of Alexandrine patriarchs Mongus is counted as
Peter III. He is said to have written many books, of
which however nothing remains, A pretended coi^
respondence between him and Acacius (in Coptic) is
proved to be spurious by Am^lineau in the "Mi-
Pater HoUaoo. Saint, b. at Mas-dee-Saintt*-
Puellea, near Castelnaudary France, in 1189 (or
1182); d. at Barcelona, on Chriatmaa Day, 1256 (or
1259). He was of a noble family and from his youth
was noted for his piety, almsgiving, and charity.
Having given all his poeseaaiona to the poor, he took a
vow of virginity and, to avoid communication with
the Albigenaes, went to Barcelona.
At that time the Moors were masten of a p«&t part
of the Iberian peninsula, and many Christians were
detained there and cruelly persecuted on account of
Uie Faith, Peter ransomed many of these and in
doing BO consumed all his patrimony. After mature
deliKration, moved also by a heavenly vision, he
St, Pctib Nouko iSo St. Rathons or PaflAion
FranoiKO Zurtwmi. Louvn
resolved to found a reti^ous order (1218), nmilar to
that established a few years before by St. John &
Matha and St. Felix de Valois, whose chief obj«t
would be the redemption of Christian slaves. In liua
he was encouraged by St. Raymond Pefiafort and
Jamee I, King of Arsgon, who, it seems, had been
favoured with the same inspiration. The institute
waa called Mercedariona (q. v.) and waa solemnly tip-
proved by Gregory IX, in 1230. Its members w*»e
bound by a special vow to employ all their substance
for the redemption of captive Cuistians, and if n
essary, to remwn in captivity i
L their st^d. At
himself. But Clement V decreea that the maato'
gboeral of the. order should alwaya be a priest. His
r< d( r%Ui( (Pwk,
Jf, i, MrrtBlt (PlJarmo, IBIS);
Mrradaria (Bimlona. 187S): Mi
1909).
Fatsr of AIc4nt«n, Saint, b. at AlcAntai*,
Spain, 1499; d, 18 Oct., 1562, His father Peter Gsta-
vita, was the governor of the place, and hia mother
waa of the noble family of Sanaoia. After a course of
grammar sod philosophy in his native town, he was
Bmt, at the Age of fourteen, to the Univemty of Siila-
msnoa. Retuming home, he became a FrandscaQ in
the convent of the Stricter Obeervance at Maoxai^
retee in 1515. At the age of twenty-two he was sent to
fovmd a new community of the Stricter Observance at
Badajoz. He was ordained prieet in 1524, and the fol-
lowing year made guardian of the convent of St. Mary
of the Angels at Robredillo. A few yeafs later he be-
gan preaching with much succeas. He preferred to
preach to the poor; and bla sermons, taken largely
from the Prophets and Sapiential Books, breathe the
tendereat human sympathy. The reform of the " Dis-
calced Friars " had, at the time when Peter entered the
order, besides the convents, in Spain, the Custody of
Sta. Maria Pietatis in Portugal, subject to the General
of the Observants.
Having been elected minister of St. Gabriel's prov-
ince in 1^8, Peter set to work at once. At the chap-
1 PITXX
Peter may be mentioned St. Franna Bor^a, Blessed
John of Avila, and St. Louis of Granada. In St. Ter^
esa, Petir perceived a soul chosen of God for a gi^at
work, and her auccesa in the reform of Cartnel was in
great measure due to his counsel, encouragement, and
defence. (See Cabmbutbs.) It was a letter from St.
Peter (14 April, 1562) that encouraged her to found
her first monastery at A\Tla, 24 Aug. of that year. St.
Teresa's autobiography is the source of much of our '
information regarding Peter's life, work, and pfts of
miracles and prophecy.
Perhaps the most remarkable of Peter's graces were
his gift of contemplation and the virtue of penance.
Hai^y less remarkable waa his love of God, which was
at times so ardent aa to cause him, as it did St. PhiUp
Neri, sensible peia, and frequently rapt him into eo-
taay. The poverty he practised wid enforced was aa
cheerful as it was real, and often let the want of even
the necessaries of life be felt. In confirmation of his
virtues and mission of reformation -Xjod worked i
Claadio CiMlla. PiniUnitliek, Munich
ter of I^asencia in 1640 he drew up the Constitutions
of the Stricter Observants, but his severe ideas met
with such opposition that he renounced the ofBce of
provincial and retired with Father John of Avila into
the mountains of Arabida, Portugal, where he joined
Father Martin a Santa Maria in his life of eremitical
solitude. Soon, however, other friars came to join
him, and several little communities were established,
Peter being chosen gnardian and master of novices at
. the convent of Pallds. In 1560 these communities
were erected into the Province of Arabida. Returning
to Spain in 1553 he spent two more years in solitude,
and then journeyed barefoot to Rome, and obtainea
permission of Julius III to found some'poor convents
m Spain under the jurisdiction of the general of the
Conventuala. Convents were establishS at Pedrosa,
Plasencia, and elsewhere; in 1556 they were made a
commissariat, with Peter as superior, and in 1561, a
province under the title of St. Joseph. Not discour-
aged by the opptffiition and ill-euccees his efforts at
reform had met with in St. Gabriel's province, Peter
drew up the constitutions ot the new province with
even greater severity. The reform spread rapidly into
other provinces ot Spain and Portugal.
In 1662 the province of St, Joseph was put under
the jurisdiction of the general of the Observants, and
two new custodies were formed: St. John Baptist's in
Valencia, and St. Simon's in Galicia (see Friars
Minob). Beudea the above-named associates of
1622, and canonized by Clement IX ii
the Conatitutiona of the Stricter Observants and
many letters on spiritual subjects, especially to St.
Teresa, he composed a short treatise on prayer, which
has been translated into all the languages of Europe.
His feast is 19 Oct. (See Pascal Batlon, SAitfr;
Pbter Baptibt, Saint; Japanese Mahtyks,)
Liir, by John or Saht* Mabi*. Min. C*«. AU. Clirm. Pm. S.
Jot., 1. I; uil MiBCHESio [Rome, leeT); Padlo. VOa S. Petri
Ak. (Roitie, 1669); Waddiho, AnnaUi, m. ISSt; Lbo Iapu of
lAi Sai-Ui and Blfied ofUa Tkrct Ordiri 0/ St. Frandi. IV (Tbud-
ton. 1883); Atta SS.. Oct., VIII, 636 sq.
NICHOI.AS Re AG AM.
Fetor of AlesandiiK, Saint, became Bishop of
Alexandria in 300: martyred Nov,, 31 1. According to
Philip ot Sidetes he was at one time head of the fa-
mous catechetical school at Alexandria. His theo-
logical importance lies in the fact that he marked,
very probably initiated, the reaction at Alexandria
agamst extreme Origenism.
When during the Diocletian peraecution Peter left
Alexandria for concealment, the Meletian schism
broke out. There are three different accounts of this
schism: (1) According to three Latin documents
(translations from lost Greek or^als) published by
Maffei, Meletius (or Melitius), Bishop of Lyoopolis,
took advantage of St. Peter's absence to usurp hia
patriarchal functions, and contravened the canons by
consecrating bishops to sees not vacant, their occu-
pants beina; in prison for the Fwth. Four of them re-
monstrated, but Meletius took no heed of them and
actually went to Alexandria, where, at the instigation
of one Isidore, and Anus the future hercsiarch, he set
aside those left in charge by Pet*r and appointed
others. Upon this Peter excommunicated him. (2)
St. Athanasius accuses Meletius not only of turbulent
and Bchismatical conduct, but ot sacrificing, and de-
nouncing Peter to the emperor. There is no incom-
patibility between the Latm documents and St. Atha-
nasius, out the statement that Meletius sacrificed
muat be received with caution; it was probably baaed
upon rumour arising out of the immunity which he ap-
peared to enjoy. At all events nothing was beard
about the ohaii^e at the Council of Nictea. (3) Ac-
cording to St. Epiphanius (Haer., 68), Meletius and St.
Peter quarrelled over the reconciliation of the lapri
(<j. v.), the former inclining to sterner views. Epipha-
nius probably derived his information from a Mele-
tian source, and his story ia full of historical blunders.
Thus, to take one example, Peter is made a tellow-
prisonerofMeletiusandismartyred in prison. Accord-
ing to Eusebius his martyrdom waa unexpected, and
therefore not preceded by a term of imprisonment.
There are extant a collection of fourteen canons
isaued by Peter in the third year ot the pers^tioD
PETER
772
PETEB
dealing chiefly with the lapsi, excerpted probably
from an Easter Festal Epistle. The fact that they
were ratifi^ by the Council of TniUo, and thus be-
came part of the canon law of the Eastern Church,
probably accounts for their preservation. Many MSS.
contain a fifteenth canon taken from writmg on
the Passover. The cases of different kinds of lapsi
were decided upon in these canons.
The Acts of uie martyrdom of St. Peter are too late
to have any historical value. In them is the story of
Christ appearing to St. Peter with His garment
rent, foretelling the Arian schism. Three passages
from "On the Godhead", apparently written against
Ori^en's subordinationist views, were quoted by St.
Cynl at the Council of Ephesus. Two further pas-
sages (in 'Syriac) claiming to be from the same book,
were printed by Pitra in "Analecta Sacra", IV, 188;
their genuineness is doubtful. Leontius of Byzantium
quotes a passage affirming the two Natures of Christ
from a work on "The Coming of Christ", and two
passages from the first book of a treatise against the
view that the soul had existed and sinned before it
was united to the body. This treatise must have been
written against Ori^en. Very important are seven
fragments preserved m Syriac (Pitra, op. cit., IV, 189-
93) from another work on the Resurrection, in which
the identity of the risen with the earthly body is main-
tained agamst Origen.
Five Armenian fragments were also published by
Pitra (op. cit., IV. 430 sq.). Two of these correspond
with one of the aoubtful Syriac fragments. The re-
maining three are probably Monophysite forgeries
(Hamack, "Altchrist. Lit.", 447). A fragment quoted
by the Emperor Justinian in his Letter to the Patri-
arch Mennas, purporting to be taken from a Mysta-
gogia of St. Peter's, is probably spurious (see Routh,
^' Reliq. Sac.", Ill, 372 ; Hamack. op. cit., 448) . The
"Chronicon Paschale" gives a long extract from a
supposed writing of Peter on the Passover. This is
condemned as spurious by a reference to St. Athana-
sius (which editors often suppress) unless, indeed,
the reference is an interpolation. A fragment first
printed by Routh from a Treatise "On Blasphemy"
IS generally regarded as spurious. A Coptic fragment
on the keeping of Sunday, published by Schmidt
(Texte und Untersuchung., IV) has been ruled spuri-
ous by Delehaye, in whose verdict critics seem to
acquiesce. Other Coptic fragments have been edit^
with a translation by Crum in the "Journal of Theo-
logical Studies" (IV, 287 sqq.). Most of these come
from the same manuscript as the fragment edited by
Schmidt. Their editor says: "It would be difficult
to maintain the genuineness of these texts after De-
Ichaye's criticisms (Anal. Bolland., XX, 101), though
certain of the passages which I have published
may indicate interpolated, rather than wholly apoc-
ryphal compositions."
KouTH, Reliq. Sac, III, 31&-72, gives moet of the panacea
attributed to St. Peter. A translation of many of these, as welFaa
of the martyrdom, will be found in Clarke, AnU-Nieene Chrigt.
Libraru, in vol. containing works of Methodius. For the Mele-
tian schism : Hefele, Hist, of Councils, tr. 1 , 34 1 sq. The best edi-
tions of the Canons is Laoaboe, Reliq. Jttris EceUa., 63-73. The
latest edition of the martyrdom is Viteau, Pcanona de» tainU
Eeaterine et Pierre d' Alexandrie, Barbara el Anyaia (Paris, 1897).
See Harnack, AUehrist. Lit., 443-49; and Chronologie, 71-75.
Baroenhewer, GeseJi. d. altkireh. Lit., II, 203 sq. RADroRO,
Three Teachers of Alexandria: TheognoHus, Pierxus and Peter
(Cambridge. 1908). F. J. BaCCHUS.
Peter of Aquila (Scotellus), Friar Minor, the-
ologian and bishop, b. at Aqiula in the Abruzzi,
Italy, towards the end of the thirteenth century; d. at
Trivento, 1361. In 1334 he figures as master of
theology and provincial of his order in Tuscany.
In 1334 he was appointed confessor of Queen Joan
I of Naples and shortly afterwards inquisitor of
Florence. His servants having been punished by
public authority, the inquisitor excommunicated
the priors and placed the town under interdict.
On 12 February. 1347, Peter was named Bishop of S.
Angelo de Lomoardi in Calabria, and on 30 May,
1348, was transferred to Trivento. He was an able
interpreter of Scotus, and was called ".Doctor suffi-
ciens". His chief works are commentaries on the four
books of Sentences, which being a compendium of the
doctrine of Scotus were called "Scoteilum", whence
the author's surname "Scotellus''. The commenta-
ries have passed through various editions, the first
by Peter Drach, at Speier, 1480, and recently by
Paolini (Genoa, 1907-09).
EuBEL, BuUarium Pranciseanum, VI (Rome, 1002). 192. 214;
Analeeta Pranciscana. IV (Quaracchi, 1906), 339. 530; Waooixg.
AnnaUs Minorum, ad a. 1343, n. 35; ad a. 1346, nn, 4, 5; Ii>km.
Seriptores Ond. Min. (Rome, 1806), 187; Sbaralxa, SuvpUm, ad
Script. Ord. Min. (Rome, 1806), 583; Maszucheljj, Gliserittori
tT Italia, II (Brescia, 1753), 902-3; Cappeluctti, Le dUsm
d'ltalia, XX (Venice. 1866), 551. LiVARlUS OuG£B.
Peter of Arbues (correctly, Peter Arbues), Saint,
b. in 1441 (or 1442); d. 17 Sept«, 1485. His fath^,
a nobleman, was Antonio Arbues, and his mother's
name was Sancia RuiE. He studied philosophy, prob-
ably at Huesca, but later went to Bologna, where
in the Spanish college of St. Clement he was regarded
as a model of learning and piety, and was graduated in
theology and law. Returning to Spain he became a
canon regular at Saragossa, where he made his re-
ligious profession in 1474. About that time Ferdinand
and Isabella had obtained from Sixtus IV a Bull to
establish in their kingdom a tribunal for searching out
heretics, and especially Jews who after having received
baptism had relapsed openly or secretlv into Judaism;
these were known as Marranos. The famous Thomas
Torquemada, in 1483, was appointed g^tind inquisi-
tor over Castile and, being acquainted with the learn-
ing and virtue of Peter Arbues, named him inquisi-
tor provincial in the Kingdom of Aragon (1484).
Peter performed the duties with seal and justice.
Although the enemies of the Inquisition accuse him
of cruelty, it is certain that not a single sentence of
death can be traced to him (see Inquisition). The
Marranos, however, whom he had punished hated and
resolved to do away with him. One night while
kneeling in prayer before the altar of Our Lady in the
metropolitan church, where he used to recite the office
with hvs brother canons, they attacked him, and hired
assassins inflicted several wounds from which he died
two days after. He was canonized by Pius IX, in 1867.
BoLLAKDiSTB, Proprium Peatorum Hispanorum; Luzsi, Vita di
S. Pietro de Arbttea Candnieo Regolare (Rome, 1867).
A. Allaria.
Peter of Auvergne, philosopher and theologian;
d. after 1310. He was a canon of Paris; some biog-
raphers have thought that he was Bishop of Clermont
(Gallia Christ., II, 283), because a Bull of Boniface
VIII of the year 1296 names as canon of Paris, Peter
of Croc (Cros), already canon of Clermont (Thomas, in
"Melanges d'arch. et d'hist.", Paris, 1882, II, 117-20):
but it is more likely that they are distinct. Peter of
Auvergne was in Paris in 1301 (Script. Preedicat., I.
489), and, according to several accounts, was a pupil of
Bt. Thomas. In 1279, while the various nations of the
University of Paris were quarrelling about the rector-
ship, Simon of Brion, pajsal legate, appointed Peter of
Auvergne to that office; in 1296 he was elected to it.
His published works are: "Supplementum Com-
mentarii S. Thomse in tertium et quartum librum de
caelo et mundo" (in "Opera S. Thomae", II, adfinem);
coDomentaries on Aristotle's "Meteoronim"; "De
Juventute et senectute"; "De longitudine et brev-
itate vitse''; "De motu animalium . He has been
credited with a supplement to the "Summa'' of St.
Thomas, but there is no scientific warrant for this.
Peter also left numerous treatises which are either at
the Biblioth. Nationale, or at T Arsenal of Paris: "Sex
quodUbeta'V long discussions after the manner of St.
Thomas; "Sophisma Determinatum" ; "Qusostiones
super totam logicam veterem Arifit-"; "Qu^eetiones
773 PETXR
super Per^yrium"; "In Arist. Metaphysicam";
"InlibrosPoliticorum"; **Desonuioet vigilia"; "De
shows that he was only Chancellor of Paris. His
^^ „^*^ , — „ , - - works were published by Dom Mathoud with those of
veKetret plantis"; "De'anima". ' Robert Pullus (Paris, 1855).
-W jinntfsQ Serivt. Minor, (1690), 279; DU Boulat, Hirt. l/h»». Du Boulat, Hist, de Vunivernti de Paris, II; G€Mia Christiana,
de Paris 111 (Paris, 1666), 709; Hist, onL sed. XIV (Paria. VU; BibliotMque latins du moyen Age (Paris, 1769).
1701). 214; Qc^Tir-EcHABD. Scrivt* Prod., I (Paris, 1719), 489; J. LataSTK.
auDii Comm. de script, sed.. Ill (Paris, 1722), 927; Fabwcius.
BUd. med.at., V (Paris, 1736), 711 ;LAjABDiD/rMi.i*tt.de^nc«, Peter of Sebaste, Saint, blshop, b. about 340; d.
XXV (Paris. 1869). 93, 114- ^"kifub C^. C^ntj^P^. I (P™. 391, He belonged to the richly blest family of Basil
lS«^liter22?i7'^ • '"^Z^^^i^iir' and EmmeUa o! C«sarea in clppadocia, f^om which
also sprang St. Macrina the Younger (q. v.) and the
Peter of Bergazno (Albcadura), theologian, date two great Cappadocian doctors, Basil of Cs^area and
of birth unknown; d. at Piacentia, in 1482. He en- Gregory of Nyssa. He was the youngest of a large
tered the Dominican Order in his native town, and f amOy, and Macrina, his eldest sister, exercised a preat
completed his studies at the University of Bolopia, influence over his religious training, actmg as his in-
where he received *his decree. In the Dominican structress in the way of Christian perfection, and
House of Studies he filled the offices of Master of Stu- directing him towards the spiritual and ascetic life,
dents and Bachelor of the Studium. The people of Renouncing the study of the profane sciences, he de-
Piacenza venerated hhn as a saint, and Fr. Leander voted himself to meditation on Holy Writ and the
Alberti states that miracles were wrou^t through his cultivation of the reUgious life. Shortly after his
intercession. His remains were deposited in a crypt brother's elevation to the episcopal See of CsBsarea,
under the high altar of the chapel of St. Thomas. All Peter received from him priestly ordination, but sub-
of his writing that have come down to us deal with sequently. withdrawing from active affairs, resumed
th^ works ofSt. Thomas: "Index universalis in omnia the life ot a solitary ascetic. He assisted his sister
opera D. Th. de Aquino" (Bologna, 1475) and "Con- towards the attainment of her life's object, and aided
tatibus" (Venice, 1497; Rome, 1535). In the edition literary activity, took his stand beside his brothers
of St. Thomas's works published by order of St. Pius Basil and Gregory in their fight against the Arian her-
V all Almadura's indices, etc, appear under the name: esy (Theodoret, "H. E.". IVj xxvii). In his life and
"Tabula aurea exim. doct. Fr. Petri de Bergamo . . . episcopal administration ne dis|>layed the same splen-
in omnes libros, opuscula et commentana D. Th. did characteristics as Basil. Linked together in the
Aquin. . . ." (Rome, 1570). This "Tabula aurea" closest manner with his brothers, he followed their
was republished as vol. XXV of the Parma edition of writings with the greatest interest. At his advice
St. Thomas's works (Parma, 1873). Gregory of Nyssa wrote his great work "Against
QuiTiF and Echabd, Smp«. Ord, Praed.,\ (Pan^ 1719), Eunomius ", in defence of Basil's similarly namedfbook
863: TouRON, Hxst. des hommes iOustres del Ordre dea.Dom„ ^-.—-p-:-.^ A„ nolpmiral work of EunnmiuR It wm
III (Paris. 1746). 529: Albbbti. De tiris %Uus. Ord. Prod. (Bo- wiswermg ine poienucai worK oi r^unomiUB. ix was
loana, 1517) ; Descriuione di tvtia Italia (Boloffua. 1550). also at his desire that Gregory wrote the "Treatise on
D. J. Kenbdy the Work of the Six Days", to defend Basil's similar
Peter of Bruys. See Petrobrusians. treatise against false interpretations and to complete
Peter of Ghent. See Mbxico. ^V J^^,^*^^ ^°^^ ^^ ^5f«^^'«i " ^? *^® ^^^'^^^J
f VW& "* J* 1; a TT of Man", was also written at Peter's suggestion, and
Peter of PiBa, Blessed. See Hibrontmitbb. ^^^ ^ ^J^^ l^^^tcr with an appropriate preface as an
Peter of Poitien, French scholastic theologian, Easter ^ft in 397. We have no detailed information
b. at Poitiers or in its neighbourhood about 1130; d. concemmg lus activity as a bishop, except that he was
in Paris in 1215. He studied at the University of present at the (Ecumenical Council of Constantinople
Paris, where he became professor of theology and lee- m 381. After his death in 391 he was venerated as a
tured for thirty-eight years. In 1169 he succeeded saint. His feast falls on 8-9 January.
Peter Comestor in the chair of scholastic theology. Acfci55.,IJ»n.,588-590;BDTLKB,L»w«o/t*«5a»n<«,1, 9 Jun.;
His lectures were so brilUant as to inspire the enmity ije bibUogruphy under Basil thb Qbbat and Gbboobt or
of Gauthier de St-Victor, one of the bitterest oopo- "^"^ J- ^' Kibsch.
nents of Scholasticism, who ranked him with Gilbert Peter of Verona, Saint, b. at Verona, 1206; d.
de la Porr^, Abelard, and Peter Lombard in the near Milan, 6 April, 1252. His parents were adherents
pamphlet wherein he tries to throw ridicule on the of the Manichsean heresy, which still survived in
fourdoctor8,under the name of the "Four Labyrinths northern Italy in the thirteenth century. Sent to
of France". In 1179 he i)ublished five books of sen- a Catholic school, and later to the University of
tences which are a svnopsis of his lectiircs. His doc- Boloma, he there met St. Dominic, and entered
trine is orthodox, but, though containing no con- the Order of . the Friars Preachers. Such were
denmed proposition, it exhibits more vain subtilty his virtues, severity of life and doctrine, talent for
than real theology based on Holy Scripture. Those preaching, and zeal for the Faith, that Gregory
who accuse Scholasticism of being a mere logomachy iX made him general inquisitor, and his superiors
can find arguments in the writings of Peter of Poitiers, destined him to combat the Manichsean errors.
He wrote commentaries, still unedited, on Exodus. In that capacity he evangelized nearly the whole
Leviticus, Numbers, and the Psalms. A chronological of Italy, preaching in Rome, Florence, Bologna,
and genealogical abridgment of the Bible is attrib- Genoa, and Como. Crowds came to meet mm and fol-
uted to him. but the authorship is uncertain. As lowed him wherever he went; and conversions were
Chancellor of the Church of Paris he displayed great numerous. He never failed to denounce the vices and
seal on behalf of poor students, and to supply their errors of Catholics who confessed the Faith by words,
want of text-books, which were very expensive, he had but in deeds denied it. The Manichseans did all they
a kind of synopsis engraved on the walls of the class- could to compel the inquisitor to cease from preacMng
rooms for their assistance. In 1191 he was appointed against their '3rrors and propaganda. Persecutions,
by Celestine III to settle a dispute between the calumnies, threats, nothing was left untried.
Abbe3rs of St-Eloi and St^Victor. He was a constant When returning from Como to Milan, he met a
correspondent of Celestine III and Innocent III. certainCarino who with some other Manichaeans had
Certain writers erroneously believe that he died plotted to murder him. The assassin struck him with
Bishop of Embrun; the "Gallia Christiana Nova" an axe on the head with such violence, that the holy
PETER'S CHAINS
774
PETKRSPEKCE
man' fell half dead. Rising to his knees he recited the
first aHicle of the Symbol of the Apostles, and offer-
ing his blood as a sacrifice to Gpd, he dipped his fingers
in it and wrote on the grotmd the words: ''Credo in
Deum". The murderer then pierced his heart. The
body was carried to Milan and laid in the church of
St. EustorKio, where a magnificent mausoleum, the
work of Balduccio Pisano, was erected to his memory.
He wrought many miracles when living, but they were
even more numerous after his martyrdom, so that In-
nocent IV canonized him on 25 March, 1253.
Mabcbbbb, Vitaiii S, Pietro Martire (Fiesole. 1894) ; Hinds, X
Gamer of SairUa (London, 1900) ; Pxrrens, St Pierre martyr et
VhMaie dee Patarins d Florence m Rev, Hielor., II (1876), 337-66;
Acta SS, (1678), April, III. 678-86.
A. Allaria.
Peter's Chains, Feast of. See Peter, Saint.
Peterspexice, otherwise known to the Anglo-
Saxons as ''Romfeoh'' or '^Romescof, is the name
traditionally given to an annual contribution or trib-
ute (originally of a penny from each householder
holding land of a certam value) paid to the exchequer
of the Holy See by various peoples of Christendom.
In the Middle Ages this form of contribution seems
almost to have been confined to England and some
few other northern nations, and it was unquestionably
in England that it took its rise. Neglecting some vague
and unreliable traditions which ascribed the origin of
"Romescot" to Ini, King of Wessex, in 727, we are
possibly on firmer ground if we identify the begin-
nings of this contribution with a sum of 365 mancuses
yearly, promised by Ofifa of MerciiL and confirmed
to the pope's legat^ at the Synod of Chelsea in 787.
The promise is mentioned in an extant letter from
Pope Leo III to Kenulf, Otto's successor (Haddan
and Stubbs, "Councils", III, 445, 525; cf. ibid., 538).
It is stated that the money was to be applied to the
relief of the poor and to providing Ugnts for the
churches of Rome, and, rather strangely, nothing is
said of the support of the Anglo-Saxon School
("Schola Saxonum") in the Borgo, which Pcpe Alex-
ander II and later chroniclers closely associated with
the beginnings of Peterspence. A^ain it seems cer-
tain that Ethelwulf after his visit to Rome with
his son Alfred (c. 855) ordered that three hundred
mancuses were to be sent to the Holy See each year
(Asser, ed. Stevenson, 15, 211). Whether this was a
new grant, or a confirmation of the tribute of OfTa,
IB not clear (cf. Liebermann, "Ueber die Leges Ead-
wardi", 55); neither is it certain whether this sum of
300 mancuses was t^ be provided out of the royal
exchequer or collected in pennies from the people.
We onlv know that not long afterwards, during the
reign of Alfred, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle speaks of
the conveyance to Rome of "the donation of the
Wessex foUc and their king" (cf. Chron ^thelwardi,
A. D. 888), and that in the code known as the ** Dooms
of Edward and Guthrum", which no doubt represents
the legislation of Alfred's reign, we find for the first
time explicit mention of "Romfeoh" as a contribu-
tion paid by the people. Under Edmund (941-46),
at a great council of the clergy and laity held in Lon-
don at Easter time, "Romfeoh" was declared to be
one of the dues which must be paid by every man un-
der pain of excommunication, and a later ordinance
imder Ed^^ar speaks of it as the "hearth-penny" and
enjoins with tnreats of heavy penalties that it must
be paid by St. Peter's Massday, i. e. "Lammas", the
feast of St. Peter's Chains (1 August). That the tax
was in fact collected and sent to Rome in coins of
small value, archaeological evidence has proved. In
1883 a hoard of 835 coins was discovered in Rome,
apparently near the site of one pf the old papal
palaces. Almost all these pieces without exception
were Anglo-Saxon silver pennies, 217 of them bearing
the impnnt of King Edward the Elder, and 393 that of
Athelstan, none of them being later than the year 947.
There can be no doubt that this find represents an in-
stalment of Peterspence sent to Rome just as it had
been collected: and the conclusion is confirmed by
some other arcnaeological discoveries of earlier date.
A remarkable letter of King Cnut, written from
Rome in 1027 to his people in England, expresses in
solemn terms his devotion to the Holy See and en-
joins that Peterspence and some other ecclesiafitical
taxes should be paid before his return to England.
"Cnut", says Dr. Jensen, "undoubtedly renewed and
confirmed the donation from England to the papal
court on the occasion of this pil^mage to Rome."
The manner of levying the tax ip. however, imperfectly
understood, for, as Liebermann has shown (E5ig, Hist.
Rev.. 1896, p. 746), M. Fabre is mistaken in supposing
that ne has tound the text of d^ut's agreement in the
" Liber Censuima". In spite of Cnut's good will, con-
siderable negligence about the payment of Peters-
pence continued under the later Ahglo-Saxon kings.
After the Norman Conouest, St. Gregory VII ad-
dressed a formal demana to King WilTiam in 1074.
"Concerning the Peterspence to 1:^ collected in Eng-
land", he wrote, "we charge you to watch over it
as if it were youj own revenue. " After some delays
the Conqueror wrote a conciliatory reply and, while
refusing feudal homage to the papacy as not justified
by any precedent, he formally recognized the claim
to Peterspence and promised that the arrears should
be made up. But though the contribution on the
whole was paid, and though various efforts and ac-
commodations were made by the popes and their
representatives in England, it seems clear that the
collection of Peterspence was at hardly any time
carried out in a way that was sati^actory to the Holy
See. Innocent III on 28 Jan., 1214, wrote Indignantly
to the English bishops that "certain prelates having
collected these pence [denarios] in our name, have
not been ashamed to retain the greater pari for
themselves. They paid us only 300 marks, usurping
for their own use 1000 marks or more" (Potthast,
"Regesta", no. 2635). This language, as Dr. Jensen
forcibly urges, seems inconsistent with the idea of any
formal composition assented to by the Holy See, in
virtue of which the popes agreed to farm the whole
proceeds of Peterspence for a payment of 300 marks.
It seems, however, that this annual payment of a sum
of 300 (or more strictly 299 marks) was the solution
practically arrived at, and we even know the pro-
portions in which this amount was levied upon the
different dioceses of England.
Another point to be noted is that both before and
after the surrender of the kingdom by King John, who
made England the fief of the Holy See (see England).
a certain confusion seems sometimes to have existea
between Peterspence and the feudal tribute, called
in Latin cerwus, which was paid as the price of the
papal protection. The two, however, were really
ouite distinct. In 1317 Edward II acknowledged that
the annual feudal tribute of 1000 marks had not been
paid for twenty-four years, and his agents undertook
solemn engagements to pay off the arrears by instal-
ments. This promise was never fulfilled. Edward III
paid this tribute for a time, but would not accept any
responsibility for any outstanding debts. After 1343
no further payments were made, and in 1366 the tribute
was formally repudiated, and abolished by Parliament.
On the other hand the sum of 300 marks, which was
annually due to the pope as Peterspence^ can be shown
to have been collected and sent at least intermittently
down to Henry VIII's breach with Rome. It was
abolished in 1534, and though temporarily revived
under Mary, it was not found possible at that time to
le\'y it throughout England.
In Sweden, Norway, and Iceland, coimtries whose
religious traditions can be shown in a nftmber of
different ways to have been borrowed from Eng-
land, it seems clear that a contribution of a
L
PSTERSSKN 775 PETER
penny from every household was made not un- ries which belong to Gerlac. Gerlac left his brethren to
willingly. Adrian IV, who before he was made come back to his cell, where, as he said, "somebody
pope had visited Scandinavia and regulated the was waiting for him . It has been maintained that
payment of this tax, desired also, if we may accept the "Imitation" reproduced several ideas and the gen-
the authenticity of the Bull, "Laudabiliter", to ex- eral spirit of Gerlac's ascetic works. In fact, Thomas
tend it to Irel^d. In any case there had no doubt a Kempis inserted into the work, a copy of which he
existed in Rome, from the time of Gregory VII and wrote in 1441. the passage of the "SoUloquies" where
probably earlier, some vague tradition ttiat this pay- Gerlac says that he would feel no pain, if necessary
ment of a denarius per household had been sanctioned for the greater glory of God^ to be in hell for ever,
by Chfirlemagne. But in many parts of the world, This passage is an interpolation, which was soon de-
as,for example, Portugal, the Two Sicilies, Poland, etc., leted from the " Imitation ". The difference between
it is not always easy to distinguish the Peterspence the ascetic theories of Gerlac and those of the author
proper from the feudal tribute shove refeired to, of the "Imitation" are numerous and deep enough to
which was the price of pa^al protection. make any similarities apparent.
The payment of an^hing resembling Peterspence Works: "Breviloquium de accidentiis exterioribus''
seems nowhere to have survived the 3leformation. (before 1403); "De libertatespiritus"; "Soliloquium
But at the time when Pius IX, driven from Rome cum Deo imitum" (Cologne, 1616; Flemish tr., 1623;
by the Revolutionaries, took refuge at Gaeta, the Fr., 1667; It., 1674; Sp., 1686).
(jomte de Montalembert is said to have taken the ,J*£^S?*'r?^^' '^' "'AtY ^^l^^ld^^^
i««^ ;« ^,»».«:.:»» « r««4.u«i:« r««r««,u*.^ ;« i?*«*>^« (1739), 364: Qrabssb. Trisor (1862), III. 68; Paquot, Hut. ItU,
lead m orgamzing a Cathohc Committee m France, )»ay,-Bas, ivill (1770), 3M6. Joseph Dbdibu.
which, working m harmony with the bishops, was even-
tually successnil in collecting a very substantial sub- Peter the Hermit, b. at Amiens about 1050; d.
sidy for the pope under the name of the ''denier de at the monastery of Neufmoutier (Lidge), in 1115.
Saint Herre'^^CDaux, p. 46). Others assign the b^^- His life has been embellished by legend, and he has
nings of the work to a volimtanr contribution organ- been wrongly credited with initiating the movement
ized at Vienna in 1860 by the "Confraternity of St. which resulted in the First Crusade. While the con-.
Michael'' which spread first to Ireland and then to temporary historians mentioned him only as one of
the rest of the worui. Certain it is .that already in the the numerous preachers of the crusade, the later
sixties large amounts were being sent to Rome as chroniclers, Albert of Aix-la-Chapelle and above all
Peterspence from France, Belgium, Germany, Ire- William of Tvre, gave him an all-important r61e. Ac-
land, and many other countries. Since the occupation cording to Albert of Aix Peter having led during some
of Rome W the ItaUan Government and the rejection years the rigorous life of a hermit undertook a pil-
«by Pius I A of the Law of Guarantees, the sums paid grimage to Jerusalem and suffered much at the hands
as Peterspence have become one of the principal sources of the Turks. One day when he was asleep in the
of income of the Holy See. Accurate statistics are Basilica of the Holy Sepulchre, Our Lord appeared to
wanting, but it was stated in 1866 that the total him and ordered him to ask for credentials from the
receipts under this one head amounted to about Patriarch of Jerusalem and to go to Europe pro-
£360,000 ($1,800,000) annually. At one time after claiming the miseries which had befidlen the Chris-
the occupation of Rome something near £800,000 tians of the Orient. Peter obtained the patriarchal
($4,000,000) is said to have been sent to Rome as letters and sou^t Urban II, who, moved by his re-
Peterspence in one year; but these figures have very cital^ame to preach the crusade at Clermont ("His-
much fallen off of late owing to the persecution of tor. nierosol.'C I, 2). According to William ot Tyre
the Church in France and the severe strain now made (I, II), it was oi his own accord that Peter went to nnd
upon the resources of Catholics in that country. For the pope. The pilgrimage of Peter is mentioned by
the most part the contributions made under tms head Anna Comnena (Alexiad, X, 8), who, bom in 1083,
are sent to Rome through the bishops, but in the could know nothing of this history except through
collection of funds the most important part of the tradition; she relates, however, that he could not get
work is done by various "Peterspence Associations'', as far as Jerusalem, and that^ resolved to undert&e
that of St. Michael and that of ^* Le Denier de Saint a second pilgrimage, he conceived the idea of preach-
Pierre" being the best known. The members of these ing a crusade in order to be able to go to the Holy
organizations pledge themselves to make some very Sepulchre attended by a goodly company. It is evi-
small minimum contribution; they solicit the sub- dently absurd to ascribe the Crusades to such an in-
scription of others; and they unite in certain exercises significant cause. Because of the silence of contem-
of piety, which are richly indulgenced. poraries and the later contradictory accounts, even
NiL"4SL.Wi^;r'i??^Sr7;l{^ (^ral^SfS?^ jl-UiS!; «>? («>* of the pUgnmage of Peter is doubtful, wlule
Der enolUch« Peter$p/ennig und d%9 Lehnateuer atu England uni 1* ^ impossible tO asSlgn tO him the rOle Of promoter Of
Irland (Heidelberg, 1903) ; Fabbb, Le " Liber Centuum " de VBglUe the crUSade. The merit of this belongs SOiely tO Pope
'^t^^tl T^i. hT?Zj^/::Z''<£-LtH^::^'^ urban II (see Cbusades). Writers iSe Albert of Aix
eng. Krone in Zeiuchrifi /. Sociaigesch. (1896), 459 sq.; Liebeb- Wished to depnve the pope 01 tnis nonour m order to
MANN in EnglMh Historical Review (1896); Daux, Le Denier de attribute it tO the asceticS SO popular at that time in
Saint Pierre (Paris, 1907); HsBOENRdTHER in Kirefienlex., I, 77; FnmnA Tf \a aKonlnf olv n<»rf snn that it wjw onlv aft^r
LiNOARD. History of England; Idem. Antiquities of the An^flo^ li}^^JS^- m >« ^5??*"^®*^ ^^H'^^^,;'!?'^ " ^^ ° ^ j x
Saxon Church, Hbrbert Thubb'ton. ^"® Councu of Clcrmont that Peter commenced to
preach the crusade.
Petenuien, Gerlac (Gerlacus Petri), b. at De- In March, 1096, he led one of the numerous bands
venter, 1377 or 1378; d. 18 Nov.. 1411. He entered going to the East; his enthusiastic eloquence is de-
the Institution of the Brethren ot Common Life, and scribed by the chroniclers. He arrived with his army
devoted his time to calligraphy, transcription of at Constantinople 1 Au^ist, 1096.^ After a toilsome
manuscripts, education, and prayer. He became con- march as far as Nicomema Peter pitched his camp at
nected with manv illustrious contemplative men, e. g. ' Civitot and seeing his army without resources re-
John Ruysbroeck; Florent Rade^mi; Henry Kalkar: turned to Constantinople to solicit help from the
Gerard of Zutphen ; Thomas and John a Kempis, and Emperor Alexius. During his absence, the crusaders.
John Vofl of Huyden. When Radewyn founded a commanded by Walter the Penniless, were massacrea
monasterv of regular canons at Windejheim, in 1386, by the Turks near Nicsea (Oct.. 1096). Peter as-
Gerlac fouowed him, and remained there till 1403 as a sembled the remnants of his band and in May^ 1097,
simple clerk; he had no other employment than that joined the army of Godfrey of Bouillon near Nicome-
of a sexton. He has been called another Kempis, and dia. After this he had but an unimportant part. In
several critics have asc^bed to Kempis words or theo- Jan., 1098, at the siege of Antioch, he even attempted
N
PETXR 776 PBTIT-DIDIBB
to desert the army, but was prevented by Tancred. the thirteenth century. There is a i^cotd of but one
In spile of this cowardice he was one of the envoys bishop, Pius, present at the Council of Chaloedon, 451
sent to Kerbilga. On his return to Europe he founded (Le Quien, " Oriens christianus *\ I, 493) . The exact
the monastery of Neufmoutier. See Cbusadbs. name and position of the city, which diffen greatly
lyOuLTiaMAif . La tui du VMrabU «err« ^Srmite (Mons. according to varfous documents, is not known. Rann
1612), repimtod (Clermont, 189fi), gives the traditional point of __„ / a J« x/i:^^^ ootn --. j^* *** "^V* ^"'i''**** «■»"»-
Tiew; Haobkmktks. PeUr der Sremiu (Leipiig. 1879), Fr. tr., ^ay (Asia Minor, 227), mentions the place as near
UwnietU faux $ur Pierre VSrmUe (Paria, 1870) ; Kusth. Pittf the Site of Pin Begh Or a little tO the east of it
VBrmiU (Lidce, 1892); Donnkt, PUrrt VHermiU H la famiiU a t!1^1\
LhermiU d^Anvera (Antwerp, 1803). LouiS BB^imSR.
S.
P«tor the Venerable, Abbot of Clunt. See J**I*' "^"^^ ^" ^*™^>- ^ee John Pabvub.
MoNTBOissiEB, Pbteb OF, Blbssbd. Petit-Didler, Matthibu, Benedictine theologian
Peter nrseolus (Obsbolo), Saint, b. at Rivo «id ecclesiastical hist^
alto, Province of Udina. 028 : d. at Cuxa, 10 January, f ^'^ ^ ^"^«' iliP^^^A ^5^?' ^' ** Senpnea,
987 (W7 is less probable). Sprung from the wealthy ^J^^ T^^^' u^^- • ^^ studying at the Jesuit.
and noble Venetian fanuly, the OrseoU, Peter led from ^^.^« ** ^ancy he jomed the Benedictine Congre-
his youth an earnest Christian life. In the service of gfiS?!,.^; t '^SSf'u"^ ^^^^' ** .the monastery of
the repubUc, he distmguished hunself m naval battles ^Cl?™^! a Ju t ^^ ^^ /SSPi^*®^ professor of
against thepirates. In 946 he married a noble Vene- Sfc^PK^* f®?!^®'* In leWhewascanomcallr
San lady, P^Ucitas; a son of this marriage, who bore ^^>^?^ °^ ^'^'Jj"®'A''* could not take
the same name as his father, also becaiii Doge of B?®^^^° because ^e Duke of Lorraine had givok
Venice (991-1009) On 11 Auk 976 the Doge Hetro , ® aooey »n commauiam to nis own brother. He waa
Candiano fell a vi'ctim to a oSilspiricy, whcSe mem- !L^M,^J'^^ ^ISf"'!?^ ^ ^^l^i! ^"^^ 5?* poesessiott
lun ^n^P^tmai himafif. 2py.«ter a lengthy dispute with another claimant.
iflregation in 1723
III appointed him
ibS?°'Sr^hSd ho^ " 0^%\Z^C ^ opportune " Traltii eu^l'iutoriint'riSibiBS
tello
was for-
Parliamoits of
tow«[rdB his native land that hi allowed himaeB to be f "™. ?T„5*1ifA'*T'''!?iK*i^i'°***rJ*2^ ^J^
prevaaed upon to accept the office. The tradition JlfSi,..™ iw sft^^^Li^f"'^ ^"^'..R^^'
fecoided byPeter DanSan (Vita 8. Romualdi, V, in fwS^"^^^'/*,?,gr°*2i*'*' in Migne, "Cunws
P. L., CXLIV, 960), that Peter had taken part in *?*?]•• ^ *^ }^Z}i^iJP^ T?* ?25*^**^
the cinapiracy and ttat his kter retirement from the CrS^.^Jll.PpP!', IT^ ^*%'°***',f « '^
worid wi!^ due to his dedre to expiate therefor, ia with- ?L**?„ J^i*?^^'' 1 *^* ^T^ 9^^ L"^ 1?®^
out foundation. As one might expect from his per- 5^ }P"^jAX .^ "S »EBf"*n* '«>" «»« ,C«»-
«.nal piety, the new doge LJSZn^f a .J^ ^Si^.,l^^!S?HK. j5 '^^^T^.l^^^^^.
pouuoB «» penwiiB uijunsu i^y «ic im, ju«x ». muiiiar gu, goninfaiifibifit*" (Luxemburg. 1724). in which the
sum to the poor. He renewed the treaty with Capo- °n+^- j^ftit. j. tif-. ^!^^!Ztu!rI Af^A ^""■f T°
distria, andWeeded in averting from the republic fv^^iriilf r^t»»S.VSr^™w^iJ» t ^
the veigeanoe of Candiano's family, especially of his Council of Constance ooncemmg the supenonty of a
Trife wCdl, nie^ of Empress AJ^^and^his Z ^T^fT^^^ ^nS^I«Sn^f^S^«^ '
Vitalis, PatriaAih of Grado. About this tiine, through ^„^L^jf^^,^'^^^^Z^^J^;^^:
the induence of Abbot Guarinus of Cuxa (a Benely ?}^I^^^^'^J.^^J,f^^}T^&^J^^
lan and
»ort »
PonVik-
y
a sami was approvea oy ^"«,f ™T "^^Pf;, V\ V.^^ 1698, and taught beUefr-lettres, philosophy, miiirj^
Clement Xir ratified this cult, and appomted 14 Jan- ^^ ^^ StrasbSrg from 1694 to 1701, i^/ t^Ml J^
"1ZBf..^;/A3f i5. <.d»ni. .. B«^i^^^ Pont^Mousson from 1704 to im Ah^ f^ghe
tfuca hagiooraphica lalina, II. 086; Tolba. St Pierre OrMiolo became the spiritual director of Duch^M Fjisabeth-
g>»m, 1897) : Schuxd, D. Af. PHrtu Oraeolo, Doffe von Venedigu. Charlotte of Lorraine. A few years laAwr ^le returned
erudieHHer, in Sttidien und Mtttedungen aua dem Bened. u. C»^ x xi^^ TasiiU Koiioa of fiftint^NiftnlAA wl» v i-ZTT
tertietiMerarden (1901). 71 tq.. 261 w.; Kbbtbchmat, <7«c*. von Yl ^ ''^^ ???. *J.P*^S- ^'^ ^»^ ePB he spent
Vmedig, I (Gotha. 1905). 115 sq.. 438 aq. J. p. KiBSCH. *"« remainder of his hfe. His chief Works are: ''De
Justitia, jure et legibus" (Pont-^hFiouason 1704):
Petineuus (Prrmsus), titular see in Galatia Se- ''Remarques sur la th^ologie 4ta R. p. Gasputi
cunda (Salutaris). This city is mentioned by Strabo, Juenin" (1708), a refutation of Uip Jansenistic errors
XII, 567; Ptolemy, V, 4, 10; Hierocles, "Synecde- of Juenin; "Les Saints enkvor^ et r«stitues auz
mus", 697, 7, and Stephanus Byzantius, s. v. Ac- Jesuites" (Luxemburg, 173SV; concerning Saints
cording to the first of these authors it was situated in Francis Xavier and John PVanr i^ Regis; ''Tnut6 de la
Theodosius between 386 and 395, and existing as late as usitds en Lorraine et Bfjrois'V (Nancy, 1745). a ca-
777.
K
nonical treatise: "Sancti Patris I^atii de Loyola ex- if^plation of which belongs to the Gongreraition of
ercitia spirituaha tertio probatioms anno per mensem B&es. Hence petitions for the solution of litur^cal
a Patribus Societatis Jesu obeunda" (Prague, 1755; difficulties should be sent to the latter Congregation;
Paris, 1889). - vetitions, e. g., for a private oratory, reservation of the
Zi^amvBAuwM, fiittoria rei liumiia o. s B. (Augf^ru, Blessed Sacrament, non-fasting communion, etc., to
li\^^S-^t^;^:£ii^'llL^'S^SS!>^^^^^^ '*efo™«^ The 6ongregation of the CouncU deab
BoMMKBvoaBL, Bibl. d* la Compagni* de Ji^ut, lY (Bruneb. With petitions relating to the commandments of the
1805), 624-7. Michael Ott. Church, ecclesiastical discipline, confraternities, and
Petite bliae. La. See Namur, Diocese of. *he administration of church prpijerty. All matters
tconcemmg religious, whether mdividuals or communi*
Petitions to the Holy Sw.— I. Mode of Pbti- ^ieg, with one or two exceptions, are in the hands of the
•noNiNQ.— Faculties, indulta, dispensations, and other Owigr. de Religiosis. Finally, all the bumness of
favours, the granting of which is reserved to the Holy those countries which still remain subject to the
See, must be asked by means of a petition in writing Congr, <cff Propaganda, is transacted througii thiH
presented to the so verdm pontiff, regularly through Omgregrtfion, wiSi the exception of the affftfin '<* re-
the medium of one of the Sacred Congregations of the iigious «s subh.
Roman Curia. Under the new constitution of the Ro- ConMhUio Sawienti ConaUio: Normm mmmm«^ d peetdiam
man Curia by Pius X, any privateperson may person- ^A^vaMic^u,h^;p^
ally approacii and petition the rfoiy See But it is g^^SS^STp;^
always well, and often necessary^ to present commend- cnbw Yofk. 1898). B3-«: Qab^abk. D« matnmonio, i (Paris,
atory letters of the petitioner's ordinary, as in the case nrew)^m. ;*^ 2^: ?5 ;??*2f^ PlJS^nl^AifrJ::^:^
of f^dties, disp^tions, and such like. It ^ ato 'S£!!SS^^^^^:'i^^^^^
frequently fMivisiable to make use of an agent m Rome,
who can attend to the matter personally. For this Tetra, titularrmetropolitan see of Palaestma Tertia.
purpose any trustworthy man may be chosen, pro- finder the name of Sela (the rock) this region is de-
vided he be acceptable to the Sacred Congregation scribed in Abdias <i, 3 sqq.) as an eagle's nest on the
with which he has to treat. (Cf. Const., ' Sapienti mountain top. tt is also referred to in Isaias (xlii,
Consilio", Normae communes, c. ix.) 11)^ IV KingB ^v. 7), and II Par. (xxv, 11). In the
11. Form and Contents of m PETOnoN.--Tlie two last^menlioned passages it is related that towards
petition should be written on a double sheet of white the end 'df tin ninth centuiy b. c. Amasias, King of
paper of the foolscap or large quarto size: and the Jerusiflen^. Tanquished the Edomites, captured &la,
text should pass, if its length renders this neces- and cast from "the steep of a rotk" 10,000 captives,
sary, from the first to tjie second page, and so on, vho w«re dashed to pieces. He then called Sela
as in a printed book, no intermediate paro being Ioqteel(Jectehel), of which there is no trace in history,
left blank. The official languages of the Cuna are if these Biblical texts really relate to Petra, others m
still Latin, Italian, and French: but documents m i^diich there is mention of Sela refer to other localities.
that petitions sent by episcopal cunae and by ecde- ©f danj^r the chieftains fled with their treasures and
siastics in general, and those that have reference to dwelt m the caverns as in houses,
the sacraments, should be written in the Church's When tiie Rock was spoken of in 312 b.c. by Diodorus
official language, Latin. The petition should be ad- Siculus (XIX, W-100), it was no longer mhabited by
dressed to the pope himself, and should therefore be- Edomites, who had been crowded into Southern Palefr-
fn with the words " Beatisshne Pater" (Most Holy tine, but by Arabian merchants, the Nabataeans or the
ather). The petitioner should then give his full Nabajothof theBible(Gen.,xxv,13:xxviii.9;xxxvi.3;
name, place of residence, and diocese. (These are la., be, 7). It is difficult to determme when they be-
omitted in petitions to the Sacred Penitentiary.) Next san to occupy the region. When conquered by Asur-
should follow a clear and concise statement of the fa- banipal (640 b. c), the Nabaitu were a powerful North-
vour desired, the reasons for the petition, and all the Arabian tribe which had fous^t its way as far as the
information necessary to enable the Holy See to arrive countries of Edom, Moab, and Ammon. In the f ourUi
at its decision. The omission of materud facts or the century b. c. the Nabateeans were masters of the
conmussion of substantial errors in the petition ma^r country and served as commercial intermediaries be-
in vdidate the dispensation or indult grtmted. Thus,' tween Arabia and Egypt, and between Arabia and
petitions for matrimonial dispensations must express: Syria. The wealth secured in Petra attracted the
(1) the Christian names and surnames of the petition- covetousness of Athenes, general of Antigonus (312
ers; (2) the diocese of ori^ or actual domicile; (3) the b. c). He took it by surprise in the absence of the
exact nature of the impediment : (4) the degree of con- men, who on their reUim surprised the (Ireeks, massa-
san^uinity, affinity^ etc.j (5) the number of the im- cred them, and sent presents to Antigoitus that they
pediments; (6) vanous circumstances (Instruction of might be free to continue their commerce. A sec-
8. Congr. of Propaganda. 9 May, 1877). The petition ond attempt, made by Demetrius, son of Antigonus,
should not be concluded in the form of a letter, but was equally unsuccessful (Diod. Sic. XIX, 04-100).
frith the abbreviated formula "Et Deus, etc." or There was then formed a Nabataean kmgdom oC whielb
"Quare,etc." At the foot of the petition the address of Petra was the capital and which extended from Arabiai
the person to whom the reply is to be sent (if it is not to Felix to Hauran. The first known king- was Aretas
Ibe transmitted through an agent) should be written. I (II Mach., v, 8). The follbwinr,. accoidihg to M.
III. Destination of vaiuqub Petitions. — All Dussandin the"JoiiDiaIAffiatique'"(Parii9, 1904, pp.
petitions in matrimonial cases are dealt with by the 189-338), is the Ibt of knowm sovereijms: Aretas I
•Congr. de disdplina Sacramentorum, except those (169 b. c); Aoeta^ II' (110-96); Obod&sni (about 90):
that nave to do with the internal forum (i. e., confer- Rabel I (about 87); Aretas III (8T-62);: Obodas II
sional and occult cases), which go to the Sacred Peni- (about 62M7)^ Malichus I (about 47-30)vObodas III
tentiary, and those into which the impediment mixUg (30-9); Aretas lY (9 b. c.-a. d. 40); Maliohus II (40-
re{i^umi« or dwporitatM cuZtiM enters, which fall under 75); Rabel II (75-101}; Malichus III (101-106).
the jurisdiction of the Holy Office. The Congr. cfe* Ai«tas III gave Petra its Grseco-Roman character,
disciplina Sacramentorum has dkarge, too. of all else- From his rd^ and that of Aretas IV date most of the
connected with the sacraments and the Mass, witi beautiful bmldings still preserved. Petra> was defi-
the exception of their rites ^ «»d qercoijjimes, tliii f^tel^jr ao^c^^ftlto thABPAMaEmeicaiaA^D. 106 by
778
raTBABCH
1
ConieliuB Falnu, lieutentuit of Trajan. From it was
formed the Province of Arabia, "redact* in form&m
prDvincite Arabia", as Trajan's eign-poeta read, ex-
tending from Boetra in Hauran to the Red Sea. In
295 the province was divided into Arabia Augusta
IJbgnenEiB on the north, with Bostra as metropolis,
and Arabia on the south, with Pctnk as metropolis.
Twelve years later Southern Arabia was united with
the Province of Palestine Ifl be again detached in the
second half of the fourth century (between SSS and
390), and to conatitut* thenceforth Pahestina Tertia
or PaUeetina Salutaris. with Petra as metropolis.
The custom arose of calling it Arabia Petra^a, because
of the city of Petra, and not with the implication that
' the re^on was rocky, for it is rather fertile. Aft«r
a visit from the Emperor Hadrian Petra took the sur-
name of Hadriana, found on the coins and on some
InscriFttiona.
Christianity was introduced into Petr& doubtless at
an eajiy date, for in the time of Strabo, who has de-
scribed the country
(XIV. iv, 21 sq.),
Greek and Latin
merchants flocked
thither. Among its
' bishops Le Quien
(Oriens Christ., Ill,
721-8) mentions
St. Asterius, whose
feast is celebrated
on 20 June, one of
the defenders of
the Council of Ni-
csa and St. Athan-
asius; his contem-
porary Germanus,
Srobably an Arian;
ohn (457); Theo-
dore (536), biog-
raphc
with a variety of colours, and as the light is dai«liny,
this city of the dead presents the appearance of a ven-
tabie fairy-land, the like of which is not to be sea
elsewhere in the world. Recently the high place and
the site of the altar of sacrifice have be«n discovered.
When the late Archbishop of New York, Michad
Augustine Corrigan, was ooadjutor to Cardinal Mc-
Cloekey, his titular see was that of Petra.
Labosde. Votaet dant VAralyit Pttrtl (Pmta. 1830-34): Wiv
•OB. TTi* Landt oj Ihe BibU, I (Edinburgh) 291-3M: St.hut.
SinaiandPiJiMint (London, isao). ST-9S; P.lhkb. ThtDtMrrttl
Kxwfu. II (London, 1S71); Libbii. Tht Jfdan Vallm and Pun
(Nan York. 1005) : LnTBU, famvi d'ti^tloTalion d la Mrr UmU
etc. {Pani. I8T1), 274; Buhl, GucA- drrSdamilrr (Leiptif. tK93l:
l»H):M'jni^ Arabia Prtrml, II (Vienna. 19071: [itmiK. FOr*
Sinai, MaAn. PHra (Puil, 19M)': R*r.«""B.wi^f "llsW^ 1K«:
1902; 1903)1 Kkboobut, SiUt lUlaui^ d'Oricnl (Puii. ll)ll).
01-iM- 8. Vailh*.
Petrarch, Francesco, Italian poet and humanist,
b. at Areico, 20 July, 1304 ; d. at Arquit, 19 July.
1374. HLi father.
Theodoi
I the
ch the
Cenobitc; Atheno-
eenes. a relative of
the Emperor Mau-
rice (end of the
Hxthccnturj'). An
inscription indicates likewise a bishop by the name
of Jason (probably fifth century). The Diocese of
Petra in Palestine, mentioned by Le Quien (ibid., Ill,
663-70), who relied on a faulty text of St. AthanasiuB,
never existed. In the time of John Moachus (seventh
century) Petra was a flourishing monastic centre, but
the decUne of the city was even then far advanced, be-
cause the direction of commerce had changed and
the prosperity of Palmyra had injured that of Petra.
When the Franks took poswHsion of the country in
the twelfth century and founded their Trans-Jordanic
principality. they catablished somewhat prior to 1116 a
Stronghold called "Li Vaujt Moysc", a translation of
the Arabic name Ouadi-Moussa, the ruins of which
have been discovered near the village of El-Dji. It was
captured by the Arabs, first in 1144 and definitively
in 1 188. The l.iitin archdiocese, called Petra Deserti,
which was mtiibliKhed by the cru!;ad<>rs in 1168, must
not be confuM'd with our Petra; the former is Charac-
Moba, the ancient capital of the Moabitea, now El-
Kcrac (Le Quien, ibid.. Ill, 1305; Du Cange, Lea
families d'Outre-mer, Paris, 1859, p. 755; Eubel,
Hierarchia catholica medii icvi, I, 418).
Petra, now Oua<ii-Mou(wa, is completely mined.
Of the Gncco-Ronian city there remain, besides the
theatre hewn from the rock, only shapelcBs ruina; but
the tombs dug in the sides of the mountain surrounding
tie city are one of the wondcrsof the world. There arc
morethan3000, of different periods. Archirology, it is
true, regards some of them as temples. As the red
sandstone from which the tombs are hewn is veined
whi
adopted as his co^
nomen, chanpng it
to Petrarca) came-
of a family belong-
ing originally to Ihe
region of the \ti-
damo, but already
settled for some-
time at Florence.
There Ser Petracco-
acted as clerk of
one of the courts-
of justice, but
with other White-
Guelphs he wm-
banished in 1302,.
and went to Areuo.
Francescola earii-
apent chiefly at In- -
cisa in the ances-
tral district of the'
Valdamo. In 1310 his father transferred their
abode to Pisa, whence the family went to Avignon
in France, which had been for about six years the'
papal residence. Between 1315 and 1319 the lad'
was trwned at Carpentras under the tutelage of
the Italian Convenevole da Prato. His father in--
tended him for the legal profession, and sent him for
the neccHsary studies to Montpcllier (1319-23) and
ta Boloana (1323-5). Francesco disliked the career
chosen for him, and devoted himself as much as pos-
sible to belles-lettres, thereby so incensing his father
that, upon one occasion, the latter burned a number
of his favourite ancient authors. When Ser Petraceo
died in 1323, Francesco returned to Avignon and took
minor orders, which permitted him to enjoy church
benefices and only bound him to the daily reading of
hia Office. He entered rather freely int« the gay and
fashionable life at Avignon, and there on Good ftiday
(1327) he saw for the fii^ time Laura, the ladv wIhi
was to be the inspiration of his most famous woHl. In
spite of what he himself sa>-s as to his first encounter
with Lauraj_many persons have doubted her real
existence. The majority of critica, however, heUeve
that ^e was truly a lady in the flesh, and some iden-
tify her with a certain Laura, the wife of Hugues de
Rude (d. 1348). There would seem to be Uttle chance
for romance in such an attachment, yet the weight of
authority is in favour of' regarding it as a f^enuine one
productive of true and poignant emotion m Petrarch,
however Platonic it may have remained.
About 1S30 the poet b^^an a period of rcsUeiB
779
PITRABCH
, ^_ ita solitaria": the "De ocio reli^cMomm",
and Ihrou^ Germ&nyj record- jiraiaing monastic life, etc.; some "Fsalnu pceniteo-
ing his observations and experiences in nis letters, tiales" and some prayers; a number of historical and
Back at Avignon for a while, and now invested geographical works, among which figure the "Reninii
with a canonical benefice, he set forth for Italy, memorandarum libri quattuor" and the "De viris
1336, in tbe company of some members of the illustribuB",treatinf(of illustrious men from Romulus
' - m.. . !.. .- (especially the "In-
Colonna family, with which he h&d been closely down to Tiius
allied for some time past, and
in January, 1337, he entered
Rome for the fiist time. By
the end of the year he appears
to have settled in Vaucluse,
and there he found the peace
and the inspiration that pro-
duced so manyof his best lyrics.
Accepting an invitation to go
to Rome on Easter Sunday.
1341, he was publicly orownea
as poet and historian in the
Capitol. For a number of
years hp wandered about from
one It^ian city to another,
seeking the, codices that pre-
served the pricelesH literary
works of antiquity (he certainly
discovered works of Cicero and
parts of the "Institutionea"
of Quintihan), and occasion-
ally occupying clerical posts.
He formed a friendship with
Cola di Rienii, and in 1347
saluted him in verse as tbe
. restorer of the order of the an-
cient Roman Republic. A
friendship of greater impor-
tance was that which he now contracted with Boc-
caccio, who, Uke himself, desired to promote human-
Pklntiog
Fhincuoo Pktbabcb
vectiva in Galium , assailing
the French); a few orations;
and finally his very many let-
ters, which cover the whole
oouise of his life from 1325 to
the cnd^ and one of the most
interestmg of which is the
"Epiatola ad poateros", writ-
ten after 1370, and furnishing
an autobiography of conudei^
able importance. A Latin
oomedy, " Philologia", has not
yet been discovered.
In spite of the magnitude of
Petrarch' a composition in Latin
and the stress which he put
upon it himself, his abi(ung
fame is based upon his Italian
verse, and this forms two nota-
ble compilations, the "Trionfi"
and the "Cansoniere ". The
"Trionfi " , written in terta rima,
and making large use of the
vision already put to so good
stead by Dante, is allegorical
and moral in its nature. In the
"Trionfi" we have a triumphal
procession in which there take
leading all^orical fibres: Love, Chastity,
'eatb. Fame, Time, and Divinity. Chastity triumphs
eI Cwtkcno
istic studies and researches. Refusing an ofier to a»- over its preaecessor, and filial^ Divinity triumphs
mimo the rectorship of the Florentine Studio (or Uni- over them all and remains supreme, as the symbol
ty) just eetablished, he resumed liis peregrina- of peace,. eternal life, and the everlasting '
tions, spending a good part of the time
accompanied there
for a while by Boc-
caccio and by Leo
Pilatus, from whom
both he and Boc-
caccio had hoped to
Knowledge of Greek
and its literature.
The transfer of the
pontifical Court back
to Rome in 1367
filled him with un-
bounded joy.
As a scholar, Pe-
trarch possessed
encyclopedic knowl-
edge, and much of
this he has set down
in hia Latin works,
wluch constitute the
larger part of his pro-
duction in both prose
and verse. They in-
3,Bnd the poet with his beloved Laura. The"Caniioniere",
the poet's master-
piece, and one of the
imperishable monu-
ments of the world's
literature, was fiiist
put in to snape by the
author andmade
known by him under
the title of "Rerum
vulgarium frag-
menta . It conosts
of sonnets (and these
ous) of amioni, of
tesline, of baltaU, and
of madrigals. The
love motive prevails
in the majority of
these, but political
and patriotic feeling
regulates some ^
the most famous of
them, and still othera
are infused with
moral and other
Some lyrics bearing apparent relations
to the "Canioniere", but excluded by the poet from
elude the "Africa
in hexametera, dealina with the Second Punic war and sentiments. Some lyrics bearini
eopecially with the adventures of Scipio Afrieanus, in to the "Canioniere , but exclud__ „
pseudo-epic fashion and in a way which hardly elicits ita final make-up, have been publiahed under the
our admiration, although the author deemed it his title of "Extravaganti". In the strictly amorous
greatest work; the "Carmen bucolicum" I^|'■^= "" "f ■.«-)■ ^t »i — "/-< : — n ri_. 1 .■_ >>. , .
twelve eclogues; the "Epistolcc mctricfc
books of hexameters, interesting for tbe autobioc
ical matter which they contain; several moral trea- School, particularly reflects the spirit
tises, such as the " De contemptu mundi ". which con- Pistoia. But all is not imitation on the part of his
siflta of three dialcwues between the author and St. Muse: his inner man is expressed in even greater de-
Au^tine, both of th^m in the preseqce of Tnjth; the gree tban the literary formalism which he owed to bla
780
predecessors of the thirteenth and the early fourteenth by itself, no serious fault has yet been proved against
century. Still it must be admitted that the very re- him. IT we cannot yet confidently acquit him of all
finement of his verse-form and the constant repetition blame, that is chiefly because first-hand evidence is
of emotions, that vary but slightly one from the other, very aeficient; but the nearer we eet to first-hand evi-
tendinevitably to palfupon us. The " Canzoniere " and dence, the better does Petre's conduct appear. Before
the "Trionfi" begot for Petrarch legions of followers in James's accession (6 Feb., 1685) he had shown good,
Italy, and Petrarchism, as' the imitation of his manner but not extraordinary, virtue and ability, and was then
was termed, continued down into the Renaissance, vice-provincial of his order. James soon made him
growing less according as the numberless disciples took clerk of the closet, but without any political power,
to imitating one another rather than the master On 9 Oct. Hie king wrote to ask the pope to make him
directly^ until Bembo started a propaganda in favour a bishop in partibus, and the pope refused (24 Nov.,
of copying only the original model. 1685). The first application made little or no stir; it
Mamand, Bibu^eca Petrarchesca (Milan^826) ; Hortoi. Cata- did not even reach the ear of the general of the Jesuits
Petrarehe»ca(BM8Bno, 1887) ; Fimb, Handlitt of Petrarch idSiorw *H* ^'^^ P<>P« *Olp ^ of it, 22 May, 1686. At that
inthePlorefUiMPubi%cLibraru9iF\onnce,i8S6);D'AvcoitAxsj> time Lord Castlemame, having arrived in Rome as
Bacci, ManuaU deUa letteratura itaiiana, t (Florence. 1896). Of James's ambassador, had renewed the appUcation.
the Latin works the Africa has been pubhshed cntioally by -_l;i« t«««^ ,...,wv^ :♦ /^^:ui.. ^~ hm^ jr/jj ^^
CoBBADiNi (Padua. 1874); the Poetnatd minora by RosBirrn ^*"^e JamOI urged it forcibly on MM-. d'Adda, the
(Milan. 1829-34); and many of the Episiola bv Fracabsbttx papal nuncio m London (28 June). But if the pope
(Florence, 1859^; It. tr. Florence. 1863-67). There have been was rightly inunovablc, the king was characteristically
many editions of the Italian lyncs; a notable one is that of Cab- r^Kof ;*»«♦« **««"^v^*»o».*«»**j
Ducci and Fcbbari (Florence, 1899). All the leading accounts ODSunaw. ,^^^^. ^
of Italian literary history deal fully with Petrareh — see among Next year (1687) Castlemame renewed the petition
critic* (Naples. 1890) ;BARTou.StoriodeaaZ«<.ttoi..VlI (Florence, f"^ ^Marcli). James backed up the apphcation by
1884); \oiQT, Die WiederbeMmng dea dasnaehenAUerthum* (2iid letters of 16 June and 24 »^«pt., and now requested
ed.. Berlin 1880), and Npi^Ac.PHrarque ^'J^^jnaniame (Paris, that Petre be made a cardinal: but the pope (16 Auic..
1892). treat of his humanistic endeavours. See further: MAsiiiRBS. oo xt^ n a j-i r j » "**" ""^ k^i^ v*" -t^^lj-f
PHraroue (Paris. 1867); Koebtino. Petraroae L^ben und Werke -« JNOV.) Steadily refused, buch urgency waa certam
(Leipzig. 1878). J, D. M. FoRD. ^ he attributed to Petre's ambition, and the general
. of the order wrote pressingly (22 Nov., 20 Dec., and 10
Petre» Family of. — ^The Petres are one of those Jan., 1688) for explanations. James himself now
staunch and constant families, which have played a sent letters in Petrels defence to pope and general
great part in the preservation of the Catholic Faith (22 Dec.), while the provincial and Petre also wrote,
in Eneland. There is no volume of the '' Catholic setting forth all they had done to persuade James to
Record Societv" (London) which does not contain desist. All these letters are unfortunately lost, ex-
references to tneir name, sometimes by scores; GiUow cept those from the king. We know, however, that
gives biographies of fifteen, Kirk of ten; the Jesuits they completely vindicated Petre's character in the
count twelve in their order, and there are eighteen in eyes of the pope and of the general. A further cause
the current '* Catholic Who's Who " (London). of irritation, however, had b^n given by the admission
The fortunes of the Petres were, oddly enou^ built of Petre to the rank of privy councillor (11 Nov.,
up on the ruins of the monasteries. Sir William 1687) .andthe oath of allegiance taken on that occasion,
Petre, with the pliability of his age, held the confiden- though not objected to in the case of the other Catho-
tial post of secretanr of State through 'the revolu- he lords, was much commented upon, and laid before
tionary changes of Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary, the pope. But a better understanding now prevailed
and Elizabeth. His later years were probably more at Rome, and the incident dropped,
orthodox; his widow, the patroness of the martyr.. In England, on the other hand, after his nomination
Blessed John Payne (q. v.), was certainly a loyal as privy councillor, the popular charges against him
Catholic. His son,.John, was created a baron by James became more insulting tnaii ever, and reached their
I, and with his grandson WiUiam (d. 1637) Cathol- height in the insinuations made about the birth of the
icism, which had not hitherto been professed by the prince (James Francis Stuart). Though Uie worst
heads of the house, was publicly^ acknowledged, of these charges stand self-refuted, it is to be re^^etted
William, fourth Lord, who had distinguished himself that want of documents prevents our defending the
in the civil wars, died a martyr's death in the tower of father against others, though the presumptions are
London, 5 Jan., 1684, accused of compUcity in Oates's generally in his favour. If, as it is said, he persuaded
Plot. Robert Edward, the ninth Baron (1742-1801), James to dismiss the Countess of Dorchester (Mrs.
Slayed a leading part in the struggles for Catholic Sedley), he may be said to have deserved his place at
Smancipation. He was, however, though a practical. Court. If James had taken his advice and staved on at
and on the whole a good. Catholic, tainted by some ot Westminster, the fortunes of his house would proba-
t^e Liberalistic ideas then prevalent, and failed as bly have ended differently. Like evervone in James's
chairman of the Catholic Committee in the loyalty entourage, Petre at first believed in Sunderland, but
due to the bishops. He was also reputed to have been he was also among the first to detect that minister's
Grand Master of the Freemasons. But Masonry had du|)licity, and to break with him. Setting aside
not then been censured with the clearness with which prejudiced witnesses (and it will be remembered that
it has been condemned since. William Joseph (b. there was a party against him, even among Cathohcs),
1847; d. 1893), a domestic prelate, and thirteenth and studying those in sympathy with the Jesuit, we
Baron, devoted many years to CathoUc liberid edu- seem to perceive in him a steadfast, kind-heiuled
cation, founding and maintaining a school at Wobum English priest, devoting himself with energy to the
Park (1877-84) and defended his theories of educa- opportunities tor spiritual good that opened out before
tion in several pamphlets. The family has also pro- him. With little gift for politics, nor payins much
duced two bishops, Francis (b. 1692 ; d. 1775) and heed to them, he was nevertheless severely blamed
Benjamin (b. 1672; d. 1758), who were respectively when things went wrong. He was also regardless,
coadjutors of Bishop Dicconson in the Northern Dis- almost callous, as to what was said about him by
trict and of Dr. ChaUoner in the Southern. friend or foe.
Sir Edward Petre, Baronet, S.J., and privy Howahd and Burm, Ge»«iZo(K^
councillor (1631-99), fills more space in history^lhan ^^^^fo^^jf^^^/^M^
any of his family, OWmg to the multiplicity of attacks Idbm, Baronetage, II. 247; Folbt, Reeorde of the Bnglieh Proeince
made upon him as a chaplain and adviser of James II. ?- -^ (^°5?P' ISl^hJ^ •^^ Y^^^J^^.^^^ Jeauitenf<a>an (Fmbuix
r>»^-»>« ..«*«r«».«l»^4^«» «- o T<>^t,;f nr«. ««> »»^«4- 4.U-* u ^^ Bf., 1891), 170 (the*article Ptire u omitted m later editions) :
Petre S unpopularity as a Jesuit was so great that it LoKOBiiWB, QuiU m innocence of Father Petre in The Month (Sep..
harmed the king's cause; but if we regard his conduct isse to March. 1887). Tranaoripta of the diapatohee of the
nBTEOBftteiAKS 781 ntsomtLLA
BUddo d'Adda are lit thflfiritbh Mtiaetim (Add. MeIS.. 1^ nitta Mart, (yf). That the painting was done shortly
etc.) and at the Record Office. The K>^all^ fft>^ to **♦"« ^ Aff^- oca ;• «i.i^<»<,^ K,r <»r« ;«i»«.*:»f;^.« f^»»^ ;« ♦u'L
CAai.. IB clearly fictitioue. J. hTPoLLbh. T^u ^l f® Pf«ved by an inscription found in the
- tomb. It 18 thus clearly established that Petronilla
PotrobruBlaaB, heretics of the twelfth century so ^^ venerated at Rome as a martyr in the fourth
named from their founder Peter of Bruys. Our infor* Century, and the testimony must be accepted as cel>
tnation concerning him is derived from the treatise of tamly historical, notwithstanding the later legend
Peter the Vener^le against the Petrobrusians and Which recogniaes her only as a virgin (see below),
from a passage in Abelard. Peter was born perhaps at Another known, but unfortutiately no longer extant,
Bruis in South-eastern France. The history of his memorial was the marble swcophagus which cott-
early life is unknown, but it is certain that he Was ft Jwned her remains, tmder Paul I (q. v.; 767-65) trans-
priest who had been deprived of his charge, fie began l^^^d to St« Peters. In the accoimt of this in the
his ptopaganda in the Dioceses of Embrun^ Die, and " Li^er Pontificalis " (ed. Duchesne, 1, 466) the mscnp-
Gap,ptobably between 1117 and 1120. Twenty years tion carved on the itorcophag^ is given thus: Aurece
later the populace of St. Gilles near Ntmes, exasper- PeifantUa Filuf DvlcunmcB lo{ the golden Petronilla,
ated by his burning of crosses, cast him into the ^^ sweetest daughter). We learn, however, from
flames. The bishops of the above-mentioned dioceses extant sixteenth-century notices concerning this sar-
suppressed the heresy within their jurisdiction, but it cpphapis that the first word was A ur. (AurdicB) bo
gained adherents at Narbonne, Toulouse, and in Ga*- ^^^ ^^ martyr's name was Aurelia Petronilla. The
cony. Henry of Lausanne, a former Cluniac monk, second name comes from Petro or Petronius, and, as
adopted the Petrobrusians' teaching about 1 135 and ^f name of the great-gran<^ather of the Christian con-
spread it in a modified form after its author's death. ?u^» Flavius Clemens, was Titus Flavius Petronius, it
Peter of Bruys admitted the doctrinal authority of the ^s very possible that Petronilla wm a relative of the
Gospels in their Uteral interpretation; the other New- Christian Flavii, who were descended from the sena-
Testament writings he probably considered value- tonal family of the Aurehi. This theory would also
less, as of doubtful ApostoUc ongin. To the New- explain why Petronilla was buned m the catacomb of
Testament Eptetles hp assigned only a subordinate the Fla^an Domitilla. Like the latter. Petromlla may
place as not coming from Jesus Christ Himself. He re- ^ave suffered dunng the persecution of Domitian, pei>
[ected the Old Testament as well as the authority of haps not till later. , _x ,
the Fathers and of the Churclv His contempt for the , In the foiulh-centuiy Roman catelogue of martyrs'
Church extended to the clergy, and physical violence leasts, which is used m the "Martyrologium Hiero-
was preached and exercised against priests and monks, nymianum , her name seems not to have been m-
In his system baptism is indeed a necessary condition serted. It occurs m the latter martvrology (De Rossi-
for salvation, but it is baptism preceded by personal Duchesne, "Mart^^ol. Hieronym.'S 69), but only as
faith, so that its admmistration to infants is worthless. » later addition. Her nwne is given under 31 May
The Mass and the Eucharist are rejected because Jesus ??« ^be Martyrologies of Bede and his imitators adopt
Christ gave His flesh and blood but once to His disci- the same date (Quentrn, " Les martyrologes histpr-
pies, and repetition is impossible. All external forms iQues , Pans, 19(», 51 . 363 etc.) . The absence of her
of worship, cCTemonies and chant, are condemned. As name from the fourth-century Roman calendw^^
the Church consists not in walls, but in the community leasts sutgests that Petronilla died at the end of the
Nogoodworksof thelivingcanprt^tthedead. Crosses, Jbose of Sts. Nereus and Achilleus m the fourth cen-
as the instniment of the death of Christ, cannot de- Jury, her cult extended widely and her name was
serve veneration ; hence they were for the Petrobrusians therefore admitted later into the martvrology. A
objects of desecration and were destroyed in bonfires, legend, the existence of which m the sixth century is
Pbtsr thb Venbrablb. BpUtoia nvc radatu* advertuM petro- PTOvea by its preseuQC m the list Of the tomos of the
hrunanot haretieot in P. L., CLXXXIX, 71^-850; Abblabd, Roman martyrs prepared by Abbot John at the end of
kt.1^%i>^iS&:^iJ^: 'liX!i-k ?^$rSi;JlS'5> t^s century tDe Rbssi, "Roma sotteminea" I, 180),
Church History, tr. CAPPADBiyrA, I (St. Louis. 1910), 364-6. regards Petronilla as a real daughter of St. Peter. In
N. A. Weber. the Gnostic apocrsrphal Acts of St. Peter, dating from
the second century, a dau^ter of St. Peter is men-
Potronillav Saint, virgin, probably martyred at tioned, although her name is not given (Schmid, "Ein
Rome at the end of the first century. Almost all the voriren&ische gnostisches Originsdwerk in koptischer
sixth- and seventh-century lists of the tombs of the Sprache'' in '^itzungsber. der Berliner Akademie",
Petrol
near Sts.
terranea' , , , ....
pletely confirmed by the excavations in the Catacomb Rome with this supposed daughter of St. Peter, prob-
of Domitilla. One topographv of the ^aves of the ably because of her name and the great antiquity of
Roman martvrs, ''Epitome libri de locis sanctorum her tomb. As such, but now as a virgin, not as a
martyrum". locates on the Via Ardeatina a church of martyr, she appears in the legendarv Acts of the
St. Petronilla, in which Sts. Nereus and Achilleus, as martyrs Sts. Nereus and Achilleus and in the ''Liber
well as Petronilla, were buried (De Rossi, loc. cit.. Pontificalis" Qoc. cit.). From this legend of St.
180). This church, built into the above-mentioned Nereus and Achilleus a similar notice was admitted
catacomb, has been discovered, and the memorials into the historical martvrologies of the' Middle Ages
found in it removed all doubt that the tombs of the and thence into the modem Roman Martyrology. In
three saints were once venenitttd there (De Rossi in 757 th^ jcofifp. containing the mortal remains of the
"Bullettino di areheol. crist.^^, 1874; a%y 5 sqq.). A saint was transferred to an old circular building (iem
painting, in which Petronilla is represented as receiv- imperial mausoleum dating from the end of the fourth
mg a deceased person (named Veneranda) into heaven, century) near St. Peter's. This building was altered
was discovered on the closing stone of a tomb in an and became the Chapel of St. Petronilla (De Rossi,
underground crypt behind the apse of the basilica "Inscriptioneschristian^eurbisRomse", II, 225). The
(Wilpert, "Die Malereien der Katakomben Roms", saint suosequently appears as the special patroness of
Freiburg, 1903, plate 213; De Rossi, ibid., 1875, 5 the treaties concluded between the popes and the
sqq.). Beside the saint's picture is her name: Petro- Prankish emperors. At the rebuilding of St. Peter's in
raTEONIUS
782
FETRTTCOI
the nxteenth century, St. Petronilja'e remains were resumed and the glorious It&Iior -Gothic chuidi
translated to an altar (stiU dedicated to her) in the coinf>leted as it stands to-day. The feaet of St. Petro-
■"'"' ' 'b celebrated on 4 October.
: SS., 11, Oct.. 4M mil.; "' ....
Peironia (BoIoidb, 17S4); Boll
905-6; MoBiH, Deuz prfiU due
FUrm
no, Bibi. Ado. lal..
. _ ■• d"mi Ittirut Ptirai
- (1SB7). 1 WQ,; r..f...
■arliiilariktr IMQliaUr, ISBS), M ■
It BoiOffna netia K
a € TS3a'u
I. &■
upper end of the right side-aisle (near the cupola).
Her feast foils on 31 May.
D> RoHi. Stpolcra di S. PttroniOa nitla batUica in ns Ar-
detuina I nia trailaiisju al Valicano in BvUtUino di arcX. crial.
118781, 12S nq. 118701, 5 M.; Ddii»», La Franc* H tai-Ut Pt-
trmilU in Annaltt de St. LoiM dtt Franfait (ISW). 517 wi.;
OsBAIN, Bin Marlvroloffixrn drr ehritll. Omuindi lu Bom (Leip-
Bi. 1901). Ifi3; DtFFOuBcq, £« Owla Uartvrwn ronuitu, I
(Pirii, ItWO), Zfil aq.
J. P. KlRBCB.
FotToniui, Saint, Bishop of Bologna, date of ^ .^^ ^.^.—'^ u. ^uu u<p ^.^^.^uu »i>.u c<r<:im n
birth unknown; d. before 450. The only certain his- Feb., 1896. The see founded by Leo XIII, 21 May,
torical information we poseesa *""" ■ •'' ■' ' ■
eoneeming him is derivol from
a letter written by Bishop Eu-
eberius of Lyons (d. 450-5) to
Valerianus (in P. L.. ' ■"'
sgtj.) and from Gennadi
. illustribus", XLI (ed.
Ciapla, MUnater, 18fl8, p. 94).
EucneriuB writea that the holy
Bishop PetroniuB was then re-
nowned in Italy for bis virtuea.
From Gennadius we receive
more detailed information:
PetroniuB belonged to a noble
family whose members occupied
higji positions at the imperial
Court at Milan and in the pro-
vincial administrations at the
end of the fourth ana the be-
ginning of the fifth centuries.
His father (also named Petro-
nius) was probably prw/eetiit
pralorio, since a Fctroniua filled
this office in Gaul in 402-8.
EucheriuB seems to suggest (P.
L., L, 71S) that the future
bishop also held an important
secular position. Even in his
youth Petronius devoted him-
aelf to the practices of aaceti-
osm, and seems to have visited
the Holy Places in Jerusalem,
perhaps on a pilgrimage. About
432 he was elected and conse-
crated Bishop of Bologna, where
he erected a church to St.
Stephen, the building scheme
of which was in imitation of the
shrines on Golgotha and over the
Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem.
The buildings belong; approxi-
mately to the period when Leo
I had basilicas erected in Rome
and Galla Placidia in Ravenna. <''bi
Petronius is believed to have
written a work on the life of the Egypti
(Vitie patrum ^^pti moDachorum); t..^ „ ..j^^ .„, j. „ —- ■---,, .
of this work, however, is Rufinus of Aquileia. The b. at Fossombrone near Uriiino, Italy, 18 June, 1466;
treatise "De ordinatione episconi", bearing the d, there, 7 May, 1539. In 1498 he secured from the
nameof Petronius as author, is by tne elder Petronius, City Council of Venice a twenty sreara' patent for
who was a man of eloquence and wide acquaintance the exploitation of his invention. Beginning in 1501,
with the secular sciences. Morin has published a he continued his publications for ten years at Venice,
sennon entitled "In die ordinationia vel Natale epis- after whieh he turned his establishment over to
oopi" (Hevueb^nMictine, 1897. 3 aq.), which Genca- Amadeo Scotti and Niccoli da Rafael. He att«-
dius ascribes to Bishop Petronius of Verona, whom wards secured from the papal authorities a nltecD
Cialpa holds is Petronius of Elologna, but this assign- years' privilegeor license forthe Papal States. From
ment is not certain. According to Gennadius, Petro- 1513 to 1.^23 he operated a music-printing eatabhsh-
niufl died during the reign of Emperor Theodosius and ment in his native city, Fossombrone.
Valentinian, i. e., before 450. In the twelfth century Until 1901 Petrucci was considered as the pioneo-
appeared a legendary life of the saint, whose relics in the use of the movable metal type for the printing
were discovered in 1141. Shortly afterwards a church of lituriocal books, but Dom Rafael Molitor, in his
was erected in his honour at Elologna; a second, " Nachtridentinische Choralreform" (Ijcipiig, 1901,
planned on a large scale, was begun in 1390, and built I, 94>. demonstrates that it was Ulric Han or Hahn,
.ae far as the cross-aiale. In 1659 the building was a native of Ingolstadt, residing at Rome, who
_. , at Nictheroy, and trans-
ferred to Petropolis 11 Feb.,
1895, was retranaf erred to
Nictheroy in 1908. The city
of Petropolis was founded by
the Emperor of Braiil in 1S45,
as a colony for German immi-
grants and named in honour of
Dom Pedro; it is a deUghlful
summer resort. In 1894 it was
made the capital of the State
of Rio de Janeiro. Nictheroy
is situated oMhe Bay of Rio de
Janeiro. Iii 1834, when the
city of Rio de Janeiro was
formed into a "muuicipio neu-
tro" and separated from the
rest of the s^te, Nictheroy be-
came the capital of the prov-
ince and remained so until
1894. The first bishop, Fran-
9ois de Rogo Maia, b. at Per-
nambuco, 29 Sept., 1849, was
elected m Sept., 1893. The
second bish^, Jean - Francois
Bra^ b. at Pelotas, Diocese of
St. Pierre de Rio Grande, 24
Aug., 1867, cone. 24 Aug.,
1902; transferred to the Se« of
Curityba, 1907. The present
bishop, Augustin-Frangois Ben-
nassi, b, at Rio de Janeiro, 17
Nov., 1868, was elected 13
March, 1908, and eons. 10 Miy
following. Statistics: area, 15,-
648 square miles; Cathohcpopu-
lation, 1,000,300 (Protestants,
about 9000); 123 parishes, 100
filial churches or chapels, 89 sec-
ular and 35 regular priests, 3 col-
^ooJ ol Miobelugolo
monks Petnicei, Ottavio nEi, inventor of movable metal
author type for printing mensural and polyphonic muoc,
in ted
783
PfiTftlTS
the 'first Misstil lA metal type notes in 1476. Petrucci's
great advance consisted in the triple process (i. e.,
first the text and initials, then the lines, and lastly the
notes) and the wonderful neatness and perfection with
which the printing was done, so that lus publications
have not only survived but have been unequaSed by
any of his successors. They were surpassed in duh
tinctness only by a perfected engraving process of the
eighteenth century. His work was of the greatest
importance for the dissemination and preservation of
the polyphonic compositions of his tune, especially
those of the Netherlands mastery. Ih the libraries of
Bologna, Treviso, the Paris Conservatoire, Venice,
Vienna, Berlin, Munich, collections are preserved con-
'taining froUoUf chansons, motets, and masses 1^ con-
teniporary masters, such as Josquin Depr^s, Ha^^e,
fde Orto, Qbrecht, La Rue. Busnois, Compare, Ghis-
fclin, Agricola, Isskac, Okegnem, Tinctoris, and a host
<of others, many of whom would probably have been
altogether forgotten but for these remarkable prints,
now four hundred years old.
RisifAKN. Q—ehichU der Mtuik; II (Lelpiic. 1007), i: Idsm,
MunkUxikon (Leipnc. 1005); Moxjtob. NaehtriderUinUAe Cho-
TaSr^form, I (Leipnc, 1901) ; Mkndsi^ MtuHUexUum, VIII (Leip-
sic. 1877).
JoszpH Otten.
Potnu a Tarentasia. See Knnocbnt V, Blessed,
Pope.
Petrus AlfonsuB, converted Jew and controver-
sialist, b. at Huesca, in the fonr^er Kingdom of Aragon,
1062; d. IlIO. Previous to Ms conversion he was
known as Moses Sephardi (tht? Spaniard). King Al-
fonso I of Aragon, whose phvsician-in -ordinary he
became, stood sponsor at his baptism, which he re-
ceived in his native town on St. Peter's day (29 June,
1106). In honour of this saint and of his sponsor he
chose the name Petrus Alfonsius. As his conversion
was attributed by his former co -religiomsts to i^orance
or dishonourable motives, he publislied a justifica-
tion in a Latin work consisting of twelve dialogues be-
tween a Jew and a Christian. Thes^ diaJogues were
first printed at Cologne in 1536, and have since fre-
quently been re-edited. A second work of Petrus
Alfonsus, based on Arabic sources, is entitled ''Eccle-
siastical Discipline '* (Disciplina Clerii'»Hs). It has
been translated into several languages and is pre-
served in numerous manuscripts. Labooderie, Vicar-
General of Avignon, publisltied it at Paris in 1824 with
a French translation of the fifteenth centitry. Another
edition by F. W. V. Schmidt appeared at Berlin in
1827. The text of both works of Petnis Alfonsus,
Preceded by biographical notices, may be found in
ligne, CLVII, 527-706.
Cbillieb, AuUurs eccUttiast., XIV (Pwris, 1803), i, 170-73;
KoBtTT in Jewish Bneyel., I, 377; Doncs iri Bohn'.» Awitiq. IMfr.t
: X (London. 1&48). 39-44.
: N. A. 1 Wbbbb.
Petma AureolL See Aureoli. (
'^ Petrus Bemardinus, Florentine heretic, b. at
Florence about 1475; d. 1502. His parents were com-
mon folk, and he himself lacked all higher education.
But he attached himself with fanatical zeal to Savona-
rola, and, by diligent attendance at his sfinnons and
zealous study of his writings, acquired a wide but
superficial theological knowleoge. Peter preached to
the people in the public squares of Florence azHi, during
the lifetime of Savonarola and after his death, he
propagated secretly eccentric a^ad revolutionary doc-
trines. According to him, th& Church must be re-
newed with the sword; until fAda was accomplished,
there was no need to confess, isnce all priests, secular
and regular, were unworthy. According to the Floren-
tine chronicler, C^erretani, al>out twenty adherents of
Savonarola formed a secret fiociiety and elected Peter
pope. The latter, who was then Uwenty-five years old.
assumed special ecclesiastic/ a1 functions and anointed
his followers with oil (the .'iUefidd anointtimeat lOf the
Holy Ghost). The members attended no Divine S6>
vice, but during their meetings prayed in spirit under
the leadership of Peter, whom they regarded as a
Erophet. The association was discovered by the arch-
ishop and at his request the Council of Florence
proscribed its meetings. In 1502 the members left the
town secretly and proceeded to Mirandola where
Count Gian Francesco, a zealous supporter of Savona*
rola, gave them a friendly reception. When,, a little
later, the count was besieged by two of his brothers,
who claimed Mirandola^ Peter declai^ it God's will
that Gian Francesco should overcome his enemies.
However, Mirandola was taken and the count lost his
territory in August, 1502. The sectaries faQing into
the hands of the victors, Peter and some of his com^
panions were burned as heretics; the remainder were
expelled or dispatched to Florence. The attempts of
Protestant historians to stamp Peter as a forerunner
of the Reformation cannot be historically justified.
Pabtob. Hi$tory of <A« PopeB, tr. Aivtbobub, V (St. Louis,
1002). 214-16.
J. P.'KlBSCB.
Potnu DiaeonuBt the name of several men of note
in ecclesiastical history and literature.
(1) One of the Scythian monks who appeared in 519
before Pope Hormisdas in connexion with the Theo-
paschite controversy. He wrote concerning; this
Question his treatise ''De incamatione et gratia", at
tne same time directed against the teaching of Faustua
of Riez respecting j^race and addressed to St. Ful-
gentius of Kuspe; m P. L., LXII, 83-92; Barden-
hewer, tr. Shahan, "Patrology", 648, 1908. (St.
Louis).
(2) A disciple and friend of Gregory the Great; d.
at Rome 12 March, 605 or 606. His questioning oc-
casioned the composition of Gregory's "Dialogues".
He is also authority for the statement that the Holy
Spirit sometimes hovered in the form of a dove over
the great pope's head.
Ada S5., Maroh, II. 208-9 ; Maxtk, IAvm of the Pop—, I (St.
Louis, 1902). i. 243-44.
(3) A monk of Monte Cassino known also as Petrus
Subdiaconus; d. c. 960. He was subdeacon of the
church of St. Januarius at Naples, and he continued
the history of this diocese (Gesta episc. Neap.), an
anonymous work which had already been added io by
John the Deacon. He wrote the lives of several
sainte, including, according to some critics, that of
Athanasius, Bi&op of Naples ("Vita et translatio
Athanasii ep. Nettp.").
(4) Another monk of Monte Cassino, also called
''the Librarian" (BibUothecarius), b..c. 1107 at Rome:
d. probably c. 1140. A descendant of the Counts of
Tusculum, he was offered in 1115 to the monastery
of Monte Cassino. About 1 127 he was forced to leave
the abbey and retired to the neighbouring Atina,
seemingly because he was an adherent of the Ab-
bot Oderisius. In 1137 he was allowed to return to
Monte Cassino. That same year he appeared before
Emperor Lothair II, then in Italy, on behalf of his
monastery. The sovereign was so pleased with him
that he appointed him his chaplain and secretary, and
would proDf^ly have attached him permanently to
his person had not Abbot Wibald considered Peter's
return necessarv to the abbey. At Monte Cassino
Peter became librarian and keeper of the archives, of
which he compiled a register. Besides continuing the
chronicle of Monte Cassino by Leo Marsicanus (or
Ostiensis) from 1075 to 1138, he wrote several histori-
cal works: ''De viris illustribusCasinensibus"; "De
ortu et obitu justorum Casinensium''; "De Locis
Sanctis"; "Disciplina Casinensis"; "Rhythmus de
novissimis diebus . Peter forged, under the name of
Gordian, the Passion of €t. Placidus. He is vain and
occasionally untruthful, but an entertaining writer.
His works are in P. L., CLXXIII, 763^1144.
i
nTBVS
784
ramNOEB
p. Im CLXXin. 462-80: BaUanx. Early Cl^ronUttriofEwrm,
tUAi (London, 1883). 174-80; Mann, Uvm ofth$ i>pM, VII (St.
LdA. mO). 218. ^^ ^ ^
N. A. WSBSR.
Petnu do Natalilras, bishop, author of a collec-
tion of lives of the saints; date of birth unknown; d.
between 14(X) and 1406. No details of the early life
of this hagiographer have been handed down to us.
A Venetian, he consecrated himself to the ecclesiasti-
cal state, becoming a canon in Equilio (Jesolo). On
5 July, 1370, he was elevated to the episcopal see of
that city. Details are also lacking regarding his pas-
toral activity. The last mention of him refers to the
year 1400, and in 1406. another appears as Bishop of
Equilio; the date of his decease, tnerefore, must be
set between these two years (Eubel, "Hierardiia
catholica medii sevi ", I, 250). He is chiefly known as
the author of " Legends of the Saints " in twelve books,
a very valuable work with a wide circulation. In his
arrangement of the various lives he follows the calen-
dar of the Church. The collection, first printed in
Vicensa, 1493, went through many editions, the last
of which (the eighth) app^ured in Venice, 1616.
Pabbicius, Bib2ftofAeoa madwv el ir^ma atatu, ed. Manh, V, 93;
PoTTHAflT, BMiathsoa hittoriea medtt am, 2nd ed., II, 018.
J. P. KiBSCH.
Potma da Paludo. Se& Paludantjs.
rvtnu JuU«nl. See John XXI, Pom. tmVntw, Coniub, antiquarian and humamrt,
Potun Nation, one of the three great divisions of b. at Augsburg, 14 Oct., 1465; d. 28 Dec., 1547. Asa
the Huron Indians, the other two being the Hurons young man he studied law and faNelles-lettres at Padu%
proper and the Neutrals. What was common to the Bologna, and Florence. At Rome his enthuaiasm for
three in name, country, population, government, re- antiquity was av^ened. Returning to Germany he
hgion, history, etc., previous to their dispersion by the - entered the service of his native city m 1490, receiving
Iroquois, is to be found under the heading of Hubon the definite appointment of sjyndic in 1497. To the
Indians. In that article the fate of the Neutrals after end of his life he served the citv in various capacities
the disastrous event and the miction of the Hurons and always with distinction. He enjoved the friend-
? roper were treated in full. Seeing that the Petun or ship and special confidence of the ^i^peror Maid-
'obacco Nation, as soon as their scattered remnants miuan, who frequently employed him on missions of
and not from a faulty Latin translation* He ac-
cepted on condition that Mailer go with him: On ac-
count of the master's death the pupil went alone to
complete the work.
Peuerbach is also noted for his great attempt to
reconcile the opposing theories of the universe, the
so-called homocentric spheres of Eudoxus and Aris-
totle, with Ptolemy's epicycUc trains. This work,
'^Theoricse, etc.", had an enormous success and re-
mained the basis of academic instruction in astronomy
until years after Copernicus had swept away all these
hypotheses. Twenty works are known. Among these
the following are the most important: "Theories
novie planetarum, id est s^tem errantium siderum
nee non octavi seu firmamenti" (1st ed., Nuremberg,
1460, followed by man^ others in Milan and Ingol-
stadt); "Sex primi Ubn epitomatis Almaftesti", com-
Sleted by Regiomontanus (Venice, 1496; B&sle, 1534;
Furemberg, 1550); ''Tabul® edypsium super meri*
diano Viennensi " (2nd ed., Vienna, 1514) ; " Quadratum
geometricum meridiano" (Nuremberg, 1516); ''Nova
tabula sinus de decem minutis in decern per multas^
etc.", completed by Regiomontanus (Nuremberg,
1541).
FniDLBB, Peuerbach vnd Begiomontanua in JakreaberidU du K,
KathoL Gymn. tu LeabechOU, L (1870); Wolt, Geaek. d. A&lr,
(Munich. 1877); Qumtbbr, AUg, DeuUeke Biogr., XXV (Leipng,
1887), 650. William Fox.
had gradually drifted together, became known to the
Bnghsh colonists as the Dionondadies or Wyandots,
which latter name they bear exclusively at the
present day, what concerns their migrations in the
a diplomatic or literary nature. Through this friend-
ship Peutinger obtained for Augsburg valuable priv^
ileges, notably' in 1506 while he stayed with Maxi-
milian in Vienna and Hungary, where he took a lead-
West has been collected under the article Wtanbot ing part in the negotiations between the emperor and
Indians. his rebellious Hungarian subjects. In 1512 he acted
Abthttk Edward Jones. as intermediary between the emperor and the Repub-*
lie of Venice. Moreover, through his connexions ¥nth-
Pouerbaeh (also Pburbach, Purbach, Purbach- influential men in Germany, as well as in Italy and
iub), George von, Austrian astronomer, b. at Peuer^ France, Peutinger was able to procure for his imperial
bach near Lins, 30 May, 1423; d. in Vienna. 8 April, friend much valuable information concerning current
1461. His real family name, as well as nis early events. He was frequently occupied with furthering
schooling, is unknown. About the year 1440 he re- the literary and artistic plans of nis patron; thus he
ceived the degree of master of philosophy and the free
arts, cum inHgni lavdcy at the University of Vienna.
His teacher in mathematics was probably Johann von
GmUnden. In 1448 he went on a trip to Italy for the
siJlc of study. There Bianchini of Ferrara and Cardi-
nal Nicholas of (Dusa, then in Rome, became interested
in the young man and induced him to lecture on as-
tronomv at the University of Ferrara. He refused
offers of professorships at Bologna and Padua, and also
the appomtment as court astronomer to King Ladislaus
of Hungary, but went back to Vienna in 1450 to teach.
He lectured on philologv and classical literature. His
scientific teaching was done chiefly in private, his most
famous pupil bem^ Johann MUller of K6nigsberg,
had much to do with arranging for the designs and
wood-cuts used in the sumptueus editions of Maxi-
milian's poems " Weisskunig and '' Teurdank ". After
the deatn of Maximilian (1519) Peutinger continued
to serve under Charies V. He represented his native
city at the Diet of Worms (1521). Towards Luther
his attitude was at first entirely sjrmpathetic, but he
refused to break with the Church, and maintained a
conservative attitude which made him an object oC
distrust to the adherents of jthe Reformation. At the
Diet of Augsburg (1530) he presented the protest in
the name of the city against the imperial decree, but
when, in 1534, It was proposed to carry out the relinous
innovations without regard to the desires of the Cath-
later known as Regiomontanus. Peuerbach has been olic clergy, Peutinger advised against it, putting his
called the father of observational and mathematical trust in a plenary council to restore the lost Choi^
astronomy in the West. He began to work up Ptolemy's unity. His ndvice was not heeded, and so he retired
'' Almagest ", replacing chords by sines, and calculat- with a pensii^.and henceforth devoted himself almost
ing tables of sines for every minute of arc for a radius exclusively td his studies. In 1538 Jie was^made a
of 600,000 units. This was the first transition from patrician, and a few days before j^i^ deatl^^^e was
the duodecimal to the decimal system. His observa- eimobled. ^^
tions were made with very simple instruments, an ordi- Of his literary work only a part has been published,
nary plumb-hne being used for measuring the angles In Augsburg he had collected a rich store of ancient
of elevation of the stars. Cardinal Bessarion invited Roman inscriptions, the historical value of which he
him to Rome to study Ptolemy in the original Greek had learned to realise while a student in Italy. At the
■^
PETTO 785 PrANMEB
sngntUon of Masiniilian these were published in 1606 f '*r#«« '*«««»-*6MrtMai (London. 172«): 1^d», C««rtk Bt»
S^the title "Roman« vetustato fi«§menta in g^J^SrilF'^SSrJSSTSiSJi^ilir^/f'^
Augusta VindellCOniinet ejus dlCBOeSl'' (2nd ed., 1520, Bngliah MmuuterUa (London. 1888)^ Oaikditui in Did, Nai.
Mains). In the "Sermonee oonvivales de finibus BiotfMmting8tatepape».butoth«iTO;»nto
Germani® oontiu GaUoe" which i;o€8 under Peu- S^XSSJi (L^XI Wolj^H^
tinger's name, the ancient boundanes of Gaul and don, loio).
Gennany are discussed. Peutinger also published Edwin Bxtbton.
many important sources for German history, among ^^ ,-v « v-x • u on i:^ u t^ioo
them the history of the Goths by Jordanes, that of the ^^•» (D ^■ff?,^'A'^™?' ^U^ ^!*??^' ^^'
Langobards by Paulus Diaconus, and the ''Chronicon at Ybbs near Melk: d. 27 March, 1735, at MeUc^uth-
Urepenrense" (see Konrad von Lichtbnau). all of em Austria. Bemhard studied at Viennh and Krems,
whiS appeared in 1516. The famous "Tabula Feu- and m IJW entered the Bene<hctme monastery at
tingeriana". a thirteenth-century copy of an old Melk. Havmg devoted himsett to the classic lan-
iloman map of the military roads of the empire, is puagw, he was made professor m the monastery school
not properly caUed after Peutinger, to whom it was in 1704, and m the same yew went to the Uiiiveraatv
bequeathed by its discoverer, Conrad Celtes. Peu- of Vieima, where he studied theology, and in 1708,
' <if MSS., coins, and inscripuons remained in his family
until 1 714 when the last ctescendant, Ignace Peutinger, ^e followed the French Benedictines of St. Maur. He
bequeathed it to the Jesuits of Augsburg. After the studied the archives of the order at Melk and Vienna,
suppression of the order, part of it went to the town a?d ^ ^1^^^7 ^«», ^,**^ ,^ brother whose interest m
fibrarr, and part to Vienna. histoncal subjects he had excited, searched for manu-
Lonro. H%$toria vita atau4 meritorum Conradi PtuHngtri scripts in the Austrian, Bavarian, and Swabian mon-
(1729). reviaed edition by Vbith (Aug»burg. 1783) ; HnBKBon. asteries. In 1716 he published a plan for a universal
fsfi^ir OiSS.r"iS2;rr^ Benedictine Ubrary, in which all the authors of the
AUgmttins Wdto^tehiehu, II. 8 (Berlin. 1882). 370-372; Lixr in order, and their works, should be catalogued and re-
AUgwmeiiu Dwuchs BiofrupKie, XXV (Leipnc, 1887). 661-8. viewed. He obtained from the monasteries of his
Abthub F. J. Rbict. order no less than seven hundred and nine titles.
He also had friendly literary relations with Johaim
Peyto (Peto, Petow), William, cardinal; d. 1558 v. Eckhart, Schannat, Uffenbach, Schmincke, Mos-
or 1559. Though his parentage was long unknown, helm, Ltknig etc. In 1728 he accompanied Count Sin-
it is now establuhed that he was the son of Edward zendorf to France, where he made the acquaintance
Peyto of Chesterton, Warwickshire, and Goditha, of Montfauoon, Mart^ne. Durand, Le Texier, Calmet
daughter of Sir Thomas Throckmorton of Cou^ton. etc., and enriched his collection from the libraries of
He was educated by the Grey Friars and took ms de- the order. His chief works are: ''Thesaurus anec-
sree of B. A. at Oxford; but he was incorporated in dotorum novissimus" (6 fol. vol., Augsburg, 1721-9),
Cambridge university, 1502-3. and became M. A. there a collection of exegetic^ theological, philosophical, as-
in 1505. He was elected fellow of Queen's CpUege in cetic, and historical hterary sources; "Bibliotneca
1506, and on 14 June, 1510, was incorporated M. A. at ascetica" (12 vols., 1723-40), containing the sources
Oxford. Entering the Franciscan Order, he became of ascetic literature; "Bibliotheca Benedictino-Mar^
known for his holmess of life^ and was appointed con- uiana" (1716). In a controvert with the Jesuits he
fessor to Princess Mary. Later on he wad elected defended his order with the "Epistols apoloeetice
Provincial of England and held that office when in proOrdineS. Benedicti'', 1716. in 1725 he published
1532 he denouncM the divorce of Henry VIII in the ^'Homilien des Abtes Gottfried von Admont (1165) ".
king's presence. He was imprisoned till the end of in two vols., and the minor philosophical works ot
that year, when he went abroad and spent many years Abbot Engelbert von Admont. His proposed monu-
at Antwerp and elsewhere in the Low Countries, being mental work, "Bibliotheca Benedictina Generalis",
active on oehalf of all Catholic interests. In 1539 he was never completed. His manuscript material is
was included in the Act of Attainder passed against partly made use of in the "Historia rei literaris
CJardinal Pole and his friends (31 Hen. VIII, o. 5), but O.S.B." by Ziegelbauer-L^pont (1754). His manu-
he was in Italy at the time and remained there out of scripts are preserved at MeDc.
the king's reach. On 30 March, 1543, Paul III nom- (2) Hiebontmttb, b. 24 February, 1685, at Ybbs; d.
inated him Bishop of Sahsbury. He could not dbtain 14 October, 1762, at Melk. In 1703 he entered the
possession of his diocese, nor aid he attempt to do so. novitiate at Melk and was ordained in 1711. He be-
on the accession of Que^n Mary in 1553, but resignea came a valuable assistant to his brother, after whose
-the see and retired to his old convent at Greenwich, death he became librarian. His principal works are:
There he renuuned till Paul IV, who had known him "Scriptores rerum Austriacarum'', 1721-45. in three
in Rome and hig^v esteemed him, decided to create volumes, a collection of over one hundred sources,
him cardinal and legate In place of Pole. But as even to-day valuable for Austrian history; "Acta-
Peyto was very old and his powers were failing, he de- S. Colomanni" (1713); "History of St. Leopold"
clined both dignities. He was, however, created (1746).
cardinal in June, 1557, though Queen Mary would . 5™S»^??^^5rS'^»^*'"'*P-^v^<^"«»^iir">»
A ti«— u:^ 4.^ iL«w«;«,J 41.A k«+ ^A ♦!»-» A*>*wr;«.«,»A«4. li 448-60, III, 466-76; Wubsbach, Btog, Lex, de* Kataerthumt
not allow him to receive the hat, and the appomtment duurrtuk, xlxil (VieW, 1870). UMO; Kbokm in AUgem,
was received with public dension. It was a tradition deut. Biog. ■. v.; Katbchthalbr, UAer Bemhard Pa und deuen
among the Franciscans that he was pelted with stones ?.^^J^^ Qf*^* ^^^ v^.^TIf"; JI^^^; .«• '*«<'''vw» catho-
by a ^don mob, and bo inj-edthat he ^10'"^ afte^ '^- "^ '^' ^" ^»-*™* "">' "^j^S L6m^
wards died (Parkinson, op. cit. below, p. 254). Other ^^
accounts represent him as dying in France. The date Pfaiiner, Franz, abbot, b. at Langen, Vorarlberg,
frequently assigned for his death (Aprd, 1558) is Austria, 1825; d. at Emmaus, South Afnca, 24 May,
incorrect, as on 31 October, 1558. Queen Mary wrote 1909. in 1850 he was ordained priest and was given
to the pope that she had offered to reinstate him in a curacy in hb native diocese. Nine years later he
the Bishopric of Salisbury on the death of Bishop was appointed an Austrian army chaplain in the
C«x>n, but that he had declined because of age and Italian campaign against Napoleon III, but the war
infirmity. » ,^ .. .^ .„.«^ ^ . was over before he could tate up his appointment.
Goopn. Athtna Canlabnmmeet. I (Cambridge. 1858). jdnng Aftpr flPrvinir fui ohAnlain to the Sifitpni of Mpftv At
iw twrtioulara m to hb famUy and his univenity enner; Wood. ^^^ servmg as cnapiam xo ine Disiera 01 mercy at,
AthJnm Oxonien»€$, ed. Buas (London. 1813-20); PAunraoir. Agram for several years, he went to Rome, and there
XI.— 60
PFEFFBRKORN
786
pnsnR
Baw the Trappists for the first time. Whilst wfuting
for his bishop B permission to join this order, he went
on a pilgrimage to the Holy Land. In November,
1864, he was professed at the Trappist monastery of
Marienwald in Austria, and was made sub-prior a few
weeks later. He again went to Rome in 1866, where
he reorganized the well-known monastery at Tre
Fontane. Then he conceived the idea of a foundation
in Turkey. The difficulties seemed insuperable, but
in 1869 he was able to open the monastery of Marias-
tern in Bosnia, which was raised to the status of an
abbey in 1879. In that year Bishop Richards of the
Eastern Vicariate of the Cape of Good Hope was in
Europe, seeking Trappists to evangelize the Kafirs
and to teach them to work. When all others had
declined the invitation. Abbot Franz resolved to re-
linquish his settled abbey and face fresh difficulties in
South Africa. At the end of JuLv, 1880, he arrived
at Dunbrody, the place purchased bv Bishop Richards
for the work. But on account of the drought, winds
and baboons, he declared the site unsuitable after a
trial of several years. With the permission of Bishop
Jolivet, O.M.I., of the Natal Vicariate, he then (De-
cember, 1882) boueht from the Land Colonization
Company a part of the farm Zoekoegat, near Pine-
town. The nne monastery of Mariaimhill was built
here, and it soon became the centre of a great work of
civilization. Finding the need'of a sisterhood to teach
the Kafir girls, with characteristic ezlergy he founded
the Sisters of the Precious Blood, who number more
than 300. In 1885 Mariannhill was created an abbey,
and Prior Franz Pfanner elected the first mitred abbot.
But in 1893 he resigned his prelacy and began life
lagain in the mission station of Emmaus, where he
remained until his death.
The missionary methods of Abbot Franz and his
duccessors have won the approval of all those inter-
ested in the natives of South Africa. Such various
authorities as Mark Twain and the last Prime Minis-
ter of the Cape have spoken enthusiastically of the
work. It has prospered exceedingly. At the date
of Abbot Franz s death there were 55 priests, 223 lay-
brothers and 326 nuns working in 42 mission stations
among the natives. Only a few months before Abbot
Franz s death the Holv See, at the petition of the
Trappists of Mariannhill, made a considerable change
in their status. The Cistercian Rule in its rigour, for
which Abbot Pfanner was most zealous, was found
to be an obstacle to missionary development in some
particulars. Hence the name of the order was changed
to that of the Missionary Religious of Mariannhill.
and they were given a milder rule on a three years
trial, after w^hicn the whole subject will again be sub-
mitted to the judgment of the Holy See.
For bibliography, eee Mariamnbilu
. SiDNET R. Welch,
Pfoflorkom, Johannes, a baptized Jew, b. prob-
ably at Niu-emberg, 1469: d. at Cologne, between
1521 and 1524. In 1505, after many years of wander-
ing, he, together with his wife and children, was con-
verted to Christianity at Cologne. He soon became
known through his efforts for the conversion of the
Jews and his controversy with Reuchlin. In "Der
Judenspieger' (Cologne, 1507), he demanded that the
Jews should give up the practice pf usury, work for
their living, attend Christian sermons, and do awav
with the Books of the Talmud, which caused such
hatred against Christianity. On the other hand, he
condemned the persecution of the Jews as an obstacle
to their conversion, and defended them against the
charge of murdering Christian children for ritual pur-
poses. Bitterly opposed by the Jews on account of this
work, he virulently attacked them in : ". Wie die bUnden
JOden ihr Ostem halten" (1508); *' Judenbeicht"
(1508) ; and " Judenfeind" (1509). Convinced that the
principal source of the obduracy of the Jews lay in their
books, he tried to have them seized and destroyed. He
obtained from several Dominican convents recommen-
dations to Kunigunde, the sister of the Empeior Maxi-
milian, and through her influence to the emperor him-
self. Oi^ 19 August, 1509, Maximilian ordered the
Jews to dehver to Pfefferkom all books opposing
Christianity. Pfefferkom began the work of confisca-
tion at Frankfort-on-the-Main; thence he went to
Worms, Mainz, Bingen, Lorch, Lahnstein, and Deuti.
But a new imperial mandate of 10 Nov., 1509, gave
the direction of the whole affair to the Elector and
Archbishop of Mainz, Uriel von Gemmingeni with
orders to secure opinions from the Universities of
Maina, Cologne, Erfurt, and Heidelberg, from the in-
quisitor Jakob Hochstraten of O>lo«ne, from the
priest Victor von Carben, i^id from Johcmn Reuchlin.
Pfefferkom, in order to vindicate his action and to gain
still further the good will of the emperor, wrote "In
Lob und Eer dem allMurchleuchtigsten grosB-
mechtigsten FOrsten und Herm Maximilian" (Co-
logne, 1510). In April he was again at Frankfort, and
with the delegate of the Elector of Mains and Pro-
fessor Hermann Ortheb, he undertook a new confisc*-
tion.
Hochstraten and the Universities of Mains and
Cologne decided (Oct., 1510) against the Jewish books.
Reuchlin declareid that only those books obviously
offensive (as the "Nizachon'* and "Toldoth Jeechu'O
should be destroyed. The elector sent all the answers
received a:t the end of October to the emperor through
Pfefferkom. Thus informed of Reuchlin's vote
Pfefferkom was greatly excited^ and answered with
'^Handspieger' (Mainz, 1511). m which he attacked
ReuchUn unmercifully. Reucnlin complained to the
Emperor MaximiUan, and he answered Pfefferkom's
attack with his ''Augenspiegel'', aeainst whidi .
Pfefferkom published his ''Brandspiegd". In June^
1513, both pairties were silenced by the emperor. |
Pfefferkom however published in 1514 a new polemic,
''Sturmglock'', against both the Jews and ReuchlbL
During the controversy between Reuchlin and the
theologians of Cologne, Pfefferkom was assailed in the
"Epistolffi obscurorum virorum" by the young Hu-
manists who espoused Reuchlin's cause. He re-
plied with "Beschirmung", or "Defensio J. Peperi-
comi contra famosaset criminales obscurorum virorum
epistolas" (Cologne, 1516), "'StreitbQchlein" (1517). '
When in 1520 Reuchlin's case was decided in Rome
by the condemnation of "Augenspiegel", Pfefferkomi
wrote as an expression of his trium^ ''Ein mitleid-
liche Klag" (Cologne, 1521). Pfefferkom was a
fanatic and his public and Uterary life had little of
sympathy or grace, ^ut he was certainly an honour-
able character and the caricature which his opponents
have drawn of him is far from tme.
Gbiorr, Pfefferkom in JUduehe ZeiUchrifl f{kr W%»»0KatskaJl
und Lehen, VII (1869), 293-307; Idbii, Joh. Reuchlin (Leipsix,
1871). 209-454; Idem, Der Kampffegen die Backer der Judenam
Anfange dee 16. Jahrhunderte in aetner Betiehung au/ Frankfurt in
ArchivfUr Frankfurte Oeeehichte und Kunst, new aeries. IV (1869),
208-17; Roth, Der Kampf um die JudenhQcher und Reuchlin tar
der theotogiechen FakulUU tu Maim 1609~161S in Der KathoUk, II
(1909). 4th series. XL, 139-44; Jamsssn, Oeeehichte dee deutechen
VoUcea, II (Freiburg. 1897), 43 aq.
Friedbich Lauchkst.
PflBter, Adolf, educationist, b. at Hechingen in
Hohenzollem, 26 Sept., 1810; d. at Ober-Discmngen
in Wtirtemberg, 29 April, 1878. He was educated
at the Latin school at Hechingen, at the Lyceum of
Rastatt, and later at Sasbach. He then studied
theology at the Grand Seminary of Strasburg, and
was ordained to the priesthood, 25 May, 1833, at
Freiburg. After serving for five months as curate at
Sasbach, and for a year as assistant at the cathedral
of Freiburg, he returned to HohencoUem, and, from
1835 to 1^8, was curate at Steinhofen near Hechin-
sen. In 1838 he obtained civic rights in Wtirtem-
berg, and as a priest of the Diocese of Rottentnug^
i
PFLua 787 PFLUO
he was pastor first in Dottemfaausen: 31 Jan., 1839, unanimous choice. The apprehensions of the chapter
at Rosswangen: 11 May, 1841, at Risstissen; from were entirely justified, for John Frederick had deter-
1851 also school inspector in Ehingen. On 12 Aug., mined to fill any vacancy and give no chance for an
1867, the Catholic theological faculty of Tttbingen election. Pflug was at the time with Cardinal Al-
S anted him the degree of Doctor of Theology, In brecht of Mainz whose position brought him into close
ay, 1877, he withdrew to Ober-Dischingen. In contact with the emperor. Pflug was informed of his
1857 he founded the "Rottenburger Kirchenblatt", election, and was earnestly requested not to refuse
which he published for three years. From 1860 he acceptance. At the imperial court he was considered
edited the "Katholisches Schulwochenblatt" Spaich- the proper person to defend the independence of the
ingen); which, together with Hermann Rolfus, he con- diocese even against the elector. Jonn Frederick re-
tinueg as ^'^adc&utsches katholisches Schulwochen- ceived notice of the death of Philip on 23 January, and
blatt*^ (1861-67), and with J. Haug and Fr, J. Knecht on the next day news of the election. He would not
as ''Magazin fUr Pftdagogik'' (1868-72). But his permit Pflug to take possession, and immediately
most valuable work was me editing with Rolfus of issued orders to the city council that, until further
th6 ''Real-Bkicyclopadie des Erziehimgs- und ynter- orders, no allegiance be offered the new bishop. In
richtswesens nach katholischen Principien'' (4 vols., the following year, on 20 January, he ordered Luther
Mainz, 1863-66; 2nd ed., 1872- 1874; a 5th vol., to ordain Nicholas von Amsdorf as Bishop of Naum-
German translation of Thomas k Kempis, '' Vier the imperial edict of 29 June, 1541, called the Interim
BUcher von der Nachf olge Christi" (Freiburg, 1860; of Ratisbon, gave Httle satisfaction to either party:
4th ed., 1873): and ''Kinderlegende'' (Freiburg, 1863); Luther and the elector wanted larger concessions,
he ^so compiled several prayer-books. while the Catholics claimed that too much had been
Rolfus and Pfmtisb, Hml-Encydopadie det Brnehuno*- und granted. Pflug and Gropper tried to justify them-
Unterricht§w€»en9, BrgdnxungMband (Mains, 1884), 266-7; Kkh- selves in a pamphlet. Alter the victory of Muhldorf,
S ^^.'1^Stl!S"jSS^i;?art; ,^/J;XiSi^ 24 Apnl, 1547, over the combin«i forces of the Smal-
(yf(iT»h}iTa,iS7i), 9; NvaMSR,Per»onai'Kataloo der GeisaichendM kaldic League, Pflug was able to enter his diocese,
Bitthuma Rotunburg (3rd ed., Sohw&biach GmQnd, 1894), 64. which had become almost entirely Protestant. He
F&iEDEBiCH Lauchebt. did hig best to bring back the people to the Catholic
faith, but in vain. He was permitted to hold Catholic
Pflufif, JnuuB VON, last Catholic Bishop of Naum- service only in the cathedral of Naumburg and in the
burg-Zeitz, b. at Eythra, near Leipzig, 1499; d. at coUegiate church at Zeitz; the monasteries and their
Zeitz, 3 Sept., 1564. He was the son of Csesar von property remained secularized. He removed the
Pflug, who acted as commissary for the Elector of Evangelical preachers from some of the churches, but
Saxony in the religious disputation at Leipzig in 1519. the civil autnorities restored them to their positions.
Julius entered college at Leipzig, when omv eleven In 1549 he called the pastors to Zeitz to find out
years of age, continued his studies at Padua, and their qualifications. He found a sad condition of
nnished them in 1521 at Bologna, obtaining the de- affairs: aU the priests were married with one excep-
gree of Doctor of Laws. At Leipzig he was the pupil tion^ and willmg rather to lose their pastorates than
of Peter Mosellanus, a.nd at Padua of Lazaro Buona- to give up their wives. He applied to other bishops to
mico. He had received benefices at Mainz and obtain unmarried priests, but they were unable to
Merseburg, and on his return was made dean of the assist him, and thus he reported to Pope Julius III.
cathedral of Meissen and provost at the collegiate Under this pressure he had a petition drawn up to the
church of Zeitz. The times in which he lived were Cardinals Mendoza and Pole asking the toleration of
full of troubles; Luther and his adherents were using married priests, t^ou^ personally he preferred the
every energy in spreading their religious views, and unmarried clergy. Similarly he had on a former
were supported m their work by the civil power, occasion expressed his opimon that many wavering
Pflug himself had reccdved an education in accordance minds might be kept in communion with the Church if
with the humanistic ideals then prevalent, while his the Holy Eucharist were administered to the laity
theological knowledge, mostly seu-acquired, was not under both species. His plan to establish a Catholic
very profound. He was gifted with rare diplomatic educational uistitution for aspirants to the clerical
talents, and, being naturaUy inclined to peace and state failed, but he assisted students at Catholic
harmony, he was willing to make sacrifices eveu in colleges out of his own scanty income. He no longer
matters of doctrine and discipline. Hence his presence expected any good results from disputations with the
was requested for nearly every theological conference Protestants, though he was present in December,
held for the purpose of finding some lines of conform- 1547, at JUterbo^K and in August, 1548, at Pegau,
itv in doctrine between the Catholics and Evangelicals, and assisted in framing the Interim of Augsburg.
Thus we find him engaged at Leipzig in 1534, together In November, 1551, be made his appearance at the
with Behus and Tdrk against Melanchthon and BrUck. Council of Trent, but on account of ill-nealth remained
In 1539 he was similarly employed by the Bishop of only a ^ort time. In 1553 the elector introduced a
Meissen when the Elector of Saxony was introducing IVotestant consistory into Zeitz, and gave the cathe-
Protestantism into this diocese. It seems that, by dral of Naumburg to the common use of Catholics and
order of the bishop^ Pflug and Wicel composed a trea- Ftotestants. In 1559 Pflug expressed a desire for a
tise ^ving four articles of belief, ''which every ChriS" coadjutor with the right of succession, and in 1561 he
tian IS bound to accept''. This produced no pacifying wished to resign in favour of Peter von Naumark,
effect, nor did the personal interview between the dean of the cathedral, but received no answer. For
elector and Pflug. but rather brought about Pflug's the temporal welfare of his diocese he made many use-
loss of favour witn John Frederick of Saxony. ful regulations, lightened the burdens of the people
On 6 January, 1541, Phihp, Bishop of Naumburg, after uie ravages of the war, ordered the highways and
died at Freising, and ten days later the chapter re- forests to be cleared of the prowling bands of robbers,
ceived the news. Dreading the interference of the and regtdated the wages and time of labour. Though
elector, the chapter ordered the occupation of the Pflug nas been acci^ed of crypto-Lutheranism, no
palace at Zeitz wnich held the treasures of the diocese, charges have ever been biade against his priestly
and on the twentieth of the same month proceedcKi to character. After death he was buried in his church
the election of a successor, at which Pflug was the at Zeitz. He wrote many treatises in Latin and
FTOftTA 78S PHAftAO
GenxiAtl on theolo^cal and kindred subjects. Their (1137-40) is in the Romanesque style, while the
titles may be foundin Ersch und Gruber, 3 Sect.. XXI, restoration (1251-1268) belongs to the early Gothic
251. In the same work there is a biography from a Wolff, Chronik dec KlotUra p/orux, i, il (Leipsic i843-4«);
^tholic standpoint and another from a Protestant ^'Srj^i!TJ^:S^A'Sr^^^ ^^i^iS^^SS^
View. Some 115 letters of his are m the ''EpistoUB P/otU in sHnm- kuUurgeachidUlichen Bedeutung toahrend de* It.
Petri Moeellani ... ad Julium Pfluirium'* (ed. ^^d is. Jahrhundertt (Halle, ISSS); Urkundenbueh det Klotten
MQUer, Leipzig, 1802). ^^"^ ^^^* •^ ^*^'~' ^ ^^*^*«» 1893-1904).
Wbbkr in Kxr3ienUa.; AUomn, DeuUehe Bioffr.; PXffroR, Die Klemens LOFFXEfi.
kirehl. Reuniontbeetrebunoen wAhrend der Reffienmg KarU V ^,^ ,4,4 1 ^ . ♦* • .
iFreibuiv. 1879); Janssxn. OeBch. det devUchen Volkea, III, 0, F1UUSUI&9 tltUlar see and BUftragan of PelUSlUm, fal
.■gg»y- :TV, 25. 152; Hoffmann. Nawnburoim Zeitalter der lU- Augustamnica Prima. Ptolemy (IV, V, 24) makes it
finmai^ (Leip«g. 1901); ^^^^^^^-^^^^ the suffragan of the nomos of Akbia in Lower Egypt;
1«BANCI8 MBBSHMAN. g^^^j^ ^^yjj^ j^ 2gj pj^^ Phacusa at the beginnmg
m^ . - f^. . _^ /<<«,, o^ tlie canal which empties into the Red Sea; it is de-
,r!??"*' a former Cistercian monastery (1137- scribed also by Peutinger's Table under the name of
1540), near Naumburg on the Saale m the Prusaan Phacussi, and by the "Anonymus" of Ravenna. (130),
province of Saxony. The monastery was at first under Phagusa. In the hst of the partisan bishops of
situated m SchmoUn on the Sprotta, near Altenburg. Meletius present at the Council of Nic»a in 325 may be
Count Bruno of Pleissengau founded there, in 1127, found Moses of Phacusa (Athanasius, "Apologia oon-
St?5"^^i?® ?o°5f^^ ^^ endowed It with 1100 tra Arian.". 71); he is the only titular we know of.
« hides of land. This foundation not bemg success- Ordinarily, Phacusa is identified with the modan TeB-
ful, Bishop Udo I of Naumburg, a relative of Bruno, Pakus: Brugsch and Navilla, in "Goshen and the
on 23 April, 1132, replaced the Benedictmes by Cis- Shrine of Saft el-Henneh" (London, 1885), place it at
tCTCian monks from the monastery of Walkenned. Saft about twelve miles from there.
The situation here proved undesirable, and in 1137 Ronoi, Qiographie andenne de la Ba—e Bgvpte (Paris, 189U
Udo transferred the monastery to Pforta, and con- 137-39. g. VAiLrf.
SS>?&!i?d'Srf±rba^arth*^* Fh.Unrt«i«d«n. 8eeCoMM.«xoN;So«.usM.
For this fact we have Udo's own statement in a Pharao (n^^C, Par'o, or, after a vowel, Phar*o;
proclamation of 1140. The place was called Pforta Gr. ^apatb) Lat. Pharao). the title given in Sacred
(Porta) on account of its location in the narrow valley Scripture to the ancient kings of Egypt. The term
which was the entrance into Thuringia. The patron- is derived from the Egyptian Per'o. great house'',
ess of the abbey was Our Lady, and the first abbot, which originally designated the royal psdace, but was
Adalbert, 1132-1152. Under tne third abbot, Ade- gradually applied to the Government and then to the
lold, two convents were founded from it, in the Mark ruler himself, like the Vatican and the Quirinal, for
of Meissen and in Silesia, and in 1163, Alt-Celle and instance, in modem times. At the period of the
Leubus (q. v.) were also establishedf in the latter eighteenth dynasty (sixteenth to fourteenth cent
province. At this period the monks numb^ied about b. c.) it is found in common use as a reverential desig-
eight3r. In 1205 Pforta sent a colony of monks to nation of the king. About the beginning of the twenty-
Livonia, founding there the monastery of DUnamUnde. second dynasty (tenth to eighth cent. b. c), instead
The abbey was distinguished for its excellent system df being used alone as heretofore, it began to be added
of management, and after the first 140 years of its to the other titles before the king's name, and from
existence its possessions had increased tenfold. Little the twenty-fifth dynasty (eighth to seventh cent.
IB known regarding the spiritual life of the abbey, as b. c.) it was, at least in ordinary usage, the only title
the monks left no chronicles. At the end of the thir- prefixed to the royal appellative. Meanwhile the old
teenth and the beginning of the fourteenth century, custom of referring to the sovereign simply as Per'o
though a period of strife, the monastery flourished still obtained in narratives. The Biblical use of the
with redoubled vigour. The last quarter of the four- term reflects Egyptian usage with fair accuracy. The
teenth century witnessed, however, the gradual de- early kings are always mentioned under the gen-
cline of its prosperity^ and also the relaxation of eral title Pharao, or Pharao the Kin^ of Egypt; but
monastic discipline. When Abbot Johannes IV was personal names begin to appear with the twenty-
elected in 1515, there were forty-two monks and seven second dynasty, though the older designation is still
lay brothers who later revolted against the abbot: used, especially when contemporary rulers are spoken
an inspection which Duke George of Saxony caused of. The absence of proper names in the first books
to be made revealed the fact that morality had ceased of the Bible is no indication of the late date of th^
to exist in the monastery. The last Abbot. Peter composition and of writer's vague knowledge of
Schederich, was elected in 1533. When the Catholic Eferptian history, rather the contrary. The same is
Duke George was succeeded by his Protestant brother true of the use of the title Pharao for kings earlier
Henry, the monastery was suppressed (9 November, than the eighteenth dynasty, which is quite in keeping
1540), the abbot, eleven monks, and four lay brothers with Eg3rptian usage at the time of the nineteenth
being pensioned. In 1543, Duke Moritz opened a dsmasty.
national school in the abbey, appropriating for its The first king mentioned by name is Sesac (She-
use the revenues of the suppressed monastery of shonk I), the founder of the twenty-second dynastv
Memleben. At first the numoer of scholars was 100, and contemporary of Roboam and Jeroboam (III
in 1563 fifty more were able to be accommodated. Kings, xi, 40; II Par., xii, 2 sqq.). Pharao is not
The first rector was Johann Gigas, renowned afi a prefixed to his name probably because the Hebrews
lyric poet. Under Justinus Bertuch (1601-1626) the nad not yet become familiarized with the new style,
school attained the zenith of its prosperity. It suf- The next, Sua, or So, ally of Osee, King of Israel (H'
fered ereatly during the Thirty Years' War^ in 1643, Kings, xvii, 4), is commonly identified with Shabaka,
there oeing only eleven scholars. Among its pupils the founder of the twenty-fifth dynasty, but he was
may be mentioned tiie poet, Klopstock. and the probably an otherwise unknown local dynast prior to
philosopher, Fichte. Since 1815 Pforta belongs to Shabaka's reipn. Winckler's opinion that he was a
Prussia, and even at the present day the school is ruler of Musn in North Arabia, though accepted by
held in high esteem. The church was built in the many, is without sufficient foundation. Tharaca, who
thirteenth century; it is a cross-vault^, colonnaded was the opponent of Sennacherib, is called King of
basilica with an extraordinarily long nave, a peculiar Ethiopia (iV Kings, xix, 9; Is., xxxvii, 9), and hence
western facade, and a late Romanesque double-naved is not given the title Pharao which he bears in Egin>
doister. What remains <if the original building tian documents. Nechao, who defeated Joeiaa (iV
PHABBiBTUS 789 ' PBARI8EB8
Kngs, xxiii, 29 sqq.; II Par.; xxxv, 20 8qq.)i &nd charumalexandrinorum", 458), but it is possible that
Ephree. or Hophra, the contemporary of Sedecias the latter was bishop of another Pharbaetus situated
(Jer., xliv, 30), are styled Pharao Nechao and Pharao further to the west, and which according to Vansleb
£phree, according to the then Egyptian usiige. was. equally a Coptic see. John of Nikiu (Chron-
Unnamed Pharaos of the Bible, (1) The Pharao of icle, CV) relates that under the Emperor Phocas
Abraham. — ^The uncertainties attaching to ancient (602-10) the clerics of the province killed the Greek
chronology make it impossible to determine the iden- governor Theophilus. Pharbsetus is now called Hor-
tity of the Pharao who ruled over Egsrpt when Abra- bett, north of Zagazis in the Province of Sharqyeh;
ham arrived in the country. The Massoretic text gives it has about 520 inhabitants.
1 125 years between Abraham's migration to Chanaan ^ G=i^»». Gtorgii Cypriip^mvUoorbUromani, 114-16; Rpuoi,
and the bmlding of the temple, whereaa the Septua. '^^^^rs'^STdH^JH. ^sfSS^A S^'??^' (^
gint allows 870 (see Chronologt). As the building is 1803), 330. S. Vailh^.
placed about 1010 b. c. by some scholars, and about
969 B. c. by others, the date of Abraham's miration PhariBeeSy a politioo-reli^ous sect or faction among
would be 2135 or 2094 b. c. for the Massoretic text, the adherents of later Judaism, that came into exist-
and 1880 or 1839 b. c. for the Septuagint. Ancient ence as a class about the third century b. c. After
Egyptian chronology is as uncertain as that of the the exile, IsraeFs monarchial form of government had
Bible. If Meyer's dates, adopted in the article EoTPT, become a thing of the past: in its place the Jews
are correct, Abraham's journey to Egypt would have created a community whicn was half State, half
to be referred to the reign of one of £e Mentuhoteps Church. A growing sense of superiority to the heathen
of the eleventh dynasty, or to that of either Usertesen and idolatrous nations among whom their lot was
(Sesostris) III. or Amenemhet III of the twelfth. (2) cast came to be one of their mtun characteristics.
The Pharao ot Joseph. — It is generally admitted that They were taught insistently to separate themselves
Joseph held office under one of the shepherd, or from their heathen neighbours. "Aiid now make con-
Hykk)s, kings, who ruled in Egypt between the fession to the Lord the God of your fathers, and do
twelfth and eighteenth dynasties, and were finallv his pleasure, and separate yourselves from thepeople
expelled by Ahmose I shortly after 1580. The length of tne land, and from your strange wives" (I Esd., x,
of their nue is unknown, but probably it did not last 11). Intermarriage with the heathen was strictly
much over a hundred years. Joseph's tenure of office fori^idden and many such marriages previously con-
would accordingly be placed in the seventeenth cen- tracted. even of priests, were dissolved in consequence
tury B. c. If the Exodus took place at the beginning of the legislation promulgated by Esdras, Such was
of the reign of Memeptah, i. e., about 1225. as most the state of things in the third centuiy when the newly
scholars how maintain, and the sojourn of tne Israel- introduced HelTenism threatened Judaism with de-
ites in Eg3rpt lasted 430 years, as stated in the Masso- struction. The more zealous among the Jews drew
retic text (Bk., xii, 40), the time would be about 1666. apart Cfdling themselves Chasidim or ''pious ones".
The names of four Hyksos kings are known to us from i. e., they dedicated themselves to the realization of
Egyptian monuments, a Khian and three Apophises. the ideas inculcated by Esdras, the holy priest and
George Syncellus states that in his time (eighth doctor of the law. In the violent conditions inci-
cent. A. D.) there was a general consensus that the dental to the Machabean wars these " pious men ",
Pharao of Joseph was Apophis, probabljr Apophis II, sometimes called the Jewish Puritans, became a dis-
the most important of the three. This opinion is tinct class. They were called Pharisees, meaning
possibly true, but the history of the period is too those who separated themselves from the heathen,
obscure to allow a definite statement. and from the heathenizing forces and tendencies which
(3) The Pharao of the Oppression and of the Exo- constantly invaded the precincts of Judaism (I Mach.,
dus. (See Israeutes.) i, 11; II Mach., iv, 14 sq.; cf. Josephus Antiq., XII,
(4) The other Pharaos. — ^The Pharao with whom v, 1).
Adad sought refuge in the time of David (III Kings, During these persecutions of Antiochus the Phar-
xi, 17) was a king of the twenty-first dynasty, ei- isees became the most rigid defenders of the Jewish
ther Paynozem or Amenemopet. Solomon's father- religion and traditions. In this cause many suffered
in-law (III Kings, iii, 1) may have been Amenemopet. martyrdom (I Mach., i, 41 sq.), and so devoted were
Siamon, or Pesibkhenno II. The Pharao mentioned they to the prescriptions of the Law that on one
in IV Kings, xviii, 21 and Is., xxxvi, 6 is by many occasion when attacked by the Syrians on the Sabbath
thought to be Tharaca; but if the expedition of Sen- they refused to defend themselves (I Mach., ii, 42;
nacherib occurred in 701, as is generally held, there ibid., v, 3 sq.). They considered it an abomination
is little doubt that Shabaka, or possibly Shabataka, to even eat at the same board with the heathens or
is the Pharao referred to. Tharaca came to the throne have any social relations with them whatsoever,
some years later, and the title King of Ethiopia (IV Owing to then: heroic devotedness their influence over
Kings, xix, 9; Is., xxxvii, 9) is given to him bjr antici- the people became great and far-reaching, and in the
patioh. The unnamed Pharao of Jer., xxv, 19, is prob- course of tune they, instead of the priests, became the
abljr Nechao, who is certainly meant in xhri, 17, and sources of authonty. In the time of Our Lord such
xl vn, 1 ; elsewhere Ephree is mtended. The latter is was their power and prestige that they sat and taught
also the Pharao of Ezechiel. ^^ _^. , ^ ^. ^ , in "Moses' seat". This prestige naturally engendered
Se3 the literature mentioned under the arUoles to which refer- «— .^««-»«a «-»j ,^^^^u ««#l i«J *^ « ^^^,^1^^^^ :•«
ence has been made. F BiBCHTBL arrogance and conceit, and led to a pervermon m
manv respects of the conservative ideals of which they
had been such staunch supporters. In many passages
PharbflStus, titular see and suffragan of Leontop- of the Gospels, Christ is quoted as warning the mul-
olis, in Augustamnica Secunda. This name is merely titude against them in scathing terms. ''The scribes
the transcription, with the Coptic article P, of the and the Pharisees have sitten m the chair of Moses,
native name Harbait or Harbelf a name which is All things therefore whatsoever they shidl sav to you,
moreover reproduced under the form KdpfievBot in observe and do: but according io their works do ye
George of Cyprus ("Descriptio orbis romani", ed. not; for they say and do not. For they bind heavv
Gelzer, 706). It is the capital of the nome of this and insupportable burdens, and lay them on men's
name in Lower Egypt described by Herodotus (II, shoulders; but with a finger of their own they will
166); Strabo, XVII, 1, 20; Pliny, V, 9, 11. There is a not move them. And all their works they do for to
record of Bishop Arbetion at Nicaea in 325 (Gelzer, be seen of men. For the^ make their phylacteries
'^Patrum nicsnorum nomina", LX), and Bishop broad, and enlarge their fringes. And they love the
Theodorus in 1(^ (Renaudot, "Historia patriar* first places at feasts, and the first chairB in the syna-
gogu<
be ca
PHABSALim 790 PHA8ILIB
_ les. And salutations in the market place, and to rebellion and the siege,of Jerusalem, which ended in ha
ie called by men, Rabbi'' (Matt., xxiii, 1-8). Then destruction (a. d. 70), the fanaticism of the Zealots
follows the terrible arraignment of the scribes and made them terrible opponents not only to the Romazu,
Pharisees for their hypocrisy, their rapacity, and their but also to the other factions among their own ooun-
blindness (ibid., 13-36). trymen. On the other hand, the extreme faction of
After the conflicts with Rome (a. d. 66-135) Phar- the Sadducees, known as the Herodians, was in sym-
isaism became practically synonymous with Judaism, pathy with the foreign rulers and pagan culture, and
The great Maccabean wars had defined Pharisaism: even looked forward to a restoration of the natiooal
another even more terrible conflict gave it a final kingdom under one of the descendants of Kifag Herod,
ascendancy. The result of both wars was to create Yet we find the Pharisees making common cause with
from the secbnd century onward, in the bosom of a the Herodians in their opposition to the Sa\iour
tenacious race, the type of Judaism known to the west- (Mark, iii, 6; xii, 13, etc.).
ern world. A study of the early history of Pharisa- ^ Gioot, Ou{/in« of New Tettamera History (New York. 19(fi).
ism reveals a certam moral digmty and preatn^, a YAKSutn, The Life akd Work ofst. Paul (New York, isso). 26^;
marked tenacity of purpose at the service of high, EAToamUASTUim, Diet, of the Bible, a. \.;Ki>s:nBHt:iM, The lAf§
patriotic, and religious ideals. As contrasted with the «»<* 3\**n« of Jesue the Mestiah, passim.
Sadducees (q. v.), the Pharisees represented the demo- James F. Driscoll.
ff^H J^r&i».?3i'Z^ft^^^^ Pharsalus. titular see and suffragan of Larissa in
f^Jnl n^t^l^^Til^il^H^^^^ Thessaly. The city is mentioned for the firet time
tendency. By virtue of the Law itself the priesthood ^^ ^j^^ p^ ^ j 445 j^ unsucceas-
was an exclusive class. No man was allowed to exer- Tu u • Zl^xT *uaA- • xm -j /rmT^y^
I^r: „ f„«o4;^« i« fK^ T.r^r^i^ „«i^- h^ woo oKU f.. fullv bcsicged by the Athenian .Myromdes (Thucyd.
"^-^ w^ ^'^^''^^^f^;, J^nZ^^^^ len.", VI, 1,2): in 191 the consul AciUus GliS>riomade
with the synagogues, and embraced the schooling of j^ ^^^ ^ Ant ochus, King of Syria. It is specially
children and missionary efforts among the heatTien ^^^^^ ^^^ ^j^^ ^-^^^ ^^ % Augiist, 48 b. c, Wi by
tnbes. Thus, in a sense, Pharisaism he p^^ Ciesar from Pompey, after the latte^ had kill^ 15,000
the ground and prepare the way for Chrw^^^^ It ^^ ^^ ^j^^ ^^^^^f Pli (jj^^ ^^^ jy, 15) it
was the Pharisees who made ideahzed nationalism, ^^ ^ ^^ ^j^ j^ ^^^ 3^4 ^^^^ ; ^/j^ ;^
based upon the monotheism of the prophetMhe very ^^^ ^ ^ of Thessaly ("Hieroclis Synicdemus", ed.
essence of Judaism To them we are indebted for the BurckhSrdt, 642, 13) ; m the time of Constantine Por-
great apocalypses, Darnel and Enoch, and it was they phyrogenctAs, it belonged to the theme of Macedonia
who made commqn the behef m the resurrection and ^^^ ^^ ^ 'gj I^ f ggl i^ ^^ ^^^ y^ Turkey
future reward. In a word, theu- pedagogical influence l^Kx, ThL.J^T iU nr*^^ Of fho fl.«v> n^v KUK^ri
This great work^ however, WM marred by many fist could easUy be completed. At the beginning of
fects and hmitations. Though standing for the spint- ^j^e tenth century PhaSrsalus still rem^^dsuSra-
uahzing tendency, Phansaism developed a Droud and gan of Larissa (Gelzer, " Ungedruckte . . . Texteder
aiTo^ant orthodoxy and an exaggerated formalism, 5jotitiffiEpiscopatuum",557); about 970 (op. cit., 572)
which msisted on ceremonial details at the expense j^ became an autocephalous archbishopric; m 1300
oM^.^® ?^r^, ^Eo^^^^* P^f ^P*^ ""L^^^ i'^'T' ^^^^*^i it was elevated by Andronicus II to metropolitan
xxm, 23-28). The importance attached to descent dignity; at the close of the fifteenth century it was
from Abraham (Matt., ui 9) obscured the deeper j^ suffragan of Larissa. Later it was imited to
spintual issues and created a narrow, exclusive na- ^he Diocese of Phanarion, and was suppressed only to
tionalism mcapable of understandmg a universal ^e replaced (1900) by the Sees of Phanarus and Th^
Church destined to include Gentile as weU as Jew. gaUotides. Pharsala numbera 2500 inhabitants, of
It was only through the revelation received on the ^^om neariy half are Turks. The Greeks were de-
road to Damascus, that Saul the Pharisee was enabled feated there in 1897.
to comprehend a church where all are equally the Leake, Northern Greece, IV, 484; Smith, Diet, of Greek anrl
"seed of Abraham", all "one in Christ Jesus" (Gal., Roman GeoQraphy, ■. v. g. Vailh6.
iii, 28-9). This exclusivism, together with their
over valuation of external levitical observances, Phaselifl, titular see in Lycia, suffragan of Myra.
caused the Pharisees to be ranged in opposition to The city was a Doric colony on the Pamphylian Gulf,
what is known as prophetism, which in both the Old Situated on an isthmus separating two harbours, it
and New Testament places the main emphasis on owed to this fortunate location the fact that it b«!ame
character and the religious spirit, and thus they in- an important centre of commerce between Greece,
curred not only the vehement reproaches of the Pre- Asia, Egypt, and Phoenicia, although it did not belong
cursor (Matt., iii, 7 seq.), but also of the Saviour to the confederation of Lycian cities. The pirates of
Himself (Matt., xxiii, 25 seq.). Cilicia were allied with it, first through business inter-
The Pharisees are seen at their best when con- course, then by treaty. After the capture of Olympus
trasted with the Zealots on one hand, and with the P. Servilius laid siege to it. It was amended by Zeni-
Herodians on the other. Unlike the Zecilots, it was cetus, who, being unable to hold it, set fire to the city
their policy to abstain from the appeal to armed force, and plunged into the flames together with his compan-
It was their belief that the God of the nation con- ions. Phaselis recovered from this disaster. How-
trolled all historic destinies, and that in His own good ever, as early as the Roman period the little harbour
time He would satisfy the long frustrated desires of had become a swamp exhaling pestilential viqsours,
His chosen people. Meanwhile the duty of all true and the situation grew worse until the city was in com-
Israelites consisted in whole-hearted devotion v.c the plete decay. There was a temple of Athene at Phase-
Law, and to the manifold observances which their lis, where the lance of Achilles was exhibited. It was
mumerous traditions had engrafted upon it, join3d to the birthplace of the poet and orator Theodectes. It
a patient waiting for the expected manifestation of was also renowned for its roses, from which the essence
the Divine Will. The Zealots on the contrary bitterly was extracted. There was invented the bark called
resented the Roman domination and would have ^din/Xot which figures on all the coins of the city,
hastened with the sword the fulfilment of the Messi- There was a Roman colony at Phaselis about 139 B.C.,
anic hope. It is well known that during the great for the Romans wrote to the inhabitants to send help
PHA80A
791
PHENOMENALISM
to Simon Machabeus and the Jews (I Mach., xv, 23).
Only two of its bishops are known: Fionto at Chalce-
don (451); and Ahstodemus, who in 458 signed the
letter from the bishops of Lycia to the Emperor Leo.
At the Council of Nicsea (78/), the absent bishop was
represented by the deacon Jolm. The see is mentioned
in the "Notitise episcopatuum'' until the thirteenth
century. The ruins of ^haselis are at Tekir Ova in the
vilayet of Koniah; the^r belong to the Roman period,
the most important being a theatre. There are also
numerous sarcopha^. '
Lb Quien, Oriena chriatiantta, I, 085; Bsaufobt, Karamaniat
53-^; FsLLOwa, Asia Minora 211 aqq.; Lbakb, Aaia Minor ^ 190;
Texier, Asie mineure, 697-09; Hill, Catalogue of Qreek Ccin$ in
lAe Britith MutBum: Lycia, p. IxviL
S. P^TRIois.
Phasga (A. V. Pisqah). — ^Whether the word in
Hebrew is a proper or a common noun is not clear;
certain it is at any rate that it desi^ates a mountain
of the Abarim range (Deut., xxxu, 49), east of the
Jordan (Deut., iv, 49), in the land of Moab (Num.,
xxi, 20), "over against Jericho" (Deut., xxxiv, 1),
above Yeshimon [Num., xxi, 20; D. V. "which look-
eth towards the desert" fAin Suweimeh)!, east of the
north end of the Dead Seia (Deut., iv, 49; Jos., xii, 3),
in connexion with Mount Nebo, and commanding an
extensive view of the Holy Land (Deut., xxxii, 49:
xxxiv, 1-4), on the south-east border of which it stooa
(Deut., iv, 49). From all these indications it appears
that Phasga is no other than Mpunt Nebo itself ( Jebel
Neba, south-west of Hesban or Hesebon), or, better
stilly the western peak of the mountain, Ras $i&gh4.
On its slopes the Israelites pitched their camp (Num.,
xxi, 20); in the ".field of Sophim" (D. V. "a high
place") on the mountain Balaam uttered his second
oracle about Israel (Num., xxiii, 11-24); lastly from
the top of Phasga, Moses survey^ the Promised Land.
Birch, The -Proapect from Piagah id Pal, Explor. Fund Quart,
Stat. (London, 1898); Condbr, Heth and Moab (London, 1889);
Smith, Hiatorical Oeography of the Holy Land (London, 1894) ;
Tristram, The Land of Moab (London. 1874); Laoranqb,
Itiniraire dea larailitea: De la Frontiire de Moab atuc Rivea du
Jourdain in Revue Biblique (1900), 443-449.
Charles L. Souvat.
Phonomenalisin (0aci^Mei>oy) literally means any
system of thought that has to do with appearances.
The term is, however, usually restricted to the desig-
nation of certain theories by which it is asserted: (1)
that there is no knowledge other than that of phenom-
ena—denial of the knowledge of substance in the
metaphysical sense; or (2) that all knowledge is
phenomenal — denial of the thing-in-itself and asser-
tion that all reality is reality directly or reflectiyely
present to consciousness.
(1) The first form of Phenomenalism reaches its
full statement in Hume, though its logical develop-
ment can be traced back through Berkeley and Locke
to Descartes. It consists in the theory that substance
is merely a relation between ideas; that its existence,
as a reality, is incapable of intuitive or demonstrative
certainty. The origin of the idea of substance can be
explained on the basis of the imagination (Hume).
The transient mental, or world, phenomena are re-
lated in the imagination to a supposed substrate — a
fictitious ground, permanent and inert — which ac-
counts for their appearance. The theory destroys
metaphysics and replaces it with epistemology. Tlus
is quite in keeping with Hume's Associationism in
psychology. The "Treatise on Human Nature" ad-
mits ideas and impressions, together with the associa-
tion of these elements according to the well-known
laws (see Association; Pstchology); and nothing
more than this is given or is necessary to explain what-
ever is found in consciousness. For substance (as
weU as causality, etc.) can be explained adequately
as the result of ideas that have been frequently
present in conjunction. Hume restricted these views
to exact experimental science, and safeguarded the
ordinary experience of life by asserting that the con-
cepts of substance, etc.. are accompanied by a natural
belief, or conviction, ot their reality arising from feel-
ing. His doctrine was widely accepted in France, and
in Germany became the ideological forerunner of
Kant's "Kritik". Though at once labelled Scepti-
cism in England, on account of its consequences in
natural theology, it is a frankly consistent Em-
piricism (q. V.) quite in place in the evolution
of the school of English thought. Where Locke,
criticizing the ideogeny of Descartes, and admit-
ting the part of empirical experience in the for-
mation of ideas, left the metaphysical naaterial
substance and the metaphysical soul, as realities, un-
criticized, Berkeley, developing his position further,
taught that the supposed existence of the material
world was not only indemonstrable, but false. Only
spirits, with their ideas and volitions, exist. Ease
of the material is percipi: and the regularity of nature
is ho more than the order of ideas as produced in us
by another spirit, namely, God. Hume's position is
but a step fiu^her than this. Soul, or mind, as sub-
stance, is no more real than body. Here the Fhenom<r
enalism of Berkeley becomes logically complete*
Quite consistent with this conception is the state-
ment of Huxley that mind is only the collection of
perceptions united by certain relations between them
(see Huxley, "Hume, a Biography", II, ii, p. 64), or
that of Tame, the Positivist, that the Ego is no more
than a luminous sheaf, having no other reality than
the Ughts that compose it (see Taine, "De liniellv'
gence f I, pref., p. 11). As we shall show, the opposi-
tion of Hume to the concept of substance seems to rest
upon a misunderstanding: for he admits (Treatise
I, part 4, sect. 1) "something" that is accountable
for impressions and "something" that is impressed
(body, mind) . Huxley seems but to popularize by his
simile the conception of the Scotch philosopher,^ that
there is no mind or soul (as substance) apart from its
acts. Huxley compares the soul to a republic in which
the members are united by their manifold ties and
mutual relationships as citizens. This leaves the im-
pressions and ideas substantial and makes of the mind
what Scholastics would call an "accidental" unity,
and of the substance (soul) a "permanent possibility
of sensations", as Mill expresses it. Max Miiller has
dealt with this notion in his "Science of Thought"
(248) where he observes that such terms as possibility
express a common quality that is always of some'
thinQt from which we have abstracted them. To call
mind a "possibility" is at the same time to deny
that it is a substance and to assert of it a quality
belonging to substance, which would seem to be con-
tradictory.
The idealistic standpoint of Hume, together with
the doctrine of Positivism (q. v.), has had so great
an influence upon modem thought that it will be well
to show in what the misunderstanding, already re-
ferred to, consists. As Cardinal Mercier points out
("Ontologie", 1902, p. 263), it is incredible that such
thinkers as Hume and Kant, Mill, Spencer, Wundt,
Paulsen. Comte, Henouvier, Bergson, and others,
should nave so totally misunderstood the substan-
tiality of things and of the Ego as to profess a Phe-
nomenalism contradictory to the doctrine of the School.
On the other hand, it is no less incredible that phi-
losophers like Aristotle, St. Thomas, and the School-
men, should have "been at fault in their interpretation
of an elementary truth of common sense". On the
face of it, a misunderstanding seems probable. To
what was this due? First, to the ooubt cast by
Descartes upon the truth and validity of our notions
of substance; second, to the observation of Locke,
that we are incapable of directly attaining to sub-
stance. If thougnt could immeoiately conceive the
substance of a thing, we ought to be able to deduce
all its properties from that conception Third, to the
PHBN0MENALZ8M
792
PHKN0MENALI8M
explanation advanced by Hume, of the origin of the
idea of aubstance by habit. These three steps form
a sequence in the development of Idealism. Fourth,
to the Positivism, for which this paved the way, as
expressed by Comte and Mill. The various schools of
thouj^t that may be grouped under Phenomenalism:
plain Empiricism, as taught by Hiune; Agnosticism,
as advanced by Spencer and Huxley; Positivism,
represented b^r Comte, littr^, Taine, and Mill; all
share in the misunderstanding initiated by Descartes
with regard to the nature of substance as put forward
by the School. The Criticism of Kant may well be
included with them^ as limiting the object of human
knowledge, to experience, or phenomenal appearance
— although some knowledge as to the noumenon is
reached By way of the postulates of the practical
reason — ^the three ideas, soul, world, God. So also
may be included the neo-critical movement of Renou-
vier.
It is important that this misunderstanding; should
be cleared, up. Scholasticism indeed maintams that
we have a durect but confused and implicit intuition
of substance. We grasp the reality of '^ something
that can exist by itself". ''Every perception is a
substance, and every part of a perception is a distinct
substance" (Hume^ "Treatise", I, part 4, sect. 5).
Thus far the Empiricist agrees with the Scholastic.
But upon analysis and reflection, the latter main-
tains, the distinction between substance and accident
emerges. What at first appeared to exist in itself, is
seen to exist in something else. That something else
is then perceived to be substance; and what Mfore
was taken for it, is seen to be accident or phenomenon.
Further, as against the criticism of Locke, it is to
be remarked that Scholastic philosophjy does not
claim for the intelligence a direct expenence of the
specific nature of substance. On the contrary, it
relies entirely upon induction to establish such nature.
To the objection that induction gives us no knowledge
other than of the phenomenal, it answers that we know
at least this of tne specific substance — ^that it is the
subject of certain observed modifications and the
cause of certain observed effects. One further point
that is interesting in this connexion is the unfortunate
attribution of inertia to substance. Paulsen writes
that the soul is not inert as is the atom, thereby
sharing the opinion of Wundt. This idea of substance
as an inert substrate is also traceable to the Cartesian
philosophy, which is thus upon two counts the parent
of Phenomenalism. It is nardly necessary to point
out that Scholasticism does not regard either the
soul or the material atom as inert, except by a mental
abstraction which is practised upon the idea of nature
(as immanent activity) to reach the simple conception
of "that which is capable of existing m itself'' (see
Sttbstancb).
(2) The second form of Phenomenalism may be
found in the doctrine of Fichte and of the school
that develops his ideas; as well as in certain tenden-
cies and developments of the system of thought,
known as Pragmatism (q. v.) . Wit£ Fichte, the thing-
in-itself of Kant disappears as the ground of expe-
rience, and its place is taken by consciousness deter-
mining itself. That thin^ are and are known implies
a douole series, real and ideal, for which Dogmatism
is incapable of accounting. There is nothing else, as
a ground, than a ''being posited" by consciousness.
But consciousness is aware of itself, knowing its
activity^ and the nature of this activity. In this
conception the real — the functions of consciousness
— is paralleled by the ideal — knowledge of these
functions. The thing-in-itself is no longer necessary
to explain the possibility of knowledge, which here
becomes the explanation of the original relation of
consciousness to itself. The object has no existence,
save for the subject. Fichte's philosophy has much
influenced later thought in Germany as elsewhere.
The attempt made by Schellins to avoid the oontv»-
diction between hb doctrine andf that of Kant resulted
in a form of idealistic Phenomenalism (developed
further by Novalis and von Schlegel), and ultimatdy
in a neo-Spinozaistic Pantheism. Hegel's Idealism is a
logicaJ, or metaphysical^ one, in which the only real-
ity (spirit) "becomes" m a process-form of dialectic.
In the thesis, antithesis, and synthesis of Absolute
mind, the return to consciousness takes the form of
phenomena, as spirit becoming apparent to itself.
With l^chopenhauer, who begins ms "Die Welt als
Wille und Vorstelliing" with these words: " 'The
world is my idea': — ^this is a truth which holds good
for everything that lives and knows . . ."it would
seem that a transition from idealistic Phenomenalism
to modem "scientific" Realism is in process.
Pragmatism is the most recent form of Empiricism,
and as such belongs to the first form of Phenomenal-
ism noticed above: but its psycholo^c attitude, and
the subjectivist developments it displays, make it
perhaps more fitting to mention it here. For the gys-
.tem as a whole the truth of reality rests upon Uie
subjective feeling of certaintv (see Epistemologt).
The answers given as to why this should be are
because of (1) an a priori constitution of mind, of
tnmscendental order and for all individuals; (2)
utility, coherence, or vital experience (James, Leroy,
Schiller) ; or (3) an act of the will (Ribot). The first
two accounts of the psychological fact of certainty
insensibly ^ve place to the third, which is the last
word of psychological Subjectivism, except one: and
that one is the theory of Solipsism. It will be ob-
served that this line of development is one of an
elaboration of a voluntaristic form of Phenomenalism,
Where Schiller (Studies in Humanism) writes that the
basis of fact accepted by Pragmatism depends upon
its "acceptance"; "that it (acceptance) is fatal to the
chimera of a 'fact' for us existing quite independently
of our 'will' ", and James (Pragmatism) "Why may
they (our acts) not be the actual . . . growing-placea
... of the world — ^why not be the worKshop of bdng
where we catch fact in the making, so that nowhere
may the world grow any other kind of way than
this? " Solipsism goes but one step further in declaring
that there is no absolute £go nor absolute non-
Ego. There is no more than the individual conscious-
ness (cf. von Schubert Soldem). Admitting the prin-
dples, an escape from such a conclusion is difficult.
The pure expenence of Avenarius, the reine Erfahr\tnq
for you and for me, is theoretic and inevident. Indeed
Humanism itself, as advanced by Schiller, seems to
be but a kind of Solipsism. The data of thought are
immanent, and we only organize them; but Schiller
(pves no indication of their origin; indeed he sa^ it
IS absurd to ask whence the given of thought derives.
The whole modem school, of Immanence (q. v.) be*
lon^ to the development of this form of Phenome-
nalism.
St. Tbomab, Opera (Parma. 1854), especially the D* t«r»(ator
AvvMAiuuB, Philotophie als DenJben, etc. ProUgomuna nw tintr
Kriiik der reinen Br/ahrung (Leipsic. 1878); BnuiaoN, B—ai mtt
U* donnSes imnUdiatea de la con»eienc« (Pans, 1880) : Bsxxklbt.
Workt, ed. Fraseb (Oxford, 1901); Bbadlxt, Anpearanee and
Reality ^London, 1803) ; Catob, SvibjediwUm and Sclipntm in
DtMin Retiew (July, 1003) ; Comtb, Court d€ vkilatonkie patiiiM
(Paris, 1830-42); Dbscartes, (Euvret, published by Cousnr
(Paris, 1824-6); Fights, Sdmmaiche Werke (Berlin); Hum.
PkUotophieal Worka, ed. Gbsbn and Qrobk (London. 1878);
HuxLST, Hume, A Biography (London. 1878); JAMxa. Frag-
matiem (London, 1907); Kamt, Werke, ed. Rosbnuamb amv
ScHUBBBT (Leipsic. 1838-40); Locks, An Bteay Caneeming
Human Underttanding (London, 1881); McCobh, Agnoetieiem
of Hume and Huxley (London, 1884) ; Jambs Mill, Anal^eie V
the Phenomena of the Human Mind, with not^ by J. 8. Mill
(London, 1860); J. 8. Mill, An Bxamination of Sir WiOiam
HamiUon*» Philosophy (London, 1880); Rbkoxttibb, Beeaia de
critique ginirale (Paris. 1854-64) ; Ribot, Beeai aur Vimaginmtiom
criatriee (Paris, 10(X)); 8chilleb, Studies in Humanism (Loo-
Phil., tr. Tvrrs (New York. 1007).
Franc0 Avkunq,
k
793
PBniBKLFRti
Philadelphia, titular see in Lydia, suffragan of
Sardee. The city wasfounded by Philadelphus, Kin^of
Pergamon (159-38 b. cX in the vicinity of CaJIateBus
on uie left bank of the Cogamus (Kouzou Tchai) ; its
location was most favourable for commercial and stra-
tegiciJ purposes. In 133 b. c. it became a Roman pos-
session. It was subject to earthquakes, and at the time
of Augustus was almost in ruins ; but, quicklv restored,
was (H conmiercial importance as late as the Byzan-
tine period. Its wines were famous: its coins bore the
image of Bacchus or a bacchante. On the coins of the
fiiBt century the city is called Neocsesarea, under Ves-
pasian it received^ the co^omen of Flavia. During
the eleventh and succeeding centuries it was repeat-
edly captured by and retaken from the Turks until it
was dennitively conquered by Bajazet in 1390. In
the seventeenth centuiy it had 8000 inhabitants, of
whom 2000 were Christians. To-day it has about
15,000, mcluding 3500 Greeks. The Turks called it
Ala Sheir^ it is the capital of the caza of the vilayet of
Smyrna^ is still, on account of its fertility, an impor-
tant agncultund and commercial centre; and is a rail-
way station between Smyrna and Dinair. It possesses
numerous ruins, a theatre, stadium, two walls, many
Byzantine churches, etc^ and has mineral Gbrinf^s.
Christianity was introduced into Philadelphia m
Apostolic times.' According to the ''Apostolic Con-
stitutions'' (VII, xlvi). its first bishop Demetrius must
have been appointed by St. John. The apologist St.
Miltiades mentions a prophetess Ammia who must
have belonged to the primitive Church of Philadel-
phia (Eusebius. ''Hist. EccL", V, xvii). One of the
seven letters of the Apocalypse is addressed to the
BishcH) of Philadelphia (Apoc. i, ii. iii, 7-13). This
bishop was highly commended, and while the writer
recognizes that the community is small, he tells us
that the Jews who tried to disturb it were valiantly re-
sisted by its faithful pastors. St. Ignatius of Antioch
later sent to the Christians of Philadelphia an inter-
esting letter warning them against the Jews (Funk,
"Die apostolischen Vater". Tttbingen, 1901, pp. 98-
102). The ancient "Notitia" ^ace Philadelphia
among the most important suffragans of Sardes.
Under Andronicus PalsBologus it was raised to met-
ropolitan rank, and has continued such among the
Greeks, its jurisdiction, since the fourteenth century,
extending over many neighbouring sees, later obliter-^
ated by the Turkish conouest. Among its bishops or
metropolitans, of whom Le Quien (Oriens christ., I,
867 sq.) gives a very incomplete list, mav be men-
tioned: Hetimasius, present at the Council of Nicsea
(325) ; Cyriacus, at the Ck>uncil of Philippopolis (344);
'Theodosius, deposed at the Council of Seleucia (359);
Theophanes, present at the Council of Ephesus (431);
Amanus (458); Eustathius (518); John, present at the
Council of Constantinople (080) ; Stephanus at Nicsea
(787); Michael under Leo the Armenian; Theoleptus
at the end of the thirteenth and in the fourteenth cen-
tury, hymn writer, orator, and master of the famous
Barlaam (P. G., CXLIII, 381 sq.) ; Macarius Chryso-
oephalas (1^5) wrote homilies (ibid., CL, 227 sq.);
Gabriel Severus (1577) wrote works against the Latms
and resided, as did his six successors, at Venice; Ger-
asimus Blachus (1679), author of numerous works;
Meletius Tjrpaldus (1685), deposed for becoming a
Catholic.
Abundkll, DUeoveriet in Aaia Minora I, 34; ChandIiEB, TVav-
•!<. 310 sq.; Smith, Diet, of Greek and Roman QeoQr., i. v.; Lb
Camus. L— »ept EglUee d* VApoealvpte (Paris, 1896), 203-16;
Filu6n in Vioouboux, Did. ae la Bible, s. v.; Wachtbb, Der
YerfaU dee Qrieduntume im XIV, Jahrhundert in Kleinasien
(Leipsig, 1903). 44 sq.; Lampakbs, The Seeen Stare of the Apoca-
Ivpee (Athens. 1909), 365-414, in Greek; Rambat, The Seven-
Church4e of Aeia (Jjondon, 190S), S. F^TBIDka,
Philadelphia, Archdiocese of (Philadelphien-
bib), diocese established in 1808: made an archdiocese.
12 Feb., 1875, comprises all the city and county of
Philadelphia, and the counties of Berks, Bucks, Car-
bon, Chester, Delaware, Lehigh, Montgomery, North-
ampton, and Schuylkill, an area of 5043 square miles,
in the southeastern portion of the State of Pennsyl-
vania. The population of this area, according to the
United SUtes (>nsus, in 1910, was 2,712,708, of which
number 1,549,008 belonged to the Citv of Philadel-
phia. This city, the capital of the archdiocese, was,
until 1800, the capital ot the United States. It is the
third city in the United States in population; its
wealth invested in manufacturing inoustries exceeds
$500,000,000, and it is the leading American city in
shipbuiloing, the manufacture of locomotive engines,
street-ndlway cars, carpets, leather, oilcloth, and sev-
eral other important commodities. In 1909 the fw-
eign commerce^ of Philadelphia amounted to $150,-
504,095.
HisTOBT. — Penn's oolony, founded in 1682, as a
''holy experiment", by which each man could without
molestation wor^p God according to the dictates of
his own conscience (see Pennsylvania), soon became
a welcome haven of refuge to the persecuted Catho-
lics of the neighbouring colonies. Since the mission-
ary priests, mainly Jesuits, watched over the move-
ments of tne members of their scattered flocks, it is
not surprising that in their frequent joumevings be-
tween New York and Manrland they should find op-
portunity to gather the faithful in the house of a '
Catholic for the celebration of the sacred mysteries
and preachmg the Word of God. There was a steadv
growth in the number of Catholics throughout the col-
ony, including some distinguished converts. Repeated
complaints were made to London, that the "Popish
Mass'' was read publicly at Philadelphia; but Penn's
'' Fundamental" shielded the Catholics in his province
from molestation. The first resident priest in Phiiiadel-
1)hia was Father Joseph Greaton, S.J., who began his
abours among the missions of Maryland and Pennsyl-
vania in 1720. His first concern was to build a chapel
and rectory. With this object he bought the ground
where the first public chapel was erected in Pluladel-
phia, and where still stands old St. Joseph's church,
near Fourth and Walnut Streets. In 1741 Father
Greaton received an assistant in the person of Rev.
Henry Neale, S.J. Welcome financial aid came to the
Pennsylvania missions through the bounty of Sir John
James, of London, who made a bequest in their fa-
vour. The German immimtnts were looked after by
two missionaries from the Fatherland, Rev. Theodore
Schneider of Heidelberg, who resided in Berks Co., at
Goshenhoppen, and Father Wappeler of Westphalia,
who attended the Catholics of Conewago and Lancas-
ter. Father Neale died 5 May, 1748; and the aged
Greaton retired to Maryland, where he ended liis
saintly career, 19 Aug.. 1753.
The second pastor of Philadelphia was Father Rob-
ert Harding, Dom in Nottinghamshire, England, 6
Oct., 1701, who, having enter^ the Society of Jesus,
came to America in 1732. He assumed charge of Phil-
adelphia in 1749 and laboured with intelligence and
success for twenty-three years. During the excitement
of the French and Indian War charges of disloyalty
were brought against the Catholics, but passed away
without causing suffering. Father Harding estimated
the Catholics of Philadelphia as about 2(XX). Another
deserving labourer in the vineyard was the German
Jesuit, Father Steinmeyer, known in the colony as
Ferdinand Farmer. He laboured first at Lancaster
among the Germans, afterwards as assistant to Father
Harding. He is described as a philosopher and as*
tronomer, and in 1779 was a trustee of the University
of Pennsylvania. Father Harding purchased land for
a new church and cemetery. The church was opened
in 1763 as St. Mary's; it b^me the parish church, St.
Joseph's remaining a chapel. Father Harding died 1
Sept., 1772; and was interred at St. Mary's. He was
succeeded dv the Rev. Robert Molyneux, who, to-
gether with Father Farmer, skilfully guided the infant
f BUADSLPHtA 794 PHILADELPHIA
Church during the stormy days of the Revolution. St. Joseph's with him and an uncle of his, the Rev.
Like the majority of their flock, they remained neu- James Harold, who had arrived from Ireland in March,
tral, till the coming of the French allies called for 1811. Relations between the bishop and the Harolds
repeated services on occasions of jov or sorrow; the became strained for domestic reasons not w^ ex-
addresses, however, were mostly delivered by the plained. Trouble arose between the clei^gy and the
chaplain to the French ambassador. trustees, and the Harolds returned to Europe. After
At the end of the war Father Molyneux opened the a troubled administration of. three years and nine
first Catholic parish school. In Oct., 1785, the sacra- months Bishop Esan died at the age of fifty-three,
ment of Confirmation was administered for the first ThetrusteesofSt.Mary'shad acquired for themselves
time in Philadelphia by the Very Rev. John Carroll, such a reputation for insubordination, that it was no
prefect Apostolic. On 17 Aug. of the following year easy matter to find any one willing to take up the
Father Farmer passed to his reward. His funeral was burden of the episcopate. Fathers Marshal, DeBarth
attended by the American Philosophical Society, the and David declined to accept.
professors and trustees of the University of Pennsyl- Finally, after an interval of five years, the Holy See
vania, and by large numbers of non-Catholics. No selected the vicar-^nend of Armagh, Ireland, the-
one had done so much to make ihe Catholic religion re- Very Rev. Henry Conwell. seventy -two years old.
spected by the residents of New Jersey and Pennsyl- He was consecrated in Lonaon bv Bishop Poynter, 24
vania. Father Molyneux soon after retired from ac- Sept., 1820, and arrived in Philadelphia on 25 Nov., of
tive service and was succeeded by the Rev. Francis that year. A very disagreeable duty was awaiting Mm
Beeeton, who built the presbytery of St. Joseph's in the case of the Rev. William Hogan, a priest of Al-
which is still occupied by the clergy. In 1788 a num- bany whom the administrator had imprudently ad*
ber of German Catholics agitated for a new distinc- mitted to the diocese without sufficient inquiry or
tively German church: Dr. Carroll reluctantly con- credentials. Bishop England states that he was de-
sented, warning them against a feeling of separatism ficient in the most common branches of an English edu-
and admonishing them that they could not be peiv cation". But he was a man of fine personal presence,
mitted to name their own pastors. In 1795 the Geiv a fluent talker, a bom demagogue, and able to preach on
man church was ready for occupancy, and was named topics which tickled the ears of men whose religion was
Holy Trinity, being, it is said^ the last buildiiig for a matter of fashion. A clear and impartial narrative of
public purposes erected in Philadelphia of alternate the Hogan Schism is found in Father Kirlin's excellent
red and black glazed brick. This church gave great work, '^Catholicity in Philadelphia". (See also Con-
trouble to Bishop Carroll, on account of the preten- well, Henbt.) It remains a question whether the
sions of the trustees, and had to be placed under inter- Hogan schism, which engrossed the interest of Cath-
dict. The three churches now built, St. Joseph's, St. olics throughout the entire nation, did not do more
Mary's, and Holy Trinity, were all in the southern good than harm. It focussed the attention of Cath-
part of the city. Provision had to be made for the olics and non-Catholics on the important question of
Catholics living in what was then the extreme north- episcopal rights. While some lukewarm Catholics
em section. Opportunely, the Augustinians were fell away from the Church, the body of the faithful
seeking to found a house in the United States, and to rallied to their pastors with ardour and increased in-
them the new congregation was entrusted. In 1796 telli^ence. The question of lav interference in the
the Rev. Matthew Carr, O.S.A., issued an appeal to administration of the affairs of the Church was settled
the inhabitants of Philadelphia and received a gener- for all time in Philadelphia. The r^udiation by the
ous response. President Washington figures in the list Holy See and by the hierarchy of the United States
of subscribers, for $50, Commodore Barry, for $150, of the compromise of 9 Oct., 1826, in which Bishop
and Stephen Girard, for $40.' After many vicissitudes. Conwell surrendered to the already beaten trustees
''the largest church in Philadelphia" was dedicated several episcopal rights, «ided forever in these States
under the invocation of St. Au^tine, 7 June, 1801. the tyranny of trusteeism.
When Father Carr removed to his new residence near ^ On 7 July, 1830, there arrived in the city of Phil-
St. Augustine's, the trustees of St. Mary's petitioned adelphia a man who was to shed lustre on the diocese
the bishop to send them a pastor capable of sustaining^ and on the United States, Francis Patrick Kenrick
the digmty of "the leading church in the Unit^ (q. v.). Having been appointed coadjutor of the
States". The bishop found them the priest they were diocese, he founa a valuable lieutenant in the person
looking for in the person of the Rev. Michael Egan, a of the Rev. John Hughes, a man five or six months his
Franciscan stationed at Lancaster. He had come to junior, who remained Bishop Kenrick's right hand
America in order to establish in this country a house and secretary until his own elevation to the See of
of his order, but found the time premature and be- New York. After fruitless admonitions to the trus-
came a mission^y priest under the jurisdiction of tees of St. Mary's, the administrator, on 16 April,
Bi^op Carroll. He was ably assist^ at St. Mary's by 1831, closed the church and cemeteries of St. Mary's.
Father Rossiter. On 18 May the trustees surrendered, and on 28
The time having arrived when Philadelphia should May the church was reopened. In 1832 Bishop Ken-
be erected into an episcopal see, Pius VII, by Bulls rick opened what eventually became the diocesan
dated 8 April, 1808, designated the diocese as includ- seminary of St. Charles Borromeo, the beneficent re-
ing ''the entire two States of Pennsylvania and Dela- suits of which were soon apparent. During the first
ware, and the western and southern part of the State two years of this administration the number of
of New Jersey". An accompanying Brief appointed churcnes was doubled, the first addition being the
Father Michael Egan (q. v.) to be the first occupant church of St. John the Evangelist built by Father
of the see. Owing to the existing political conditions John Hughes and dedicated 8 April, 1832, which was
in Europe, the Briefs did not reach Baltimore until soon followed by that of St. John Baptist, Manayunk,
1810, and during the interval Father Egan remained with the Rev. Thomas Gegan as first pastor. On 8
in Philadelphia as vicar-general to Bishop Carroll, April, 1833, was laid the cornerstone of St. Michael's
On 10 Nov., 1808, there arrived in Philadelphia the church at Kensington, organized by the Rev. Terence
Dominican Father William Vincent Harold, who came J. Donoghue.
from Ireland recommended by the Archbieiiop of When the awful cholera scourge visited PMladelphia
Dublin and other dignitaries. Bishop Egan accepted in 1832, the intrepidity of the priests and sisters pre-
him with eagerness, and the eloquent preacher soon sented an example of heroic Christian charity which
became a great favourite. Bishop Egan having been was long remembered. On 14 May, 1837, death called
consecrated at Baltimore, 28 Oct., 18i0, made Father away one of the most valiant priests of the city,
Harold his vicar-general and took up his residence at Father Michael Hurley, O.S.A., who almost from the
PHILADELPHIA
795
PHILADELPHIA
beginning of the century had given great edification
by his zeal and saintly Cfe. Later in the same year
the Rev. John Hughes was elevated to the episcopal
See of New York. About the same time St. John's
became the cathedral. In 1839 the ]3arish of St.
Francis Xavier was founded for the Fairmount dis-
trict, and St. Patrick's church was organized for the
Schuylkill suburb. The following year saw the
founding of St. Philip's in the extreme south. Its
first pastor was the Rev. John P. Dunn. In 1842 the
Germans of Kensington were provided for by the
building of St. Peter's and the installation of the
Redemptorist Fathers. In 1843 the church of St.
Paul was opened in Moyamensing by the Rev. Patrick
F. Sheridan. To the north, the church of St. Stephen
was built near the spot in Nicetown where the first
Masses were celebrated by itinerant missionaries. On
15 Nov.. 1846. St. Anne's church at Port Richmond
was deoicatea by Father Gartland of St. John's,
Bishop Hughes of New York preaching the sermon.
During the year 1845, St. Joachim's was founded at
Frankford by the Rev. Dominic Forrestal. On the
Feast of Sts. Peter and Paul, 29 June, 1846, the bishop
issued a pastoral letter announcing his determination
to build a cathedral. He chose for the site a plot of
ground adjoining the seminaiy at Eighteenth and Race
•Streets. The architect was >fapoleon Lebrun. It was
the bishop's intention to avoid running into debt, so
the cathedral was long in building. In 1 848 he founded
the church of the Assumption, with the convert, Charles
I. H. Carter, for pastor. The ancient suburb of Ger-
mantown contained very few Catholics, but the Laza-
rist Fathers, who conducted the seminary, were willing
to assume tne risk of building a church in that section,
and the church of St. Vincent de Paul was opened for
worship on 13 July^ 1851, the first pastor being the
Rev. M, Domenec, afterwards Bishop of Pittsburg. In
1849 a church was built at Holmesburg and named
St. Dominic, the Rev. Charles Dominic Berrill,
O.P., being appointed pastor. In 1850 the parish
of St. James, m West Philadelphia, was founded by
the Rev. J. V. O'Keefe, who took a census and dis-
covered forty Catholic adults in the district. The last
evidence in Philadelphia of Bishop Kenrick's activity
was the church of St. Malachy, the cornerstone of
which he blessed 25 May, 1851. Before its comple-
tion he was transferred to the metropolitan See of
Baltimore. The western portion of Pennsylvania
was formed into the Diocese of Pittsburg, 8 Au^., 1843,
with the Rt. Rev. M. O'Connor. D.D., for its first
bishop. (For the burning of Catnolic churches in the
Philadelphia riots of 1844, see Knownothingibm.)
The fourth Bishop of Philadelphia, John Nepomu-
cene Neumann, was consecrated 28 March, 1852. (See
Neumann, John Nepomucbnb, Venerable.) Ten
churches sprang up during the first year of his epis-
copate . The constant topic of his exhortations was the
necessity of parish schools . Failing to bring the contu-
macious trustees of Holy Trinity to their senses, he un-
dermined their influence by*putting up the church of St.
Alphonsus. On 19 Oct., 1854, he left for Rome to as-
sist at the proclamation of the do^a of the Immacu-
late Conception, and he returned m March, 1855. On
26 April, 1857, the Rt. Rev. James Frederick Wood
was consecrated in the cathedral of Cincinnati as co-
adjutor to the Bishop of Philadelphia. Bishop Wood
was acknowledged b^ the financial world as thor-
oughly acquainted with every phase of the banking
business, which had been the occupation of his earlier
years. At a meeting of the clergy. Bishop Neumann
announced that the work of completing the cathedral
had been committed to his coadjutor. In October,
1857, he held his last synod: there were 114 priests
present, and 32 had been excused from attendance.
James Frederick Wood, the fifth bishop of the dio-
cese, was bom at Philadelphia 27 April, 1813. His
father, James Wood, was an English merchant and
h^ his child baptized by a minister of the Unitarian
sect. In 1827 James Wood and his family removed to
Cincinnati, where the boy obtained a pjosition as clerk
in a bank. Eleven years later (7 April, 1838), in his
twenty-fifth year, the future bishop was received into
the Catholic Church by Bishop Purcell, and next year
he was sent to Rome to prosecute his studies at the
College of the Propaganda, where he was ordained to
the priesthood by Cardinal Fransoni, 25 March, 1844.
After a short term as assistant at the cathedral of Cin-
cinnati, he was appointed pastor of St. Patrick's
church. Though the main object of his appointment
to Philadelphia was to relieve Bishop Neumann of the
temporal cares of the diocese, yet he by no means con-
fined his efforts to that sphere. He was zealous in
preaching the Word of God and gave confirmation in
all the churches. On the death of Bishop (Venerable
John Nepomucene) Neumann, which took place
on 5 January, 1860, the Catholic population of the
diocese, which still included Delaware, was esti-
mated at 200,000 souls. There were 157 churches
(besides 9 in course of erection) and 7 chapeLs,
attended by 147 priests. The preparatory seminary
at Glen Riddle, under the Rev. J. F. Shanahan, and
the theological seminary adjoining the cathedral,
under the Rev. Wm. O'Hara, D.D., were in a flourish-
ing condition. There were 36 parisn schools, attended
by 8710 pupils. The diocese was well supplied with
colleges, academies, a^lums, hospitals, ana religious
orders of both sexes. In the first year of his adminis-
tration Bishop Wood established, at the two extreme
ends of the city, the parishes of the Annunciation and
All Saints^ Bnaesburg.
The bishop had the erection of the cathedral well in
hand, when the outbreak of the Civil War came to re-
tard its completion. Nothing daunted, however, he
continued' his efforts and on 20 Nov., 1864, had the
happiness to sing the first Mass in the immense edi-
fice. Scarcely had he finished the cathedral, when he
purchased a large tract of land just outside the city
limits, as the site of a new seminary. The pastoral let-
ter in which he announced the purchase at Overbrook
is dated 8 Dec, 1865; on 16 Sept., 1871, the beautiful
building was filled with 128 students from the two old
seminaries. During his visit to Rome, in 1867, he pe-
titioned the Holy See for the creation of the Dioceses
of Scranton and Harrisburg, and his wish was granted
3 March, 1868. He was prominent at the Second Plen-
ary Council of Baltimore, and, indeed, at every assem-
bly of the hierarchy his counsels were reverently lis-
tened to. He attended the Council of the Vatican, but
beii^ in poor health left Rome early in March. He
took a great interest in the newly established Iljlorth
American College, wisely insisted that the funds of the
college should be kept in Ameiica, and was unani-
mou9y appointed treasurer of the board.
On 15 Oct., 1873. with all possible pomp. Bishop
Wood consecrated tne diocese to the Sacrect Heart of
Jesus. In 1875 he was prostrated by rheumatism; a
journey to the South gave him slight relief; and when
the instruments arrived creating him archbishop and
making Philadelphia a metropolitan see, it was with
evident pain he went through the long ceremony of the
conferring of the palliimi. He had wonderful recuj)er-
ative powers, however, and in 1877 went to Rome with
$30,000 Peter's pence to assist at the celebration of the
golden jubilee of Pius IX's episcopate. Recovering
from another bad attack in Rome, ne returned home.
On 23 May, 1880^ he presided over the First Provin-
cial Council of Philadelphia. After this he was for the
most part confined to his room, where, however, he
continued to transact business with his usual energy.
His end came on 20 June, 1883. The entire City of
Philadelphia turned out to show its affection for one
whom it refijarded as its most distinguished citizen.
Archbishop Wood is buried with the other bishops of
the diocese in the crypt beneath the catheclral. He had
PHILANTHROPINISM
796
pmLAKTHROPlNISM
administered the Sacrament of Confirmation to 105,-
000 persons. In 1868, in the curtailed diocese, there
were 76 churches and 21 chapels; at his death there
were 127 churches and 53 chap)els. He found, in
1858, 33 parish schools in this section; he left 58.
The choice of a successor to Archbishop Wood de-
manded thought on the part of the Roman authori-
ties, and they took a year to come to a decision. At
first they seemed to consider favourably the venerable
Bishop O'Hara of Scranton, who, as rector of the
seminary and vicar-general of the diocese, had done
valuable service in Philadelphia. There is uttle doubt
that he would have been selected, had it not becoi for
his seventv odd years. The deliberations of F^pa-
f^anda finally concluded with the choice of the coad-
jutor of St. Louis; the Rt. Rev. Patrick John Ryan,
who was in his fifty-second year, had administered an
important diocese for ten vears, and seemed to lack
no (qualification demanded by so eminent a metro-
politan see as Philadelphia. (See Ryan, Patrick J.)
On 20 Aug., 1884, he took formal possession of his
archiepiscopal see and received the homage of 250
priests of the diocese. In November of that year he
opened the proceedmgs of the Third Plenary Council,
and on 4 January, 1885, was invested with the pallium.
After 24 Feb., 1897, he was ably assisted by his auxil-
iary bishop, the Rt. Rev. Edmond F. Prendergast.
On the deatn of Archbishop Ryan, which took place on
11 February, 1911, Bishop Prendergast assumed the
administration of the diocese.
Philadelphia is also the residence of the Rt. Rev.
Soter Stephen Ortynski, the Ruthenian Greek Catho-
lic bishop for the United States (see Greek Catho-
ucs IN THE United States).
There is probably no diocese in the world better
provided with institutions of religion, education, and
charity than Philadelphia. The parish school system is
admirably organized. There are 141 schools teaching
63,612 cmldren. There are 149 ecclesiastical students
preparing for the priesthood, and there is never a lack
of vocations. The Catholic population of the diocese
was estimated in 1910 at 525,000, whose spiritual
needs are supplied by 582 priests, regular and secular.
There are 434 churches, cnapels, and stations. The
religious institutes established in the diocese are: Re-
demptorist Fathers (14), Augustinian Fathers (Vil-
lanova and six other estaDlishments, 33 fathers) ^ Con-
fireg&tion of the Holy Ghost (4 houses, 1 novitiate, 1
mdustrial school, 15 fathers), Vincentian Fathers (3
houses, 1 seminary, 24 fathers). Society of Jesus (2
houses, 1 college, 22 fathers). Christian Brothers (10
houses, 89 brothers). There are in the diocese (1911)
2565 religious women, novices, and postulants and 11
schools for girls imder the care of religious women.
The religious institutes for women are: Sisters of the
Blessed Sacrament, Sisters of Charity, Sisters of
Christian Charity, Felician Sisters. Franciscan Ter-
tiaries. Missionary Sisters of the Tnird Order of St.
Francis, Sisters of the Good Shepherd, Sisters of the
Holy Child Jesus, Sisters of the Most Holy Family of
Nazareth, Sisters-Servants of the Immaculate Heart,
Discalced Carmelites, Sisters of St. Joseph, Sisters
of Mercy (Philadelphia foimd^tion and Scranton
foundation), School Sisters of Notre Dame, Sisters of
Notre Dame (Namur), Little Sisters of the Poor,
Religious of the Sacred Heart, Sisters of St. Dominic,
Bernardine, Sisters of St. Francis (Polish), Missionary
Sisters of the Sacred Heart, Poor Handmaids of
Jesus Christ, Filise Maris.
Shba. H%mL of the Cath. Church in the U. 8. (New York. 1886-
02); Mahont, Hittorical Sketche$ of the Cath. Churches and Inetv-
tuiione of Philadelphia; Kirlin. Catholicity in Philadelphia (Phil-
adelphia, 1900) ; Catholic Standard and Times, files; Am, Cath.
Hist. Reeearchee; Official Cath. Directory (1011).
James F. Loughlin.
PhilanthropiniBxn, the system of education educed
from the ideas of Rousseau and of the German "En-
lightenment", and established by Basedow on the
basis of " philanthropy ' * . Johann Bemhard Basedow
(b. at Hamburg, 11 Sept., 1723; d. at Magdebura,25
July, 1790) was a pupil at the school of Hamburg
under the free-thinker Hermann Samuel Reimarus,
studied theologjr at Leipzig, became (1749) a tutor in
a noble family in Holstein, and (1753) professor at
the academy for young noblemen at Soroe on the
Island of Zealand, Denmark. In 1 761 he was removed
from this position on account of his Rationalistic
opinions and appointed professor in a school at
Altona. Here he published his " Methodenbuch
ftir V&ter und Mutter der Familien und Volker"
(Altona and Bremen, 1770; 3rd ed., 1773), in which
he presented in detad his ideas for the improvement
of the school-system. This work and his "Agatho-
krator oder von der Erziehung ktinfti^er Regenten"
(Leipzig, 1771) attracted the attention of Prince
Leopold Friedrich Franz of Anhalt-Dessau. In 1771
the prince called Basedow to Dessau, where he wrote
his "Elementarwerk" (4 vols, with 100 copper-pl&tes,
Dessau, 1774; 2nd ed., Leipzig, 1785) which, in a form
suitable to modem times, sought to present the idea
carried out in the ''Orbis pictus" of Comenius, of
uniting the pictures of the things ^with the notions
of them, by giving with pictures all the material
essential for training children. In 1774 he opened a
model school at Dessau, the "Philanthropinum".
As the name signifies, it was to be a school of phil-
anthropy for tea<mers and pupils. In contrast to the
severe discipline of earlier days, children were to be
trained in a friendly and gentle manner, instruction
was to be made attractive, study as easy and pleasant
as possible. The standard in forming the course of
study was the practical and useful. Languages were
to be taught more by practice and speaking than by
the learning of grammatical rules, Latin, German, and
French being regarded as the most important. Spe-
cial attention was also given to the more practical
studies, as arithmetic, geometry, geography, drawing,
and natural science. Basedow and his successors
deserve credit for their improvement of methods and
educational appliances. Si>ecial stress was laid on
physical development. The fact that children be-
longed to a particular nation or religious confession
was disregarded; education was to produce cos-
mopolites. Religious instruction was to be replaced
by the teaching of a universal natural morality.
Among the teachers who aided Basedow in this school
was Christian Heinrich Wolke, who had been his
assistant before this in preparing the "Elementar-
werk ", Basedow^ although a fine pedagogist, lacked
the personal qualities necessary for conducting such
an institution, and retired in 1776. His place was
taken (1776-77) by Joachim Heinrich Campe (1746-
1818), who was later a prolific writer on subjects con-
nected with Philanthropinism, and is best known by
his German version of Kobinson Ousoe called "Rob-
inson der Jiingere''; his most important work is
"Allgemeine Revision dee gesammten Schul- und
Erziehungswesens" (16 vols., 1785-91). For a short
time after Campe had retired. Basedow, assisted by
Wolke. was once more the head of the school. Among
the otners who taught for a time at this institution
were Ernst Christian Trapp (1745-1818), who sought
to systematize the phi(anthropinist principles and
theories in his "Versuch einer Padagogik'' (Berlin,
1780) ; Salzmann (see below), and Louis Henry Fer-
dinand Olivier (1759-1815) . In 1793 this first " Phil-
anthropinum" ceased to exist.
Those who held Basedow's pedagOKical opinions
were called PhilarUhropen^ or Philanthropisten. In
imitation of the school at Dessau institutions called
Philanihropin were established at various places. The
only Philanthropin that prospered and still exists was
that founded by Salzmann at Schnepfenthal in the
Duchy of Gotha. Christian Gotthilf Salzmann (b. at
Sdmmerda near Erfurt, 1 Jime, 1744; d. at Schnep-
PHILASTRinS
797
PBUJBMON
fenthal. 31 Oct., 1811) was one of the most distin-
guishea pedagogues of the Philanthropinist sphool, and
probably the most interesting personality among all
its representatives. He was originally a Protestant
pastor at Erfurt; then, after wnting on educational
subjects for some time^ he became the teacher of
religion at the Philantnropin at Dessau (1781^84),
and in 1784 founded his own school at Schnepfenth^,
which he conducted until his death. Like the entire
Philanthropinist school, his religious opinions were
rationalistic. The best known of his writings are
''Krebsbtichlein oder Anweisimg zu einer unvemiinft-
igen Erziehung der Kinder" (Erfurt, 1780, and fre-
quently reprinted), a satirical account of the results
of a wrong education; '^Ameisenbiichlein oder An-
weisung zu einer vemtlnftigen Erziehung der Er-
zieher'^(Schnepfenthal, 1806); "Konrad ffiefer oder
Anweisung zu einer vemunftigen .Erziehung der
Kinder" (Erfurt, 1796). The most important of
Salzmann's assistants was Johann Christoph Fried-
rich Guts-Muths (1759-1839), who was the teacher
of geography at Salzmann's school; one of his pupils
was the celebrated geompher Karl Ritter, the first
gupil of the school at Schnei>fenthal. Guts-Muths,
owever, is best known for his work in gynmastics.
Friedrich Eberhard von Rochow (1734-1805) advo-
cated views similar to those of the Philanthropinists.
but, imlike the actual members of this school, did
much for the improvement of primary education;
his "Kinderfreund" (1775, and many later editions)
was a widely used school-book. Finally Christian
Felix Weisse (1726-1804), a voluminous writer for
children, exerted great influence through his "Kinder-
freund" (24 vols., 1775-84), a weekly publication for
cUldren.
PiNLOCHB, ha Hforme ds Vldueaiion en Attemaone au IS* tiicU,
Ba»9dow 9t le phitanthropinitme (Paris, 1889); Pinlocrs and
RAUBCHBNrBLB, Ofch. OM PhxUinihro'pinismtM (Leipsig, 1896);
Thaiaotbr, Dm aexueUe Pddaoogik bei den Philanthrapen (Keinp-
ten, 1907); Rolfub and Ffister, Real-Bncydopddie dea Er-
tiehvng*- und UnterrichttwMent, IV (2nci ed., Moini, 1874), 1-15;
Kbllnbb, Kurze Geaeh. der Brtiekung und dee Unterriehle (6th
ed.. Freiburg im Br., 1881), 141-56; Paulbbn, Oeach. dee gelehrien
Unterrichtee auf den detUechen Schitlen und UntvereiUUen, II (2nd
ed.. Leipsig, 1897). 46-63; Baubigabtnbb, Geech. der Podagoffik
(Freiburg im Br.. 1902), 166-72; Kribo, Lehrbueh der Podaoogik
(2nd ed., Paderbom, 1900), 145-47; Basbdow, AuagewdhUe
achriften, ed. GOrino in Bibliothek pddagogiedier KUuaiher
(LangensalsBf 1880);* Salbmann, AuegeuiahUe Sehr^len^ ed.
AcxBRBiANN in BxbliUhek pOdagogieeher Klaeaiker (2 vols., Lan-
gensalsa, 1889-91); Salsbiann, KrebebtLchlein und Ameieen-
oHefUein, ed. Wimmbbs in Sammlung der bedeutendaten pddago-
giechen Sehriflm, VI (Paderbom, 1890; 2nd ed., 1894; 9th ed.,
1891)- Friedrich Lauchbrt.
PhllastrlUB, Saint, Bishop of Brescia, d. before
397. He was one of the bishops present at a synod
held in Aquileia in 381. St. Augustine met him at
Milan about 383,or perhaps a littlelater (St. Augustine,
Ep. ccxxii). He composed a catalogue of heresies
(Diversarum Hereseon Liber) about 384. Among the
writings of St. Gaudentius (q. v.) was a sermon pur-
porting to be preached on the fourteenth anniversary
of St. Fhilastrius's death. According to this sermon,
Philastrius's life began with a great act of renuncia-
tion, for which he might fitly be compared to Abra^
ham. Later he was ordained priest, and travelled
over nearly the whole Roman world (circumambiens
Universum pene ambitum Romani Orbis), preaching
against pagans, Jews, and heretics, especi^y the
Arians. Like St. Paul he carried in his boav the stig-
mata" of Christ, having been scourged for his zeal
against the last-named heretics. At Milan he was a
great stay of the Catholic party in the time of St.
Ambrose's Arian predecessor. At Rome he held both
private and pubhc disputations with heretics, and
converted many. His wanderings ceased when he
was made Bishop of Brescia.
Doubts were first raised by Dupin as to the gen-
uineness of this sermon, and these have been reiterated
by Marx, the latest editor of Philastrius, who thinks
the sermon a forgery of the eighth or ninth centoiyi
The chief objection to its genuineness, rather a weaJc
one, seems to be that it is not found in the MSS. con-
taining the undoubted sermons of St. Gaudentius.
Marx was answered by Knappe, " 1st die 21 Rede des
hi. Gaudentius (Oratio B. Gaudentii de Vita et Obitu
B. Filastrii episcopi prsedecessoris sui) echt? Zugleich
ein Betrag 2ur Latimtat des Gaudentius" (Osnabrilck),
who endeavours to prove the genuineness of the sermon
in ciuestion by linguistic argimients. His Bollandist
reviewer thinks he has made a strong case (Anal. BoU.,
XXVIII, 224). Philastrius's "Cat^ogue'^ of heresies
would have little value, were it not for the circum-
stance discovered by Lipsius that for the Christian
heresies up to Noetus tne compiler drew from the
same source as Epiphanus, i. e. tne lost Syntagma of
Hippolytus. By the aid. therefore, of these two and
the Pseudo-Tertullian ''Adv. Hasr.", it has been
possible in great measure to r^nstruct the lost
treatise of Hippol3rtus. The first eoition of the ' ' Cata-
logue" was published at Basle (1528): the latest, ed.
Marx, in the Vienna " Corp. Script. Eccl. Lat. " (1808).
TiLLEifONT, H. E.t VIII, 541 eq.; Cbilubb, Hiat. dea A%»Uura
Bcdea., VI, 739 sq.; LiPsins, Zur QueUenkritik dea Epiphanua
(Vienna, 1865); Idbbi, OueUen der dU. Ketaergeaeh, (Leipng.
1875) ; Habnacx, QueUenkrUik der Geaeh, dea Gi^aUcUmua (Ldp-
n^, 1874) j Kuneb, De AmI. GnoaHciami fmUibua norm guaut,
cntieca (Leipzig. 1894), * F. J. BaCCHUB.
Philamon (Gr. ^iXif^r), a citixen of Colossse (q. v.),
to whom St. Paul addressed a private letter, unique
in the New Testament, which bears his name. As
appears from this epistle, Philemon was his dear and
intimate friend (verses 1, 13, 17, 22), and had been
converted most probablv by him (verse 19) during;
his long residence at Ephesus (Acts, xix, 26; cf. xviu,
19), as St. Paul himself iiad not visited Colossse (Col.,
ii, 1). Rich and noble, he possessed slaves; his house
was a place of meeting ana worship for the Colossian
converts (verse 2) ; he was kind, helpful, and chari-
table (verses 5, 7),^x>viding hospitality for his fellow-
Christians (verse 22). St. Paul calls nim his fellow-
labourer (ffvrtpy&ij verse 1), so that he must have
been earnest in his work for the Gospel, perhaps first
at Ephesus and afterwards at Colossse. It is not plain
whether he was ordained or not. Tradition represents
him as Bishop of Colosss (Const. Apost., Vll, 46),
and the Menaia of 22 November speak of him as a
holv apostle who, in company with Appia. Archippus,
and Onesimus had been martyred at Coiossse during
the first general persecution in the rei^ of Nero. In
the address of the letter two other Christian converts,
Appia and Archippus (Col., iv, 17), are mentioned;
it IS generallv beheved that Appia was Philemon's
wife and Archippus their son. St. Paul, dealing ex-
clusively in his letter with the domestic matter of a
fugitive slave, Onesimus, regarded them both as
deeply interested. Archippus, according to Col., iv,
17, was a minister in the Lord, and held a sacred office
in the Church of Colossse or in the neighbouring
Church of Laodicsa.
Philemon, Epistle to. — A. AtUherUicUy, — ^Ex-
ternal testimony to the Pauline authorship is consider-
able and evident, although the brevity and private
character of the Epistle did not favour its use and
public recognition. The heretic Marcion accepted it
in his " Apostolicon" (Tertullian, "Adv. Marcion ", V,
xxi); Origen quotes it expressly as Pauline ("Hom.",
XIX; "In Jerem." II, 1; ''Comment, in Matt.",
Tract. 33, 34); ana it is named in the Muratorian
Fra^ent as well as contained in the Svriac and old
Latin Versions. Eusebius includes Philemon among
the homologoumena, or books universally undisputed
and received as sacred. St. Chrysostom and St. Jerome,
in the prefaces to their commentaries on the Epistle,
defend it against some objections which have nei-
ther historical nor critical value. The vocabulary
[MypwaiSf rafidicKjfais rdxa), the phraseology, and the
PHILEMON
798
PHILEMON
style are unmistakably and thoroughly Paulme, and
the whole Epistle claims to have been written by St.
Paul. It has been objected, however, that it contains
some words nowhere else used by St. Paul (iw-
vifMTtiv^ dworiptiv^ Axpf^TOS^ hriTd(r<r€iWf ^Wa, 6plp€urBai^
wpoawpcCKnw), But every Epistle of St. Paul con-
tains a number of dra^ \ey6fupa employed nowhere
elsCi and the vocabulary of all authors changes more
or less with time, place, and especially subject-matter.
Are we not allowed to expect the same from St. Paul,
an author of exceptional spiritual vitalit}r and mental
vigour? Renan voiced the common opinion of the
cntics when he wrote: "St. Paul alone, it would seem,
could have written this little masterpiece" (St. Paul,
p. xi).
B. Date and place of tmting. — It is one of the four
Captivity Epistles composed by St. Paul during his
first imprisonment in Rome (see (Dolossians; Ephe-
siANs; Philippians, Epistles to the* Philem.,9, 23).
Colossians, Ephesians, and Philijipians are closely
connected, so that the general opinion is that they
were written and despatched at the same time, be-
tween A. D. 61-63. Some scholars assign the com-
Eosition to Csesarea (Acts, xxiii-xxvi, a. d. 5&-^),
ut both tradition and internal evidence are in favour
of Rome.
C. Occasion and purpose. — Onesimus, most likely
only one of many slaves of Philemon, fled away ana,
apparently before his flight, defrauded his master, and
ran away to Rome, finding his way to the hired lodg-
ing where Paul was suffered to dwell by himself and
to receive all that came to him (Acts, xxviii, 16, 30).
It is very possible he may have seen Paul, when he
accompanied his master to Ephesus. Onesimus be-
came the spiritual son of St. Paul (verses 9, 10), who
would have retained him with himself, that in the
new and higher sphere of Christian service he should
render the service which his master could not i>er-
sonally perform. But Philemon had a prior\ claim;
Onesimus, as a Christian, was obliged to make restitu-
tion. According to the law, the master of a runaway
slave might treat him exactly as he pleased. When
retaken, the slave was usually branaed on the fore-
head, maimed, or forced to fight with wild beasts.
Paul asks pardon for the offender, and with a rare
tact and utmost delicacy reauests his master to receive
him kindly as himself. He does not ask expressly that
Philemon should emancipate his slave-brother, but
"the word emancipation seems to be trembling on
his lips, and yet he does not once utter it " (Lightfoot,
** Colossians and Philemon ", London, 1892, 389). We
do not know the result of St. Paul's rec|ue8t, but that
it was granted seems to be implied m subsequent
ecclesiastical tradition, which represents Onesimus as
Bishop of Beraea (Constit. Apost., VII, 46).
D. Argument. — ^This short letter, written to an
individual friend, has the same divisions as the longer
letters; (a) the introduction (verses 1-7); (b) the
body of the Epistle or the request (verses 8-22) ; (c)
the epilogue (verses 23-25). (a) The introduction
contains (1) the salutation or aiddress: Paul, "pris-
oner of Christ Jesus, and Timothy " greet Philemon
(verse 1), Appia, Archippus, and the Church in their
house (verse 2), wishing them grace and peace from
God our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ (verse 3) ;
(2) the thanksgiving for Philemon's faith and love
(verses 4-6), which gives great joy and consolation
to the Apostle (verse 7). (b) The request and appeal
on behalf of the slave Onesimus. Though he could
enjoin Philemon to do with Onesimus that which is
convenient (verse 8), for Christian love's sake, Paul
** an aged man and now also a prisoner of Jesus Christ"
(verse 9) beseeches him for his son Onesimus whom he
had begotten in his bonds (verse 10). Once he was
not what his name implies (helpful); now, however,
he is profitable to both (verse 11). Paul sends him
again and asks Philemon to receive him as his own
heart (verse 12). He was desirous of retaining
Onesimus with himself that he might minister to him
in his imprisonment, as Philemon himself would
§ladly have done (verse 13), but he was unwilling to
o anything without Philemon's decision, desiring
that his kindness should not be as it were ' ' of necessity
but voluntary" (verse 14). Perhaps, in the purpose
of Providence, he was separated from thee for a time
that thou mightest have him for ever (verse 15), no
longer as a slave but more than a slave, as a better
servant and a beloved Christian brother (verse 16).
If, therefore, thou regardest me as a partner in faith,
receive him as myself (verse 17). If he has wronged
thee in any way, or is in thy debt, place that to my
account (verse 18). I have signed this promise of
repayment with my own hand, not to say to thee thai
besides (thy remitting the debt) thou owest me thine
own self (verse 19). Yea, brother, let me have profit
from thee (ffoG dvaXimv) in the Lord, refresh my neart
in the Lord (verse 20). Having confidence in thine
obedience, I have written to thee, knowing that thou
wilt do more than I say (verse 21). But at the same
time, receive me also and prepare a lodging for me:
for I hope that through your prayers I shaU be givea
to you (verse 22). (c) The epilogue contains (1) salu-
tations from aU persons named in Col., iv, 10-14
(verses 2^24), and (2) a final benediction (verse 25).
This short, tender, graceful, and kindly Epistle has
often been compared to a beautiful letter of the
younger Pliny (Ep. IX, 21) asking his friend Sabinian
to forgive an offending freedman. As Dghtfoct
(Colossians and Philemon, 383 sq.) says: "If purity
of diction be excepted, there will hardly be any differ-
ence of opinion in awarding the palm to the Christian
apostle".
E. Attitude of Si. Paul towards slavery. — Slavery
was universal m all ancient nations and the very
economic basis of the old civilization. Slaves were
employed not only in all the forms of manual and
industrial labour, but also in many functions which
required artistic skill, intelligence, and culture; such
was especially the case in both the Greek and the
Roman society. Their number was much greater
than that of the free citizens. In the Greek civiliza-
tion the slave was in better conditions than in the
Koman; but even according to Greek law and usage,
the slave was in a complete subjection to the will of
his master, possessing no rights, even that of marriage.
(See Wallon, "Hist, de I'Esclavage dans'F Antiquity",
Paris, 1845, 1879; Slavery.) St. Paul, as a Jew,
had little of pagan conception of slavery; the Bible
and the Jewish civilization led him alr^dy into a
happier and more humane world. The Bible miti-
gated slavery and enacted a humanitarian legislation
respecting the manumission of slaves; but the Chrb-
tian conscience of the Apostle alone expl^ns his atti-
tude towards Onesimus and slavery. On the one hand,
St. Paul accepted slavery as an established fact, a
deeply-rooted social institution which he did not
attempt to abolish all at once and suddenly; more-
over, if the Christian religion should have attempted
violently to destroy pagan slavery, the assault would
have exposed the Roman empire to a servile insurrec-
tion, the Church to the hostility of the imp)erial power,
and the slaves to awful reprisals. On the other hand,
if St. Paul does not denounce the abstract and in-
herent wrong of complete slavery (if that question
presented itself to his mind, he did not express it), he
knew and appreciated its actual abuses and evil pos-
sibilities and he addressed himself to the re^ilations
and the betterment of existing conditions. He incul-
cated forbearance to slaves as well as obedience to
masters (Eph., vi, 5-9; Col., iii, 22; iv, 1* Philem.,
8-12, 15, 17; I Tim., vi, 1; Tit., ii, 9). He taught
that the Christian slave is the Ix)rd's freedman (I
Cor., vii, 22), and vigorously proclaimed the complete
spiritual equaUty of slave and freenoian, the univem]«
'■f
PHILIBIBT 799 PHILXP
fatherly love of God, and the Christian brotherhood sketch of Philip as a naive, somewhat shy, sober-
of men : ''For you are all the children of God by faith minded man. ISTo additional characteristicB are piven
in Christ Jesus. For as many of you as have been bap- in the Gospels or the Acts, althou^ he is mentioned
tized in Christ, have put on Christ. There is neither in the latter work (i, 13) as belonging to the Apostolic
Jew nor Greek, there is neither bond nor free: there is College.
neither male nor female. For you are aU one in Christ The second-century tradition concerning him is un-
Jesus" (Gal., iii, 26-28; cf. Col., iii, 10-11). These certain, inasmuch as a similar tradition is recosded
fundamental Christian principles were the leaven concerning Philip the Deacon and Evangelist — a
which slowly and steaaily spread throughout the phenomenon which must be the result of confusion
whole empire. They curtailed the abuses of slavery caused by the existence of the two Philips. In his
and finallv destroyed it (Vincent. ^'Philippians and letter to St. Victor, written about 189-98, Bishop
Philemon ", Cambridge, 1902, 167). Polycrates of Ephesus mentions among the "great
In addition to worka referred to, oonsult Introductions to the lights", whom the Lord wiU. seek on the "last day",
n7^S::l:^k£:^'f^iI:S:^^I^:r^^iJ^iSi^ "fhmp one of the Twelve Apc^tlea, who is buri J ii,
Commmtariua in Eiri9t<aaM S. PatUi, XI (Braces. 1806); Allard. HieropollS With hlS tWO daughters, who grew old as
JUt uclavetehrH^ (Paris, 1900); Prat. La Thiohffie deS. Paul virgins", and a third daughter, who "led a life in the
(Pans, 1908), 384 sq.; Non-Cathouc: Oltramarb. Common- HnTv Ohnat. iwiH vPniA inKnhflfliis " On thp f\iho^r
taire Mur lu EvUre$ de S, Paid aux Colotaient, aux EphinentUd t^"'Y UnOSt ana restS miLpnesUS. Un tnc Otner
PhiUmon (Pans. 1891); von Sodek, ZKe Brie/« an die Kolo»9er, hand, according to the Dialogue of Caius. directed
^A««r,Pfcifemoninffond-^owm«nto against a Montanist named Proclus, the latter de-
^^^ov'ThS'^HiJH S:t3L^r^;«,^>Sa: i^ that "th^ were four propheteeses. the daugh-
(Cambridge, 1902); ters Of Philip, at HierofKDlis m Asia, where their and
A. Camerltnck. their father's grave is still situated. The Acts (xxi,
Phllib«rt, Saint. See JuMiiaBs, Abbey of. §-®) J^^ indeed mention four prophet^^j the
daughters of the deacon and "EyangeRst" Philip^ as
pointed out Jesus as the Lamb of God.. On the day more authority, but it is extraordinary that three
after Peter's call, when about to set out for Galilee, virgin daughters of the Apostle Philip (two buried in
Jesus met Philio and called him to the Apostolate with Hieropolis) should be mentioned, and that the dcaron
the words, "Follow me". Philip obeyed the call, and , Philip should also have four daughters, said to have
aUttle later brought Nathaniel as a new disciple (Jolm, been Duried in Hieropolis. Here also perhaps we must
i, 4^-46). On the occasion of the selection and sending suppose a confusion of the two Philips to have taken
out of the twelve, Philip is included among the Apos- place, although it is difficult to decide which of the
ties proper. His name stands in the fifth place in the two, the Apostle or the deacon, was buried in Hiero-
three liste (Matt., x, 2-4; Mark, iii, 14-19; Luke, vi. polis. Many modem historians believe that it was the
13-16) after the two pairs of brothers, Peter and deacon; it is, however, possible that the Apostle was
Andrew, James and John. The Fourth Gospel records buried there and that the deacon also lived and worked
three episodes concerning PhiUp which occurred dur- there and was there buried with three of his daughters,
ing the epoch of the public teaching of the Saviour: and that the latter were afterwards erroneously re-
(1) Before the miraculous feeding of the multitude, garded as the children of the Apostle. The apocryphal
Christ turns towards Philip with the question: '^ActsofPhiHp," which are, however, purely legendary
"Whence shall we buy bread, that these may eat?" and a tissue of fables, also refer Philip's death to Hie-
to which the Apostle answers: "Two hundred penny- ropolis. The remains of the Philip who was interred in
worth of bread is not sufficient for them^that every Hieropolis were later translated (as those of the Apos-
one may take a little" (vi, 5-7). (2) When some tie) to Ck>nstantinople and thence to the church of the
heathens in Jerusalem came to Philip and expressed Dodici Apostoli in Rome. The feast of the Apostle is
their desire to see Jesus, Philip reported the fact to celebrated in the Roman Church on 1 May (together
Andrew and then both brought the news to the with that of James the Younger), and in the Greek
Saviour (xii, 21-23). (3) When Philip, after Christ Church on 14 November.
had spoken to His Apostles of knowmg and seeing Acta SS.. May. I, 1 1-2; Batiffol in Anaierfa Bo/iomfiona, I x
the Father, said to Him: "Lord, shew us the Father, (1890); 204 sqq.; Lipsium. Die apokryphen ApostelgeschicJUen und
and it is enough for us", he received the answer: ^^"^^7"^ ^^'}i (B™'g;^i?''• 18«4>' ^ «»<»-^ ^»?- f'<»nogr.
II XT xu X ±Tu^ iZ A. T? Yi. 1 II 7 -^iT^^ laiina, II, 091; on the two Philips cf. Zarn in Foraehungen *ur
He that seeth me, seeth the Father also (nv, 8-9). Geaeh. dea MuUatamentL Kawma, VI (Erlangon, 1900). 158 sqq.
These three episodes furnish a consistent character- J. P. Kirsch.
Ni.
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